Plant growth and Development

Phases of Growth
There are 3 phases of growth
i) Meristematic
ii) Elongation
iii) Maturation
Meristematic phase of growth:
The constantly dividing cells, both at the root tips & shoot tip, represents
meristematic phase of growth.
The cells in this region are rich in protoplasm, possess large conspicuous nucleus,
cell walls are primary in nature, thin and cellulosic with abundant plasmodesmatal
connections.
Elongation phase of growth:
The cells next to the meristematic zone represent the phase of elongation.
The characteristics of these cells are increased vacuolation, cell enlargement & new
cell wall deposition.
Maturation phase of growth :
The cells next to the elongation phase represent the phase of maturation,
characterized by wall thickenings & protoplasmic modifications.
Growth Rates
The increase in growth per unit time is termed as growth rate.
There are two types of growth rates.
i) Arithnetic
ii) Geometric

Arithmetic Growth:
In arithmetic growth, only one daughter cell continues to divide while the other
differentiates and matures.
If we plot a graph of plant height with time, a linear curve is obtained.
Mathematically, it is expressed as
Lt = Lo. + rt
Lt = Length at time t
Lo= Length at time Zero
R = Growth rate

Ht of
plant
Time
An e.g. for this type of growth is root elongation.
Geometric Growth:
In geometric growth, both the cells retain the ability to divide and continue to do so.
Here, 3 phases can be recognized.
Initially, for a particular period of time, the growth rate is extremely slow. This
period of growth called log phase.
Thereafter, the growth rate remains more or less constant for the remaining period
called steady or stationary phase.
This rate of growth of a plant when plotted against time, a characteristic s shaped
curve is obtained. It is known as the growth curve or sigmoid curve.
In angiosperms, the vegetative growth from seed to seedlings represent the lag
phase, while the vegetative growth from seedling to young plan and then to adult

plant, represents the log phase. The entire reproductive growth represents the
period of steady phase.
The steady state of growth manifests itself for a particular period of time beyond
this, growth rate starts declining, the rate of various metabolic activities start
decreasing. This phenomenon is known as senescene or ageing. It manifests itself
well in the leaves which start turning yellow in colour & finally fall off.

steady

Growth rate

Log (Exponential)
Lag
Time

It is mathematically expressed as
W1 = Wo ert
W1 = final size
W0 = Initial size
r = growth rate (efficiency index)
t = time of growth
e = base of natural logarithm
Quantitative comparison:
Quantitative comparison between the growth of living system can also be made in
two ways.
1. Measurement & the comparison of total growth per unit time is called the absolute
growth rate.
2. The growth of the given system per unit time expressed on a common basis is
called relative growth rate.

Conditions for Growth:

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There are many factors that are responsible for the growth of plant body.
Water provides turgidity & medium for enzymatic activities.
Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy.
Nutrients (micro & macro) are required by plants for the synthesis of protoplasm &
act as a source of energy.
Optimum temperature, light & gravity also affect certain stages of growth.

Differentiation, Dedifferentiation & Redifferentiation:

The cells of meristematic zone undergo maturation and it is known as
differentiation. During differentiation, cells undergo structural changes both in
their cell wall & protoplasm.
Eg: To form tracheary element , the cells lose their protoplasm & develop strong,
elastic, ligno cellulosic secondary cell wall to carry water to long distances even
under extreme tension.
The living differentiated cells, that by now have last the capacity to divide can
regain the capacity of division under certain conditions. This phenomenon is known
as differentiation. Eg: Interfascicular cambium & cork cambium.
Cells of dedifferentiated tissues after division, lose the capacity to divide but mature
to perform specific functions. This is known as rediffrentiation.
The growth in plants is open, that means, it can be indeterminate or determinate.
Similarly, differentiation in plants is open, because cells arising out of the same
meristem have different structures at maturity. For e.g. cells positioned away root
apical meristems differentiate as root cap cells, while those pushed to the periphery
mature as epidermis.

