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SCIENCE
REPORT
Towards 2030
UNESCO
Publishing
United Nations
Educational, Scientic and
Cultural Organization
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
Towards 2030
UNESCO
Publishing
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
Towards 2030
Report team
Director of the Publication:
Flavia Schlegel, Assistant Director-General for Natural Sciences
Editor-in-Chief:
Susan Schneegans
Researcher/Editor:
Deniz Ercal
Statistical support:
Wilfried Amoussou-Gunou, Chiao-Ling Chien, Oula Hajjar,
Sirina Kerim-Dikeni, Luciana Marins, Rohan Pathirage,
Zahia Salmi and Martin Schaaper
Administrative assistants:
Ali Barbash and Edith Kiget
Editorial Board:
Zohra ben Lakhdar, Professor Emeritus of Physics, University of
Tunis, Tunisia
Can Huang, Professor and Deputy Head of Department
of Management, Science and Engineering at the School of
Management, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Dong-Pil Min, Professor Emeritus of Seoul National University
and Member, Scientific Advisory Board to United Nations
Secretary-General
Gabriela Dutrnit, Professor of Economics and Management of
Innovation, Autonomous Metropolitan University, Mexico
Fred Gault, Professorial Fellow, United Nations University
MERIT, Netherlands
Ousmane Kane, President of Steering Committee, National
Academy of Science and Technology of Senegal
Patarapong Intarakumnerd, Professor, National Graduate
Institute for Policy Studies, Japan
Slavo Radosevic, Professor of Industry and Innovation Studies,
Acting Director, School of Slavonic and East European Studies,
University College, London
J. Thomas Ratchford, former Associate Director for Policy and
International Affairs at the White House Office of Science and
Technology Policy, USA
Shuan Sadreghazi, Research fellow, Innovation Studies and
Development, United Nations UniversityMERIT, Netherlands
Yerbol Suleimenov, Deputy Chair, Science Committee of
Ministry of Education and Science, Kazakhstan
Peter Tindemans, Secretary-General, Euroscience
Cardinal Warde, Professor of Electrical Engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
iv
Acknowledgments
UNESCO wishes to express its gratitude to Thomson Reuters
for providing the data on publications used throughout
the UNESCO Science Report, in the interests of stimulating a
global debate on relevant policy issues. UNESCO also wishes
to thank the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Fund for International Development and the Swiss Federal
University of Lausanne for their financial support. UNESCO
also wishes to extend its thanks to the LOral Foundation for
sponsoring the chapter in the report entitled Is the gender
gap narrowing in science and engineering?
A number of partners have also contributed to the
dissemination of the reports findings by sponsoring and/or
translating other language editions of the executive
summary of the report. Thanks go to the Government of
Flanders (French, Russian and Spanish editions), the Egyptian
Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (Arabic
edition), the China Association for Science and Technology
(Chinese edition), the National Commissions for UNESCO of
Austria, Germany, Luxembourg and Switzerland (German
edition) and the National Commission for UNESCO of Andorra
(Catalan edition).
UNESCO also takes this opportunity to thank the partners who
have committed to producing editions of the full report in the
official languages of the United Nations.
Contents
Foreword
xx
Opinion piece based on a policy brief prepared by the Scientific Advisory Board
of the Secretary-General of the United Nations
12
15
Global overview
19
20
56
84
Sophia Huyer
105
04: Canada
106
Paul Dufour
128
06: Caricom
156
174
Guillermo A. Lemarchand
08: Brazil
210
230
274
Djuro Kutlaca
296
312
342
364
Nasibakhon Mukhitdinova
15: Iran
388
Kioomars Ashtarian
16: Israel
408
430
470
498
vi
534
Contents
21: South Asia
566
22: India
598
Sunil Mani
23: China
620
Cong Cao
24: Japan
642
660
26: Malaysia
676
692
Annexes
01: Composition of regions and subregions
734
02: Glossary
738
743
733
vii
Illustrations
Chapter 1: A world in search of an effective growth strategy
Table 1.1:
Table 1.2:
Table 1.3:
Table 1.4:
Table 1.5:
Table 1.6:
25
26
32
36
38
43
Figure 1.1:
Figure 1.2:
Figure 1.3:
Figure 1.4:
Figure 1.5:
Figure 1.6:
Figure 1.7:
28
29
31
34
37
39
40
European companies rate countries attractiveness for relocating their R&D ......................................................................................... 63
Innovation in the BRICS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Table 2.1:
Table 2.2:
Table 2.3:
Figure 2.1:
Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.3:
Figure 2.4:
Figure 2.5:
Figure 2.6:
Figure 2.7:
Figure 2.8:
Figure 2.9:
Figure 2.10:
Figure 2.11:
Figure 2.12:
Figure 2.13:
Figure 2.14:
Figure 2.15:
58
61
62
63
64
66
70
71
74
76
77
78
80
81
81
Table 3.1:
Table 3.2:
Figure 3.1: The leaky pipeline: share of women in higher education and research, 2013 (%)................................................................................ 86
viii
Illustrations
Figure 3.2: Share of female researchers by country, 2013 or closest year (%)..................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 3.3: Share of women in selected South African institutions, 2011(%)...................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 3.4: Share of women among researchers employed in the business enterprise sector, 2013 or closest year (%).................... 96
Chapter 4: Canada
Box 4.1:
Box 4.2:
Box 4.3:
Table 4.1:
Table 4.2:
Table 4.3:
Table 4.4:
Table 4.5:
GERD intentions in Canada by performing sector and source of funds, 2013 and 2014 (%)......................................................
R&D personnel in Canada by sector, 20082012........................................................................................................................................................
Canadian federal S&T spending by socio-economic objective, 20112013............................................................................................
Canadas federal priorities for 2007 and 2014...............................................................................................................................................................
Networks of centres of excellence in Canada by sector, 2014..........................................................................................................................
109
110
116
117
125
Figure 4.1:
Figure 4.2:
Figure 4.3:
Figure 4.4:
Figure 4.5:
Figure 4.6:
Figure 4.7:
Figure 4.8:
Figure 4.9:
107
108
109
110
114
116
119
122
122
134
136
146
149
Table 5.1:
Figure 5.1:
Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.3:
Figure 5.4:
Figure 5.5:
Figure 5.6:
Figure 5.7:
Figure 5.8:
Figure 5.9:
Figure 5.10:
Figure 5.11:
GDP per capita, GDP growth and public sector deficit in the USA, 20062015....................................................................................
GERD/GDP ratio in the USA, 20022013 (%)..................................................................................................................................................................
Distribution of GERD in the USA by source of funds, 20052012...................................................................................................................
R&D budget by US agency, 19942014.............................................................................................................................................................................
Proportional allocation of federal R&D spending in the USA by discipline, 19942011 (%).......................................................
Science and engineering in the USA by state, 2010.................................................................................................................................................
Survival rate of US start-ups, 19922010..........................................................................................................................................................................
Patents in force in the USA, 2005 and 2013....................................................................................................................................................................
Triadic patents of the USA in the USPTO database, 20022012......................................................................................................................
High-tech exports from the USA as a world share, 20082013 (%)...............................................................................................................
Scientific publication trends in the USA, 20052014...............................................................................................................................................
129
130
130
138
140
142
143
147
147
148
150
Chapter 6: Caricom
Box 6.1:
Box 6.2:
The Tropical Medicine Research Institute: an oasis in a public policy desert......................................................................................... 167
Bio-Tech R&D Institute Ltd: adding value to local medicinal plants............................................................................................................. 169
Table 6.1:
Table 6.2:
ix
Chapter 1
Box 5.1:
Box 5.2:
Box 5.3:
Box 5.4:
Figure 6.1:
Figure 6.2:
Figure 6.3:
Figure 6.4:
Figure 6.5:
Figure 6.6:
Figure 6.7:
Figure 6.8:
Figure 6.9:
Figure 6.10:
Figure 6.11:
158
159
159
160
163
165
167
168
170
172
172
184
188
193
204
Table 7.1:
Table 7.2:
Table 7.3:
Table 7.4:
Table 7.5:
Table 7.6:
180
192
195
198
199
206
Figure 7.1:
Figure 7.2:
Figure 7.3:
Figure 7.4:
Figure 7.5:
Figure 7.6:
Figure 7.7:
Figure 7.8:
Figure 7.9:
175
176
178
182
184
185
186
189
194
Chapter 8: Brazil
Box 8.1:
Box 8.2:
Box 8.3:
Box 8.4:
Box 8.5:
Box 8.6:
Table 8.1:
Figure 8.1:
Figure 8.2:
Figure 8.3:
Figure 8.4:
Figure 8.5:
Figure 8.6:
GDP per capita and GDP growth rate for Brazil, 20032013...............................................................................................................................
PhD degrees obtained in Brazil, 20052013...................................................................................................................................................................
GERD in Brazil by funding sector, 20042012...............................................................................................................................................................
Brazilian business sectors contribution to GERD as a share of GDP, 2012 (%)......................................................................................
Share of Brazilian FTE researchers per 1 000 labour force, 2001 and 2011 (%).....................................................................................
FTE researchers in Brazil by sector, 2001 and 2011 (%)..........................................................................................................................................
212
213
215
221
222
228
211
215
217
217
218
218
Illustrations
Figure 8.7:
Figure 8.8:
Figure 8.9:
Figure 8.10:
Figure 8.11:
Figure 8.12:
220
221
223
224
225
226
The European Research Council: the first pan-European funding body for frontier research...................................................
Galileo: a future rival for GPS.....................................................................................................................................................................................................
Germanys strategy for the fourth industrial revolution........................................................................................................................................
The Ogden Trust: philanthropy fostering physics in the UK...............................................................................................................................
What impact would a Brexit have on European research and innovation?.............................................................................................
250
256
264
268
269
Table 9.1:
Table 9.2:
Table 9.3:
Table 9.4:
Table 9.5:
Table 9.6:
Table 9.7:
Table 9.8:
Table 9.9:
Table 9.10:
Table 9.11:
Table 9.12:
Figure 9.1:
Figure 9.2:
Figure 9.3:
Figure 9.4:
Figure 9.5:
Figure 9.6:
Figure 9.7:
Figure 9.8:
Figure 9.9:
Figure 9.10:
Figure 9.11:
232
233
237
238
241
242
251
257
258
260
261
Table 10.1:
Table 10.2:
Table 10.3:
Table 10.4:
Table 10.5:
Table 10.6:
273
279
279
281
281
282
xi
278
278
280
280
282
282
283
Table 11.1: International comparisons for EFTA countries in science, 2014 or closest year................................................................................... 300
Figure 11.1:
Figure 11.2:
Figure 11.3:
Figure 11.4:
Figure 11.5:
Figure 11.6:
298
299
302
304
304
306
314
324
335
338
Table 12.1:
Table 12.2:
Table 12.3:
Table 12.4:
Table 12.5:
313
316
321
321
333
Figure 12.1:
Figure 12.2:
Figure 12.3:
Figure 12.4:
Figure 12.5:
Figure 12.6:
Figure 12.7:
Government expenditure on education, as a percentage of GDP (%) in Black Sea countries, 2012 or closest year........
Trends in researchers from the Black Sea countries, 20012013....................................................................................................................
GERD/GDP ratio for the Black Sea countries, 20012013......................................................................................................................................
GDP per capita and GERD/GDP ratio in the Black Sea countries, 20102013 (average).................................................................
GERD in the Black Sea region by sector of performance, 2005 and 2013.................................................................................................
Scientific publication trends in the Black Sea countries, 20052014...........................................................................................................
Budget breakdown of Moldovas state programmes for R&D, by thematic priority, 2012 (%)..................................................
316
317
318
319
320
322
332
Table 13.1: Economic indicators for the Russian Federation, 20082013............................................................................................................................ 343
Table 13.2: Objectives and quantitative targets to 2018 of the May 2012 presidential decrees......................................................................... 345
Figure 13.1: Trends in GERD in the Russian Federation, 20032013.......................................................................................................................................... 346
Figure 13.2: Scientific publication trends in the Russian Federation, 20052014............................................................................................................ 349
xii
Illustrations
Figure 13.3: Public expenditure on education in Russia, 2005, 2008 and 2013................................................................................................................. 351
Figure 13.4: Breakdown of R&D units in the Russian Federation by type and personnel, 2013 (%)................................................................... 355
Figure 13.5: Nanotechnology patents in the Russian Federation................................................................................................................................................ 357
368
377
378
383
386
Table 14.1:
Table 14.2:
Table 14.3:
Table 14.4:
PhDs obtained in science and engineering in Central Asia, 2013 or closest year...............................................................................
Central Asian researchers by field of science and gender, 2013 or closest year..................................................................................
Kazakhstans development targets to 2050...................................................................................................................................................................
Uzbekistans most active research organizations, 2014.........................................................................................................................................
369
370
376
385
Figure 14.1:
Figure 14.2:
Figure 14.3:
Figure 14.4:
Figure 14.5:
Figure 14.6:
365
367
367
370
371
372
Table 15.1: Key targets for education and research in Iran to 2025......................................................................................................................................... 393
Table 15.2: Government outlay for R&D in Iran by major agency, 2011............................................................................................................................... 400
Table 15.3: Growth in Irans science and technology parks, 20102013.............................................................................................................................. 403
Figure 15.1:
Figure 15.2:
Figure 15.3:
Figure 15.4:
Figure 15.5:
390
396
396
398
404
409
410
411
412
xiii
413
413
414
414
416
417
418
424
425
425
432
437
452
458
461
464
465
Table 17.1:
Table 17.2:
Table 17.3:
Table 17.4:
Table 17.5:
Table 17.6:
434
441
441
442
443
455
433
435
436
436
439
440
440
442
443
444
448
449
454
475
477
478
493
Table 18.1:
Table 18.2:
Table 18.3:
Table 18.4:
Table 18.5:
474
474
479
480
481
xiv
Illustrations
Figure 18.1:
Figure 18.2:
Figure 18.3:
Figure 18.4:
Figure 18.5:
Figure 18.6:
Figure 18.7:
471
473
480
481
481
484
487
506
516
517
523
524
529
Table 19.1:
Table 19.2:
Table 19.3:
Table 19.4:
Table 19.5:
Table 19.6:
500
504
510
511
513
526
501
502
508
509
510
512
513
514
521
525
540
551
557
558
560
561
Table 20.1:
Table 20.2:
Table 20.3:
Table 20.4:
Table 20.5:
Table 20.6:
Table 20.7:
536
537
541
543
546
556
557
Figure 20.1: Public expenditure on education in Southern Africa as a share of GDP, 2012 or closest year (%).......................................... 536
Figure 20.2: GDP in SADC countries by economic sector, 2013 or closest year................................................................................................................. 538
xv
541
542
543
544
569
572
581
583
584
589
594
Table 21.1:
Table 21.2:
Table 21.3:
Table 21.4:
Tertiary enrolment in Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, 2009 and 2012 or closest years.......................................................
University enrolment in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka by field of study, 2010 and 2012 or closest years................................
Patent applications in South Asia, 2008 and 2013.....................................................................................................................................................
Researchers (FTE) in Pakistans public sector by employer, 2011 and 2013............................................................................................
571
571
575
590
Table 22.1:
Table 22.2:
Table 22.3:
Table 22.4:
599
604
606
608
Figure 22.1:
Figure 22.2:
Figure 22.3:
Figure 22.4:
Figure 22.5:
Figure 22.6:
Figure 22.7:
601
603
603
605
606
607
609
xvi
Illustrations
Figure 22.8: Changes in agricultural yields in India, 19802014...................................................................................................................................................
Figure 22.9: Growth of the Indian biotechnology industry, 20042014.................................................................................................................................
Figure 22.10: Exports of high-tech manufactured products from India, 20002013........................................................................................................
Figure 22.11: Green energy technology patents granted to Indian inventors, 19972012.........................................................................................
Figure 22.12: Indian FTE researchers by sector of employment and gender, 2005 and 2010....................................................................................
Figure 22.13: Indian science, engineering and technology graduates, 2011/2012...........................................................................................................
611
612
613
614
615
616
622
630
632
634
635
Trends in GDP per capita and GDP growth in China, 20032014................................................................................................................... 622
Chinese GERD/GDP ratio and BERD/GDP ratio, 20032014 (%)....................................................................................................................... 624
Growth in Chinese GERD, 2003 2013................................................................................................................................................................................ 624
GERD in China by type of research, 2004, 2008 and 2013 (%)........................................................................................................................... 625
Applications and patents granted to Chinese and foreign inventors, 20022013............................................................................. 626
Scientific publication trends in China, 20052014.................................................................................................................................................... 627
Cumulative number of Chinese students going abroad and returnees, 19862013..........................................................................631
Priorities of Chinas national research programmes, 2012................................................................................................................................... 637
Table 24.1:
Table 24.2:
Table 24.3:
Table 24.4:
643
645
650
656
Figure 24.1: Number of universities and university students in Japan, 2008, 2011 and 2014.................................................................................
Figure 24.2: R&D expenditure in Japan by field, 2008 and 2013..................................................................................................................................................
Figure 24.3: Number of researchers (HC) in Japan, 2008 and 2013............................................................................................................................................
Figure 24.4: Trends in masters and PhD programmes in Japan, 20082013......................................................................................................................
Figure 24.5: Share of female researchers in Japan by sector and employer, 2013 (%).................................................................................................
Figure 24.6: Breakdown of working hours of Japanese university researchers, 2008 and 2013............................................................................
Figure 24.7: Scientific publication trends in Japan, 20052014....................................................................................................................................................
Figure 24.8: Overseas production by Japanese manufacturers, 2000-2012.........................................................................................................................
Figure 24.9: Japans technology trade and FDI stock, 2008 and 2013......................................................................................................................................
Figure 24.10: Japans progress towards targets under the Kyoto Protocol, 2012...............................................................................................................
648
651
652
652
653
653
654
655
656
657
xvii
662
665
666
666
666
668
669
669
670
671
Table 26.1: Intensity of high-tech industries in Malaysia, 2000, 2010 and 2012............................................................................................................. 681
Table 26.2: Semiconductor firms in Penang and Kedah with R&D and/or chip design, 2014............................................................................... 684
Table 26.3: University enrolment in Malaysia, 2007 and 2010..................................................................................................................................................... 685
Figure 26.1:
Figure 26.2:
Figure 26.3:
Figure 26.4:
Figure 26.5:
Figure 26.6:
Figure 26.7:
Figure 26.8:
Figure 26.9:
New Zealand: using science diplomacy to make a small voice heard......................................................................................................... 715
Scuba rice for the Philippines................................................................................................................................................................................................. 717
Innovative ways of financing innovation in Singapore.......................................................................................................................................... 720
Table 27.1:
Table 27.2:
Table 27.3:
Table 27.4:
699
703
727
727
Figure 27.1:
Figure 27.2:
Figure 27.3:
Figure 27.4:
Figure 27.5:
Figure 27.6:
Figure 27.7:
Figure 27.8:
Figure 27.9:
693
694
695
696
700
702
703
704
710
xviii
Illustrations
Figure 27.10: Trends in GERD in Singapore, 20022012........................................................................................................................................................................ 719
Figure 27.11: Government expenditure on R&D in Fiji by socio-economic objective, 20072012........................................................................ 726
Statistical annex
Table S1:
Table S2:
Table S3:
Table S4:
Table S5:
Table S6:
Table S7:
Table S8:
Table S9:
Table S10:
744
750
756
759
762
768
774
777
780
786
xix
Foreword
Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO
In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly took
a historic and visionary step with the adoption
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
For the first time at this level, the role of science,
technology and innovation has been explicitly
recognized as a vital driver of sustainability.
Sustainability depends on the capacity of states to
put science at the heart of their national strategies
for development, strengthening their capacities
and investment to tackle challenges, some
of which are still unknown. This commitment
resonates at the heart of UNESCOs mandate and
I see this as a call for action, as we celebrate the
70th anniversary of the Organization.
I see this edition of the UNESCO Science Report
as a springboard to take the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development forward, providing
precious insights into the concerns and priorities
of member states and sharing critical information
to harness the power of science for sustainability.
The UNESCO Science Report draws a comprehensive
picture of the many facets of science in an
increasingly complex world including trends
in innovation and mobility, issues relating to big
data and the contribution of indigenous and local
knowledge to addressing global challenges.
Since the UNESCO Science Report 2010, clear
trends have emerged. Firstly, despite the financial
crisis, global expenditure on research and
development has grown faster than the global
economy, showing confidence that investment
in science will bring future benefits. Much of this
investment is in the applied sciences and is being
spearheaded by the private sector. This points to
an important shift in the landscape, with high-
xx
xxi
xxii
Perspectives
on emerging
issues
International students studying alongside Indian students at the Bangalore campus of the Indian
Institute of Management. Photo: Atul Loke
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Boateng, P. (2015) Africa needs IP protection to build
knowledge economies. SciDev.net.
Bloom D.; Canning D. and K. Chan (2006) Higher Education and
Economic Devlopment in Africa. World Bank: Washington, D.C.
Escher, G.; Noukakis, D. and P. Aebischer (2014) Boosting
higher education in Africa through shared massive open
online courses (MOOCs). In: Education, Learning, Training:
Critical Issues for Development. International Development
Policy series No. 5. Graduate Institute Publications: Geneva
(Switzerland); Brill-Nijhoff: Boston (USA), pp. 195214.
Toivanen, H. and A. Suominen A. (2015) The global inventor
gap: distribution and equality of worldwide inventive
effort, 19902010. PLoS ONE, 10(4):
e0122098. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.012209.
Physics students from Iran, Senegal, Spain, Venezuela and Viet Nam
enjoying an impromptu study session on the terrace of UNESCOs Abdus
Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Italy in 2012.
There were 4.1 million international students worldwide in 2013.
Roberto Barnaba/ICTP
REFERENCES
Buytaert, W.; Zulkafli, Z.; Grainger, S.; Acosta, L.; Alemie, T.C.;
Bastiaensen, J.; De Bivre, B.; Bhusal, J.; Clark, J.; Dewulf, A.;
Foggin, M.; Hannah, D. M.; Hergarten, C.; Isaeva, A.;
Karpouzoglou, T.; Pandeya, B.; Paudel, D.; Sharma, K.;
Steenhuis, T. S.; Tilahun, S.; Van Hecken, G.and M.
Zhumanova (2014) Citizen science in hydrology and water
resources: opportunities for knowledge generation,
ecosystem service management and sustainable
development. Frontiers in Earth Science, 2 (26)
Cooney, C.M. (2012) Downscaling climate models: sharpening
the focus on local-level changes. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 120 (1). January.
Hannay, T. (2014) Sciences big data problem. Wired. August.
See: www.wired.com/insights/2014/08/sciences-big-dataproblem
IEAG (2014) A World That Counts: Mobilising a Data
Revolution for Sustainable Development. Report prepared
by the Independent Expert Advisory Group on a Data
Revolution for Sustainable Development, at the request of
the Secretary-General of the United Nations: New York.
Tenopir, C.; Allard, S.; Douglass, K.; Avdinoglu, A.U.; Wu, L.;
Read, E.; Manoff, M. and M. Frame (2011) Data sharing by
scientists: practices and perceptions. PloSOne:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021101
2. See: www.itu.int/net4/wsis/sdg/Content/wsis-sdg_matrix_document.pdf
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted on 25 September 2015 at the United Nations Summit on
Sustainable Development. This new agenda comprises 17 agreed Sustainable Development Goals which replace the Millennium
Development Goals adopted in 2000. What role will science1 play in realizing Agenda 2030? What are the related challenges and
opportunities? The following opinion piece2 attempts to answer these questions.
There can be no sustainable development without
science
Since governments have agreed that Agenda 2030 should
reflect an integrated vision of sustainable development,
science cuts across virtually all 17 of the Sustainable
Development Goals within this agenda. Provisions related to
science are also to be found in the Declaration, in many of the
targets accompanying the Sustainable Development Goals
and in the Means of Implementation, including as regards
national investment in science, technology and innovation,
the promotion of basic science, science education and
literacy, and, lastly, in the parts of Agenda 2030 on monitoring
and evaluation.
Science will be critical to meeting the challenge of
sustainable development, as it lays the foundations for new
approaches, solutions and technologies that enable us to
identify, clarify and tackle local and global problems. Science
provides answers that are testable and reproducible and,
thus, provides the basis for informed decisionmaking and
effective impact assessments. Both in its scope of study and
its applications, science spans the understanding of natural
processes and the human impact thereon, the organization
of social systems, the contribution of science to health and
wellbeing and to better subsistence and livelihood strategies,
enabling us to meet the overriding goal of reducing poverty.
Faced with the challenge of climate change, science has
already provided some solutions for a secure and sustainable
energy supply; yet, there is room for further innovation, such
as with regard to the deployment and storage of energy
or energy efficiency. This is directly relevant to SDG 7 on
affordable and clean energy and to SDG 13 on climate action.
The transition to sustainable development cannot rely solely
on engineering or technological sciences, though. The social
sciences and humanities play a vital role in the adoption
of sustainable lifestyles. They also identify and analyse the
underlying reasons behind decisions made at the personal,
10
REFERENCES
ICSU (2004) ICSU Position Statement: The Value of Basic
Scientific Research. International Council for Science. Paris.
Planck, M. (1925) The Nature of Light. English translation
of lecture given to Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the
Advancement of Science: Berlin.
NO
POVERTY
ZERO
HUNGER
GOOD HEALTH
AND WELL-BEING
QUALITY
EDUCATION
CLIMATE
ACTION
INDUSTRY, INNOVATION
AND INFRASTRUCTURE
LIFE
BELOW WATER
GENDER
EQUALITY
CLEAN WATER
AND SANITATION
AFFORDABLE AND
CLEAN ENERGY
REDUCED
INEQUALITIES
SUSTAINABLE CITIES
AND COMMUNITIES
RESPONSIBLE
CONSUMPTION
AND PRODUCTION
LIFE
ON LAND
PEACE, JUSTICE
AND STRONG
INSTITUTIONS
PARTNERSHIPS
FOR THE GOALS
11
12
13
14
REFERENCES
Brown, V. A. B.; Harris, J. A. and J.Y. Russell (2010) Tackling
Wicked Problems through the Transdisciplinary Imagination.
Earthscan Publishing.
ISSC and UNESCO (2013) World Social Science Report 2013:
Changing Global Environments. Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development and UNESCO Publishing:
Paris.
Mauser, W.; Klepper, G.; Rice, M.; Schmalzbauer, B.S.;
Hackmann, H.; Leemans, R. and H. Moore (2013)
Transdisciplinary global change research: the co-creation
of knowledge for sustainability. Current Opinion in
Environmental Sustainability, 5:420431:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.07.001.
The Royal Society (2012) Science as an open enterprise.
The Royal Society Science Policy Centre report 02/12.
Tbara, J.D. (2013) A new vision of open knowledge systems
for sustainability: opportunities for social scientists. In
ISSC and UNESCO (2013) World Social Science Report 2013:
Changing Global Environments. Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development and UNESCO Publishing:
Paris.
Zalasiewicz, J. et al. (2008) Are we now living in the
Anthropocene? GSA Today, 18(2): 48:
doi: 10.1130/GSAT01802A.1.
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Berkes, F. (2012) Sacred Ecology. Third Edition. Routledge:
New York.
Ellen, R. and H. Harris (2000) Introduction. In: R. Ellen,
P. Parker and A. Bicker (eds) Indigenous Environmental
Knowledge and its Transformations: Critical Anthropological
Perspectives. Harwood: Amsterdam.
Gladwin, T. (1970) East Is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on
Puluwat Atoll. Harvard University Press: Massachusetts.
Lyver, P.; Perez, E.; Carneiro da Cunha, M. and M. Rou (eds)
[2015] Indigenous and Local Knowledge about Pollination
and Pollinators associated with Food Production. UNESCO:
Paris.
Nakashima, D.J. (1990) Application of Native Knowledge in EIA:
Inuit, Eiders and Hudson Bay Oil. Canadian Environmental
Assessment Research Council. Canadian Environmental
Assessment Research Council (CEARC) Background Paper
Series: Hull, 29 pp.