Developments:
Development indicates all changes from germination of the seed to senescence.
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 Plants follow different pathways in response to environment to form different kinds

of structures. This ability is called plasticity.
E.g: Heterophylly in cotton, coriander, larkspur. i.e. Difference in leaf structure
between Juvenile & adult plant and similarly, between terrestrial habitat & water
habitat.
Thus, development is considered as sum of growth & differentiation.
Development in plants is under the control of both intrinsic & extrinsic factors.
Intrinsic factor includes both intracellular (genetic) & intercellular factors (plant
growth regulators)
Extrinsic factors include light, temperature, water, oxygen, nutrition etc.
Plant Growth Regulators (PGR)
(Plant hormones or Phytohormones)
Characteristics:
They are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
They could be indole compounds, adenine derivatives, carotenoid derivatives,
terpenes, or gases.
I) Indole compounds
Eg: Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)
II) Adenine derivatives
Eg: N6 furfurylamino purine, Kinetin
III) carotenoid derivatives
Eg: Abscisic acid, ABA
IV) Terpenes
Eg: Gibberellic acid (GA3)
V) Gases
Eg: Ethylene (C2H4)

One group of PGRs are involved in growth promoting activities like cell division,
cell enlargement, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting & seed formation.
Eg: Auxins, gibberellins & cytokinins.
Another group of PGRs are involved in plant responses to wounds & stresses of
biotic and abiotic origin. They are also involved in various growth inhibiting
activities such as dormancy & abscission.
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Eg: Abscisic acid.

Ethylene, fits in both the groups, but it is largely an inhibitor of growth activities.
The Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators:
The discovery of each of the five major groups of PGRs were accidental.
Charles Darwin & his son Francis Darwin observed that the coleoptiles of canary
grass responded to unilateral illumination by growing towards the light source
(Phototropism). It was concluded that the tip of coleoptile was the site of
transmittable influence that caused the bending of the entire coleoptile. Auxin was
isolated by F.W. Went from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings.
The bakane (foolish seedling) a disease of rice seedlings, was caused by a fungal
pathogen Gibberella fujikuroi. E. Kurosawa reported the appearance of
symtomsof the disease in uninfected rice seedlings when they were treated with
sterile filtrates of the fungus. The active substances were later identified as
gibberellic acid.
F. skoog & his co-workers observed that from the intermodal segments of tobacco
stems the callus (a mass of undifferentiated cells) proliferated only if, in addition to
auxins the nutrients medium was supplemented with one of the following : extracts
of vascular tissues, yeast extract, coconut milk or DNA. Skoog & Miller later
indentified and crystallized the cytokinesis promoting active substance that they
termed kinetin.
During mid-1960s, three independent researches reported the three kinds of
inhibitors, namely, inhibitor-B, abscission II & dormin. Later all the three were
proved to e chemically indentical & was named as abscisic acid (ABA)
Cousins confirmed the release of a volatile substance from ripened oranges that
hastened the ripening of stored unripened bananas which was later identified as
ethylene, a gaseous PGR.

Physiological Effects of PGRs

Auxins:
Auxins was first isolated from human urine.
The term auxin is applied to IAA & to other natural & synthetic compounds having
growth regulating properties.
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 Generally, they are produced by the growing apices of the stems & roots, from
where they migrate to the regions of their action.
IAA & IBA (indoly butyric acid) are derived from plants. NAA (naphthalene acetic
acid) & 2, 4 D (2, 4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) are synthetic auxins.
They help to initiate rooting in stem cuttings, promote flowering, to prevent fruit &
leaf drop at early stages but promote the abscission of older mature leaves & fruits.
In most higher plants, the growing bud inhibits the growth of the lateral buds, a
phenomenon called apical dominance. Removal of shoot tips (decapitation)
usually results in the growth of lateral buds.
Auxins also induce parthenocarpy.
They are widely used as herbicides. 2, 4-D, widely used to kill dicot weeds. It is also
used to prepare weed free lawns by gardeners.
Auxin also controls xylem differentiation & helps in cell division.
Gibberellins:
It is another growth promoter hormone. More than 100 gibberllins are reported
from fungi & higher plants. They are denoted as GA, GA2, GA3 & so on. GA3 or
Gibberellic acid was one of the first gibberellins to be discovered & studied.
They can increase the length of axis as in case of grapes & sugar canes.
It makes fruits like apple to elongate & improve its shape.
They also delay senescence.
GA3 is used to speed up the malting process in brewing industry.
It also initiates early seed production as in case of conifers.
Gibberellins also promotes bolting (i.e. internode elongation just prior to flowering)
in beet & cabbages & many plants with rosette habit.