Nakashima, D.J.; Galloway McLean, K.; Thulstrup, H.D.; Ramos
Castillo, A. and J.T. Rubis (2012) Weathering Uncertainty:
Traditional Knowledge for Climate Change Assessment and
Adaptation. UNESCO: Paris, 120 pp.
Nakashima, D. and M. Rou (2002). Indigenous knowledge,
peoples and sustainable practice. In: T. Munn.
Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change. Chichester,
Wiley and Sons, pp. 314324.
Orlove, B.; Chiang, S.; John, C.H. and M. A. Cane (2002)
Ethnoclimatology in the Andes. American Scientist, 90:
428435.
Pourchez, L. (2011) Savoirs des femmes : mdecine traditionnelle
et nature: Maurice, Reunion et Rodrigues. LINKS Series, 1.
UNESCO Publishing: Paris.
Roue, M.; Battesti, V.; Csard, N. and R. Simenel (2015)
Ethno-ecology of pollination and pollinators. Revue
dethnocologie, 7. http:// ethnoecologie.revues.org/2229 ;
DOI: 10.4000/ethnoecologie.2229
Rungmanee, S. and I. Cruz (2005) The knowledge that saved
the sea gypsies. A World of Science, 3 (2): 2023.
17
18
20
Perspectives
Global
overview
Perspectives
21
19
Photo: Shutterstock.com
20
Chapter 1
Luc Soete, Susan Schneegans, Deniz Ercal, Baskaran Angathevar and Rajah Rasiah
have, meanwhile, allowed opportunistic terrorist groups to
prosper. These hyper-violent militias not only pose a threat
to political stability; they also undermine national aspirations
towards a knowledge economy, for they are inherently
hostile to enlightenment, in general, and the education
of girls and women, in particular. The tentacles of this
obscurantism now stretch as far south as Nigeria and Kenya
(Chapters 18 and 19).
Meanwhile, countries emerging from armed conflict
are modernizing infrastructure (railways, ports, etc)
and fostering industrial development, environmental
sustainability and education to facilitate national
reconciliation and revive the economy, as in Cte dIvoire
and Sri Lanka (Chapters 18 and 21).
The nuclear deal concluded in 2015 could be a turning
point for science in Iran but, as Chapter 15 observes,
international sanctions have already incited the regime
to accelerate the transition to a knowledge economy, in
order to compensate for lost oil revenue and international
isolation by developing local products and processes. The
flow of revenue from the lifting of sanctions should give
the government an opportunity to boost investment in
R&D, which accounted for just 0.31% of GDP in 2010.
Meanwhile, the Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) intends to transform this vast region into a
common market and production base with the creation
of the ASEAN Economic Community by the end of 2015.
The planned removal of restrictions to the cross-border
movement of people and services is expected to spur
co-operation in science and technology and thereby
reinforce the emerging AsiaPacific knowledge hub. The
greater mobility of skilled personnel should be a boon for
the region and enhance the role of the ASEAN University
Network, which already counts 30 members. As part of the
negotiating process for the ASEAN Economic Community,
each member state may express its preference for a specific
research focus. The Laotian government, for instance, hopes
to prioritize agriculture and renewable energy (Chapter 27).
In sub-Saharan Africa, too, regional economic communities
are playing a growing role in the regions scientific
integration, as the continent prepares the groundwork
for its own African Economic Community by 2028. Both
the Economic Community of West African States and the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) have
adopted regional strategies for STI in recent years that
21
22
Angola, Malawi and Namibia have all experienced belownormal rainfall in recent years that has affected food security.
In 2013, ministers from the SADC approved the development
of a Regional Climate Change programme. In addition, the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA),
EAC and SADC have been implementing a joint five-year
initiative since 2010 known as the Tripartite Programme on
Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation (Chapter 20).
In Africa, agriculture continues to suffer from poor land
management and low investment. Despite the continents
commitment, in the Maputo Declaration (2003), to devoting
at least 10% of GDP to agriculture, only a handful of
countries have since reached this target (see Table 19.2).
Agricultural R&D suffers as a consequence. There have
been moves, however, to reinforce R&D. For instance,
Botswana established an innovative hub in 2008 to foster
the commercialization and diversification of agriculture and
Zimbabwe is planning to establish two new universities of
agricultural science and technology (Chapter 20).
Energy has become a major preoccupation
The EU, USA, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea and others
have all toughened national legislation in recent years to
reduce their own carbon emissions, develop alternative
energy sources and promote greater energy efficiency.
Energy has become a major preoccupation of governments
everywhere, including oil-rent economies like Algeria and
Saudi Arabia that are now investing in solar energy to
diversify their energy mix.
This trend was evident even before Brent crude oil prices
began their downward spiral in mid-2014. Algerias
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Programme was
adopted in March 2011, for instance, and has since approved
more than 60 wind and solar energy projects. Gabons
Strategic Plan to 2025 (2012) states that setting the country
on the path to sustainable development is at the heart of
the new executives policy. The plan identifies the need to
diversify an economy dominated by oil (84% of exports in
2012), foresees a national climate plan and fixes the target of
raising the share of hydropower in Gabons electricity matrix
from 40% in 2010 to 80% by 2020 (Chapter 19).
A number of countries are developing futuristic, hyperconnected smart cities (such as China) or green cities
which use the latest technology to improve efficiency in
water and energy use, construction, transportation and so
on, examples being Gabon, Morocco and the United Arab
Emirates (Chapter 17).
If sustainability is a primary concern for most governments,
some are swimming against the tide. The Australian
government, for instance, has shelved the countrys carbon
3. namely the Australian Renewable Energy Agency and the Clean Energy Finance
Corporation
23
Chapter 1
24
World
2007
2013
6 673.1
7 162.1
Share of global
population (%)
2007
2007
100.0
2013
100.0
2009
2011
2013
2009
2011
2013
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
High-income economies
1 264.1
1 309.2
18.9
18.3
57.7
54.8
52.8
51.0
Upper-middle-income economies
2 322.0
2 442.1
34.8
34.1
27.6
29.5
30.9
32.1
Lower-middle-income economies
15.2
2 340.7
2 560.4
35.1
35.7
Low-income economies
746.3
850.3
11.2
11.9
1 019.4
13.2
14.2
14.7
1 440.7
1.4
1.5
1.6
Americas
913.0
971.9
13.7
1.7
13.6
29.6
28.5
27.6
27.1
18.2
1 125.0
1 274.2
North America
336.8
355.3
5.0
5.0
20.6
19.5
18.6
Latin America
535.4
574.1
8.0
8.0
6 011.0
6 170.4
6 838.5
7 224.7
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.3
40.8
42.5
0.6
0.6
469.2
475.5
489.6
506.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
Europe
806.5
818.6
12.1
11.4
26.0
24.4
23.4
22.1
European Union
500.8
509.5
7.5
7.1
20.4
19.1
18.1
16.9
Southeast Europe
19.6
19.2
0.3
0.3
145.7
151.0
155.9
158.8
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
12.6
13.5
0.2
0.2
558.8
555.0
574.3
593.2
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.7
Caribbean
Other Europe
273.6
276.4
4.1
3.9
3 342.0
3 212.3
3 590.5
3 766.4
4.6
4.3
4.4
4.3
Africa
957.3
1 110.6
14.3
15.5
3 555.7
3 861.4
4 109.8
4 458.4
4.9
5.2
5.1
5.1
Sub-Saharan Africa
764.7
897.3
11.5
12.5
2 020.0
2 194.3
2 441.8
2 678.5
2.8
3.0
3.0
3.1
192.6
213.3
2.9
3.0
1 535.8
1 667.1
1 668.0
1 779.9
2.1
2.2
2.1
2.1
3 961.5
4 222.6
59.4
59.0
38.3
40.8
42.7
44.5
61.8
67.2
0.9
0.9
408.9
446.5
521.2
595.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
122.0
145.2
1.8
2.0
2 450.0
2 664.0
3 005.2
3 308.3
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.8
Asia
Central Asia
Arab States in Asia
94.9
101.9
1.4
1.4
1 274.2
1 347.0
1 467.0
1 464.1
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
South Asia
West Asia
1 543.1
1 671.6
23.1
23.3
5 016.1
5 599.2
6 476.8
7 251.4
6.9
7.5
8.0
8.4
Southeast Asia
2 139.7
2 236.8
32.1
31.2
25.7
27.2
28.6
29.9
34.8
38.3
0.5
0.5
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
Oceania
840.7
881.5
920.2
978.0
Other groupings
Least developed countries
783.4
898.2
11.7
12.5
1 327.2
1 474.1
1 617.9
1 783.6
1.8
2.0
2.0
2.1
314.6
358.5
4.7
5.0
3 985.7
4 331.1
4 673.2
5 088.2
5.5
5.8
5.8
5.9
OECD
1 216.3
1 265.2
18.2
17.7
53.4
50.3
48.2
46.4
G20
4 389.5
4 615.5
65.8
64.4
80.2
79.7
79.7
79.5
0.9
Selected countries
Argentina
Brazil
Canada
39.3
41.4
0.6
0.6
631.8
651.7
772.1
802.2
0.9
0.9
1.0
190.0
200.4
2.8
2.8
2 165.3
2 269.8
2 507.5
2 596.5
3.0
3.1
3.1
3.0
33.0
35.2
0.5
0.5
1 216.8
1 197.7
1 269.4
1 317.2
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
16.1
China
1 334.3
1 385.6
20.0
19.3
8 313.0
11.5
13.4
14.8
Egypt
74.2
82.1
1.1
1.1
626.0
702.1
751.3
784.2
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
France
62.2
64.3
0.9
0.9
2 011.1
1 955.7
2 035.6
2 048.3
2.8
2.6
2.5
2.4
Germany
India
83.6
82.7
1.3
1.2
2 838.9
2 707.0
2 918.9
2 933.0
3.9
3.6
3.6
3.4
1 159.1
1 252.1
17.4
17.5
3 927.4
4 426.2
5 204.3
5 846.1
5.4
6.0
6.4
6.7
Iran
71.8
77.4
1.1
1.1
940.5
983.3
1 072.4
1 040.5
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
Israel
6.9
7.7
0.1
0.1
191.7
202.2
222.7
236.9
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
Japan
127.2
127.1
1.9
1.8
4 042.1
3 779.0
3 936.8
4 070.5
5.6
5.1
4.9
4.7
Malaysia
26.8
29.7
0.4
0.4
463.0
478.0
540.2
597.7
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
Mexico
113.5
122.3
1.7
1.7
1 434.8
1 386.5
1 516.3
1 593.6
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.8
Republic of Korea
47.6
49.3
0.7
0.7
1 293.2
1 339.2
1 478.8
1 557.6
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
Russian Federation
143.7
142.8
2.2
2.0
1 991.7
1 932.3
2 105.4
2 206.5
2.8
2.6
2.6
2.5
49.6
52.8
0.7
0.7
522.1
530.5
564.2
589.4
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
South Africa
Turkey
69.5
74.9
1.0
1.0
874.1
837.4
994.3
1 057.3
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.2
United Kingdom
61.0
63.1
0.9
0.9
2 203.7
2 101.7
2 177.1
2 229.4
3.1
2.8
2.7
2.6
303.8
320.1
4.6
4.5
18.9
17.9
17.0
16.7
Source: World Banks World Development Indicators, April 2015; and estimations by UNESCO Institute for Statistics; United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2013) World Population Prospects: the 2012 Revision
25
Chapter 1
Population
(in millions)
Table 1.2: World shares of expenditure on R&D, 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013
GERD (in PPP$ billions)
2007
2009
2011
2013
2007
2009
2011
2013
1 132.3
1 225.5
1 340.2
1 477.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
High-income economies
902.4
926.7
972.8
1 024.0
79.7
75.6
72.6
69.3
181.8
243.9
303.9
381.8
16.1
19.9
22.7
25.8
46.2
52.5
60.2
68.0
4.1
4.3
4.5
4.6
1.9
2.5
3.2
3.9
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
World
Low-income economies
Americas
419.8
438.3
451.6
478.8
37.1
35.8
33.7
32.4
North America
382.7
396.5
404.8
427.0
33.8
32.4
30.2
28.9
Latin America
35.5
39.8
45.6
50.1
3.1
3.3
3.4
3.4
1.6
2.0
1.3
1.7
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
Europe
297.1
311.6
327.5
335.7
26.2
25.4
24.4
22.7
European Union
251.3
262.8
278.0
282.0
22.2
21.4
20.7
19.1
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
12.6
13.1
13.7
14.5
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
Other Europe
32.7
34.8
35.0
38.5
2.9
2.8
2.6
2.6
Africa
1.3
Caribbean
Southeast Europe
12.9
15.5
17.1
19.9
1.1
1.3
1.3
Sub-Saharan Africa
8.4
9.2
10.0
11.1
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
4.5
6.4
7.1
8.8
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
384.9
440.7
524.8
622.9
34.0
36.0
39.2
42.2
Central Asia
Asia
0.8
1.1
1.0
1.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
4.3
5.0
5.6
6.7
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
15.5
16.1
17.5
18.1
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
West Asia
South Asia
Southeast Asia
35.4
39.6
45.7
50.9
3.1
3.2
3.4
3.4
328.8
378.8
455.1
545.8
29.0
30.9
34.0
36.9
17.6
19.4
19.1
20.3
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.4
0.3
Oceania
Other groupings
Least developed countries
2.7
3.1
3.7
4.4
0.2
0.3
0.3
8.8
11.4
12.7
15.4
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
860.8
882.2
926.1
975.6
76.0
72.0
69.1
66.0
1 042.6
1 127.0
1 231.1
1 358.5
92.1
92.0
91.9
91.9
2.5
3.1
4.0
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3-1
23.9
26.1
30.2
2.1
2.1
2.3
2.2-1
OECD
G20
Selected countries
Argentina
Brazil
Canada
China
4.6-1
31.3
-1
23.3
23.0
22.7
21.5
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
116.0
169.4b
220.6
290.1
10.2
13.8b
16.5
19.6
0.4
Egypt
1.6
4.0
5.3
0.1
0.2b
0.3
France
40.6
43.2
3.0b
44.6b
45.7
3.6
3.5
3.3b
3.1
Germany
69.5
73.8
81.7
83.7
6.1
6.0
6.1
5.7
India
31.1
36.2
42.8
2.7
3.0
3.2
0.6+1
0.3b
0.3-1
0.7
Iran
7.1+1
3.1b
3.2-1
Israel
8.6
8.4
9.1
10.0
0.8
0.7
Japan
139.9
126.9b
133.2
141.4
12.4
10.4b
9.9
9.6
4.8b
5.7
0.4b
0.4
0.5-1
Malaysia
2.7-1
Mexico
6.4-1
0.3+1
0.7
5.3
6.0
6.4
7.9
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Republic of Korea
38.8
44.1
55.4
64.7
3.4
3.6
4.1
4.4
Russian Federation
22.2
24.2
23.0
24.8
2.0
2.0
1.7
1.7
4.6
4.4
4.1
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3-1
South Africa
Turkey
6.3
7.1
8.5
10.0
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
37.2
36.7
36.8
36.2
3.3
3.0
2.7
2.5
359.4
373.5
382.1
396.7-1
31.7
30.5
28.5
28.1-1
United Kingdom
United States of America
-n/+n = data are for n years before or after reference year
b: break in series with previous year for which data are shown
26
4.2-1
Note: GERD figures are in PPP$ (constant prices 2005). Many of the underlying data are estimated
by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics for developing countries, in particular. Furthermore in a
substantial number of developing countries data do not cover all sectors of the economy.
GERD per capita (in PPP$)
Chapter 1
2007
2009
2011
2013
2007
2009
2011
2013
2007
2009
2011
2013
1.57
1.65
1.65
1.70
169.7
179.3
191.5
206.3
176.9
177.6
182.3
190.4
2.16
2.28
2.27
2.31
713.8
723.2
750.4
782.1
203.0
199.1
201.7
205.1
0.91
1.11
1.21
1.37
78.3
103.3
126.6
156.4
126.1
142.7
155.7
176.1
0.48
0.50
0.50
0.51
19.7
21.8
24.2
26.6
105.0
115.9
126.0
137.7
0.19
0.22
0.25
0.27
2.6
3.1
3.9
4.5
26.2
28.7
32.9
37.6
1.96
2.08
2.01
2.04
459.8
469.9
474.2
492.7
276.8
264.6
266.3
278.1
2.57
2.74
2.68
2.71
1 136.2
1 154.9
1 158.3
1 201.8
297.9
283.0
285.9
297.9
0.59
0.65
0.67
0.69
66.3
72.7
81.2
87.2
159.5
162.1
168.2
178.9
0.33
0.41
0.26
0.34
38.5
47.6
30.5
40.8
172.9
202.0
138.4
203.1
1.58
1.72
1.72
1.75
368.3
384.0
401.6
410.1
139.8
141.3
142.6
139.4
1.71
1.86
1.89
1.92
501.9
521.3
548.2
553.5
172.4
169.1
171.2
163.4
0.31
0.56
0.47
0.51
23.0
43.5
38.2
42.4
40.0
65.9
52.0
54.9
2.25
2.36
2.39
2.44
995.1
1 014.4
1 038.8
1 072.0
242.0
231.0
218.4
215.2
0.98
1.08
0.98
1.02
119.5
126.6
127.0
139.2
54.1
59.8
58.8
64.1
0.36
0.40
0.42
0.45
13.5
15.5
16.2
17.9
86.2
101.8
98.6
106.1
0.42
0.42
0.41
0.41
11.0
11.4
11.7
12.4
143.5
132.2
129.4
135.6
0.29
0.38
0.43
0.49
23.4
32.0
34.5
41.2
49.3
76.5
73.8
83.3
1.39
1.46
1.51
1.62
97.2
108.8
126.9
147.5
154.1
159.0
171.3
187.7
0.20
0.24
0.20
0.23
13.4
16.9
15.7
20.7
38.2
42.7
39.2
41.5
0.18
0.19
0.18
0.20
35.5
38.5
40.2
45.9
137.2
141.3
136.4
151.3
1.22
1.20
1.19
1.24
163.3
166.2
176.1
178.1
133.4
135.4
141.0
132.6
0.71
0.71
0.70
0.70
23.0
25.0
28.0
30.5
171.8
177.3
195.9
210.0
1.78
1.88
1.96
2.10
153.7
174.4
206.5
244.0
154.9
160.0
172.4
190.8
2.09
2.20
2.07
2.07
505.7
537.5
512.0
528.7
159.3
166.1
158.7
164.3
0.20
0.21
0.23
0.24
3.4
3.8
4.3
4.8
59.0
61.4
66.4
74.1
0.22
0.26
0.27
0.30
28.1
34.6
36.8
43.1
71.9
95.9
92.4
103.3
2.23
2.36
2.37
2.42
707.7
715.1
740.8
771.2
220.8
213.7
215.7
217.7
1.80
1.91
1.90
1.97
237.5
252.3
271.1
294.3
186.0
186.5
192.5
201.5
0.40
0.48
0.52
0.58-1
64.5
78.6
98.1
110.7-1
65.6
72.0
79.4
1.11
1.15
1.20
1.15
126.0
135.0
153.3
157.5
205.8
202.4
210.5
1.92
1.92
1.79
1.63
707.5
682.3
658.5
612.0
154.2
153.3
139.2
141.9-1
1.40
1.70b
1.84
2.08
87.0
125.4b
161.2
209.3
147.0b
167.4
195.4
0.26
0.43b
0.53
0.68
21.5
39.6b
50.3
64.8
32.4
86.5b
96.1
111.6
2.02
2.21
2.19b
2.23
653.0
687.0
701.4
710.8
183.1
184.3
178.9b
172.3
2.45
2.73
2.80
2.85
832.0
887.7
985.0
1 011.7
239.1
232.7
241.1
232.3
0.79
0.82
0.82
26.8
30.5
35.0
171.4-2
0.75+1
0.31b
0.31-1
97.5+1
41.8b
43.0
130.5+1
4.48
4.15
4.10
4.21
1 238.9
1 211.4
1 290.5
3.46
3.36b
3.38
3.47
1 099.5
996.2b
1 046.1
1 112.2
204.5
0.61-1
1.01b
1.06
1.13-1
101.11
173.7b
199.9
219.9-1
274.6-1
0.37
0.43
0.42
0.50
46.6
51.3
54.0
65.0
3.00
3.29
3.74
4.15
815.6
915.7
1 136.0
1 312.7
1.12
1.25
1.09
1.12
154.7
168.4
160.1
173.5
0.88
0.84
0.73
0.73-1
92.9
87.1
79.7
0.72
0.85
0.86
0.95
90.9
99.8
117.0
1.69
1.75
1.69
1.63
610.1
594.4
590.3
2.63
2.82
2.77
2.81-1
1 183.0
1 206.7
1 213.3
-1
1 154.1
-1
58.9b
88.2-1
-1
201.8-1
58.4-1
165.6
152.9-1
193.5b
202.8
214.1
163.1b
121.7
123.5-1
139.3
138.9
139.7
174.8
180.7
191.6
200.9
47.4
54.7
51.3
56.3
238.6
224.0
205.9
197.3-1
133.5
127.1
123.1
118.5
112.3
573.8
147.2
143.2
146.6
139.7
1 249.3-1
317.0
298.5
304.9
313.6-1
80.5-1
Source: estimations by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, July 2015; for Brazilian GERD/GDP ratio in 2012: Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
27
0.9
Germany 0.85
0.8
0.79
0.79
France 0.78
0.77
0.7
USA 0.76
Australia 0.78
Singapore
0.77
Russian Fed.
0.76
0.69
0.66
0.63
0.6
Japan 0.60
0.60
0.55
0.53
0.53
Canada 0.57
Italy 0.54
0.5
UK 0.44
China 0.44
Argentina 0.44
0.4
Poland 0.41
South Africa
0.33
0.35
0.33
0.33
Mexico 0.38
0.3
0.25
Turkey 0.25
0.23
0.2
0.20
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
28
Figure 1.2: GERD performed by business enterprises as a share of GDP, 20052013 (%)
3.0
Japan 2.64
2.5
2.53
2.0
2.02
USA 1.92
Germany 1.91
1.73
1.68
China 1.60
1.5
France 1.44
1.27
Australia 1.23
1.0
UK 1.05
1.05
1.00
1.91
Italy 0.68
0.73
0.5
0.53
0.50
0.24
0.20
0.19
0.18
0.12
Poland 0.38
India 0.29
South Africa 0.32
Mexico 0.17
Argentina 0.12
0
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
29
Chapter 1
3.5
30
Figure 1.3: Mutually reinforcing effect of strong government investment in R&D and researchers, 20102011
Chapter 1
The size of the bubbles is proportionate to GERD funded by business as a share of GDP (%)
8 000
Finland
7 000
Denmark
Singapore
6 000
Korea, Rep.
Luxembourg
Norway
Sweden
Japan
5 000
Canada
Portugal
Austria
Slovenia
4 000
UK Germany
New Zealand
Ireland
USA
France
Belgium
Netherlands
Estonia
Russian Fed.
3 000
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Spain
Lithuania
Hungary
2 000
Latvia
Malta
Malaysia
Argentina
Costa Rica
1 000
Kazakhstan
Romania
Poland
Bulgaria
Turkey
Ukraine
Italy
Serbia
China
Brazil
Uruguay
South Africa
Mexico
Colombia
Kuwait
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
31
Table 1.3: World shares of researchers, 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013
Researchers (000s)
2007
2009
2011
2013
World
6 400.9
6 901.9
7 350.4
7 758.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
High-income economies
4 445.9
4 653.9
4 823.1
4 993.6
69.5
67.4
65.6
64.4
1 441.8
1 709.4
1 952.3
2 168.8
22.5
24.8
26.6
28.0
439.6
453.2
478.0
493.8
6.9
6.6
6.5
6.4
73.6
85.4
96.9
102.6
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
Americas
1 516.6
1 656.7
1 696.1
1 721.9
23.7
24.0
23.1
22.2
North America
1 284.9
1 401.2
1 416.1
1 433.3
20.1
20.3
19.3
18.5
222.6
245.7
270.8
280.0
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.6
9.1
9.7
9.2
8.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Europe
2 125.6
2 205.0
2 296.8
2 408.1
33.2
31.9
31.2
31.0
European Union
Low-income economies
Latin America
Caribbean
2007
2009
2011
2013
1 458.1
1 554.0
1 623.9
1 726.3
22.8
22.5
22.1
22.2
Southeast Europe
11.3
12.8
14.2
14.9
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
51.9
56.8
62.9
67.2
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
Other Europe
604.3
581.4
595.8
599.9
9.4
8.4
8.1
7.7
Africa
150.1
152.7
173.4
187.5
2.3
2.2
2.4
2.4
Sub-Saharan Africa
58.8
69.4
77.1
82.0
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.1
91.3
83.3
96.3
105.5
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.4
2 498.1
2 770.8
3 063.9
3 318.0
39.0
40.1
41.7
42.8
Central Asia
21.7
25.1
26.1
33.6
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
31.6
35.6
40.7
44.0
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
West Asia
116.2
119.2
124.3
136.9
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.8
South Asia
206.2
223.6
233.0
242.4
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.1
2 122.4
2 367.4
2 639.8
2 861.1
33.2
34.3
35.9
36.9
110.5
116.7
120.1
123.3
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
0.8
Asia
Southeast Asia
Oceania
Other groupings
Least developed countries
45.2
51.0
55.8
58.8
0.7
0.7
0.8
122.9
118.9
137.0
149.5
1.9
1.7
1.9
1.9
OECD
3 899.2
4 128.9
4 292.5
4 481.6
60.9
59.8
58.4
57.8
G20
5 605.1
6 044.0
6 395.0
6 742.1
87.6
87.6
87.0
86.9
Selected countries
Argentina
38.7
43.7
50.3
Brazil
116.3
129.1
138.7-1
Canada
151.3
150.2
163.1
China
Egypt
49.4
France
221.9
Germany
290.9
India
154.8
1 152.3b
Iran
54.3+1
Israel
Japan
684.3
0.7
2.0-1
0.7-1
2.4
2.2
2.2
2.1-1
16.7b
17.9
35.2
41.6
47.7
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.6
234.4
249.2b
265.2
3.5
3.4
3.4b
3.4
338.7
360.3
4.5
4.6
4.6
4.6
52.3b
19.1
192.8-1
2.6-2
2.7-1
54.8-1
0.8+1
0.8b
0.8-1
0.8
0.8-1
55.2
656.7
29.6b
47.2
37.9
43.0
46.1
Republic of Korea
221.9
244.1
Russian Federation
Mexico
0.6
1.9
9.7-1
156.6-1
0.6
1.8
1 484.0
655.5b
Malaysia
1 318.1
317.3
-2
51.6-1
63.7-1
660.5
9.5b
8.9
8.5
0.2-1
0.4b
0.6
0.7-1
0.6
0.6
0.6
288.9
321.8
3.5
3.5
3.9
4.1
440.6
5.7
52.1-1
10.7
469.1
442.3
447.6
7.3
6.4
6.1
South Africa
19.3
19.8
20.1
21.4-1
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3-1
Turkey
49.7
57.8
72.1
89.1
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.1
United Kingdom
United States of America
252.7
256.1
251.4
1 133.6
1 251.0
1 252.9
32
259.3
3.9
3.7
3.4
3.3
1 265.1-1
17.7
18.1
17.0
16.7-1
2007
2009
2011
2013
959.2
1 009.8
1 050.4
1 083.3
3 517.0
3 632.3
3 720.4
3 814.1
620.9
723.9
813.0
888.1
187.8
187.8
192.2
192.9
98.7
109.6
119.1
120.7
1 661.2
1 776.1
1 780.8
1 771.6
3 814.6
4 081.5
4 052.0
4 034.1
415.8
448.3
482.7
487.7
223.0
235.4
220.2
200.8
2 635.4
2 717.4
2 816.4
2 941.9
2 911.8
3 081.9
3 202.0
3 388.3
575.4
659.9
734.8
772.0
4 112.4
4 390.4
4 757.0
4 980.8
2 208.8
2 115.3
2 160.2
2 170.4
156.8
151.8
164.1
168.8
77.0
86.0
90.6
91.4
474.0
418.1
467.2
494.5
630.6
684.4
740.8
785.8
351.6
395.0
399.7
500.0
259.2
272.5
294.4
303.1
1 224.1
1 226.9
1 249.1
1 343.2
133.7
141.0
143.1
145.0
991.9
1 090.1
1 197.6
1 279.1
3 173.8
3 235.7
3 226.8
3 218.9
57.7
62.2
65.0
65.5
390.7
360.5
397.8
417.0
3 205.9
3 346.7
3 433.7
3 542.3
1 276.9
1 353.2
1 408.0
1 460.7
983.5
1 092.3
1 236.0
1 255.8-1
612.0
667.2
4 587.7
4 450.6
710.3-1
4 729.0
4 493.7-1
852.8b
963.2
665.0
457.9
523.6
3 566.1
3 726.7
3 920.1b
4 124.6
3 480.0
3 814.6
4 085.9
4 355.4
137.4-2
746.9+1
5 377.7
159.9-1
710.6b
736.1-1
1 071.1
580.7
7 316.6
8 337.1-1
5 147.4b
5 157.5
5 194.8
368.2-1
1 065.4b
1 642.7
1 780.2-1
334.1
369.1
386.4
4 665.0
5 067.5
5 928.3
6 533.2
3 265.4
3 077.9
3 120.4
3 084.6
389.5
388.9
387.2
714.7
810.7
987.0
1 188.7
4 143.8
4 151.1
4 026.4
4 107.7
3 731.4
4 042.1
3 978.7
3 984.4-1
408.2-1
33
Chapter 1
0.8m
1975
1.1m
1.7m
2.8m
4.1m
1985
1995
2005
2013
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, June 2015
34
35
Chapter 1
The gap widens at the researcher level, where they now only
account for 28.4% of researchers, before becoming a gulf at
the higher echelons of decision-making (Chapter 3).