Cytokinins:
Cytokinins have specific effects on cytokinesis & were discovered as kinetin (a
modified form of adenine)
Kinetin does not occur in naturally in plants. A similar substance called zeatin from
corn-kernels & coconut milk have been isolated. Natural cytokinins are synthesized
in regions where rapid cell division takes place.
Eg: root apices, developing shoot buds etc.
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 It helps to produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth &
adventitious shoot formation.
Cytokinins also helps to overcome apical dominance.
They promote nutrient mobilization which helps in the delay of leaf senescence.
Ethylene:
It is synthesized by tissues undergoing senescence & ripening fruits.
Influence of ethylene on plants include horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of
the axis & apical hook formation in dicot seedlings.
Ethylene promotes senescence & abscission of plant organs especially of leaves &
flowers.
It is highly effective in fruit ripening. It enhances the respiration rate during ripening
of the fruits. This rise in rate of respiration is called respiratory climatic.
Ethylene breaks seed & ud dormancy, initiates germination. Eg: Peanuts, pototo.
It promotes rapid internode & petiole elongation in deep water rice plants & helps
leaves & upper parts of the shoot to remain above water.
Ethylene also promotes root growth & root hair formation.
It is used to initiate flowering (mango) & for synchronizing fruit-set in pineapples.
The most widely used compound as source of ethylene is ethephon. Ethephon in
aqueous solution is readily absorbed & transported within the plant & releases
ethylene slowly. Ethephon hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes, apples etc &
accelerates abscission in flowers & fruits (thinning of cotton, cherry, walnut). It also
promotes female flowers in cucumbers thereby increasing the yield.

Abscisic Acid:
ABA acts as a general plant growth inhibitor & an inhibitor of plant metabolism.
It inhibits seed germination.
It stimulates the closure of stomata & increase the tolerance of plants to various
kinds of stresses. So, it is called as stress hormone.
ABA plays an imported role in seed development, maturation & dormancy.
ABA acts as an antagonist to GA.

Photoperiodism:
It has been observed that some plants require a periodic exposure to light to induce
flowering.
Some plants require the exposure to light above critical duration & are called long
day plants.
Some plants require the exposure to light below critical duration & are called short
day plants.
For some plants there is no correlation between exposure to light duration &
induction of flowering. They are called day-neutral plants.
This responses to periods of day or night by plants are called photoperiodism.
The site of perception of light or dark duration are the leaves. There is a hormonal
substance that is responsible for flowering which migrates from leaves to shoot tips
for inducing flowering only when plants are exposed to the necessary inducxtive
photoperiod.
Vernalisation:
There are plants for which flowering is either quantitatively or qualitatively
dependent on exposure to low temperature. This phenomenon is called
vernalisation.
Based on this factor, there are two varieties of food plants (wheat, barley etc)
i) Winter
ii) Spring variety.

Note:
Growth can be defined as an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ
or part or an individual cell.
Plant growth is generally inderminate or open.
Growth can be measured in terms of size, weight, volume, cell number, area etc.
Assignments:
1. Both growth & differentiation in higher plants are open. Comment.
2. Would a defoliated plant respond to photoperiodic cycle? Why?

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