Total publications
Change
(%)
2008
2014
World share of
publications (%)
2008
2008
2014
1 029 471
1 270 425
23.4
100.0
100.0
153
176
20.9
High-income economies
812 863
908 960
11.8
79.0
71.5
653
707
26.0
33.8
212 814
413 779
94.4
20.7
32.6
91
168
28.0
28.4
58 843
86 139
46.4
5.7
6.8
25
33
29.2
37.6
4 574
7 660
67.5
0.4
0.6
80.1
85.8
Americas
369 414
417 372
13.0
35.9
32.9
403
428
29.7
38.2
North America
325 942
362 806
11.3
31.7
28.6
959
1 013
30.5
39.6
Latin America
50 182
65 239
30.0
4.9
5.1
93
112
34.5
41.1
Low-income economies
Caribbean
2014
Publications
with international
co-authors (%)
2008
World
2008
Publications per
million inhabitants
2014
2014
24.9
1 289
1 375
6.7
0.1
0.1
36
36
64.6
82.4
Europe
438 450
498 817
13.8
42.6
39.3
542
609
34.8
42.1
European Union
379 154
432 195
14.0
36.8
34.0
754
847
37.7
45.5
3 314
5 505
66.1
0.3
0.4
170
287
37.7
43.3
Southeast Europe
European Free Trade Association
26 958
35 559
31.9
2.6
2.8
2 110
2 611
62.5
70.1
Other Europe
51 485
57 208
11.1
5.0
4.5
188
207
27.2
30.3
64.6
Africa
20 786
33 282
60.1
2.0
2.6
21
29
52.3
Sub-Saharan Africa
11 933
18 014
51.0
1.2
1.4
15
20
57.4
68.7
8 956
15 579
74.0
0.9
1.2
46
72
46.0
60.5
292 230
501 798
71.7
28.4
39.5
73
118
23.7
26.1
744
1 249
67.9
0.1
0.1
12
18
64.0
71.3
5 842
17 461
198.9
0.6
1.4
46
118
50.3
76.8
Asia
Central Asia
Arab States in Asia
West Asia
22 981
37 946
65.1
2.2
3.0
239
368
33.0
33.3
South Asia
41 646
62 468
50.0
4.0
4.9
27
37
21.2
27.8
224 875
395 897
76.1
21.8
31.2
105
178
23.7
25.2
35 882
52 782
47.1
3.5
4.2
1 036
1 389
46.8
55.7
Southeast Asia
Oceania
Other groupings
Least developed countries
Arab States all
4 191
7 447
77.7
0.4
0.6
79.7
86.8
14 288
29 944
109.6
1.4
2.4
44
82
45.8
65.9
OECD
801 151
899 810
12.3
77.8
70.8
654
707
25.8
33.3
G20
949 949
1 189 605
25.2
92.3
93.6
215
256
22.4
26.2
Selected countries
Argentina
Brazil
Canada
China
6 406
7 885
23.1
0.6
0.6
161
189
44.9
49.3
28 244
37 228
31.8
2.7
2.9
147
184
25.6
33.5
46 829
54 631
16.7
4.5
4.3
1 403
1 538
46.6
54.5
102 368
256 834
150.9
9.9
20.2
76
184
23.4
23.6
Egypt
4 147
8 428
103.2
0.4
0.7
55
101
38.0
60.1
France
59 304
65 086
9.7
5.8
5.1
948
1 007
49.3
59.1
Germany
79 402
91 631
15.4
7.7
7.2
952
1 109
48.6
56.1
India
37 228
53 733
44.3
3.6
4.2
32
42
18.5
23.3
23.5
Iran
11 244
25 588
127.6
1.1
2.0
155
326
20.5
Israel
10 576
11 196
5.9
1.0
0.9
1 488
1 431
44.6
53.1
Japan
76 244
73 128
-4.1
7.4
5.8
599
576
24.5
29.8
Malaysia
2 852
9 998
250.6
0.3
0.8
104
331
42.3
51.6
Mexico
8 559
11 147
30.2
0.8
0.9
74
90
44.7
45.9
Republic of Korea
33 431
50 258
50.3
3.2
4.0
698
1 015
26.6
28.8
Russian Federation
27 418
29 099
6.1
2.7
2.3
191
204
32.5
35.7
South Africa
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States of America
5 611
9 309
65.9
0.5
0.7
112
175
51.9
60.5
18 493
23 596
27.6
1.8
1.9
263
311
16.3
21.6
77 116
87 948
14.0
7.5
6.9
1 257
1 385
50.4
62.0
289 769
321 846
11.1
28.1
25.3
945
998
30.5
39.6
Note: The sum of the numbers for the various regions exceeds the total number because papers with multiple authors from different
regions contribute fully to each of these regions.
Source: Data from Thomson Reuters Web of Science Science Citation Index Expanded compiled for UNESCO by Science-Metrix, May 2015
36
Agricultural sciences
0.6
Astronomy
0.5
Figure 1.5: Trends in scientific publications
worldwide,
and
2014
A world in search
of an2008
effective
growth
strategy
0.4
Social sciences
13.8%
Agricultural sciences
0.6
Social sciences
60.1%
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
Physics
France
Other
life tops G7 counties for its specialization
Computer
sciences
sciences
in mathematics
specialization in psychology and social
sciences Mathematics
Geosciences
UK
Mathematics
USA
Germany
Physics
UK
France
Canada
Japan
Psychology
Turkey
Arab
States
Physics
Canada
Japan
Agricultural sciences
Physics
Chemistry
Other life
Social sciences
sciences
Geosciences
Brazil
Korea, Rep.
Russian Fed.
South Africa
Turkey
PhysicsArab
States
(minus Brazil)
Russian Fed.
Chemistry
Japan
South Africa
Korea, Rep.
China
Other life
India
sciences
0.2
Psychology China
India
Brazil 0.1
0.0
Korea,-0.1
Rep.
Computer
sciences
Physics
Other life
Social sciences
sciences
Mathematics
Engineering
Other life
Chemistry
Agricultural sciences
Psychology
Medical sciences
Turkey
Physics
Mexico
Russian
Fed.
Biological
sciences
South Africa
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
South Africa
Biological
sciences
Mexico
Chemistry
Sub-Saharan Africa
(minus S. Africa)
Russian Fed.
Computer
South Africa
sciences
Brazil
Korea, Rep.
Agricultural sciences
Turkey
Malaysia
Mexico
Medical sciences
Engineering
0.6
Social
sciences
Astronomy
0.5
Arab
Latin America
Sub-Saharan Africa
0.4
States Mathematics
(minus Brazil)
(minus S. Africa)
Geosciences
0.3
Medical sciences
Engineering
sciences
Astronomy
India
Psychology
Computer
Astronomy sciences
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Psychology
0.0
Medical sciences
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
Mathematics
USA
Germany -0.4
-0.5
Brazil -0.6
Physics UK China
France
-0.7
Engineering
Mathematics
Social sciences
Engineering
0.6
Astronomy
0.5
0.4
Geosciences
0.3
0.2
0.1
UK
Canada
Biological
0.0
France
Japansciences
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
Chemistry
-0.7
USA
Germany
India
China
India
Canada Chemistry
Japan
Computer
sciences
Medical sciences
Geosciences
France
Mathematics
Mexico Biological
sciences
Sub-Saharan Africa
(minus S. Africa)
Other life
sciences
Biological
Engineering
sciences
Computer
sciences
Medical sciences
Social sciences
Brazil
Agricultural
sciences Russian Fed.
Korea, Rep.0.6
South Africa
Astronomy
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Malaysia 0.1
0.0
-0.1
Latin America
-0.2
(minus Brazil)
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
Computer
Astronomy sciences
Other life
sciences
Psychology
China
India sciences
Social
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
UK
-0.6
-0.7
Psychology
Medical sciences
G7 countries
diverge the most in their
Medical
sciences
Engineering
Germany
France
Agricultural sciences
Chemistry
USA
109.6%
Astronomy
Malaysia
Arab States
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
Computer
Astronomy sciences
Biological
Engineering
sciences
Geosciences
Sub-Saharan AfricaChemistry
(S. Africa)
Latin America (Brazil)
37
Computer
Chapter 1
0.5
Growth in publications with authors
0.4
from Europe between 2008 and0.3
0.22014,
0.1
Psychology
the region with the greatest share
0.0 of
-0.1
publications: 39.3%
-0.2
USA
Germany
0.3
0.2
0.1
Biological
0.0
sciences
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
Growth-0.5
in publications with authors from
-0.6
Chemistry
-0.7 between 2008 and 2014
Arab states
Psychology
2008
2013
2008
2013
World
157 768
277 832
100.0
100.0
High-income economies
93.0
149 290
258 411
94.6
2 640
9 529
1.7
3.4
973
3 586
0.6
1.3
15
59
0.0
0.0
Americas
Low-income economies
83 339
145 741
52.8
52.5
North America
83 097
145 114
52.7
52.2
342
829
0.2
0.3
21
61
0.0
0.0
Europe
25 780
48 737
16.3
17.5
European Union
24 121
45 401
15.3
16.3
21
0.0
0.0
1 831
3 772
1.2
1.4
Latin America
Caribbean
Southeast Europe
European Free Trade Association
Other Europe
362
773
0.2
0.3
Africa
137
303
0.1
0.1
Sub-Saharan Africa
119
233
0.1
0.1
18
70
0.0
0.0
46 773
83 904
29.6
30.2
0.0
0.0
81
426
0.1
0.2
1 350
3 464
0.9
1.2
855
3 350
0.5
1.2
44 515
76 796
28.2
27.6
1 565
2 245
1.0
0.8
Asia
Central Asia
Arab States in Asia
West Asia
South Asia
Southeast Asia
Oceania
Other groupings
Least developed countries
Arab States all
23
0.0
0.0
99
492
0.1
0.2
OECD
148 658
257 066
94.2
92.5
G20
148 608
260 904
94.2
93.9
Selected countries
Argentina
Brazil
45
114
0.0
0.0
142
341
0.1
0.1
Canada
3 936
7 761
2.5
2.8
China
1 757
7 568
1.1
2.7
10
52
0.0
0.0
France
Egypt
3 683
7 287
2.3
2.6
Germany
9 901
17 586
6.3
6.3
848
3 317
0.5
1.2
India
43
0.0
0.0
Israel
Iran
1 337
3 405
0.8
1.2
Japan
19.0
34 198
52 835
21.7
Malaysia
200
288
0.1
0.1
Mexico
90
217
0.1
0.1
7 677
14 839
4.9
5.3
Russian Federation
Republic of Korea
281
591
0.2
0.2
South Africa
102
190
0.1
0.1
35
113
0.0
0.0
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States of America
3 828
7 476
2.4
2.7
79 968
139 139
50.7
50.1
Note: The sum of the numbers and percentages for the various regions exceeds the total because patents with multiple inventors from different regions
contribute fully to each of these regions.
Source: Data from United States Patents and Trademark Office (USPTO) PATSTAT, database compiled for UNESCO by Science-Metrix, June 2015
38
17 355
16 511
13 971
13 765
15 101
13 910
17 523
2012
15 391
15 000
16 828
2007
-40.2%
10 000
Japan
European
Union28
USA
Republic
of Korea
Other highincome
economies
China
Other G20
members
603
399
205
856
458
435
694
272
1 851
2 660
2 666
2 843
2 878
1 984
1 570
5 000
Rest of
the world
Among the Triad, the European Union and USA showed the greatest contraction in their world
share of triadic patents between 2002 and 2012
The Republic of Koreas share of triadic patents almost doubled to 5.5% between 2002 and 2012
Chinas share of triadic patents grew from 0.5% to 3.6% and the other G20 members doubled their
world share to 1.6%, on average
Global shares of triadic patents, 2002 and 2012 (%)
USA
Korea, Rep.
29.5
Other high-income
economies
2.8
5.1
2002
0.8
0.4
0.5
China
Other G20 members
31.0
26.5
5.5
5.1
3.6
1.6
1.2
2012
26.9
USA
30.0
Japan
Japa
29.6
European Union28
Chin
a of countries in the USPTO database, 2002, 2007 and 2012; triadic patents are a series of corresponding patents filed at the European
Note: Nowcasting triadic patents
A
Patent Office (EPO), the United States Patent and Trademark Office
US(USPTO) and the Japan Patent Office (JPO) for the same invention, by the same applicant or inventor.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics based on OECD online databasep(OECD.Stat),
August 2015
an
Ja
ina
Ch
39
Chapter 1
2.2%
2002
Figure 1.7: World shares of GDP, GERD, researchers and publications for the G20, 2009 and 2013 (%)
40
16.9
19.1
7.2
7.7
4.6
4.6
5.7
6.0
6.9
7.3
3.3
3.7
2.5
3.0
2.6
2.8
2.1
2.2
1.5
1.9
28.1
30.5
-1
16.7
18.1
16.7
17.9
1.1
0.8
0.7
0.6
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.7
3.4
3.6
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.1
1.5
1.6
25.3
27.4
0.9
0.2
1.5
1.4
0.1
2.2-1
2.1
1.9
4.3
4.5
0.6
0.5
0.5
4.5
4.6
0.7
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3-1
0.4
0.7
0.7
1.9
2.2
5.1
5.7
3.0
3.1
0.7
0.6
0.3-1
0.3
0.9
0.9
6.7
6.0
4.2
3.6
Australia
1.0
1.0
3.0
3.7
3.1
2.8+1
Indonesia
2.4
2.2
1.3-1
Argentina
19.1
1.9
1.9
0.1
0.1
1.3-2
1.5-1
22.2
22.5
0.1
0.1
South Africa
34.0
36.4
0.3
Brazil
13.8
India
4.7
5.1
16.1
13.4
Saudi Arabia
1.8
1.8
Korea, Rep.
4.4
3.6
Mexico
19.1
16.7
China
4.1
3.5
Turkey
4.0
3.4
Italy
Japan
9.6
10.4
France
21.4
8.5
9.5
USA
2.5
2.6
European Union
1.7
2.0
19.6
Germany
5.7
6.4
UK
20.2
Canada
2.3
2.6
Russian
Federation
11.1
2.4
2.6
2.9
2.8
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.8
1.8
1.9
41
Chapter 1
42
2008
2014
World
23.13
37.97
High-income economies
64.22
78.20
23.27
44.80
7.84
21.20
Low-income economies
2.39
7.13
Americas
44.15
60.45
North America
74.26
84.36
Latin America
27.09
47.59
Caribbean
16.14
30.65
Europe
50.82
67.95
European Union
64.19
75.50
Southeast Europe
34.55
57.42
83.71
90.08
Other Europe
25.90
53.67
8.18
20.78
Sub-Saharan Africa
5.88
16.71
17.33
37.65
Asia
15.99
31.18
9.53
35.04
19.38
38.59
West Asia
14.37
37.84
South Asia
4.42
13.74
Africa
Central Asia
Southeast Asia
24.63
43.58
Oceania
54.50
64.38
Other groupings
Least developed countries
2.51
7.00
18.14
38.03
OECD
63.91
75.39
G20
28.82
44.75
Argentina
28.11
59.90
Brazil
33.83
51.60
Canada
76.70
85.80
China
22.60
45.80
Egypt
18.01
49.56
France
70.68
81.92
Germany
78.00
83.96
India
4.38
15.10
Iran
10.24
31.40
Israel
59.39
70.80
Japan
75.40
86.25
Malaysia
55.80
66.97
Mexico
21.71
43.46
Republic of Korea
81.00
84.77
Russian Federation
26.83
61.40
8.43
48.90
Turkey
34.37
46.25
United Kingdom
78.39
89.84
74.00
84.20
Selected countries
South Africa
Chapter 1
43
44
45
Chapter 1
46
47
Chapter 1
48
49
Chapter 1
50
51
Chapter 1
52
CONCLUSION
An evolving public commitment to science and research
This latest edition of the UNESCO Science Report covers more
countries and regions than ever before. This reflects the
growing acceptance worldwide and, in particular, in the
non-OECD world, of STI as a driver of development. At the
same time, the statistical data on basic STI indicators remain
patchy, especially in non-OECD countries. Nevertheless,
there is a growing awareness of the need for reliable data
to enable monitoring of national science and innovation
systems and inform policy. This realization has given rise
to the African Science and Technology Indicators Initiative,
which has spawned an observatory based in Equatorial
Guinea. A number of Arab economies are also establishing
observatories of STI, including Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon,
Palestine and Tunisia.
Another striking trend observed in the UNESCO Science
Report is the decline in public commitment to R&D observed
in many developed countries (Canada, UK, USA, etc), as
opposed to a growing belief in the importance of public
investment in R&D for knowledge creation and technology
adoption in emerging and lower income countries. STI has,
of course, been mainstreamed in many emerging economies
for some time, including Brazil, China and the Republic of
Korea. What we are seeing now is the adhesion of many
middle- and low-income countries to this philosophy, with
many incorporating STI in their vision or other planning
documents. Of course, these countries have benefited from
much higher economic growth rates than OECD countries
in recent years, so the jury is still out, to some extent, as to
whether they will be able to pursue this public commitment
in years of lower or even negative growth. Brazil and the
Russian Federation will be test cases, as both have now
entered recession following the end of a cyclical boom in
raw materials.
However, as Chapter 2 highlights, it is not just the diverging
public commitment to investment in R&D between the
highly developed and emerging and middle-income world
that is narrowing. While most R&D (and patenting) is taking
place in high-income countries, innovation is occurring in
countries across the full spectrum of income levels. Much
innovation is occurring without any R&D activity at all; in
the majority of countries surveyed by the UNESCO Institute
for Statistics in 2013, innovation unrelated to R&D implicated
more than 50% of firms. Policy-makers should take note
of this phenomenon and, accordingly, focus not just on
designing incentives for firms to engage in R&D. They also
need to facilitate non-research-related innovation,
particularly in relation to technology transfer, since the
acquisition of machinery, equipment and software is
generally the most important activity tied to innovation.
53
Chapter 1
54
55
Chapter 1
56
INTRODUCTION
57
Chapter 2
Figure
2.1:SCIENCE
Trends inREPORT
business R&D, 20012011
UNESCO
The contribution of business R&D to GERD has dropped since 2006 in sub-Saharan Africa,
the Americas and the former Soviet states
Share of business R&D in GERD at national level, 2006 and 2011 (%)
2006
2011
76.1 75.0
69.7
69.2 67.6
62.8
62.4
56.8 57.4
63.9 63.7
59.1
51.4 51.4
48.5
42.0
38.3
44.1
39.9
35.2
32.2
16.9
Sub-Saharan
Africa
AsiaPacific
China
and India
Eastern Europe
Japan and
Asian Tigers
1.08%
Latin America
North America
Oceania
Former Soviet
states
Western Europe
1.15%
Business R&D only contributes 0.2% of GDP in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa
Business R&D as a share of national GDP, 20012011 (%)
2.0
1.88
1.81
1.85
1.60
1.5
1.34
1.28
1.22
1.15
Global average
1.08
1.07
Global average
1.0
0.78
0.60
0.55
0.5
0.43
0.36
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.15
0.10
0.0 0.01
2001
2002
58
2003
2004
2005
North America
Middle East and North Africa
2006
Western Europe
Latin America
2007
2008
Oceania
2009
2010
Sub-Saharan Africa
2011
Rest of AsiaPacific
5.1%
19.9%
China and India are capturing a greater share of business R&D, to the detriment of Western Europe
and North America
World shares of business R&D, 20012011 (%), calculated in PPP$
40.7
40
Chapter 2
35
30
29.3
North
America
25
Percentage shares
24.3
Japan and
Asian Tigers
21.7
China
and India
19.9
19.7
Western
Europe
22.2
20
15
10
Latin America
Eastern Europe
Oceania
Sub-Saharan Africa
Rest of AsiaPacific
5.1
2.2
2.0
1.2
1.0
0.9
0.4
0.0
2001
2.6
1.9
1.5
1.4
1.3
0.5
0.1
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Note: In the present chapter, the Middle East and North Africa encompasses Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman,
Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Yemen and United Arab Emirates. See Annex 1 for the composition of the the Asian Tigers.
Source: Estimations by UNU-MERIT based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics
59
TRENDS IN INNOVATION
Innovative behaviour varies according to income level
The role played by innovation in the process of economic
development has long been acknowledged. Some would
even argue that this relationship was first evoked more
than 200 years ago in the works of English economist Adam
Smith (1776) or in those of German essayist Karl Marx (1867),
long before the term was formally coined by the Austrian
economist Joseph Schumpeter (1942).
In the second half of the 20th century, countries began
gradually including innovation in their political agenda,
which raised the need to provide policy-makers with
empirical evidence. Over the past two decades, a lot of
work has been done to standardize the international
definition of innovation and design indicators. This work
culminated in the first version of the Oslo Manual in 1992,
subsequently updated by the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Eurostat, the
European statistics office, in 1997 and 2005. Despite these
efforts, measuring innovation1 remains a challenge and the
variations in the methodological procedures adopted by
countries even when the guidelines of the Oslo Manual
are followed hinders the production of fully harmonized
indicators.
According to the 2013 survey of firms, product innovation
is the most common form of innovation in 11 high-income
countries and process innovation in 12 high-income
countries (Figure 2.2). In Germany, around half of firms
are product innovators and almost as many are marketing
innovators (48%) and organizational (46%) innovators, a
profile similar to that found in Canada.
Among the low- and middle-income countries that
responded to the questionnaire, the profile of innovation
varies considerably from one country to another; in Costa
Rica, for instance, 68% of manufacturing firms are product
innovators; Cuba, on the other hand, has a high share of
1. See the glossary on p. 738 for the definition of terms related to innovation in
the present chapter. For more information about the timeframe and methodology
adopted by the countries surveyed, see UIS (2015).
60
Spain
Australia
60
50
Austria
Belgium
Canada
China, Hong Kong SAR
40
Slovakia
Croatia
30
Russian Federation
Cyprus
20
Portugal
Czech Rep.
10
Poland
Chapter 2
Uruguay
United Kingdom
Sweden
Denmark
0
Estonia
Norway
New Zealand
Finland
France
Netherlands
Malta
Germany
Luxembourg
Product innovators
Iceland
Lithuania
Ireland
Latvia
Organizational innovators
Process innovators
Korea,
Rep.
Japan
Italy
Israel
Marketing innovators
Argentina
Ukraine
70
Turkey
Belarus
60
Brazil
50
South Africa
Bulgaria
40
30
Serbia
Colombia
20
10
Romania
Costa Rica
0
Cuba
Philippines
Mexico
Ecuador
Malaysia
Egypt
Indonesia
El Salvador
India
Hungary
61
35.91
30.02
31.96
30
29.05
25.07
25.25
20.90
20
18.52
17.50
16.80
11.40
12.07
10
13.10
12.13
8.00
5.90
0
Brazil (2011)
Russia (2010)
India (2009)
Product innovators
62
China (2006)
Process innovators
Innovative firms
Box 2.1: European companies rate countries attractiveness for relocating their R&D
public organizations are considered the
most important criteria. Other important
factors are proximity to other company
sites (for Belgium, Denmark, Germany,
France, Italy, Finland and Sweden) and
the quantity of R&D personnel (for Italy,
Austria, Poland and the UK).
Chapter 2
Figure 2.4: Most attractive countries for business R&D according to EU firms, 2014
125
Not company's home country
Company's home country
100
75
50
25
a
di
In
a
in
Ch
A
US
k
ar
m
nd
De
n
la
Fin
ria
st
Au
Sp
ai
m
lg
iu
ly
Be
Ita
ia
Sw
ed
en
an
d
Ro
Po
la
n
UK
ce
Fr
an
s
nd
er
la
Ne
th
Ge
rm
an
y
Note: Survey based on an attractiveness index compiled for 161 responses from 186 companies.
63
700
670
600
500
400
383
313
300
256
200
153
141
100
117
55
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
64
Overall
rank
Share
of total
projects
(%)
Rank for
design,
development
and testing
Share
of total
projects
(%)
26
15
Communications
23
Business services
33
Pharmaceuticals
19
Semiconductors
Sector
Rank for
education
Share
of total
projects
(%)
Share
of total
projects
(%)
37
11
21
10
76
37
11
24
10
14
10
Chemicals
Biotechnology
Industrial machinery
Automotive
Financial services
Transportation
65
57
65
67
99
Top 5 (%)
Chapter 2
Rank for
R&D
Share
of total
projects
(%)
65
Figure
2.6:SCIENCE
Trends inREPORT
knowledge-related FDI projects, 20032014
UNESCO
Hardly any R&D-related projects are destined for Africa; most go to China and India
Share of total projects (%)
Destination of R&D-related FDI projects
Western
Europe
North
America
Latin
America
Eastern
Europe
Oceania
Total
0.5
0.5
36.2
0.1
0.1
4.4
10.6
8.3
4.3
6.0
1.8
2.4
1.1
1.7
0.3
0.7
0.9
0.1
0.1
0.4
2.0
4.6
2.5
2.0
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.0
0.2
12.1
North America
13.1
14.8
6.5
1.9
2.2
1.6
1.9
0.9
0.3
0.8
44.1
Latin America
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
Eastern Europe
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.3
0.1
0.0
1.1
Former Soviet
states
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.3
Africa
0.0
0.0
Oceania
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.7
28.4
28.7
14.3
11.3
4.3
4.5
3.5
2.2
0.8
1.6
4.3%
0.0
KEY
Blue flows from
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
to new countries in
terms of R&D
Green flows from
new countries to
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
Red flows between
new countries
Source: UNU-Merit
0.8
Africa
Western Europe
Total
66
Middle East
and North
Former
Africa Soviet states
0.4
0.1
28.7%
Western
Europe
North
America
Latin
America
Eastern
Europe
Middle East
and North
Former
Africa Soviet states
Africa
Oceania
Total
8.4
8.6
3.6
5.8
2.1
3.9
1.3
0.7
0.6
0.5
35.5
1.6
0.5
0.8
1.2
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.2
5.4
2.2
3.4
2.0
1.9
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.1
10.3
North America
11.0
17.4
5.4
2.0
2.8
2.5
1.5
1.0
0.3
0.9
44.9
Latin America
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
Eastern Europe
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.0
1.2
Former Soviet
states
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.4
Africa
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
Oceania
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.6
23.8
30.6
12.1
11.3
6.1
7.2
3.4
2.1
1.1
1.8
Total
1.1%
Chapter 2
Western Europe
30.6%
Design, development and testing FDI projects flowing to and from developing regions
KEY
Blue flows from
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
to new countries in
terms of R&D
Green flows from
new countries to
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
Red flows between
new countries
Source: UNU-Merit
67
Figure
2.6 SCIENCE
(continued) REPORT
UNESCO
Western Europe, China and India attract four out of ten projects in education
Share of total projects (%)
Destination of FDI projects in education
Western
Europe
North
America
Latin
America
Eastern
Europe
Africa
Oceania
Total
Western Europe
8.6
7.6
5.2
4.3
2.2
2.4
4.0
1.8
2.2
0.9
39.2
0.7
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.9
0.2
2.0
0.1
1.1
0.1
7.1
2.3
3.0
2.0
1.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.2
0.5
0.3
11.8
North America
7.8
9.0
4.7
0.9
2.2
1.7
4.7
1.1
1.4
0.9
34.3
Latin America
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.1
Eastern Europe
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.1
1.2
0.1
2.7
Former Soviet
states
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
Africa
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.1
20.4
22.1
13.3
7.5
5.9
4.9
3.4
5.9
2.2
Oceania
Total
5.9%
KEY
Blue flows from
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
to new countries in
terms of R&D
Green flows from
new countries to
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
Red flows between
new countries
Source: UNU-Merit
68
Middle East
and North
Former
Africa Soviet states
12.8
22.1%
Western
Europe
North
America
Latin
America
Eastern
Europe
Middle East
and North
Former
Africa Soviet states
Africa
Oceania
Total
11.2
1.3
2.7
3.2
5.8
5.5
0.9
3.0
2.0
1.1
36.6
0.4
0.0
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.2
1.1
0.1
3.3
1.3
1.7
2.0
1.0
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.8
8.1
North America
13.0
3.5
7.0
2.4
4.4
1.4
0.6
0.5
0.7
2.4
35.8
Latin America
0.6
0.1
3.4
0.2
4.2
Eastern Europe
0.4
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.3
1.5
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
1.1
0.0
0.7
2.7
Former Soviet
states
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.2
1.6
Africa
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.1
Oceania
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
27.8
6.7
13.0
7.5
14.3
7.9
3.2
5.3
7.2
4.5
Total
7.2%
Chapter 2
Western Europe
2.8
2.4
0.8
14.3%
KEY
Blue flows from
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
to new countries in
terms of R&D
Green flows from
new countries to
traditionally R&Dintensive countries
Red flows between
new countries
Source: UNU-Merit
69
Figure 2.7: Firms with in-house or external R&D among surveyed countries
Share of innovation-active firms (%)
R&D performers and contractors in high-income countries
100
In-house R&D
90
86
84
78
80
70
72
71
69
68
59
60
50
67
63
61
59
58
57
41
40
34
33
34
33
27
30
30
56
53
53
51
51
49
26
27
23
21
47
41
32
17
15
57
41
34
20
External R&D
84
40
39
38
37
36
20
21
21
29
27
18
20
22
19
34
20
19
10
18
Ch
in
a
Ko
re
a,
Fi
Re
p.
of
, H nla
on nd
g
Ko
No ng
rw
ay
Fr
an
Be ce
Ne lgi
th um
er
la
n
Sw ds
ed
e
Cr n
oa
t
Au ia
Cz stri
a
e
Lu ch
xe Re
m p.
bo
ur
g
Ire
la
Ge nd
rm
Lit any
hu
an
ia
Ja
pa
n
M
al
t
a
Sl
ov
ak
i
Es a
to
ni
a
Ita
De ly
nm
ar
k
Isr
Po ael
rtu
g
Cy al
pr
Ur us
ug
ua
y
La
tv
ia
Sp
ai
n
P
Ne
ol
an
w
Ze d
al
an
d
Ru
Au ssia
st
ra
lia
In-house R&D
90
80
76
70
72
69
63
60
60
60
60
58
54
50
40
40
28
30
19
20
17
22
51
50
35
49
31
26
22
25
44
43
42
41
39
39
37
35
35
27
24
14
10
External R&D
41
33
26
18
10
11
11
12
24
10
22
17
6
14
7
11
5
10
Ar
Co
st
aR
ic
ge a
nt
i
M na
al
ay
sia
Ch
in
a
M
or
oc
c
Ug o
an
da
Se
r
In b i a
do
n
So
e
ut sia
h
Af
ri
Hu ca
ng
ar
y
Gh
an
a
Ni
ge
ria
Ke
ny
a
M
ex
El
i
Sa co
lv
ad
or
Eg
yp
t
Ta
nz
an
Ro ia
m
an
ia
In
di
Ec a
ua
do
Tu r
rk
e
Be y
la
ru
Uk s
ra
Co ine
lo
m
bi
a
Br
az
Bu il
lg
ar
Pa ia
na
m
a
Cu
ba
70
Figure 2.8: Profile of the type of innovation done by firms in BRICS countries
Share of innovation-active manufacturing firms (%)
100
85
Chapter 2
75
71
68
66
64
63
54
50
35
28
25
25
16
20
17
16
19
13
22
22
11
0
Brazil
Russian Fed.
India
China
External R&D
In-house R&D
South Africa
71
Market
Suppliers of
equipment,
materials,
components
or software
Clients or
customers
Institutional
Consultants,
Competitors commercial
labs or
or other
enterprises in private R&D
institutes
your sector
Universities
or other
higher
education
institutions
Government
or public
research
institutes
Other
Conferences,
trade fairs,
exhibitions
Scientific
journals
and trade/
technical
publications
Professional
and industry
associations
High-income countries
Australia
72.9
28.6
Belgium
55.1
26.7
Croatia
44.0
27.7
Cyprus
92.8
71.9
Czech Rep.
42.7
21.8
Estonia
30.1
29.4
Finland
63.4
17.3
France
51.2
19.9
Israel
79.3
17.6
Italy
35.5
18.8
Japan
33.7
20.7
Latvia
44.4
23.3
Lithuania
37.5
15.6
Luxembourg
68.3
36.5
Malta
46.0
39.0
New Zealand
86.4
51.0
Norway
79.1
50.4
Poland
48.2
20.2
Portugal
33.9
18.5
Korea, Rep.
47.4
16.1
Russian Fed.
32.9
14.1
Slovakia
50.5
27.2
Spain
45.5
24.2
Uruguay
52.9
24.2
Low- and middle-income countries
Argentina
26.4
52.7
Brazil
41.3
41.9
Bulgaria
28.6
22.4
China
49.5
21.6
Colombia
97.6
42.5
Cuba
13.6
Ecuador
67.0
34.9
Egypt
75.9
32.1
26.4
El Salvador
Hungary
50.5
26.4
India
58.5
43.3
Indonesia
0.4
1.3
Kenya
95.7
88.2
Malaysia
42.4
34.5
Mexico
92.2
43.6
Morocco
51.3
Nigeria
51.7
39.3
Panama
43.6
10.9
Philippines
70.7
49.5
Romania
42.1
31.8
Serbia
36.2
18.3
South Africa
44.0
17.9
Tanzania
61.9
32.1
Turkey
32.6
29.1
Uganda
60.9
24.8
Ukraine
28.6
22.4
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, September 2014
72
42.1
28.7
33.2
63.4
36.8
18.8
41.1
27.8
19.1
17.6
30.5
23.9
18.9
46.1
38.0
76.3
78.3
19.2
30.3
27.7
34.9
41.6
20.9
40.3
21.0
8.4
14.5
48.1
18.5
9.3
11.7
9.4
7.9
4.5
7.5
16.5
12.2
24.6
21.0
43.1
30.0
10.1
10.2
11.3
11.3
18.1
10.4
21.2
13.7
4.7
5.3
41.3
3.9
5.8
3.6
6.2
7.5
15.1
6.2
7.8
4.1
12.6
10.0
43.4
9.4
5.2
5.9
3.4
1.7
2.8
8.7
13.6
1.2
5.2
2.7
6.0
4.3
4.2
4.5
3.4
3.7
3.7
5.1
3.4
2.9
7.8
4.0
10.2
7.2
5.8
3.2
3.9
1.9
2.5
5.0
5.8
2.9
1.6
0.5
5.5
2.3
1.1
2.8
3.1
2.2
1.0
4.8
1.6
3.8
3.6
2.0
16.0
10.5
7.3
2.2
6.1
0.6
7.7
10.0
11.7
14.1
63.0
13.3
12.7
8.8
10.8
13.7
9.7
4.6
20.2
13.1
38.3
13.0
45.9
10.5
14.8
13.9
6.7
7.4
12.4
8.7
27.1
23.0
6.7
8.2
31.5
3.8
2.0
3.4
7.9
6.7
3.7
2.0
7.1
2.2
24.0
2.0
48.3
16.0
10.3
6.0
5.2
12.0
13.6
4.7
18.0
16.3
3.1
2.4
20.4
1.9
1.3
2.5
5.5
2.1
4.4
2.9
3.4
0.5
18.6
3.0
21.4
30.4
4.8
4.3
4.9
4.1
1.4
3.9
36.3
43.1
26.1
59.7
52.6
11.5
59.0
16. 1
40.3
37.4
59.0
1.8
90.3
39.0
71.9
56.4
51.7
15.2
66.2
33.5
27.3
41.8
66.7
33.9
49.0
21.9
16.4
23.8
13.6
29.6
32.1
5.1
27.1
17.0
5.4
21.3
32.6
1.3
80.6
27.9
44.0
15.4
30.0
6.6
37.9
20.5
10.5
11.6
27.4
18.0
23.0
11.0
28.5
10.2
5.5
17.1
28.4
10.7
2.7
15.2
13.0
16.8
0.9
52.7
15.0
19.0
17.9
14.6
5.2
21.2
5.2
7.8
6.9
16.7
5.2
12.2
4.7
40.0
7.0
8.9
16.2
19.6
2.0
1.8
3.8
9.9
7.9
0.4
37.6
9.5
26.4
6.4
6.8
2.4
10.1
3.3
5.3
3.1
7.1
3.7
3.2
1.9
42.4
24.7
8.0
24.7
2.2
0.9
1.8
3.3
11.0
0.4
39.8
16.7
23.6
12.8
4.1
2.4
7.1
2.0
2.6
2.3
11.9
2.8
5.0
4.6
13.6
26.7
43.7
22.2
22.3
13.9
16.6
29.7
0.9
71.0
28.1
36.9
43.6
11.5
5.2
21.7
14.3
14.8
12.9
16.7
19.7
16.4
14.7
9.4
12.0
47.3
42.5
13.4
10.3
9.6
15.1
0.9
64.5
21.7
24.5
34.6
7.1
0.5
16.7
10.2
10.3
16.7
9.5
9.4
8.3
9.1
5.1
14.8
24.5
6.3
4.5
7.7
24.5
0.9
72.0
23.6
25.6
20.2
1.9
15.7
3.5
5.7
8.4
20.2
6.9
11.3
4.0
Consultants,
commercial labs
or private R&D
institutes
Universities or other
higher education
institutions
Government or
public research
institutes
High-income countries
49.4
30.2
32.4
26.1
51.9
25.6
28.9
23.6
38.1
23.6
14.2
9.5
19.6
28.8
6.7
31.7
11.5
20.8
31.3
31.7
12.0
26.3
18.2
22.1
22.7
13.0
16.7
31.5
10.4
35.9
9.4
41.6
22.8
19.2
21.6
45.5
21.1
25.1
23.1
41.6
20.2
13.5
23.7
17.0
40.1
5.1
31.5
12.8
19.6
24.2
29.9
8.0
14.7
18.7
22.0
15.2
12.2
10.9
27.8
6.7
30.7
11.0
21.4
8.0
9.3
13.9
37.0
10.0
9.1
10.5
33.2
9.8
3.0
3.8
4.1
15.4
2.7
19.9
8.1
14.0
11.3
19.2
4.0
7.7
16.6
7.6
7.7
4.7
3.9
20.8
3.5
14.2
3.8
36.2
20.2
16.5
12.3
34.0
14.0
17.2
11.3
34.2
14.3
8.7
1.9
15.1
20.3
6.6
16.9
6.3
10.6
14.8
22.8
7.0
13.7
19.4
10.1
8.3
5.1
16.1
6.3
29.7
4.5
1.4
24.7
19.6
13.9
7.7
16.6
14.5
9.9
33.8
13.2
17.1
10.4
13.0
14.4
5.3
15.7
10.0
5.9
13.1
19.2
7.0
11.0
7.2
14.3
12.6
7.5
9.1
15.7
7.3
18.3
4.7
5.6
11.6
10.8
9.1
9.4
6.6
10.5
2.5
24.8
10.8
8.1
15.6
10.0
10.1
2.2
14.4
12.8
1.9
8.6
22.8
3.0
7.8
5.9
18.1
9.0
4.8
15.6
10.8
9.7
8.8
2.5
12.9
10.0
13.6
29.4
63.9
15.3
62.4
3.6
36.9
26.9
25.7
53.8
32.9
25.6
64.5
92.6
11.7
19.4
30.3
11.6
16.5
7.6
12.8
11.2
21.0
61.1
28.5
70.2
7.1
42.1
21.1
15.9
68.8
28.8
0.5
94.1
10.6
18.3
31.8
10.7
11.5
3.5
5.2
6.4
4.1
16.5
22.1
24.1
0.9
1.3
16.4
8.0
54.8
21.2
9.7
18.5
67.6
6.2
13.0
18.6
7.4
5.3
9.3
6.2
5.8
15.5
49.6
22.1
7.1
15.3
20.1
10.2
51.6
25.5
19.2
3.8
64.7
5.9
12.4
21.1
7.9
5.7
14.5
6.3
5.7
11.2
35.3
14.9
5.7
1.8
5.5
23.1
8.4
46.2
20.7
7.0
3.8
1.4
47.1
7.2
12.5
16.2
6.4
4.2
16.1
3.0
5.3
8.1
26.4
3.0
0.9
3.4
9.9
4.9
40.9
17.4
6.1
7.6
50.0
3.1
9.8
16.2
6.6
6.6
Chapter 2
Australia
21.4
Austria
21.2
Belgium
17.7
Croatia
8.6
Cyprus
8.1
Czech Rep.
14.5
Denmark
16.8
Estonia
20.3
Finland
23.6
France
16.1
Germany
8.6
Iceland
6.2
Ireland
15.4
Israel
Italy
2.2
Japan
Korea, Rep.
Latvia
14.0
Lithuania
17.7
Luxembourg
22.8
Malta
13.0
Netherlands
14.5
New Zealand
Norway
16.8
Poland
11.2
Portugal
5.1
Russian Fed.
12.6
Slovakia
18.6
Spain
5.5
Sweden
33.3
UK
6.2
Low- and middle-income countries
Argentina
Brazil
Bulgaria
3.9
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Hungary
15.5
Indonesia
Kenya
Malaysia
Mexico
Morocco
Panama
Philippines
91.2
Romania
2.8
Serbia
16.6
South Africa
14.2
Turkey
10.4
Ukraine
73
33.80
1.40
tra
lia
529
1.2
Au
s
tv
La
ly
3.7
ia
ta
5.90
7.20
al
M
3.4
Ita
7.00
7.26
4.0
nd
5.0
ai
3.2
la
7.45
7.66
6.0
Ze
a
1.9
4.2
9.10
9.90
12.62
13.06
13.23
10.00
3.9
Cr
oa
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Fr
an
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Lit
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Fin
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2.7
rw
ay
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No
5.2
ae
4.5
7.2
Isr
7.8
13.87
15
14.33
14.36
15.70
15.71
16.59
19.16
19.55
30
74
1.42
Br
az
il
Ec
ua
do
El
r
Sa
lv
ad
or
Uk
ra
in
e
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or
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Eg
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nt
in
a
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rb
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ex
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ilip
pi
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s
Ke
ny
a
Hu
ng
ar
y
M
al
ay
sia
So
ut
h
Af
ric
a
3.85
1.79
4.18
5.55
5.71
6.30
6.43
6.96
7.16
8.41
11.16
12.55
14.47
14.89
16.20
20.71
23.06
46.24
47.10
3.2
5.0
4.0
3.4
3.7
1.2
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ly
Au
st
ra
lia
6.0
7.
1.9
tv
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4.2
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3.9
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ae
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pa
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ak
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46.24
Be
47.10
Fin
l
45
5.8
3.4
ta
3.7
2.9
2.7
al
7.2
2.5
5.1
Sp
ai
Ze n
al
an
d
4.3
Ne
w
7.8
5.2
4.5
40.0
37.6
Chapter 2
26.4
19.6
1.9
6.4
1.8
1.42
1.79
5.55
3.8
3.85
3.3
2.0
2.4
Br
az
il
Ec
ua
do
El
r
Sa
lv
ad
or
Uk
ra
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M
or
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Eg
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3.1
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Ph
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pi
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Ke
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a
Hu
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al
ay
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So
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h
Af
ric
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Cu
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Ar
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a
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rb
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Co
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m
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In
do
ne
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an
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M
ex
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Tu
rk
ey
0.4
4.18
7.0
5.3
5.71
6.30
6.43
8.41
6.96
9.5
7.16
9.9
11.16
10.1
16.2
12.55
14.89
15
14.47
16.20
20.71
23.06
30
75
Figure 2.10: Outbound mobility ratio among doctoral students, 2000 and 2013
By region of origin (%)
Central
& Eastern
Europe
7.6
Figure 2.10
Western
Europe
0.5 0.5
North
America
1.1
0.9
3.13.3
2.0
1.7
2000 2013
3.4 3.6
1.0
1.0
6.0
4.0
Latin America
and Caribbean
3.7
Central
Asia
Arab
States
South
& West Asia
1.8
1.9 1.9
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Note: The outbound mobility ratio is the number of students from a given country (or region) enrolled in tertiary
programmes abroad, expressed as a percentage of total tertiary enrolment in that country (or region).
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, June 2015
76
World average
2000 & 2013
Doctoral programmes
Other tertiary, non-doctoral
programmes
29
Chapter 2
24
19
16
13
13
12
9
7
Science
Engineering,
manufacturing
& construction
Social
sciences,
business
& law
Humanities
& arts
Health
& welfare
Education
3
1
Agriculture
4
4
Services
Not known
or
unspecified
Note: Data concern 3.1 million international students enrolled in 44 mainly OECD and/or EU countries.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, October 2014
77
Figure 2.12:
Preferred
destinations of international doctoral students in
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
science and engineering fields, 2012
49.1%
USA
France
9.2
7.4
Australia
9.2%
4.6
49.1
Canada
3.9
2012
3.5
Germany
3.1
Switzerland
2.9
2.9
Japan
7.4%
2.0
Malaysia
11.4
Sweden
Other countries
40.1
21.8
14.2
8.7
8.8
5.0
nt
rie
s
rw
ay
os
rh
Ot
78
tc
ou
bl
ic
0.8
0.6
No
pu
Re
Cz
ec
h
Ze
a
la
Ita
w
ai
1.3
0.9
he
1.1
1.4
0.9
nd
1.1
ly
1.3
2.7
Ne
Ko
of
ic
bl
pu
Re
1.9
Sp
m
lg
iu
nd
la
er
2.1
re
a
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.7
th
a
in
1.9
Au
st
ri
Ch
en
Sw
ed
ay
sia
al
nd
1.9
Be
3.0
1.7
0.8
Ne
2.8
1.7
1.7
itz
er
la
ad
3.1
1.2
3.1
4.0
3.9
Sw
rm
Ge
pa
7.1
an
y
4.3
Ca
n
4.9
4.7
8.5
lia
ce
Au
st
ra
Fr
an
UK
US
A
8.3
Ja
10.8
51
42 41 41
39
Chapter 2
35 34 34
32
29 29
5 600
1 0.3
Lithuania
Poland
FYR Macedonia
Romania
Israel
Hungary
Brazil
Cyprus
5 200
Latvia
Turkey
Thailand
Bulgaria
Germany
Estonia
8
Chile
Rep. of Korea
Malta
China
Slovenia
Italy
Portugal
Czech Rep.
Japan
Finland
Ireland
Austria
Iceland
Denmark
France
Sweden
Norway
Australia
Belgium
Malaysia
UK
Netherlands
France
New Zealand
Switzerland
Luxembourg
Liechtenstein
13 12
11 10 10
9
Croatia
21
Slovakia
24 24 23 23
Saudi Arabia has more doctoral students enrolled in programmes abroad than at home
Countries with more than 4 000 doctoral students enrolled abroad in 2012
Country of origin
Number of
outbound
Outbound
mobility
ratio*
Top destinations
China
58 492
22.1
India
30 291
35.0
Germany
13 606
7.0
Iran
12 180
25.7
Korea, Rep.
11 925
20.7
7 451
24.3
Canada
6 542
18.0
USA
5 929
1.7
Saudi Arabia
5 668
109.3
Indonesia
5 109
13.7
Italy
France
4 997
12.3
Viet Nam
4 867
78.1
France, U.S., Australia, Japan, Rep. of Korea, UK, New Zealand, Belgium
Turkey
4 579
9.2
Pakistan
4 145
18.0
Brazil
4 121
5.2
* The number of students from a given country enrolled in doctoral programmes abroad, expressed as a percentage of total doctoral enrolment in that country
Note: The UNESCO Institute for Statistics recognizes that Germany is a top destination for international doctoral students. However, due to data unavailability,
Germany is absent from the top destinations listed here.
Note: Data for the tables and graphics in Figure 2.12 concern 3.1 million international students enrolled in 44 mainly OECD and/or EU countries.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, October 2014; Institute of International Education (2013) Open Doors Report on International Educational Exchange
79
Macao (China)
Lao PDR
China
Viet Nam
Singapore
Korea, Rep.
Mongolia
Japan
Nepal
Kazakhstan
Sri Lanka
Turkmenistan
Brunei
Indonesia
Maldives
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Russia
Iraq
Pakistan
Somalia
Turkey
UAE Libya
Lithuania
Czech Rep.
Poland Sweden
Bulgaria
Greece
Austria
Serbia
Luxembourg
Philippines
Guatemala
UK
USA
Netherlands
Belgium
Mauritius
Tunisia
Germany
Italy
New Zealand
Singapore
Malaysia
Norway
Slovenia
Australia
India
Canada
Holy See
Nigeria
Ghana
France
Cameroon
Niger
Cte dIvoire
Mozambique
Aruba
Spain
Peru
Bermuda
Cuba
Trinidad & Tobago
Haiti
Andorra
South
Africa Botswana
Zimbabwe
Algeria
Monaco
Madasgascar
Senegal
Source: Data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics, October 2014; map created using VOSviewer
80
Chapter 2
Figure 2.14: Percentage of national citizens with a doctorate who lived abroad in the past ten years, 2009
29
24
21
19
19
18
16
14
11
an
ia
ia
an
Po
l
hu
Lit
lg
ar
ia
Sw
ed
en
Sl
Bu
ov
e
ni
Cr
oa
tia
l
ae
Isr
iu
Be
Ne
th
Po
r
er
lg
la
tu
ga
nd
n
ai
Sp
Hu
ng
al
ar
ta
La
tv
11
Note: The data cover sojourns of three months or more abroad. Data for Belgium, Hungary, the Netherlands and Spain refer to graduation years from 1990 onwards. For
Spain, there is limited coverage of doctorate-holders for 20072009.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics/OECD/Eurostat data collection on careers of doctorate-holders, 2010
15.1
0.2
ia
0.3
Sl
ov
en
ia
lg
ar
ai
ia
0.3
Cr
oa
t
0.4
Sp
hu
a
ni
0.4
Bu
0.7
Isr
ae
l
an
d
Po
l
ia
La
tv
ar
y
ng
0.7
Lit
0.8
2.7
Hu
al
ta
3.2
iu
4.3
lg
tu
ga
l
4.8
Po
r
w
ay
No
r
Sw
ed
en
Ne
th
er
la
nd
s
Sw
itz
er
la
nd
5.2
Be
15.2
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics/OECD/ /Eurostat data collection on careers of doctorate-holders, 2010
81
REFERENCES
82
83
Chapter 2
84
INTRODUCTION
TRENDS IN RESEARCH
Gender parity remains elusive among researchers
When it comes to womens participation in research
overall, globally, we are seeing a leaky pipeline. Women are
actively pursuing bachelors and masters degrees and even
outnumber men at these levels, since they represent 53% of
graduates, but their numbers drop off abruptly at PhD level.
Suddenly, male graduates (57%) overtake women (Figure 3.1).
The discrepancy widens at the researcher level, with men now
representing 72% of the global pool. The high proportion
of women in tertiary education is, thus, not necessarily
translating into a greater presence in research.
Although women account for just 28%1 of global researchers,
according to available data, this figure masks wide variations
at both the national and regional levels (Figure 3.2). Women
are highly represented in Southeast Europe (49%), for
instance, and in the Caribbean, Central Asia and Latin America
(44%). One in three researchers is a woman in the Arab
States (37%), the European Union (33%) and the European
Free Trade Association (34%), which are closely followed by
sub-Saharan Africa (30%).
1. This estimate by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics for 137 countries excludes
North America, owing to the international incomparability of these data. The global
share of female researchers would not rise more than a few percentage points,
however, even if the share of female researchers in the USA could be included in
the calculation. Hypothetically, a 40% share of female researchers in the USA would
push the global share up from 28.4% to 30.7%.
85
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1: The leaky pipeline: share of women in higher education and research, 2013 (%)
Female bachelors
graduates
g
Female masters
graduates
53
53
Female PhD
graduates
Female
researchers
43
28
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimates based on data from its database, July 2015
86
Women in science
Table 3.1: Female researchers by field of science, 2013 or closest year (%)
Natural
sciences
43.0
35.0
46.4
53.9
40.5
50.6
43.7
27.8
51.0
10.1
35.0
26.5
31.8
36.7
49.7
38.7
28.2
40.7
35.4
38.2
12.2
31.4
16.9
30.7
44.1
24.0
34.3
43.6
12.6
25.7
51.9
14.4
27.4
41.8
46.5
47.6
42.0
43.9
40.4
34.6
22.2
49.0
7.2
27.2
36.4
45.7
48.7
56.7
31.5
27.8
23.3
13.0
33.8
21.2
59.5
37.0
44.5
21.7
46.8
41.5
2.3
16.7
55.2
44.3
37.5
40.0
30.3
9.0
44.2
36.0
17.1
44.5
35.4
35.1
25.3
Engineering and
technology
30.3
9.1
33.5
46.5
32.1
31.5
29.6
7.9
32.4
11.6
19.6
19.0
21.6
30.9
34.9
25.4
12.8
17.7
17.7
32.0
7.1
20.0
6.6
29.5
43.5
20.0
19.6
25.7
5.3
18.4
44.7
11.2
10.3
29.9
30.0
34.7
16.7
34.1
40.1
18.7
6.5
49.8
15.1
17.2
19.4
29.0
45.9
37.0
26.3
28.9
14.9
6.2
15.4
9.6
39.9
20.6
28.5
12.5
39.0
35.9
2.0
13.0
35.9
25.8
19.5
27.0
18.0
7.7
32.6
25.6
23.3
37.2
30.1
40.4
23.3
Medical
sciences
60.3
51.1
61.7
58.3
45.9
64.6
58.1
43.6
58.8
27.7
60.0
34.4
52.5
60.8
56.1
46.3
50.6
45.9
65.0
65.0
26.1
58.3
20.8
43.0
60.6
48.1
29.5
41.4
30.8
44.1
69.5
20.0
45.6
44.9
44.0
63.7
61.5
64.2
33.8
17.5
50.8
14.9
49.3
41.7
52.5
64.2
58.5
44.1
53.1
42.8
30.0
37.0
25.5
70.2
56.3
60.8
27.8
59.1
59.5
22.2
31.7
50.4
58.5
54.2
46.4
67.6
8.3
52.3
47.3
30.6
65.0
53.6
64.9
40.0
Agricultural
sciences
37.9
22.4
66.7
38.5
60.1
42.7
18.1
55.6
17.4
100.0
27.8
33.6
31.5
45.8
22.8
36.1
27.9
35.5
49.7
7.6
30.2
15.5
33.1
17.2
37.8
24.5
26.1
21.5
18.7
43.4
30.4
25.6
43.8
50.0
59.5
40.0
56.5
45.5
24.9
12.5
48.9
25.9
26.2
45.4
45.4
54.6
54.5
20.5
20.4
31.9
27.6
11.0
11.8
51.3
49.7
53.2
17.9
51.0
56.4
24.4
60.0
45.5
52.8
38.2
23.5
3.2
39.6
32.9
19.7
55.0
24.9
47.6
25.5
Social sciences
and humanities
48.1
26.8
56.3
57.4
43.0
59.5
47.0
37.5
55.8
35.9
54.5
32.7
39.9
53.6
55.5
43.6
42.2
49.7
46.4
61.8
13.3
17.0
22.3
46.0
53.6
44.8
25.5
33.7
31.9
31.7
59.1
37.1
40.4
34.7
48.7
65.9
75.0
65.4
52.0
44.8
32.8
51.6
12.2
34.8
51.9
61.0
40.6
49.0
27.1
32.0
40.8
23.1
39.9
27.9
63.2
47.3
52.5
34.3
49.8
60.3
26.1
51.8
52.1
51.0
29.8
29.3
14.1
55.3
41.8
27.0
63.4
46.5
62.8
25.6
Chapter 3
Albania
Angola
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Belarus
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Botswana
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Cabo Verde
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Egypt
El Salvador
Estonia
Ethiopia
Gabon
Ghana
Greece
Guatemala
Hungary
Iran
Iraq
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Korea, Rep.
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Lesotho
Lithuania
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Mali
Malta
Mauritius
Moldova
Mongolia
Montenegro
Morocco
Mozambique
Netherlands
Oman
Pakistan
Palestine
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Qatar
Romania
Russian Fed.
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sri Lanka
Tajikistan
Togo
Trinidad & Tobago
Turkey
Uganda
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Venezuela
Zimbabwe
Year
2008
2011
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2012
2012
2010
2011
2008
2012
2011
2012
2012
2012
2013
2013
2012
2013
2009
2010
2011
2012
2012
2010
2011
2013
2008
2013
2010
2013
2013
2011
2012
2009
2012
2012
2011
2010
2012
2006
2012
2012
2013
2013
2011
2011
2010
2012
2013
2013
2007
2007
2012
2012
2012
2012
2013
2009
2010
2012
2013
2012
2010
2013
2012
2012
2013
2010
2013
2011
2009
2012
87
88
COSTA
RICA
EL SALVADOR
GUATEMALA
CHILE
BRAZIL
ARGENTINA
URUGUAY
PARAGUAY
BOLIVIA
VENEZUELA
COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
CUBA
48.5%
28.4%
TOGO
GHANA
BURKINA FASO
ZAMBIA
BURUNDI
RWANDA
SOUTH
AFRICA
KENYA
LESOTHO
UAE
QATAR
MADAGASCAR
MOZAMBIQUE
MALAWI
BAHRAIN
KUWAIT
PAKISTAN
SRI LANKA
INDIA
NEPAL
VIET NAM
MALAYSIA
THAILAND
CHINA
MONGOLIA
F E D E R A T I O N
KYRGYZSTAN
TAJIKISTAN
UZBEKISTAN
OMAN
IRAN
AZERBAIJAN
SAUDI
ARABIA
ETHIOPIA
TANZANIA
UGANDA
EGYPT
ZIMBABWE
BOTSWANA
NAMIBIA
ANGOLA
GABON
CENTRAL
AFRICAN
CAMEROON REPUBLIC
LIBYA
CYPRUS
PALESTINE
IRAQ
ISRAEL JORDAN
ARMENIA
KAZAKHSTAN
R U S S I A N
Women have obtained gender parity in Southeast Europe and are on the
verge of doing so in the Caribbean, Latin America and Central Asia
SENEGAL
GAMBIA
MALI
MOROCCO
TUNISIA
TURKEY
Figure 3.2: Share of female researchers by country, 2013 or closest year (%)
PHILIPPINES
KOREA, REP.
JAPAN
44.4
44.3
44.3
40.2
36.8
34.2
33.1
30.0
27.2
22.5
16.9
Caribbean
Central Asia
Latin America
Eastern Europe
Arab States
European Union
Sub-Saharan Africa
West Asia
Southeast Asia
South Asia
48.5
Southeast Europe
ICELAND
33.1%
Data unavailable
55% or more
4554.9%
3544.9%
2534.9%
1524.9%
014.9%
Spotlight on Europe
PORTUGAL
IRELAND
SPAIN
DENMARK
NORWAY
FRANCE SWITZERLAND
ITALY
SLOVENIA
HUNGARY
LATVIA
ESTONIA
FINLAND
BULGARIA
GREECE
MACEDONIA
ALBANIA FYR
MONTENEGRO
TURKEY
CYPRUS
MOLDOVA
ROMANIA
RUSSIAN
FEDERATION
UKRAINE
BELARUS
LITHUANIA
BOS. &
HERZ. SERBIA
CROATIA
AUSTRIA
SLOVAKIA
POLAND
CZECH REP.
SWEDEN
GERMANY
LUXEMBOURG
BELGIUM
NETHERLANDS
UNITED KINGDOM
Chapter 3
Women in science
89
19
17
21
22
Heads of universities
(chancellors and vice-chancellors)
Full university
professors
Note: The data for the share of women among full university professors are for 2009.
Source: ASSAf (2011)
90
Women in science
in Cambodia (38% in 2011) and Bangladesh (41% in 2012).
In the Arab States, the lowest participation rate concerns
Yemeni women (30%). Djibouti and Morocco have each
increased the share of female students to more than 40%.
A slight rise in national wealth may correlate to a drop in
gender disparities. Sub-Saharan African countries with higher
levels of wealth also report higher participation rates for
women than men in tertiary education. For example, 59%
of tertiary students are women in Cabo Verde and 54% in
Namibia. However, there are notable exceptions among highincome3 countries. Men continue to outnumber women in
tertiary education in Liechtenstein, Japan and Turkey.
91
Chapter 3
Table 3.2: Share of female tertiary graduates in four selected fields, 2013 or closest year (%)
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Argentina
Austria
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Belarus
Bhutan
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Burkina Faso
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Denmark
Egypt
El Salvador
Eritrea
Finland
France
Georgia
Ghana
Honduras
Iran
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao PDR
Latvia
Lesotho
Lithuania
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
Malaysia
Mongolia
Mozambique
Myanmar
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Oman
Palestine
Panama
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Qatar
Korea, Rep.
Moldova
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Tunisia
Turkey
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
UK
USA
Viet Nam
Zimbabwe
Year
Science
Engineering
Agriculture
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2014
2012
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2014
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2013
2012
2013
2012
2012
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2012
2013
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2013
2013
2012
2012
2012
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2013
2013
2012
2013
2013
66.1
65.4
36.2
45.1
33.3
66.3
44.4
54.4
25.0
46.8
33.1
65.8
18.8
41.8
30.5
44.9
35.4
49.6
59.0
35.0
42.5
37.8
47.7
27.1
35.9
66.2
61.5
72.2
61.3
39.1
38.7
54.5
41.8
37.6
32.1
62.0
46.6
35.6
64.9
28.4
25.8
39.1
35.9
75.1
58.5
50.5
52.1
46.1
55.7
64.7
39.0
48.9
40.3
57.2
46.2
45.6
39.9
49.1
38.4
47.4
41.8
31.6
40.6
31.8
50.9
63.8
48.2
49.6
60.2
45.7
40.1
a
47.7
38.8
32.4
19.3
31.0
21.2
27.6
16.6
30.0
24.9
37.5
29.5
41.8
20.6
32.1
33.7
28.3
35.3
25.3
26.6
15.8
21.7
25.6
23.1
18.4
37.4
24.7
31.0
25.0
25.8
10.6
26.8
27.5
21.8
39.1
24.2
38.7
37.9
34.4
64.6
14.0
20.9
27.4
19.6
52.7
31.3
35.9
29.5
36.1
32.5
27.4
24.0
30.5
19.6
3.4
35.0
30.9
24.4
28.5
26.8
22.4
31.8
15.2
28.9
14.0
36.0
41.1
24.8
26.2
31.1
22.2
18.5
31.0
21.4
41.5
56.5
21.7
43.9
55.9
a
31.1
29.2
15.5
46.9
42.3
a
16.8
40.9
37.4
30.0
67.4
46.6
24.6
29.8
57.6
50.1
27.5
17.2
28.3
41.1
43.0
a
27.9
30.7
48.7
45.7
50.9
48.5
51.9
54.4
63.0
40.6
51.5
33.3
54.5
69.3
58.9
6.0
37.1
54.0
50.7
56.4
59.9
a
41.1
28.3
27.3
29.6
46.5
50.9
59.1
48.6
45.4
57.4
64.3
42.8
63.1
30.1
45.0
69.9
45.0
34.1
54.1
64.1
48.3
36.7
40.3
72.7
64.6
63.3
73.8
70.8
76.8
33.3
83.8
52.6
74.2
77.1
85.7
45.9
72.0
76.9
68.2
80.0
54.4
78.0
26.3
85.1
74.4
74.4
57.6
74.7
65.1
79.8
44.5
77.1
59.8
92.3
78.8
84.3
75.3
74.1
62.9
83.9
47.4
80.7
57.0
75.1
78.1
83.6
37.8
56.7
75.6
72.1
71.5
78.9
72.9
71.4
77.6
61.9
52.0
73.3
81.9
81.8
73.7
75.0
58.1
66.4
60.4
82.0
74.4
49.5
77.5
63.4
80.6
84.6
77.3
81.5
42.3
50.0
a = not applicable Note: Engineering includes manufacturing and construction. The oldest data are for 2012.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, August 2015
92
Women in science
Another possible explanation is that women are highly
represented in biotechnology. For example, in South Africa,
women were underrepresented in engineering (16%) in 2004
and in natural scientific professions (16%) in 2006 but made
up 52% of employees working in biotechnology-related
companies.
At the same time, women are poorly represented in
agricultural extension services in the developing world. Better
understanding of womens incursion into this sector, as well
as their career paths, may shed some light on the barriers and
opportunities for women in the other sciences.
93
Chapter 3
94
Women in science
represented 44% of grade C academic staff, 37% of grade B
academic staff and 20% of grade A academic staff.11 These
trends are intensified in science, with women making up 31%
of the student population at the tertiary level to 38% of PhD
students and 35% of PhD graduates. At the faculty level, they
make up 32% of academic grade C personnel, 23 % of grade
B and 11 % of grade A. The proportion of women among full
professors is lowest in engineering and technology, at 7.9 %.
With respect to representation in science decision-making,
in 2010 15.5% of higher education institutions were headed
by women and 10% of universities had a female rector.
Membership on science boards remained predominantly male
as well, with women making up 36% of board members.
95
Chapter 3
Figure 3.4: Share of women among researchers employed in the business enterprise sector, 2013 or closest year (%)
28.9
Moldova
20
26.9
29.3
29.3
Cyprus
29.4
El Salvador
Argentina
30.2
29.4
Spain
30.8
Malaysia
Estonia
31.0
30.8
Greece
31.4
Zambia
Lithuania
33.3
32.9
Botswana
Namibia
33.3
Kenya
Portugal
35.1
33.8
Thailand
Viet Nam
35.2
37.4
37.2
Russian Fed.
South Africa
37.6
37.4
Belarus
37.8
Romania
30
Montenegro
40.1
Uzbekistan
42.8
Bulgaria
40.3
42.9
Croatia
Ukraine
44.8
43.1
Kyrgyzstan
Philippines
47.2
45.6
Serbia
47.5
Latvia
Uruguay
40
47.9
57.3
49.8
50
58.6
60
Note: Data are in head counts. The oldest data are for the Philippines and Israel (2007), Iran, Lesotho and Zambia (2008) and Thailand (2009).
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, August 2015
96
Denmark
Mongolia
Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan
10
Women in science
some insights. The government has made it a priority to develop
a knowledge economy, having recognized the need for a strong
human resource base in science, technology and engineering.
With just 1% of the labour force being Emirati, it is also concerned
about the low percentage of Emirati citizens employed in key
industries (see Chapter 17). As a result, it has introduced policies
promoting the training and employment of Emirati citizens, as
well as a greater participation of Emirati women in the labour
force. Emirati female engineering students have said that they
are attracted to a career in engineering for reasons of financial
independence, the high social status associated with this field,
the opportunity to engage in creative and challenging projects
and the wide range of career opportunities.
8.1
India
Japan
Nepal 5.3
11.4
11.0
Luxembourg
11.6
Mali
14.2
13.8
Germany
14.5
Netherlands
Korea, Rep.
15.4
15.1
Ethiopia
Czech Rep.
16.3
Finland
18.2
Lesotho
16.3
19.2
Hungary
Austria
19.7
19.4
UK
20.0
France
Poland
20.8
20.2
Uganda
21.4
Israel
Slovakia
21.9
21.6
Iran
22.2
Norway
Italy
23.2
22.3
Switzerland
Ireland
23.3
Qatar
Sri Lanka
23.9
23.5
Turkey
25.5
Colombia
25.5
25.5
Sweden
Singapore
25.6
Chile
Iceland
25.9
25.8
Slovenia
26.7
26.1
Malta
Belgium
97
Chapter 3
98
Women in science
Women have less access to research funding
Performance evaluation includes productivity measurements,
such as the number of authored publications and patents, the
citation rate of these papers and the amount of research funding
obtained. In science, productivity is measured in terms of
research, teaching and service (such as committee membership),
with research tending to carry the most weight. Publication in
high-prestige journals or conference proceedings ranks highest
and teaching lowest. Studies in the USA indicate that female
faculty tend to focus on teaching and service more than research,
particularly in terms of the number of authored publications.
At the same time, young researchers are expected to spend
80120 hours per week in the laboratory, putting women with
children at an immediate disadvantage (CMPWASE, 2007).
99
Chapter 3
18. www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/advance/
100
Women in science
gender parity having been attained in the national labour
force. The government has also increased investment in R&D
and programmes fostering science and engineering education
for all (see Chapter 7). The availability of scholarships, coupled
with transparency in competitions at graduate levels, has
encouraged many women to enter science (Abreu, 2011).
assessment;
n Implement sexual harassment training and policies and
environment;
n Eliminate the gender pay gap, including the gender
Chapter 3
Box 3.2: The CGIAR: advancing the careers of women in global research
The Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research
(CGIAR) established its Gender and
Diversity programme in 1999 with a
mandate to promote the recruitment,
advancement and retention of women
scientists and other professionals. A
Gender Monitoring Framework was
designed for the CGIAR in 2013 to
monitor progress in addressing:
n what CGIAR has done in its own
101
sectors;
n implement policies that promote the participation of
REFERENCES
Abreu, A. (2011) National Assessments of Gender, Science,
Technology and Innovation: Brazil. Prepared for Women
in Global Science and Technology and the Organization
for Women in Science for the Developing World: Brighton
(Canada).
ASSAf (2011) Participation of Girls and Women in the National STI
System in South Africa. Academy of Sciences of South Africa.
Bonder, G. (2015) National Assessments of Gender, Science,
Technology and Innovation: Argentina. Women in Global
Science and Technology and the Organization for Women
in Science for the Developing World: Brighton (Canada).
Campion, P. and W. Shrum (2004) Gender and science in
development: women scientists in Ghana, Kenya, India.
Science, Technology and Human Values, 28(4), 459485.
Ceci, S. J. and W. M. Williams (2011) Understanding current
causes of womens underrepresentation in science.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 108(8):
31573 162.
Cho, A. H.; Johnson, S. A.; Schuman, C. E.; Adler, J. M.;
Gonzalez, O.; Graves, S. J.; Huebner, J. R.; Marchant,
D. B. Rifai, S. W.; Skinner, I. and E. M. Bruna (2014)
Women are underrepresented on the editorial boards of
journals in environmental biology and natural resource
management. PeerJ, 2:e542.
advancement policies;
102
Women in science
Academic Science and Engineering. National Academy of
Sciences, National Academy of Engineering and Institute of
Medicine. The National Academies Press: Washington, DC.
ECLAC (2014) The Software and Information Technology
Services Industry: an Opportunity for the Economic
Autonomy of Women in Latin America. United Nations
Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean: Santiago.
EIGE (2012) Women and the Environment: Gender Equality and
Climate Change. European Institute for Gender Equality.
European Union: Luxembourg.
103
Chapter 3
104
22
Perspectives
A closer look
at regions
and countries
Perspectives
105
23
106
Canada
4 . Canada
Paul Dufour
INTRODUCTION
2. The unemployment rate has remained steady since 2000, at between 6% and
8% of the active population. In April 2015, for instance, 6.8% of Canadians were
unemployed (Statistics Canada).
3. The following emerging markets are considered as being priorities for foreign
direct investment, technology and talent and/or part of regional trading platforms:
Brazil, China (including Hong Kong), Chile, Colombia, Indonesia, India, Israel,
Malaysia, Mexico, Peru, the Philippines, Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Singapore,
South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Viet Nam
1.91
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.63
1.5
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
107
Chapter 4
TRENDS IN R&D
Canadas R&D effort at its lowest level for a decade
At1.63%, CanadasGERD/GDP ratio sank to its lowest ebb in
a decade in 2013. This is because the rise in GERD since 2004
(15.2%) had failed to keep pace with GDP (+42.9%). Between
1997 and 2009, R&D had been buoyed by continuous budget
surpluses then by the federal stimulus package in 2009. GERD
had even peaked in 2001 at 2.09% of GDP (Figure 4.1).
Between 2010 and 2013, the trend went into reverse. Federal
in-house R&D became a casualty of the governments
determination to balance the budget through its Economic
Action Plan (2010). Government funding of R&D sagged by
2003
4 527
1 354
12 427
2004
4 651
1 285
13 388
2005
5 252
1 358
13 827
2006
5 223
1 467
14 834
4 435
2007
5 477
14 776
4 574
2008
5 709
2009
5 951
2010
6 467
1 702
14 347
2011
6 216
1 794
15 246
2012*
5 979
2 033
14 833
5 417
2013*
5 920
2 043
14 282
5 478
5 193
Business enterprise
Private non-profit
Foreign
2 460
957
4 970
Provincial governments
26 679
28 022
827 2 246
4 824
Higher education
784
5 054
14 618
1 662
24 693
735 2 389
4 341
15 210
1 552
638 2 158
4 147
Federal government
108
1 468
3 589
29 031
30 031
2 779
30 757
1 015 2 211
30 129
944 2 131
1 068 2 001
30 555
1 153 1 885
1 185 1 859
1 193 1 831
31 486
31 307
30 748
* preliminary data
Canada
just over CAN$ 600 million, or over 10%, and continues to
decline, with projected spending in 2013 of CAN$ 5.8 billion
(Figure 4.2). Some infrastructure projects are nevertheless
being pursued for specialized facilities. For instance, a global
High Arctic Research Station is being established in Canadas
high north, the participation of Canada in the Thirty Metre
Telescope has received a boost of CAN$ 243.5 million over
ten years and Canadas National Science and Technology
Museum will be closed until 2017 for refurbishment.
The end to stimulus spending coincided with a 10.6% increase in
GDP between 2008 and 2012; it is the combination of these two
factors which drove the GERD/GDP ratio down to 1.63% in 2013.
2014
CAN$ millions
%
change
30 748 30 572
-0.6
Business enterprises
15 535 15 401
-0.9
Higher education
12 237 12 360
1.0
Federal government
2 475
2 305
-6.9
339
338
-0.3
Private non-profit
161
169
5.0
30 748 30 572
-0.6
Business enterprises
14 282 14 119
-1.1
Federal government
5 920
5 806
-1.9
Higher education
5 478
5 533
1.0
2 043
2 066
1.1
Foreign
1 831
1 842
0.6
Private non-profit
1 193
1 207
1.2
Israel
3.49
Korea, Rep.
3.26
Japan
2.64
Finland
2.29
Sweden
2.28
2.05-1
Switzerland
1.96-1
USA
Germany
1.91
OECD total
1.64
Belgium
1.58
France
1.44
1.23-2
Australia
Netherlands
1.14
UK
Norway
Canada
Italy
1.05
0.87
Chapter 4
0.83
0.67
109
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
16 270
17 280
17 080
16 960
16 290
researchers
7 320
7 670
8 010
7 850
7 870
technicians
4 700
5 170
4 900
4 760
4 490
support staff
4 250
4 440
4 170
4 350
3 930
Provincial governments
2 970
2 880
2 800
2 780
2 780
researchers
1 550
1 500
1 600
1 600
1 620
technicians
890
880
770
750
750
support staff
530
500
430
420
420
172 740
155 180
144 270
145 600
132 160
researchers
98 390
93 360
94 530
97 030
88 960
technicians
52 080
47 190
38 570
39 290
32 950
support staff
22 280
14 630
11 180
9 280
10 240
Higher education
62 480
60 180
67 590
70 010
71 320
researchers
49 450
47 350
53 970
56 090
57 510
technicians
6 790
6 680
7 150
7 310
7 250
support staff
6 240
6 150
6 470
6 610
6 550
Private non-profit
2 190
1 240
1 300
1 240
1 390
researchers
500
340
530
520
590
technicians
900
470
540
500
510
support staff
790
430
230
220
290
Total
256 650
236 760
233 060
236 590
223 930
researchers
157 200
150 220
158 660
163 090
156 550
technicians
65 350
63 380
51 930
52 620
45 950
support staff
34 090
26 150
22 470
20 880
21 430
Business
Source: Statistics Canada, CANSIM table 358-0159; Research Money, 22 December 2014
110
Canada
host of complex, often poorly understand reasons,
although four key industries display considerable
strength (CCA, 2013b):
Chapter 4
SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY
STRENGTHS
STRENGTHS IN
INDUSTRIAL R&D
ECONOMIC
STRENGTHS
n Clinical medicine
n Aerospace
n Historical studies
n Information &
communication
technologies
n Physics & astronomy
n Psychology &
cognitive science
parts manufacturing
n ICTs
n Oil & gas extraction
n Pharmaceutical &
drug manufacturing
real estate
n Retail & wholesale
trade
arts
111
112
category of knowledge;
n the policy should enable measurements that encompass
proprietary ones.
Science diplomacy to commercial ends
By 2014, half of Canadas scientific papers were co-authored
by foreign partners, compared to an OECD average of 29.4%
(Figure 4.5). Canadas collaboration rate with its closest
partner, the USA, has been in decline: 38% of international
papers were co-authored with US scientists in 2000 but only
25% in 2013, according to ScienceMetrix.
In Canada, research partnerships and science diplomacy
are increasingly being tied to trade and commercial
opportunities. It is revealing that Canadas innovation
network is managed by the Trade Commissioner Service at
the Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development,
rather than being placed in the foreign service. This
mega-department was created within Canadas Economic
Action Plan 2013 by amalgamating the Department of
Foreign Affairs and International Trade and the Canadian
International Development Agency, which had been in
existence since 1968.
Two recent schemes illustrate the trend towards
commercializing science diplomacy: the International
Science and Technology Partnerships Canada (ISTPCanada)
programme and the CanadaEUREKA partnership.
Canada
113
Chapter 4
50.4%
1.25
YUKON
TERRITORY
NORTHWEST
TERRITORIES
NUNAVUT
BRITISH
COLUMBIA
NEWFOUNDLAND
ALBERTA
MANITOBA
QUEBEC
SASKATCHEWAN
PRINCE
EDWARD
ISLAND
ONTARIO
NEW
BRUNSWICK
NOVA SCOTIA
49 728
50 000
54 631
13.1%
51 459
48 713
46 829
43 917
39 879
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
1 538
98 633
71 279
35 071
29 776
23 543
Ps
y
Ot
3 314
es
Ph
ys
ics
es
sc
So
he
rl
ife
ica
ed
M
ie
cie
ls
he
at
M
nc
nc
es
ics
m
at
nc
es
cie
os
gi
ne
er
in
g
Ge
pu
te
Ch
rs
em
ist
cie
nc
e
ry
es
4 505
4 365
Co
m
Bi
ol
og
ica
As
ls
tro
cie
no
nc
m
y
re
ul
tu
Ag
ric
10 956
8 546
5 430
En
8 988
24 908
nc
2007
cie
2006
2005
cia
ls
30 000
ol
og
40 000
ch
42 648
Canada
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
UK (25 879)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix
114
Canada
POLICY ISSUES IN PUBLIC INTEREST
SCIENCE
a grade of C or lower.
115
Chapter 4
Related
scientific
activities
200
400
600
800
1 000
Can$ millions
2011/2012
Extramural
Intramural
2012/2013
Extramural
Intramural
Extramural
CAN$ millions
Total
2863
4738
2520
4381
2428
4483
90
77
86
92
59
93
Transport
64
56
60
58
51
49
Telecommunications
46
52
41
35
34
35
44
76
42
37
35
43
200
227
208
225
121
251
280
1432
264
1415
240
1512
717
269
545
257
561
161
Agriculture
360
179
354
154
409
1603
29
21
17
Fisheries
70
90
69
58
70
54
Forestry
206
801
182
799
153
937
156
222
125
243
141
264
78
228
74
268
61
195
247
938
240
641
211
636
21
14
16
276
57
211
76
258
71
Non-oriented research
Other civil research
Defence
Note: Federal S&T spending is the sum of spending on R&D and related scientific activities. Non-programme (indirect) costs are excluded from intramural expenditure.
Source: Statistics Canada, August 2014
116
Canada
Priority area
Subpriorities
Priority area
Subpriorities
Environmental
science and
technologies
Environment
and agriculture
n
n
n
n
Natural
resources and
energy
Natural resources
and energy
n
n
n
n
Health and
related
lifesciences and
technologies
n
n
n
n
Regenerative medicine
Neuroscience
Health in an ageing population
Biomedical engineering and medical
technologies
n
n
n
n
Information and
communication
technologies
n
n
n
n
Information and
communication
technologies
n
n
n
n
n
n
Advanced
manufacturing
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
energy
117
118
Canada
n enhancing alignment, co-ordination and collaboration to
through education.
1 500
1 191
1 200
900
995
928
600
300
227
91
0.0
68
2009
Fossil fuels
369
326
292
117
2010
All other energy-related technologies
106
58
85
2011
Renewable energy
86
80
2012
Energy efficiency
119
Chapter 4
wider application and that this could provide the basis for
a rejuvenated Canadian manufacturing sector;
n wind power in Canada had expanded to close to 4 000 MW
120
Canada
but clean energy remains the poor relation
According to Statistics Canada, energy-related R&D
rose by18.4% from2011to CAN$ 2.0billion in2012,
mostly as a result of increases in R&D expenditure on
fossil-fuel technologies. R&D spending on the latter
was concentrated in oil (tar) sands and heavy crude oil
technologies, up53.6% to CAN$ 886million, and in crude
oil and natural gas technologies, almost unchanged at
CAN$ 554million.
By contrast, R&D spending on energy-efficient
technologies fellby 5.9% to CAN$ 80million and
spending on renewable energy technologies fellby 18.9%
to CAN$ 86million between2011and2012 (Figure 4.7).
121
Figure 4.8: Doctoral graduates in Canada and other OECD countries, 2012
20
60
52.8
49.1
50
15
44.2
42.5
39.0 39.0
37.2
36.7
10
32.2
34.0
33.9
34.4 34.9
45.0 45.2
44.2
43.8
40.7
39.3
38.3
34.9
34.8
32.7 32.9
32.5
29.5
35.3
34.7
43.5
40
33.7
30.3
29.2
19.6
30
20
18.1
Chile
Mexico
Turkey
Hungary
Japan
Poland-3
Greece
Iceland
Italy
Luxembourg
USA
Estonia
Spain
Canada-1
Korea, Rep.
Israel
Belgium
Netherlands
Norway
New Zealand
Australia-1
Denmark
Slovenia
Czech Rep.
Portugal
France
Austria
Finland
UK
Germany
Ireland
Slovakia
Sweden
Switzerland-1
10
Figure 4.9: Spending on R&D in higher education in Canada and other OECD countries as a share of GDP, 2013 (%)
Non-OECD countries are given for comparison
1.0 0.97
0.90
0.83
0.8
0.72 0.71
0.66 0.65
0.63 0.63
0.6
0.59
0.53
0.51 0.51
0.49
0.47 0.46
0.43 0.43
0.4
0.35 0.35
0.25
0.2
0.15
122
Russia
China
Poland
Spain
Italy
Korea, Rep.
USA
Turkey
New Zealand
OECD total
France
Japan
Belgium
Portugal
Germany
UK
-2
Norway
Israel
Netherlands
Australia-1
Canada
Iceland-2
Finland
Austria
Sweden
Denmark
0.0
Switzerland-1
0.10
Canada
The future of education will be international
In 2011, the federal government commissioned an expert
panel to examine the question of international education. The
Advisory Panel on Canadas International Education Strategy
was led by Amit Chakma, President and Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Western Ontario. The panel was asked to make
recommendations regarding how to maximize economic
opportunities for Canada in the field of international education,
including greater engagement with emerging key markets,
a focus on attracting the brightest international students,
encouraging Canadians to study abroad, expanding the
delivery of Canadian education services abroad and building
bigger partnerships between Canadian and foreign institutions.
The report was commissioned in the context of the federal
governments Global Commerce Strategy (20072013), the
precursor to its Global Markets Action Plan. Among the expert
panels final recommendations in August 2012 were to:
n double the number of international students choosing
Chapter 4
Box 4.3: The Canadian public has a positive attitude towards science
A survey of Canadas science culture
In August 2014, the Council of
Canadian Academies released an
assessment of Canadas science
culture, based on a survey of 2 004
Canadians.
The expert panel assessed
gender imbalances in science,
the participation of aboriginal
communities and the influence of a
bilingual culture on popular science,
among other issues.
The survey revealed that Canadians
had positive attitudes towards science
and technology and few reservations
about science, compared to citizens
of other countries. Canadians also
showed above-average levels of
support for public funding of research,
compared to other countries.
123
124
Canada
consultation on its strategic plan to 2020, which will lay
greater emphasis on developing a science culture, global
outreach and discovery (basic) research.
For its part, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council is examining the vital role of social sciences
and humanities in knowledge production and their
contribution to future social issues, including challenges
such as:
n What new ways of learning will Canadians need to adopt
Canadians?
n What knowledge will Canada need to thrive in an
Number
Share of
total (%)
Share
of total
funding
(%)
Total
(CAN$
millions)
14
81.7
Natural resources
14
83.3
Manufacturing/Engineering
88.9
Cross-sectorial
76.9
Environment
11
24
235.1
25
48
42
420.8
Total
44
100
100
986.6
outcomes;
14. Since their inception in 1989, the Networks of Centres of Excellence have
administered national funding programmes on behalf of the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council, Canadian Institutes of Health Research and
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, in partnership with
Industry Canada and Health Canada. These programmes support large-scale,
multidisciplinary collaboration between universities, industry, government and
non-profit organizations. The programme has expanded
over the years to comprise: 16 NCEs; 23 Centres of Excellence for
the Commercialization of Research and 5 Business-led Networks of
Centres of Excellence.
ICTs
125
Chapter 4
126
REFERENCES
AUCC (2014) Canadas Universities in the World.
Internationalization Survey. Association of Universities
and Colleges of Canada.
Bowman, C. W. and K. J. Albion (2010) Canadas Energy
Progress, 20072009. Canadian Academy of Engineering:
Ottawa.
CCA (2014a) Environmental Impacts of Shale Gas Extraction in
Canada. Council of Canadian Academies.
CCA (2014b) Science Culture: Where Canada Stands. Expert
Panel on the State of Canadas Science Culture. Council of
Canadian Academies.
CCA (2013a) Paradox Lost: Explaining Canadas Research
Strengths and Innovation Weaknesses. Council of Canadian
Academies.
CCA (2013b) The State of Industrial R&D in Canada. Council of
Canadian Academies.
Canada
CCA (2006) Energy from Gas Hydrates: Assessing the
Opportunities and Challenges for Canada. Council of
Canadian Academies.
127
Chapter 4
Jenkins, T.; Dahlby, B.; Gupta, A.; Leroux, M.; Naylor, Robinson,
D. and R. (2011) Innovation Canada: a Call to Action. Review
of Federal Support to Research and Development. Report
of Review Panel. See: www.rd-review.ca
128
INTRODUCTION
A fragile recovery
The US economy has recovered from the 200820091 recession.
The stock market has hit new heights and GDP has been on the
upswing since 2010, despite having stuttered in a few quarters.
At 5.5%, the 2015 unemployment rate is well below its 2010
peak of 9.6%.
After a sharp deterioration in 2008, the USAs public finances
are on the mend. The combined federal and state fiscal deficit
should improve to 4.2% of GDP in 2015, thanks to increasingly
robust economic growth, even though it will remain one
of the highest among G7 countries (Figure 5.1). The federal
budget deficit (2.7% of GDP) will make up just under twothirds of the total deficit, according to projections2 by the
Congressional Budget Office. This is a big improvement on
the situation in 2009, when the federal deficit peaked at
9.8% of GDP.
1. According to the US National Bureau of Economic Research, the USA was in recession
from December 2007 to end June 2009.
2. See: https://www.cbo.gov/publication/49973
Figure 5.1: GDP per capita, GDP growth and public sector deficit in the USA, 20062015
GDP based on current PPP $ per capita
3
2.7
2.5
1.8
2.2
2.4
1.6
-0.3
2.3
60 000
3.1
50 000
-2.4
-3.2
-3
-2.8
-4.2
-5.8
-6
40 000
-5.3
30 000
-7.0
-9
20 000
-8.6
-11.3
-9.9
-12
10 000
-13.5
-15
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Note: Data for 2015 are estimates. General government fiscal balance is also known as net lending/borrowing. The fiscal balance covers both the federal and state governments.
Source: IMF Data Mapper online, August 2015
129
Japan 3.47
3.12
3.0
Germany 2.85*
USA 2.73*
2.5
2.55
2.42
France 2.23*
2.17
China 2.08
2.0
1.5
1.0
1.07
* Provisional
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, August 2015. USA data for 2013 from OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators, August 2015
300
Business enterprise & Abroad
Government
250
233.2
200
239.8
220.3
238.3
249.6
227.5
226.8
121.9
121.3
119.1
122.2
207.7
150
114.7
101.0
102.4
104.8
19.4
20.1
21.4
23.0
24.1
24.1
24.7
24.9
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
100
50
0
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, August 2015
130
GOVERNMENT PRIORITIES
Climate change: the science policy priority
Climate change has been the Obama administrations top
priority for science policy. One key strategy has been to invest
in alternative energy technologies as a way of reducing the
carbon emissions that lead to climate change. This includes
increasing the availability of funding for basic research in the
field of energy at universities, loans for businesses and other
incentives for R&D. In the aftermath of the financial crisis, the
White House effectively leveraged the ensuing economic
crisis as an opportunity to invest in science, research and
development. Since then, however, political difficulties have
forced him to scale down his ambitions.
In the face of Congressional opposition, the president
has taken steps to address climate change to the extent
that his executive powers allow. For instance, he vetoed a
congressional bill in March 2015 that would have authorized
construction of the Keystone XL pipeline to carry oil from tar
sands in Canada across the USA to the Gulf of Mexico. He has
also overseen the creation of ambitious new fuel standards
for cars and trucks, for instance. In 2014, his top scientist, John
Holdren, Director of the Office of Science and Technology
131
Chapter 5
one-quarter by 2020;
n Google, the world leader for the purchase of renewable
132
133
Chapter 5
Were the bill to pass into law, it would alter the way in which
clinical trials are conducted by allowing new and adaptive
trial designs that factor in personalized parameters, such
as biomarkers and genetics. This provision has proven
controversial, with doctors cautioning that overreliance on
biomarkers as a measure of efficacy can be misleading, as they
may not always reflect improved patient outcomes. The bill also
includes specific provisions to incentivize the development,
and facilitate the approval, of drugs for rare diseases and new
antibiotics, including the prospect of limited release to special
populations the first time that an identified subpopulation for
a particular disease will be treated differently from a regulatory
perspective. (For another approach to speeding up the process
of drug approval through pre-competitive collaboration, see
the Advancing Medicines Partnership, Box 5.1.)
Source: www.nih.gov/science/amp/index.htm
Industrial partners
AbbVie (USA)
Alzheimers Association
Biogen (USA)
GlaxoSmithKline (UK)
Lilly (USA)
PhRMA
Merck (USA)
Pfizer (USA)
USAgainstAlzheimers
Sanofi (France)
Takeda (Japan)
Research focus
Alzheimers Disease
129.5
67.6
61.9
Type 2 Diabetes
58.4
30.4
28.0
41.6
20.9
20.7
229.5
118.9
110.6
Total
134
CONGRESSIONAL PRIORITIES
A drive to cut research funding
The Republican leadership of the House Committee on Science,
Space and Technology has been vocally sceptical of the Obama
administrations climate change agenda. It has also striven to
reduce funding for geosciences and alternative energy research,
while intensifying political oversight. Individual members of
Congress have criticized specific grants for being wasteful and
unscientific, a strategy that resonates with the public.
Congress is able to set science-related policy directly through
the passage of legislation that affects both matters of funding
and law. The topics can vary widely: Congress takes up bills
ranging from flood preparedness to nanotechnology, from
offshore drilling to treatments for addiction. Below are three
examples of enacted legislation that is having a large impact
on US science policy: the America COMPETES Act, budgetary
sequestration and the Food Safety Modernization Act.
the USA;
n support the national defence of the USA; or
n promote the progress of science in the USA.
135
Chapter 5
136
137
Chapter 5
80
60
52.1
Dept of Defense
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Dept of Energy
Dept of Health and Human Services
National Science Foundation
Department of Agriculture
Dept of the Interior
Dept of Transportation
Environmental Protection Agency
Dept of Commerce
Dept of Homeland Security
Dept of Veteran Affairs
Other
66.1
40
30.8
20
16.6
11.5
13.8
11.4
9.9
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014**
6
5.6
4
3.3
3
2.4
2.2
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.0
1.2
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.5
0.3
* excluding Recovery Act funding (20.5 billion US$ in 2009) ** 2014 data are provisional
Source: American Association for the Advancement of Science
138
139
Chapter 5
Figure 5.5: Proportional allocation of federal R&D spending in the USA by discipline, 19942011 (%)
NIH Life science
Psychology
Engineering
Social sciences
Other
Physical science
Environmental science
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
140
Only three states fall into the top category for both R&D
spending as a share of GDP and the share of jobs in science
and engineering: Maryland, Massachusetts and Washington.
One can speculate that Marylands position reflects the
concentration of federally funded research institutions there.
Washington State has a high concentration of high-tech firms
like Microsoft, Amazon and Boeing. Taken together, the six
states that are well above the mean in terms of GERD/GDP ratio
account for 42% of all R&D in the USA: New Mexico, Maryland,
Massachusetts, Washington, California and Michigan. The State
of New Mexico is home to the Los Alamos National Laboratory
but may otherwise have a relatively low GERD. As for Michigan,
the engineering functions of most automobile manufacturers
are located in this state. At the other end of the scale, Arkansas,
Louisiana and Nevada are the only states that fall into the lowest
category for both maps (Figure 5.6).
US supremacy in R&D gradually eroding
The USA invests more funds in R&D in absolute terms than the
other G7 nations combined: 17.2% more in 2012. Since 2000,
As the home country of many of the worlds leading hightech multinationals, the US remains in the league of large
economies with a relatively high GERD/GDP ratio. That ratio
rose moderately since 2010 (which marked a moderate rebound
from the 2008-9 contraction), albeit with a GDP growing slower
than the average of last several decades.
China has overtaken the USA as the worlds largest economy,
or is about to do so, depending on the indicator.6 China is also
rapidly approaching the USA in terms of R&D intensity (Figure
5.5). In 2013, Chinas GERD/GPD ratio amounted to 2.08%,
surpassing the EU average of 1.93%. Although it still trails the
USA for this indicator (2.73% according to provisional data),
Chinas R&D budget is growing fast and will surpass that of
the USA by about 2022, according to a prediction by Battelle
and R&D Magazine in December 2013. Several convergent
factors cast doubt over the accuracy of Battelles prediction: the
deceleration in Chinas rate of economic growth to 7.4% in 2014
(see Chapter 23), the considerable drop in industrial production
since 2012 and the major stock market slide in mid-2015.
The USAs R&D effort peaked in 2009 at 2.82% of GDP. Despite
the recession, it was still 2.79% in 2012 and will slide only
marginally to 2.73% in 2013, according to provisional data, and
should remain at a similar level in 2014.
While investment in R&D is high, it has so far failed to reach the
presidents target of 3% of GDP by the end of his presidency
in 2016. American supremacy is eroding in this respect, even
as other nations China, in particular are carrying their own
investment in R&D to new heights (Chapter 23).
141
Chapter 5
Figure
5.6: SCIENCE
Science and
engineering
UNESCO
REPORT
2015 in the USA by state, 2010
Three states fall into the top category in both maps: Maryland, Massachusetts and Washington
Science and engineering occupations as a share of all occupations, 2010 (%)
The mean is 4.17%.
WASHINGTON
NORTH
DAKOTA
MONTANA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
OREGON
WISCONSIN
SOUTH
DAKOTA
IDAHO
VERMONT
MINNESOTA
MAINE
MASSACHUSETTS
NEW YORK
MICHIGAN
WYOMING
RHODE ISLAND
CONNECTICUT
IOWA
UTAH
PENNSYLVANIA
INDIANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
ILLINOIS
COLORADO
KANSAS
CALIFORNIA
DELAWARE
WEST
VIRGINIA
NEW
MEXICO
MISSOURI
OKLAHOMA
MARYLAND
VIRGINIA
KENTUCKY
NORTH
CAROLINA
TENNESSEE
ARIZONA
NEW JERSEY
OHIO
MISSISSIPPI
TEXAS
SOUTH
CAROLINA
ARKANSAS
ALABAMA
4.17% 5.59%
2.75% 4.17%
GEORGIA
Below 2.75%
LOUISIANA
ALASKA
OR
FL
A
ID
32%
13.7%
HAWAII
NORTH
DAKOTA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
OREGON
WISCONSIN
SOUTH
DAKOTA
IDAHO
VERMONT
MINNESOTA
MAINE
MASSACHUSETTS
NEW YORK
MICHIGAN
WYOMING
RHODE ISLAND
CONNECTICUT
UTAH
IOWA
PENNSYLVANIA
INDIANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
ILLINOIS
COLORADO
KANSAS
CALIFORNIA
OHIO
WEST
VIRGINIA
NEW
MEXICO
OKLAHOMA
KENTUCKY
NORTH
CAROLINA
SOUTH
CAROLINA
ARKANSAS
MISSISSIPPI
TEXAS
MARYLAND
VIRGINIA
MISSOURI
TENNESSEE
ARIZONA
NEW JERSEY
DELAWARE
ALABAMA
GEORGIA
LOUISIANA
ALASKA
2.31% 3.88%
0.75% 2.31%
Below 0.75%
A
ID
OR
FL
42%
Contribution of
six states to national
R&D expenditure:
New Mexico, Maryland,
Massachusetts,
Washington, California
and Michigan
HAWAII
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Employment Statistics Survey (various years); National Science Foundation (2014) Science and Engineering Indicators
142
7. Those born between 1946 and 1964 in the aftermath of the Second World War,
when there was a surge in the birth rate.
15
12.9
11.0
10
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
1980
1979
1978
1977
9.5
143
Chapter 5
144
A post-industrial country
The USA has run a negative trade balance since at least 1992.
The balance for trade in goods is consistently negative. The
deficit reached a high of US$708.7 billion in 2008 before falling
precipitously to US$383.8 billion the following year. In 2014, the
balance stood at US$504.7 and will remain negative into 2015.
High-tech imports have been lower in value than exports and
led mostly (in terms of value) by computers and office machines,
electronics and telecommunications (Figure 5.10).
The USA lost its world leadership for the volume of high-tech
exports to China some time ago. However, up until 2008, it
was still the largest exporter of high-tech goods excluding
computing and communications equipment. Much of the latter
has become commoditized and is now assembled in China
and other emerging economies, with high-tech, value-added
components being produced elsewhere. The USA imported
US$105.8 billion worth of computers and office machines in
2013 but exported just US$ 17.1 billion worth of the same.
145
Chapter 5
The America Invents Act of 2011 moved the USA from a first
to invent system to a first to file model, the most significant
patent reform since 1952. The act will limit or eliminate
lengthy legal and bureaucratic challenges that used to
accompany contested filings. However, the pressure to file
early may limit the inventors ability to exploit the period of
exclusivity fully. It may also disadvantage very small entities,
for which the legal costs of preparing an application are the
main barrier to filing. This legislation has also fostered the rise
of what are familiarly known as patent trolls (Box 5.3).
Since the crisis of 20082009, the USA has also fallen behind
Germany for high-tech exports (Figure 5.10). The last year in
which the USA showed a positive trade balance for aerospace
technology was 2008, the year it exported nearly US$70 billion
worth of aerospace products. In 2009, the value of aerospace
imports overtook that of exports, a trend that lasted through
2013. The USAs trade in armaments managed to conserve a
slight positive balance between 2008 and 2013. The USAs trade
in chemistry products has been near-equal, with greater value
in imports in 2008 and 20112013. Trade in electrical machinery
has been fairly constant, with imports representing nearly double
the value of exports. The USA also lags far behind its competitors
in electronics and telecommunications, with imports worth
US$161.8 billion in 2013 and exports worth just US$50.5 billion.
Until 2010, the USA was a net exporter of pharmaceuticals but
has become a net importer since 2011. The other area where
the USAs exports are slightly higher in value than its imports is
scientific instruments but here the difference is slight.
Google was included in this list for the first time in 2013 and
Amazon in 2014, which is why the online store does not
appear in Table 9.3, despite having spent US$ 6.6 billion on
R&D in 2014. Intels investment in R&D has more than doubled
in the past 10 years, whereas Pfizers investment is down from
US$9.1 billion in 2012.
The technological ambitions of the new giants of information
and communications technology (ICTs) can broadly be
described as smoothing the interface between information
technology and the physical world. Amazon has optimized the
consumer experience by developing services like Prime and
Pantry to meet consumer needs in almost real time. Amazon
recently introduced a limited pilot of the Dash Button, an
extension of Amazon Pantry that allows a user to re-order a
household consumable by pressing a physical button. Google
has made several acquisitions of products at the interface of
computation and the physical world, including autonomous
thermostats, and has developed the first operating system
specifically for such low-power devices. Perhaps the most
ambitious project is Googles self-driving car, which is scheduled
for commercial release in the next five years. Conversely,
146
1 164 800
Resident
2.0
267 280
788 602
1.5
Millions
1 570 897
1 222 702
107 872
1.0
447 415
1 015 183
895 366
0.5
586 493
126 039
56 357
0.0
2005
2005
2013
China
2013
2005
Japan
2013
USA
Chapter 5
Source: WIPO statistics online, accessed on 27 August 2015; patents held by the primary patent office for each economy: Chinas State Intellectual Property Office,
Japan Patent Office, European Patent Office, US Patent and Trademarks Office for the USA
Figure 5.9: Triadic patents of the USA in the USPTO database, 20022012
Number of triadic patents (nowcasting) for the worlds largest economies for this indicator
20 000
17 355
16 828
16 511
Japan 15 391
15 000
EU 13 978
USA 13 765
10 000
6 890
Germany 5 468
5 000
2 752
1 570
272
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Note: Triadic patents are filed by the same inventor for the same invention in the USA, Europe and Japan.
Source: OECD Patent Statistics (database), August 2015
147
China
30.8
30
25
TRENDS IN EDUCATION
20.5
20
15
12.3
10
8.8
Germany
9.6
6.7
USA 7.8
5.0
France 5.5
Japan 5.2
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
20.0
Germany 16.1
15
13.3
China 11.2
USA 11.1
France 10.9
10
9.6
7.5
UK 6.2
6.0
Japan 5.9
5.2
2.9
Italy 2.7
India 1.5
0.8
0.5
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
148
149
Chapter 5
Figure 5.11:
Scientific
publication trends in the USA, 20052014
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
The USA has maintained its share of publications among high-income economies
40
350 000
Volume of US publications (left axis)
USAs % share among high-income economies (right axis)
USAs % share of world total (right axis)
36.4
321 846
325 000
35
35.4
300 000
30.6
30
275 000
267 521
25.3
250 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
1.32
2009
2010
2011
2012
14.7%
2013
25
2014
34.8%
630 977
47%
488 258
Share of scientific
publications on
astronomy worldwide
originating in the USA
cia
ls
ch
cie
ol
nc
og
es
18 260
Ot
he
So
rl
23 398
Ps
y
Ph
ys
ics
es
ife
sc
cie
ls
M
ed
ica
at
h
M
ie
nc
nc
es
s
em
at
ic
nc
es
cie
os
Ge
er
in
g
En
gi
ne
nc
e
pu
Ch
te
rs
em
cie
ist
ry
es
28 411
8 451
Co
m
Bi
ol
og
ica
As
ls
tro
cie
no
nc
m
y
re
tu
ul
Ag
ric
130 233
39 547
35 235
35 671
175 444
158 991
150 800
The USAs main partner is China, followed closely by the UK, Germany and Canada
Main foreign partners, 20082014 (number of papers)
USA
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
UK (100 537)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
150
151
Chapter 5
152
153
Chapter 5
11. The 17 partners are (in Africa): Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote dIvoire, Ethiopia,
Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and Uganda; (in Asia):
Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Pakistan and Viet Nam.
154
CONCLUSION
The future looks brighter for business than for
basic research
In the USA, the federal government specializes in supporting
basic research, leaving industry to take the lead in applied
research and technological development. In the past five
years, federal spending on R&D has dipped as a consequence
of austerity and changing priorities. Industry spending, on the
other hand, has picked up. The result is that R&D spending
has flagged only somewhat over the past five years before
returning to modest growth.
Business has generally maintained or augmented its R&D
commitment over the past five years, particularly in newer
high-opportunity sectors. R&D tends to be considered a longterm investment in the USA that is essential to fuel innovation
and build resilience in times of uncertainty.
Although most R&D spending enjoys broad bipartisan
support, public-interest science stands to suffer the most from
the current austerity and political targeting.
The federal government has been able to wield some
influence through partnerships with industry and nonprofit organizations in the field of innovation, in particular.
Examples are the Advanced Manufacturing Partnership, the
BRAIN Initiative and the more recent Climate Pledge. The
federal government has also fostered greater transparency
and made government data available to potential innovators.
Regulatory reforms offer a promising new era in precision
medicine and drug development.
The USA has also maintained its commitment to science
and engineering education and job training. The stimulus
package adopted in 2009 to conjugate the financial crisis
provided a one-time opportunity for the federal government
to foster high-tech job growth at a time of burgeoning
demand for skilled workers. Only time will tell if this massive
injection of funds in education and training will pay off.
Within universities meanwhile, the pipeline of trainees has
been squeezed by the austerity drive, resulting in a build-up
of postdoctoral fellows and greater competition for funding.
Thanks to a heavy investment in technology transfer, leading
universities and research institutes are making their ivory
tower more porous to their surrounding communities in the
hope of seeding robust local knowledge economies.
What does the future look like for US science? Indications are
that opportunities in federally funded basic research are likely to
stagnate. Conversely, the future looks bright for innovation and
development in the business enterprise sector.
REFERENCES
Alberts, B.; Kirschner, M. W.; Tilghman, S. and H. Varmus
(2015) Opinion: Addressing systemic problems in the
biomedical research enterprise. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, 112(7).
155
Chapter 5
156
Caricom
6 . Caricom
Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis,
St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago
INTRODUCTION
1. The ratio of public debt to GDP rose by about 15 percentage points in the
Caribbean between 2008 and 2010 (IMF, 2013).
2. The region lost about 3.5% of GDP after the failure of the CL Financial Group in
January 2009; this group of insurance companies had invested in real estate and
other vulnerable assets in a weak regulatory environment. The group was active in
all the CARICOM countries but Haiti and Jamaica. It was based in Trinidad & Tobago,
where GDP shrank by as much as 12% (IMF, 2013).
Table 6.1: Socio-economic indicators for CARICOM countries, 2014 or closest year
Population,
2014
(000s)
Antigua &
Barbuda
91
Population
GDP per
growth, 2014 capita, 2013
(annual %) (current PPP$)
1.0
20 977
Unemployment rate,
2013 (%)
Inflation,
consumer prices,
2013 (%)
Debt to
GDP ratio,
2012 (%)
Remittances,
2013
(US$ millions)
Key
sectors
Internet
access,
2013 (%)
Mobile phone
subscriptions,
2013 (%)
1.1
97.8
21
Tourism
63.4
127.1
383
1.4
23 102
13.6
0.4
52.6
Tourism
72.0
76.1
286
0.5
15 566
12.2
1.80
70.4
82
Tourism
75.0
108.1
Belize
340
2.3
8 442
14.6
0.7
81.0
74
Goods export
(agriproducts
and oil)
31.7
52.9
Dominica
72
0.5
10 030
0.0
72.3
24
Tourism
59.0
130.0
Grenada
106
0.4
11 498
0.0
105.4
30
Tourism
35.0
125.6
Guyana
804
0.5
6 551
11.1
1.8
60.4
328
Goods export
and tourism
33.0
69.4
Haiti
10 461
1.4
1 703
7.0
5.9
1 780
Agriculture
10.6
69.4
Jamaica
2 799
0.5
8 890
15.0
9.3
143.3
2 161
Goods export
and tourism
37.8
100.4
Montserrat
Tourism
55
1.1
20 929
0.7
144.9
51
Tourism
80.0
142.1
St Lucia
184
0.7
10 560
1.5
78.7
30
Tourism
35.2
116.3
St Vincent &
Grenadines
109
0.0
10 663
0.8
68.3
32
Tourism
52.0
114.6
37.4
127.3
63.8
144.9
Suriname
544
0.9
16 266
7.8
1.9
18.6
Goods export
(energy,
bauxite/
alumina) and
tourism
Trinidad &
Tobago
1 344
0.2
30 349
5.8
5.2
35.7
126-2
Goods export
(energy)
Source: For population data: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2013) World Population Prospects: 2012 Revision; for GDP and related data: World Banks World
Development Indicators, February 2015; for government debt: World Banks World Development Indicators and IMF (2013); for internet and mobile phone subscriptions:
International Telecommunications Union. IMF (2013); for remittances: World Banks World Development Indicators, February 2015; for type of economy: ECLAC.
157
Chapter 6
Bahamas
Barbados
9
6
3
0
Belize 5.29
Guyana 4.82
8.01
Bahamas 1.83
6.26
5.12
4.30
3.65
2.90
2.70
1.91
1.05
0.67
0.11
-0.26
Haiti 4.30
Suriname 2.29
St Vincent &
the Grenadines 2.80
St Kitts & Nevis 2.00
Grenada 1.80
Trinidad & Tobago 1.60
Jamaica 1.30
Antigua & Barbuda 0.60
Barbados 0.00
St Lucia -0.50
Dominica -0.80
-2.13
-3
-6
-9
-12
2002
2003
2004
2005
Bahamas
St Lucia
2006
Barbados
2007
2008
Belize
2009
Dominica
Suriname
2010
Grenada
2011
Guyana
2012
Haiti
2013
Jamaica
158
3. See: www.caribbeanclimate.bz/ongoing-projects/2009-2021-regional-planningfor-climate-compatible-development-in-the-region.html
Caricom
n Encourage action to reduce the vulnerability of natural and
2.1
79.4
2.6 15.9
Jamaica
Bahamas
2.1
80.0
4.5 13.4
Bahamas
Barbados 1.5
82.9
6.9 8.8
St Lucia
17.2
Belize
17.2
14.9
69.8
3.0 12.3
Grenada*
5.6
76.9
4.9 12.6
Guyana
21.5
44.6
Jamaica
6.7
72.5
9.2 11.6
1.5
74.7
10.3 13.4
St Lucia
3.6
81.5
3.5 13.4
7.5
72.0
6.7 13.8
Suriname
9.3
51.9
0.6
Agriculture
Services
42.0
6.4
Manufacturing
3.6
30.3
23.2
20.2
Dominica
15.1
15.1
Chapter 6
Dominica
23.6
12.7
10.2
Barbados
10.2
8.9
Grenada
8.9
15.6
51.0
4.7
Montserrat
Other industry
10
15
20
25
159
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Indonesia
Canada
Mexico
Costa Rica
Thailand
Suriname
USA
Israel
Singapore
Japan
Dominican Rep.
Belize
EU Average
Chile
Barbados
Bahamas
Grenada
Dominica
Jamaica
Antigua
Montserrat
St Lucia
St Vincent
0.0
160
6. The countries participating in negotiations thus far have been Australia, Brunei
Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore,
USA and Viet Nam.
Caricom
The Strategic Plan for the Caribbean Community: 20152019
is CARICOMs answer to the phenomena described above
(CARICOM, 2014). The first of its kind in the region, the plan sets
out to reposition the Caribbean in an increasingly volatile global
economy. The overarching objective is twofold: to stimulate the
productive capability of domestic firms and correct the current
mismatch between training and the specialized knowledge
and skills required by the market, in order to drive growth and
combat rising levels of unemployment among the young, in
particular. The plan outlines strategies for nurturing innovation
and creativity, entrepreneurship, digital literacy and inclusiveness
and for making optimum use of available resources.
A central aim is to reinforce the Caribbeans socio-economic,
technological and environmental resilience. With the
exception of Guyana, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago,
which have significant hydrocarbon or mineral reserves,
most states are small with too limited natural resources to
support rapid economic development. They will thus need
to look elsewhere for wealth creation. The two key enablers
identified by the plan for improving the Caribbeans resilience
are a common foreign policy, in order to mobilize resources
effectively, and R&D and innovation. The plan proposes using
advocacy to mobilize funding for business R&D from state and
private sources, creating an enabling legislative environment
for R&D and innovation, identifying opportunities for cooperation and devising national school-based programmes
that drive, enable and reward R&D and innovation.
The strategy focuses on the following areas to drive
economic growth:
special focus on tourism initially;
n Natural resource and value-added products, promoting the
integration of production;
n Agriculture and fisheries and export development, to
161
Chapter 6
Ministry of Education,
Science & Technology
Suriname
Ministry of Labour
& Technology
Development
Dominica
Ministry of
National Science &
information, Science, Technology Council
Telecommunications
& Technology
Bahamas
National
Development Plan
Vision 2040
(under development)
Grenada
Ministry of
National Science &
Communications,
Technology Council
Works, Physical
Development, Public
Utilities & ICT
National Strategic
Development Plan
(2007)
St Vincent &
Grenadines
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Foreign
Trade & Information
Technology
Barbados
St Lucia
Ministry of
Sustainable
Development,
Energy, Science and
Technology
Belize
Ministry of Energy,
Science and
Technology and
Public Utilities
Prime Ministers
Council of Science
Policy
Guyana
National Centre
of Technological
Innovation Inc.
Strategic Plan,
20062025
National
transformation
through innovation,
creativity and
enterprise
A fully developed
society that is socially
just and globally
competitive
National Innovation
Competition (2003),
National Council for
Science & Technology
Prime Ministers
Under preparation
Award for Innovation,
Chamber of
Commerce, Industry
& Agriculture
Resilience,
sustainable
development and
high quality of life
for all
Yes, 2012
Yes, 2014
Support development
programming in
diverse sectors
National Institute of
Higher Education,
Research, Science &
Technology
Developed country
status by 2020
Prime Minister's
Yes, 2000
Awards For Scientific
Ingenuity (2000)
Enhancing industrial
competitiveness &
human development
Jamaica
Developed country
status by 2030
National Innovation
Awards (2005),
Scientific Research
Council
Ministry of Science,
Technology, Energy
and Mining
Body responsible
for STI policy
162
Additional
relevant bodies
Strategic
planning
document (year
of adoption)
Main objective
of planning
document
National award
(year) and body
responsible
Yes, 1960
STI policy
(year of
adoption)
R&D priorities of
STI action/
STI policy
implementation
plan
Caricom
UNESCO Kingston Office (Kahwa et al., 2014), STI policy in
the region is desperately in need of:
n Systematic STI data collection and scientometric analysis
to inform policy-making;
n Evidence-driven decision-making, STI policy development
and implementation;
n Mapping existing STI policies, related legal frameworks
8. See: www.cepal.org/publicaciones/xml/3/13853/G0753.pdf
9. see: www.uis.unesco.org/ScienceTechnology/Pages/guide-to-conducting-rdsurveys.aspx
11.1
11.8
69.1
19.8
68.3
19.9
2002
11.0
70.1
19.0
2003
10.4
70.0
2004
24.3
29.5
2005
2006 1.5
19.6
53.2
22.5
45.1
57.6
25.4
41.0
2007 2.2
55.6
42.1
2008 2.6
67.2
30.1
61.3
36.5
2009 2.2
2010
57.4
42.6
2011
60.2
39.8
Government
Higher Education
163
Chapter 6
11. ISTIC was founded in 2008 and operates under the auspices of UNESCO.
10. In Barbados, the National Innovation Competition (est. 2003) is run by the
National Council for Science and Technology. In Jamaica, the Scientific Research
Council manages the National Innovation Awards for Science and Technology,
established in 2005.
12. It was originally intended for the Caribbean Science Foundation to focus largely
on fostering universityindustry linkages. However, most industries in CARICOM
countries do not have an R&D unit or even invest in R&D. Economies remain primarily
mercantile.To change this culture will take time, which is why the foundation is
meanwhile focusing on youth.
164
Caricom
The second programme is the Sagicor Visionaries Challenge,
sponsored jointly by the Caribbean Science Foundation,
Sagicor Life Inc., a Caribbean company offering financial
services, and the Caribbean Examinations Council. The
Sagicor Visionaries Challenge runs stimulating workshops in
secondary schools for pupils and their teachers to brainstorm
ideas for innovation and ways of improving the teaching of
science subjects and mathematics. The aim is to encourage
pupils to develop effective, innovative and sustainable
solutions to the challenges facing them. The scheme includes
mentorship and the organization of competitions.
Better co-ordination should avoid duplication
While four regional organizations seem an adequate number
to serve a population of about seven million, there has not
generally been any co-ordination of activities up to now,
even though this would avoid duplication and enhance
co-operation. This led Dr Keith Mitchell to launch the
CARICOM Science, Technology and Innovation Committee
in January 2014. The committee has a mandate to work with
existing regional bodies rather than competing with them;
its objectives are to:
6.12
Jamaica 1.07
Barbados
1.70
5.61
5.13
4.41
Barbados
30.22
Jamaica
17.56
St Lucia (2011)
7.01
5.01
Chapter 6
CARICOM.
165
166
Caricom
Figure 6.7: Gender breakdown of staff at University of the West Indies, 2009/2010 academic year
By level of appointment
800
125
127
44
40
600
116
189
120
212
99
35
85
Number of staff
180
400
49
200
75
17
34
173
185
23
45
Male
Female
500
466
377
369
95
69
93
Female
Male
Female
67
Male
2003/2004
Assistant lecturer
465
447
2007/2008
Lecturer
Senior lecturer
34
58
Male
Female
2009/2010
2011/2012
Professor
Source: UWI Official Statistics and communication from the Office of Planning
Box 6.1: The Tropical Medicine Research Institute: an oasis in a public policy desert
Source: authors
*Up until 1999, the Sickle Cell Research Unit had
been funded by the British Medical Research Council
(BMRC). The Tropical Metabolism Research Unit had
been part of UWI since 1970, when it was transferred
from the BMRC.
167
Chapter 6
168
10
11
11
12
University Hospital
of the West Indies
Scientific Research
Council (Jamaica)
Caribbean Institute of
Meteorology and Hydrology
48
University of Suriname
St Georges University
University of Guyana
48
41
University of Technology
of Jamaica
University of
Trinidad & Tobago
41
36
32
Kingston Public
Hospital (Jamaica)
30
23
Caribbean Epidemiology
Centre
Princess Margaret
Hospital (Bahamas)
15
10
University of Belize
Northern Caribbean
University
73
462
4 144
Caricom
Box 6.2: Bio-Tech R&D Institute Ltd: adding value to local medicinal plants
The Bio-Tech R&D Institute Ltd is a
private R&D company founded by
Dr Henry Lowe in 2010 with the
ambition of becoming a premier
biotechnology company in Jamaica
and the wider Caribbean. The main
research focus is on isolating pure
compounds for the development of
candidates for the treatment of cancer,
HIV/AIDS, diabetes and other chronic
diseases.
Source: authors
*see: http://patents.justia.com/inventor/henry-lowe;
www.ehfjamaica.com/pages/bio-tech-rd-institutelimited
169
Chapter 6
Bahamas
Haiti
Antigua & Barbuda
St Kitts & Nevis
Belize
Montserrat
Dominica
St Vincent &
the Grenadines
St Lucia
Barbados
Grenada
Trinidad
& Tobago
Guyana
Suriname
200
Grenada 152
150
Trinidad &
Tobago 146
136
136
Jamaica 117
100
Haiti 60
Barbados 52
50
St Kitts &
Nevis 40
44
Bahamas 33
2005
170
Guyana 23
18
17
14
13
12
8
2
1
Belize 16
Suriname 11
St Lucia 0
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Caricom
1 430
730
Barbados
182
Dominica
138
109
Bahamas
86
Belize
47
Jamaica
42
Guyana
29
Suriname
20
18
Bahamas
37
Barbados 3
19
Belize
51
2 2
24
7 10
48
Jamaica 33
70
7 22
25
Agriculture
Mathematics
22
24 33
11 2
18 3
528
47
4
Astronomy
3
57
11
14
86
108
Biological sciences
Medical sciences
7332
11 2 2
188
Chapter 6
13
57
107
6
1
44
3
40
23
St Lucia
St Vin. & Gren.
11
15
75
351
11
2 5
179
17
40
25
11
66
311 23
22
Haiti 3
13
121
2
208
Guyana 2
1 2
13
Grenada 9
42
30
Dominica
Suriname
13
27
6
Chemistry
1 2 1
15 15
1 13
329
Computer science
Physics
Psychology
Engineering
Geosciences
Social sciences
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Bahamas
USA (97)
Canada (37)
UK (34)
Germany (8)
Australia (6)
Barbados
USA (139)
UK (118)
Canada (86)
Germany (48)
Grenada
USA (532)
Iran (91)
UK (77)
Poland (63)
Turkey (46)
Guyana
USA (45)
Canada (20)
UK (13)
France (12)
Netherlands (8)
Haiti
USA (208)
France (38)
UK (18)
Canada (13)
Jamaica
USA (282)
UK (116)
Canada (77)
USA (251)
UK (183)
Canada (95)
India (63)
Jamaica (43)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix
171
Bahamas
34
29
Cuba
Jamaica
22
17
16
Dominician Rep.
Antigua & Barbuda
6
5
Grenada 1
Note: Many patents are assigned to Barbados by companies but the
inventors of these patents tend to have an address in the USA, so the
patent is not attributed to Barbados.
Source: USPTO
172
97.5
Barbados
Trindad & Tobago
42.5
Jamaica
Suriname
22.2
18.8
St Lucia 4
Dominica
2.2
Grenada
1.4
0.5
Guyana
0.4
Belize
0.3
CONCLUSION
Time for a detailed mapping exercise
The small CARICOM countries are vulnerable to a variety of
environmental and economic shocks. Up until now, they
have not managed to put in place and implement effective
policy frameworks to propel STI. Consequently, important
challenges in the region related to energy, water and food
security, sustainable tourism, climate change and poverty
reduction are not getting the level of input from the
scientific enterprise required to make a difference.
What is encouraging is that CARICOM has promulgated a
long-term development strategy for the region, the Strategic
Plan for the Caribbean Community: 20152019. Moreover,
engaging with STI is a pivot for this plans success, as indeed
it does in several national planning documents, such as
Vision 2020 in Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica Vision 2030 and
the Barbados Strategic Plan 20052025. What is now required
are policies that break with the implementation deficits
of the past and effectively employ STI to accelerate the
development process.
It is heartening to note that, in spite of a lack of effective STI
policy frameworks and wavering public support for tertiary
education, there are some bright spots on the horizon:
Caricom
n Grenada has emerged over the past decade as a strong
Institute Limited, has muscled its way in just five years onto
the global scene with papers, patents and commercial
products, the sales from which are now generating a profit.
As pointed out by Kahwa (2003) a decade ago and echoed
by the recent success stories above, in the absence of robust
public policy to support and entrench STI in the national
development process, it is researchers themselves who are
devising innovative means of driving STI. It is high time
that the region embarked on a detailed STI policy mapping
exercise, in order to get a clear picture of the current situation.
173
Chapter 6
REFERENCES
174
Latin America
7 . Latin America
Argentina, Plurinational State of Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Guillermo A. Lemarchand
INTRODUCTION
1. Argentina and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela have had high inflation rates
for the past few years. However, the official exchange rate has remained flat, a
factor which might generate some distortions in the real GDP per capita values
expressed in US dollars. For a discussion of this issue, see ECLAC (2015a).
8.2
8.3
Figure 7.1: Trends in GDP growth in Latin America, 20052009 and 20102014
20052009
3.3
1.5
1.9
1.8
ile
Pa
ra
gu
ay
Ni
ca
ra
gu
a
El
Sa
lv
ad
or
M
ex
ico
Ch
Br
az
il
1.1
m u
Re inic
pu an
Ve bli
ne c
zu
el
a
Ur
ug
ua
y
Ar
ge
nt
in
a
Co
st
aR
ica
Co
lo
m
bi
a
Bo
liv
ia
Ho
nd
ur
as
Ec
ua
do
r
Gu
at
em
al
a
Do
2.7
2.9
3.4
3.2
3.6
3.7
3.6
2.1
2.7
Pe
r
Cu
ba
am
Pa
n
4.7
4.6
5.0
3.7
4.1
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.3
4.3
4.8
5.0
5.3
5.7
5.9
6.1
6.4
5.1
5.8
Chapter 7
6.5
6.8
7.1
20102014
175
Figure 7.2: Relation between governance indicators and scientific productivity in Latin America, 2013
2.0
1.5
50 articles per million inhabitants
1.0
0.5
Panama
Mexico
Colombia
-2.0
-1.5
Costa Rica
Brazil
-1.0
El Salvador
0.0
-0.5
Peru
0.5
1.0
1.5
Argentina
Bolivia
Guatemala
Uruguay
Honduras
Paraguay
-0.5
Ecuador
Cuba
Dominican
Republic
Nicaragua
-1.0
Venezuela
-1.5
-2.0
Political stability/absence of violence (2013)
Source: author, based on World Banks Worldwide Governance Indicators; United Nations Statistics Division; and Thomson Reuters Science Citation
Index Extended
176
2.0
Latin America
Mexico and Panama can boast of government effectiveness
but not of political stability, owing to internal conflicts.
Argentina, Cuba and the Dominican Republic all have positive
values for political stability but are less effective when it
comes to policy implementation. The remainder of countries
have negative values for both indicators. It is interesting to
note the high correlation between good governance and
scientific productivity (Figure 7.2).
A regional union modelled on the EU
At the regional level, one of the most momentous
developments in recent years has been the creation of the
Union of South American Nations (UNASUR). The treaty was
approved in May 2008 and entered into force in March 2011;
the South American Council of Science, Technology and
Innovation (COSUCTI) was established a year later within
UNASUR to foster scientific co-operation.
The new regional body is modelled on the European Union
(EU) and, thus, embraces the principle of the freedom of
movement of people, goods, capital and services. UNASURs
12 members2 have plans to establish a common currency
and parliament (in Cochabamba, Bolivia) and are discussing
the idea of standardizing university degrees. UNASURs
headquarters are located in Quito (Ecuador) and its Bank of
the South in Caracas (Venezuela). Rather than creating other
new institutions, UNASUR plans to rely on existing trade blocs
like the Common Market for the South (MERCOSUR) and the
Andean Community.
177
Chapter 7
40
60
35
50
40
30
Cuba 35.4
30
25
23.0
20
Mexico 16.0
20
Brazil 9.6
10
7.9
8.4
6.5
5.2
15
Argentina 9.9
5.7
Chile 4.9
2.0
Mexico
Colombia 7.4
10
Uruguay
Brazil
Bolivia
Colombia
Paraguay
Chile
Guatemala
El Salvador
Ecuador
Peru
Venezuela
0
0
10
15
Dominican Republic
Nicaragua
Panama
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
178
65
70
75
80
Latin America
TRENDS IN STI POLICY AND
GOVERNANCE
A growing public policy focus on R&D
Over the past decade, several Latin American countries
have given their scientific institutions more political weight.
Honduras, for example, has passed a law (2013) and related
decree (2014) creating a national innovation system
composed of the National Secretariat for Science, Technology
and Innovation (SENACIT) and the Honduran Institute of
Science, Technology and Innovation (IHCIETI), among other
bodies, including a national foundation for funding STI.
In 2009, Colombia passed a law defining the attributes and
mandates of each individual institution within its entire
national innovation system. In so doing, it followed in the
footsteps of Panama (2007), Venezuela (2005), Peru (2004),
Mexico (2002) and Argentina (2001).
In some cases, these new legal frameworks require that STI
policies be approved by interministerial councils like the
ScientificTechnological Cabinet (GACTEC) in Argentina. In
other cases, STI policies may be approved by more eclectic
councils bringing together the president, secretaries of state,
academies of sciences and representatives of the private
sector, as in the case of the Council for Scientific Research,
Technological Development and Innovation (CGICDTI)4 in
Mexico. The most complex and sophisticated institutional
ecosystems are found in the larger, richer economies of
Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Mexico.5
179
Chapter 7
Table 7.1: Inventory of operational STI policy instruments in Latin America, 20102015
Country
Argentina
22
25
32
15
14
12
10
38
27
14
37
Bolivia
Brazil
15
10
31
15
Chile
25
12
25
24
17
Colombia
10
Costa Rica
10
23
Cuba
Dominican Rep.
Ecuador
El Salvador
2
9
16
1
Panama
Paraguay
13
14
10
12
Uruguay
13
11
13
1
3
1
3
19
14
Source: compiled by author on the basis of operational policy instruments collected by UNESCOs
Montevideo office (http://spin.unesco.org.uy) and categorized using the new GOSPIN methodology:
see UNESCO (2014) Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys on Science, Engineering, Technology and Innovation
(SETI) Policy Instruments, SETI Governing Bodies, SETI Legal Framework and Policies
180
14
1
1
Peru
Venezuela
4
1
Guatemala
Nicaragua
Honduras
Mexico
Latin America
TRENDS IN HUMAN RESOURCES
Spending on tertiary education high
Many Latin American governments devote more than 1%
of GDP to higher education (Figure 7.4), a level typical of
developed countries. Moreover, in Chile and Colombia, there
has been strong growth in both expenditure per student and
in university enrolment since 2008.
Both the number of university graduates and tertiary
institutions have been expanding steadily for decades.
According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, more than
2 million bachelors or equivalent degrees were awarded in
Latin America in 2012, a 48% increase over 2004. Most of the
graduates were women.10 The rise in PhD degrees has been
almost as spectacular: 44% since 2008 (23556 in 2012). The
share of PhD-holders in the general population in the more
advanced countries of Latin America compares well with the
figures for China, India, the Russian Federation and South
Africa but not with the most developed countries (Figure 7.4).
Six out of ten graduates at the bachelors level specialize in
social sciences (Figure 7.4), compared to only about one in
seven for engineering and technology. This trend contrasts
starkly with that in emerging economies such as China, the
Republic of Korea or Singapore, where the great majority of
graduates study engineering and technology. In 1999, there
was an equal share of PhD students studying social sciences
and natural and exact sciences in Latin America but the region
has never recovered from the strong disaffection for the latter
fields witnessed at the turn of the century (Figure 7.4).
181
Chapter 7
4.47%
0.29%
4.47
0.55
ru
al
a
0.35
lo
m
El
Gu
Co
0.29
ad
or 2
0.74
Sa
lv
0.87
at
e
-2
0.93
Pe
0.96
m
bi
a
Pa
na
m
a -1
1.02
ico
1.04
ex
Ho
nd
ur
as
1.08
1.11
Ch
ile 1
1.11
Ar
ge
nt
in
a -1
1.14
Br
az
il -1
1.19
la -4
Co
st
aR
ica
Ur
ug
ua
y -2
Ni
ca
ra
gu
a -3
Ec
ua
do
r -1
Pa
ra
gu
ay -
1.43
ue
ia -1
1.55
Ve
ne
z
Bo
liv
Cu
b
a -3
1.61
The great majority of first-degree graduates in Latin America study social sciences
Distribution of bachelors degrees by field of study, 19962012 (%)
60
55.84
51.77
50
Social sciences
Engineering & technology
Medical sciences
Humanities
40
30
23.16
20
15.33
14.04
14.00
10
6.45
4.24
3.92
2.87
0.00
5.66
2.50
0.21
1996
182
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Latin America
Brazil has the most PhD graduates per million inhabitants in Latin America
PhD graduates per million inhabitants, 2012
Countries outside Latin America are given for comparison
333
23 556
299
277
255
240
201
176
Gu
at
Co
lo
lv
Sa
El
bi
a
em
Ho ala
nd
ur
Ec as
ua
Ve do
ne r
zu
el
a
or
ad
y
ua
13
na
Pa
Co
16
ug
st
aR
ica
16
Ur
ru
gu
Pa
Ar
25
ay
25
ra
ile
Ch
a
in
31
ex
ba
nt
42
Pe
44
ge
az
Br
Cu
il
ric
in
So
Ko
ut
Af
Ch
da
ae
Ca
na
p.
Re
re
a,
Isr
p.
Re
ga
ec
Cz
Po
rtu
lia
ra
an
st
rm
Au
Ge
60
36
ico
70
39
The share of PhD graduates in natural sciences has not recovered since this indicator plunged
a decade ago
Distribution of PhDs in Latin America by field of study,19962012 (%)
50
48.06
40
30
38.07
33.86
Agricultural sciences
Medical sciences
Unassigned
20
14.75
11.86
13.34
10.95
10.19
10
10.20
5.87
0.00
1996
3.80
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Students head for Western Europe and North America more than other Latin American countries,
with the exception of those from Bolivia, Nicaragua, Paraguay and Uruguay
10 380
ez
u
el
a
1 321
998
1 053
10 288
3 158
ua
y
ug
Ur
Pe
ru
1 774
1 052
ua
y
ag
Pa
r
am
812
1 612
1 733
750
a
Pa
n
Ni
ca
ra
gu
ico
ex
M
m
Re inic
pu an
bl
Ec ic
ua
do
r
El
Sa
lv
ad
or
Gu
at
em
al
a
Ho
nd
ur
as
Cu
b
Do
1 278
1 241
2 060
954
1 755
1 084
1 915
7 934
2 717
3 930
380
347
1 395
290
1 749
4 152
6 493
Co
lo
m
bi
a
Co
st
aR
ica
1 596
ile
Ch
az
il
2 170
5 812
3 236
Br
Ar
ge
nt
in
a
Bo
liv
ia
1 674
5 221
19 621
24 632
Ve
n
27 793
Source: For higher education spending and students living abroad: UNESCO Institute for Statistics: for graduates; RICYT database, July 2015; for PhD students per
million inhabitants, estimations based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and United Nations Statistics Division
183
Chapter 7
132 814
120 000
90 000
73 875
Argentina
51 685
60 000
24 804
30 000
Mexico
43 592
19 894
10 000
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Venezuela 8 686
8 000
Colombia
7 702
Chile
6 803
6 000
5 551
4 000
Ecuador
2 735
2 668
2 000
Nicaragua
1 159
983
54
724
590
313
184
Costa Rica
6 107
548
481
388
Bolivia Panama
1 646 438
Uruguay
1 803
Paraguay
1 081
Guatemala
411
Latin America
Figure 7.6: Researchers (FTE) in Latin America per thousand labour force, 2012
Countries outside Latin America are given for comparison
15.9
14.9
12.92
11.6
9.2
3.02
0.35
em
al
ile
0.06
at
(2
ia
liv
Bo
0.32
Gu
01
0)
ay
gu
ra
Pa
20
r(
do
0.37
Ch
0.41
10
a
el
zu
ua
ne
ex
0.63
Ec
Ve
ua
ug
Ur
10
20
il (
Br
0.88
ico
1.08
ica
1.48
az
aR
st
in
Co
nt
ge
Ar
rtu
ga
e
or
ap
ng
Po
k
ar
Si
nm
an
d
De
nl
Fi
Isr
ae
2.11
11. The original RICYT estimations were calculated using PPP current international
dollars. In order to remove distortions caused by inflation, here, we have adjusted
those values to constant PPP (2012) dollars.
185
Chapter 7
Figure 7.7:SCIENCE
Trends inREPORT
GERD in Latin America and the Caribbean, 20062014 (%)
UNESCO
Few Latin American countries have seen a consistent rise in their R&D intensity over the past decade
GERD as a share of GDP, 20062014 (%)
1.2
Brazil 1.15
1.0
0.98
1.15%
0.8
0.53%
0.6
Mexico 0.53
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.37
0.35
0.4
Chile 0.39
0.32
0.28
0.2
Uruguay 0.24
Colombia 0.23
Panama 0.18
0.17
0.14
Paraguay 0.09
0.08
0.04
Guatemala 0.04
El Salvador 0.03
0.06
0.0
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Note: Data are unavailable for Honduras, Nicaragua, Peru and Veneuzela. Data are only available for Bolivia for 2009 (0.15%).
22.8
Chile
19.3
Colombia
14.4
Ecuador (2011)
13.8
Paraguay
Uruguay
Natural sciences
186
16.6
10.5
1.5
9.4
14.5
13.2
6.3
7.9
11.6
9.6
26.7
40.4
4.1
32.8
26.2
12.4
3.1
7.5
18.1
66.0
4.7
58.1
11.3
29.7
5.7 0.7
14.4
1.2
33.8
17.3
13.3
15.3
5.8 1.0
38.1
11.7
5.8
5.1
12.5
10.5
11.3
16.2
6.3
Guatemala
9.9
35.7
16.2
El Salvador
35.2
14.7
Agricultural sciences
3.8
6.0
23.4
Social sciences
8.0
Humanities
1.4
0.5
6.1 0.8
Unassigned
Brazil and Mexico have the highest share of business-funded R&D in Latin America
GERD by source of funds, 2012 (%), countries arranged in descending order of GERD by volume (PPP$)
0.8
2.0
1.0
0.8
0.6
3.1
1.9
21.3
35.7
43.1
Brazil
Argentina
Mexico
54.9
60.8
74.0
5.0 2.4
5.0
17.5
16.4
34.2
34.9
2.1
9.4
Colombia
15.0
Chile
Cuba
80.0
42.0
36.0
Panama has the highest share of private non-profit-funded R&D, thanks largely to the presence
of the Smithsonian Institution
0.9
7.6
15.0
18.9
20.7
Uruguay
Panama
2011
8.7
33.0
43.4
23.5
Guatemala
49.0
5.0
27.5
Chapter 7
46.7
Business enterprise
Government
Higher education
0.8
2.9
3.7
7.7
2.6
9.2
2.8
11.7
Private non-profit
Abroad
Paraguay
El Salvador
82.5
74.3
187
Box 7.2: Towards a common knowledge area for Europe and Latin America
Biregional scientific co-operation
between Europe and Latin America and
the Caribbean dates back to the early
1980s, when the former Commission
of the European Communities and
the Andean Group Secretariat signed
an agreement for co-operation and
established a joint commission to
oversee its implementation. Later,
Europe concluded similar agreements
with the Central American countries
and MERCOSUR.
The sixth summit between the European
Union (EU) and Latin America and
the Caribbean in 2010 identified new
pathways for biregional co-operation in
188
4.0%
5.2%
12 000
Mexico 11 147
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
6 899
Argentina 7 885
5 056
Chile 6 224
2 912
Colombia 2 997
2 000
871
0
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
1 500
2013
2014
244%
1 200
1 097
900
Uruguay 824
Venezuela 788
Peru 783
Cuba 749
662
600
Ecuador 511
425
300
334
302
Bolivia 207
Chapter 7
203
156
120
0
150
2005
100
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Guatemala 101
63
50
39
28
25
20
Paraguay 57
Nicaragua 54
Dominican Rep. 49
El Salvador 42
Honduras 35
20
189
Argentina
Bolivia
65
Brazil
1 766
16 066
5 644
1 365
132 12
Cuba
Guatemala
16
Honduras
52
Paraguay
3
1 710
34
14 966
5 507
103
574
13
Uruguay
459
442
14
114
1 079
32
451
29
6 133
8
18
298
2
2 2
6
6 7
6 3 6
2 059
8 702
67
169
1 55
6 11
5
2 2
112
52
23 206 2265
1 081
437
517
160
414
837
299
944
Physics
13
Engineering
Computer science
Chemistry
424
363
8 513
8 13
293
9 4
91 179
715
159
92
526
394
Medical sciences
Mathematics
58
11 6 12
Biological sciences
17
16
233
6 287
29
33
565
102
11
76 130
Astronomy
Agriculture
66
4 6 33
12
1324
1 640
428
931
30
1 301
75
150
110
324
182
241
2 979
2 488
21
290 103
5
25 34
93
133
1 207
185
150
283
1 112
218 11
5 755
2 407
79
450
4 9
Peru
Note: Unclassified
articles are excluded
from the totals.
1 645
316
254
5 138
52 334
2
46
77
75
194
31
228
16 1
Venezuela
17
51
16 1
Panama
130
12
40 77
59
3 204
Nicaragua
799
13
Mexico
516
80
87 4
El Salvador
885
73
7 592
5 367
3 582
1 532
1 365
195
11 181
14 278
616 2 244
221
1 342
14
Ecuador
2 560
1 093
313 21
Dominican Rep.
2 398
3 064
5 282
4
28 28
46 676
3 899
967 53
Costa Rica
501 3 250
500
1 410
Colombia
4 849
13
21 181
Chile
13 732
1 020
Psychology
9 274
49
21
524
18
24
Geosciences
Social sciences
350
184
61
190
25
19
ra
gu
a
Pa
ra
gu
ay
El
Sa
lv
ad
or
Gu
at
em
al
Do
a
m
i
n
Re ic
pu an
b
Ho lic
nd
ur
as
26
ia
Co
lo
m
bi
a
Ec
ua
do
r
Ve
ne
zu
el
a
Cu
ba
a
am
Pa
n
Br
az
il
Co
st
aR
ica
M
ex
ico
ua
y
Ar
ge
nt
in
a
ug
Ur
Ch
ile
32
ca
67
liv
83
Ni
90
Bo
96
Pe
ru
189
Countries with modest output have the highest average citation rate
Average citation rate for publications, 20082012
1.50
G20 average 1.02
1.16
1.15
0.93
0.87
1.00
0.95
1.05
1.17
0.97
0.88
0.99
0.98
1.01
0.96
0.78
0.75
0.70
ua
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0.61
The majority of articles have foreign co-authors in all but Argentina, Brazil and Mexico
Share of papers with foreign co-authors, 20082014 (%)
94.8
94.0
90.2
94.4
92.0
97.6
96.5
93.2
90.9
90.3
81.5
72.3
61.3
70.4
60.9
56.1
46.1
44.9
la
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ua
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Pe
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ua
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Pa
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ag
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Pa
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28.4
The top partner for all but Cuba is the USA; Brazil is a key partner for most
Main foreign partners, 20082014
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Argentina
USA (8 000)
Spain (5 246)
Brazil (4 237)
Germany (3 285)
France (3 093)
Bolivia
USA (425)
Brazil (193)
France (192)
Spain (187)
UK (144)
Brazil
France (8 938)
UK (8 784)
Germany (8 054)
Spain (7 268)
Chile
USA (7 850)
Spain (4 475)
Germany (3 879)
France (3 562)
UK (3 443)
Colombia
USA (4 386)
Spain (3 220)
Brazil (2 555)
UK (1 943)
France (1 854)
Costa Rica
USA (1 169)
Spain (365)
Brazil (295)
Mexico (272)
France (260)
Cuba
Spain (1 235)
Mexico (806)
Brazil (771)
USA (412)
Germany (392)
Dominican Rep.
USA (168)
UK (52)
Mexico (49)
Spain (45)
Brazil (38)
Ecuador
USA (1 070)
Spain (492)
Brazil (490)
UK (475)
France (468)
El Salvador
USA (108)
Mexico (45)
Spain (38)
Guatemala (34)
Honduras (34)
Guatemala
USA (388)
Mexico (116)
Brazil (74)
UK (63)
Honduras
USA (179)
Mexico (58)
Brazil (42)
Argentina (41)
Colombia (40)
Mexico
Spain (6 793)
France (3 818)
UK (3 525)
Germany (3 345)
Nicaragua
USA (157)
Sweden (86)
Mexico (52)
Spain (48)
Panama
USA (1 155)
Germany (311)
UK (241)
Canada (195)
Brazil (188)
Paraguay
USA (142)
Brazil (113)
Argentina (88)
Spain (62)
Uruguay/Peru (36)
Peru
USA (2 035)
Brazil (719)
UK (646)
Spain (593)
France (527)
Uruguay
USA (854)
Brazil (740)
Argentina (722)
Spain (630)
France (365)
Venezuela
USA (1 417)
Spain (1 093)
France (525)
Mexico (519)
Brazil (506)
Chapter 7
Note: Belize, Guyana and Suriname are covered in the Chapter 6 on the CARICOM countries. See also Figure 8.9 devoted solely to Brazil.
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
191
20102014
Share of
national
production (%)
Articles on
indigenous
knowledge
Share of
national
production (%)
1 008
0.02
482
0.03
Australia
571
0.08
397
0.17
Canada
428
0.04
246
0.08
UK
425
0.02
196
0.04
USA
Latin America
Brazil
Mexico
101
0.02
65
0.04
98
0.05
42
0.06
Argentina
39
0.03
26
0.06
Chile
33
0.05
14
0.05
Colombia
32
0.10
19
0.12
Bolivia
26
0.80
17
1.40
Peru
22
0.23
11
0.29
Venezuela
19
0.08
0.08
Costa Rica
12
0.18
0.31
Ecuador
0.14
0.28
Guatemala
0.36
0.66
Panama
0.09
0.09
Cuba
0.03
0.07
Honduras
0.55
Uruguay
0.03
0.05
Nicaragua
0.60
192
Latin America
Relatively modest patenting
Patenting is relatively modest in Latin America. Between one
and five out of every 100 firms in any given Latin American
country hold a patent, compared to between 15 and 30 in
European countries (WIPO, 2015). Patenting by Latin Americans
in the main developed country markets is also very low,
testifying to the absence of technology-based international
competitiveness.
The best way to compare patenting rates at the international
level is to use the data provided by the Patent Cooperation
Treaty (PCT).13 This system makes it possible to seek patent
protection for an invention simultaneously in a wide range
of countries by filing a single international patent. Two of the
13. By 2014, the PCT counted 148 contracting states. Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay,
Uruguay and Venezuela are not contracting members (WIPO, 2015).
193
Chapter 7
30 965
10 000
9 261
3 319
1 000
2 969
1 632
843
377
Logarithmic scale
100
367
325
315
219
122
88
78
59
10
25
25
20
13
a
gu
ia
ca
ra
liv
Ni
Bo
Pe
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a
Pa
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Ch
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Br
ex
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200
187
160
153
120
92
80
83
75
75
71
40
44
18
33
12
12
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Total patent grants, direct and national phase entries through Patent Cooperation Treaty
Total count by applicant's country of origin
10 000
4 753
2 779
1 000
1 134
1 108
663
506
314
100
Logarithmic scale
Pe
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60
64
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194
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27
Latin America
There is a growing tendency among public research
institutions to obtain patents in areas related to natural
resources, such as mining and, above all, agriculture. This
is true, for example of the Brazilian Agricultural Research
Company (Embrapa) the National Institute for Agricultural
Technology (INTA) in Argentina and the National Institute of
Agricultural Research (INIA) in Uruguay.
2007
71.9
19.3
80.4
15.1
52.3
20092011
17.3
7.1
84.9
15.6
62.8
33.7
Year/Period
Argentina
Brazil
Share of
manufacturing
firms that
acquired
machinery,
equipment and
software (%)
Share of
manufacturing
firms that
acquired
external
knowledge (%)
Share of
manufacturing
firms that
engaged in
training (%)
Share of
manufacturing
firms that
engaged
in market
innovation (%)
Total number
of innovation
surveys
conducted in
country
Colombia
20092010
22.4
5.8
68.6
34.6
11.8
21.4
Costa Rica
20102011
76.2
28.3
82.6
38.9
81.2
Cuba
20032005
9.8
41.3
90.2
36.6
22.1
83.8
Ecuador
20092011
34.8
10.6
74.5
27.0
33.7
10.6
El Salvador
20102012
41.6
6.7
82.7
Mexico
20102011
42.9
14.5
35.4
2.6
12.5
11.4
Panama
20062008
11.4
4.7
32.2
8.5
10.0
Uruguay
20072009
38.7
4.3
78.2
14.5
50.2
Note: The following countries have also conducted a series of innovation surveys in the region: Chile (8), Dominican Republic (2), Guatemala (1), Paraguay (2),
Peru (3) and Venezuela (2).
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics; see also Chapter 2 of the present report
195
Chapter 7
Share of
manufacturing
firms that
engaged in
in-house R&D
(%)
196
Latin America
In particular, there has been a desire to reorient STI, traditional
knowledge and know-how towards the search for solutions
to national and local problems, be they related to production,
social or environmental ills. (See the article by Bortagaray and
Gras in Dutrnit and Crespi, 2014.)
In Colombia, Ideas for Change (2012), a Colciencias
programme, is turning innovative thinking into the source
of practical solutions for the poor and excluded. This offers a
fresh perspective and helps spread the word that technology
and innovation are not only important for firms and research
institutions but also for society at large (IDB, 2014). Similar
policy instruments have been implemented in Brazil by the
Agency for Funding Innovation Studies and Projects (FINEP),
namely the Development and Diffusion of Technologies with
a High Social Impact (Prosocia) and Housing Technologies
(Habitare). In Mexico, two examples are the Sectorial Fund for
Research and Development related to Water and the Sectorial
Research Fund for Social Development. In Uruguay, the
project for Educational Connectivity of Basic Computing for
Online Learning (CEIBAL) has generated a surprisingly large
number of innovative technical and social solutions beyond
the original one learner, one notebook programme.
Meanwhile, Peru has subsumed technology transfer in poverty
alleviation programmes; these schemes have met with relative
success in strengthening production chains and conglomerates.
Examples are the Innovation and Competitiveness Programme
for Peruvian Agriculture, the INCAGRO Project; and the network
of Technological Innovation Centres (CITEs) run by the Ministry
of Production. The latter two projects were implemented
independently from the national innovation system: whereas
INCAGRO showed impressive results, CITEs required more
funding to expand its coverage and upgrade the services it
offers.
197
Chapter 7
Table 7.4: National space agencies and main national space technology suppliers in Latin America
Country
Institution
English name
Founded
Specialization
Argentina
Comisin Nacional de
Investigaciones Espaciales
(CNIE)
National
Commission for
Space Research
Argentina
Comisin Nacional de
Actividades Espaciales
(CONAE)
National Space
Activities
Commission
1991
Argentina
INVAP
Public company in
nuclear and space
technologies
1976
Technology design and construction of the satellites SACA, SAC-B, SAC-C, SAC-D/Aquarius, SAOCOM 1 & 2, SABIAMAR, SARE, ARSAT I, II & III
Bolivia
Bolivian Space
Agency
2012
Brazil
Comisso Nacional de
Atividades Espaciais (CNAE)
National
Commission of
Space Activities
Brazil
Brazilian Space
Agency
1994
Design and planning of the satellites CBERS (SinoBrazilian Earth Resources Satellite), Amaznia-1 (2015),
EQUARS, MIRAX, SCD1, SCD2
Brazil
National Institute of
Space Research
1971
Colombia
Colombian Space
Commission
2006
Costa Rica
Asociacin Centroamericana
de Aeronutica y el Espacio
(ACAE)
Central American
Association for
Aeronautics and
Space
2010
Mexico*
Mexican Space
Agency
2010
Peru
Space Agency of
Peru
1974
Uruguay
Centro de Investigacin y
Difusin Aeronutico-Espacial
(CIDA-E)
Aeronautics and
Space Research and
Diffusion Centre
1975
Venezuela
Bolivarian Agency
for Space Activities
2008
* In 1991, the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) started building scientific satellites. The first (UNAMSAT-1) was destroyed during the launch in
1996; UNAMSAT-B operated in orbit for one year.
Note: For details of the CBERS programme, see the chapter on Brazil in the UNESCO Science Report 2010.
Source: Compiled by author
198
Latin America
Renewable energy could have a bright future
By early 2014, at least 19 Latin American countries had
renewable energy policies and at least 14 had adopted
relevant targets, mostly concerning electricity generation.
Uruguay aims to generate 90% of its electricity from
renewable sources by 2015. Despite having an average
electrification rate of almost 95%, one of the highest among
developing regions, access to energy remains a challenge: an
estimated 24 million people living mainly in rural and remote
areas still lack access to electricity in Latin America.
Table 7.5: Existing regulatory policies and fiscal incentives in Latin America for renewable energy, 2015
l
l
Reduction in sales,
energy, carbon, VAT or
other taxes
Energy production
payment
Public investment,
loans or grants
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Investment or tax
production credits
Tendering
Biofuels obligation/
mandate
Heat obligation/
mandate
Net metering
Chapter 7
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Dominican Rep.
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Uruguay
Countries
Feed-in tariff/
premium payment
Regulatory policies
l
l
l
l
Note: Data are unavailable for Bolivia, Cuba and Venezuela. VAT stands for value-added tax.
Source: REN21 (2015) Renewables 2015: Global Status Report, pp. 99101. Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century: Paris
199
200
Latin America
COUNTRY PROFILES
UNESCOs Global Observatory of STI Policy Instruments
(GOSPIN) provides a complete description of the national
innovation system for all 34 countries of Latin America and
the Caribbean, with regular updates every six months.16
Given the sheer size of the region, we summarize the most
important developments since 2010 only for those countries
with a population of more than 10 million. For a profile of
Brazil, see Chapter 8.
ARGENTINA
Investment in STI has accelerated
Argentina has enjoyed a decade of strong growth
(circa 6% per year until 2013) that was partly underpinned by
high commodity prices. With the end of the cyclical commodities
boom, however, rising subsidies and a strong currency,
combined with unresolved issues from the countrys 2001 debt
crisis, have begun to affect trade. The Argentine economy grew
by just 0.5% in 2014, as healthy public consumption (+2.8%)
was offset by a 12.6% drop in imports and an 8.1% drop in
exports (ECLAC, 2015a). Faced with an unemployment rate of
7.1% in the first quarter of 2015, Congress passed a bill cutting
back employer contributions for micro-enterprises and payroll
taxes for larger businesses that created jobs.
Between 2008 and 2013, research infrastructure expanded in
Argentina as never before. Since 2007, the government has
built more than 100 000 m2 of new laboratories, with another
50000 m2 under construction in September 2015. Spending
on R&D almost doubled between 2008 and 2013 and the
number of researchers and publications progressed by 20%
and 30% respectively (Figures 7.5, 7.6 and 7.8).
BOLIVIA
A focus on communitarian and productive
research
Bolivia continues to show healthy growth: 5.4% in 2014, with
projections of 4.5% in 2015 (ECLAC, 2015a). The government
is promoting the industrialization of the hydrocarbons sector,
as well as the extraction of natural gas and lithium, through
the Investment Promotion Act (2014) and the Mining and
Metallurgy Act (2014). Other projects include boosting
exports of electricity to Argentina and Brazil (ECLAC, 2015a).
The government elected in 2005 has adopted a new
communitarian productive model to ensure that surplus
production serves the collective need, as part of the planned
transition from capitalism to socialism. According to this
model, the four strategic sectors capable of generating a
surplus for Bolivians are identified as being hydrocarbons,
mining, energy and environmental resources; rather than
using this surplus to drive exports, the new model advocates
using it to develop employment-generating sectors such as
manufacturing, tourism, industry and agriculture.
Since 2010, the design of S&T policies has fallen under
the supervision of the Ministry of Education. A series of
programmes have been proposed within the Institutional
Strategic Plan 20102014, including the Bolivian System
of Scientific Information and Technology (SIBICYT) and
the Bolivarian Innovation System. Within the plan, the
Innovation, Research, Science and Technology Programme
lays the groundwork for the following policy instruments:
n the conduct of communitarian and productive research
201
Chapter 7
CHILE
A desire to embrace the knowledge economy
Chiles economy grew by 1.9% in 2014, slowing
markedly from 4.2% in 2013. An expansion of 2.5% is forecast
in 2015, driven by a surge in public spending and positive
developments in the external sector (ECLAC, 2015a). Chile is the
major recipient of FDI in the region. In 2014 alone, it received
more than US$ 22 billion. Chile has a higher proportion of private
funding for education than any other OECD member country,
with 40.1% of education spending coming from private sources
(16.1% average for OECD countries). Chile was the highest
scoring Latin American country in the PISA 2012 mathematics
test but still 71 points behind the OECD average.
In Chile, it is the Office of the President of the Republic which
leads the national innovation system, under the direct guidance
of the National Innovation Council for Competitiveness (CNIC).
The latter proposes general guidelines for the development of
a National Innovation Strategy. The Interministerial Innovation
Committee then evaluates these criteria before establishing
short-, medium- and long-term national STI policies; it also
monitors the implementation of the National Innovation Strategy.
The Ministries of Education and of the Economy play a
leading role in the Interministerial Innovation Committee,
their participation being channelled through the main
public institutions with a focus on STI, namely, the National
Commission for Scientific and Technological Research
(CONICYT) and the InnovaChile wing of the Corporation for
the Promotion of Production (CORFO). The latter17 supports
sectors with high-growth potential, through funding for SMEs
and the nurturing of an early-stage seed capital industry.
The governments Agenda for Productivity, Innovation & Economic
Growth for 20142015 reflects the desire to move from an
economy based on natural resources to one based on knowledge
by diversifying the economy and supporting sectors with strong
growth potential. CORFO is a key partner in this intiative.
17. See www.english.corfo.cl
202
COLOMBIA
A greater focus on innovation
Colombias economy grew by 4.6% in 2014.
Growth projections for 2015 have been revised downwards,
although they remain between 3.0% and 3.5% (ECLAC,
2015a). In June 2015, the government implemented a
number of countercyclical policies known collectively as
the Productivity and Employment Stimulus Plan to encourage
investment and, thereby, limit the economic slowdown.
Colombia is preparing its entry into the OECD with the
intention of adopting, adapting and implementing improved
practices in a host of areas in relation to public governance,
commerce, investment, fiscal issues, STI, environment,
education and so on.
Colombias innovation system is co-ordinated by the National
Planning Department and the Colombian Institute for the
Development of Science (Colciencias). In 2009, Colciencias
was transformed into the Administrative Department for
Science, Technology and Innovation with responsibility for
formulating, co-ordinating, executing and implementing
related public policies in line with the countrys development
plans and programmes.
In 2012, the government created iNNpulsa Colombia with
the National Development Bank to support innovation and
competitiveness, with a budget of US$ 138 million for the
20122013 period. Some 70% of Colciencias Innovation
Management Programme, on the other hand, was oriented
towards micro-enterprises and SMEs (with a budget of
US$ 20 million in 2013). Since 2009, Colciencias has been
annually allocating US$ 0.5 million to support collaborative
projects between firms and the academic sector. The General
Royalties System Fund also now has a regional development
focus as far as STI is concerned.
Latin America
Between 2010 and 2014, Colciencias formulated a series of
strategies for strengthening STI policies, such as Vision 2025,
which seeks to position Colombia as one of the three most
innovative countries in Latin America by 2025 and a world
leader in biotechnology. The aim is for Colombia to be able
to offer local, regional and global solutions to problems
such as overpopulation and climate change, with a series of
centres of excellence working on vector-transmitted diseases
and the possibilities of interaction with other sectors: health,
cosmetics, energy and farming.
Vision 2025 proposes generating 3000 new PhDs, 1000 annual
patents and working with 11000 companies by 2025. The
programme will allocate US$ 678 million during 20112014,
targeting researchers in the public and private sectors. In 2014, the
government launched a Brain Repatriation Programme to woo
500 doctorate-holders from the diaspora over the next four years.
CUBA
Preparing incentives to attract investors
The Cuban economy grew by 1.3% in 2014 and
is expected to expand by 4% in 2015. In 20142015,
11 priority sectors for attracting foreign capital were
identified, including agrifood; general industry; renewable
energy; tourism; oil and mining; construction; and the
pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry (ECLAC, 2015a).
With the normalization of relations with the USA in 2015,
Cuba is in the process of establishing a more attractive legal
regime offering substantial fiscal incentives and guarantees for
investors. Cuba is already one of the most popular destinations
for Latin American university students (see p. 181).
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Growth restricted to economic enclaves
Economic growth in the Dominican Republic
has been high by regional standards, averaging 5.1% in
the 12 years to 2013. However, this growth has not been
accompanied by a significant reduction in poverty or
inequality, contrary to trends in some other Latin American
countries. Moreover, growth has been largely concentrated in
ECUADOR
Investing in the knowledge economy of
tomorrow
Ecuadors economy grew by 3.8% in 2014 but projections for
2015 have been revised downwards to 1.9%. The drop in the
average price of Ecuadorian crude from US$ 96 a barrel in
2013 to US$ 84 in 2014 has meant that oil exports lost 5.7% of
their value in 2014 even though their volume was up by 7%
(ECLAC, 2015a).
Between 2008 and 2013, GERD tripled in PPP dollars, the
number of researchers doubled (Figure 7.6) and scientific
203
Chapter 7
204
GUATEMALA
A need to nurture its human capital
Guatemalas economy grew by 4.2% in real terms
in 2014, up from 3.7% in 2013. Growth was driven by a surge
in domestic demand among private consumers, in particular,
along with low inflation, a rise in real wages and higher levels
of bank lending to the private sector (ECLAC, 2015a).
Public spending on education has remained stable since 2006
at about 3% of GDP but only one-eighth of this goes to higher
education, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
Moreover, between 2008 and 2013, total expenditure on
education slipped from 3.2% to 2.8% of GDP. Over this same
period, GERD dropped by 40% (in PPP$) and the number of
FTE researchers by 24%. Although scientific output increased
by 20% (Figure 7.8), this progression is modest compared
to that of other countries in the region. If we compare
Guatemala with Malawi, a country with almost the same
surface area and population, Guatemalas GDP is ten times
that of Malawi but Malawi publishes almost three times the
number of scientific articles. This suggests that Guatemala has
fallen into the Sisyphus trap (see next section).
The National Council of Science and Technology (CONCYT) and
State Secretariat for Science and Technology (SENACYT) now
co-ordinate STI in Guatemala and are in charge of implementing
policies in this area. In 2015, a National Plan for Science,
Technology and Innovation to 2032 was under discussion to
replace the existing plan. Guatemala disposes of a fairly wide
range of funding mechanisms, including the Science and
Technology Support Fund (FACYT), Science and Technology
Latin America
Development Fund (FODECYT) and the Multiple Support to the
National Plan Fund for Science and Technology (MULTICYT).
These are complemented by the Technological Innovation Fund
(FOINTEC) and the Science and Technology Emergency Activities
Fund (AECYT). A grant from the Inter-American Development
Bank in 20122013 has helped to operationalize these funds.
MEXICO
A 1% GERD/GDP target but no specific
temporal horizon
Mexico, Latin Americas second-largest economy after Brazil,
grew by 2.1% in 2014 and is expected to do slightly better in
2015 (circa 2.4%), according to ECLAC. In 20142015, Mexico
held intensive talks with EU countries with a view to opening
negotiations on a new free trade agreement. According to
the Mexican government, the aim is to update the agreement
signed in 2000, in order to improve the access of Mexican
goods and services to the European market, strengthen ties
and create a transatlantic free trade area (ECLAC, 2015a).
Between 2008 and 2013, GERD (in PPP$) and scientific output
progressed by 30% (Figure 7.8) and the number of FTE
researchers by 20% (Figure 7.5). To improve the governance of
the national innovation system, the government created the
Office of Co-ordination of Science, Technology and Innovation
in 2013 in the Office of the President. The same year, the
National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT) was
ratified as the principal governing body for STI in Mexico.
The National Development Plan 20132018 proposes making
the development of STI the pillar of sustainable socio-economic
growth. It also proposes a new Special Programme for Science,
Technology and Innovation 20142018 to transform Mexico into
a knowledge economy, with the normative target of reaching a
1% GERD/GDP target but without any specific temporal horizon.
PERU
A new fund for innovation
The Peruvian economy grew by 2.4% in 2014
and is expected to progress by 3.6% in 2015, driven by a surge
in mining output and, to a lesser extent, by higher public
spending and the monetary stimulus created by lower interest
rates and the increased availability of credit (ECLAC, 2015a).
GERD has been estimated at just 0.12% GDP (see the article
by J. Kuramoto in Crespi and Dutrnit, 2014). Research and
innovation policies in Peru are co-ordinated by the National
Council of Science, Technology and Technological Innovation
(CONCYTEC). Since 2013, CONCYTEC has been functioning
in the orbit of the Presidency of the Council of Ministries.
CONCYTECs operational budget soared between 2012 and
2014 from US$6.3 million to US$ 110 million.
The National Plan for Science, Technology and Innovation
20062021 focuses on the following:
n Obtaining research results focused on the needs of the
productive sector;
n Increasing the number of qualified researchers and
professionals;
As part of the drive to foster a knowledge economy, Mexico is
creating or strengthening Technology Transfer Offices through
its Sectorial Innovation Fund (FINNOVA) to encourage institutions
205
Chapter 7
system.
In 2013, the government created the Framework Fund
for Innovation, Science and Technology (FOMITEC), allocating
circa US$ 280 million for the design and implementation
of financial and economic instruments fostering the
development of research and innovation for competitiveness.
The National Fund for Scientific and Technological Research
and Technological Innovation (FONDECYT) received
US$ 85 million in 2014, an increase over the previous year.
The government has introduced a scholarship programme for
PhD candidates wishing to study abroad (circa US$ 20 million)
and those planning to study at local universities (US$10 million).
VENEZUELA
Scientific output down
In 2014, the Venezuelan economy contracted
by 4% with a double-digit inflation rate (ECLAC, 2015a). The
number of FTE researchers increased by 65% between 2008
and 2013, the highest growth rate in the region. Scientific
output has actually decreased by 28% over the past decade,
however (Figure 7.8).
Table 7.6: Institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean with the most scientific publications, 20102014
Spanish-speaking countries of more than 10 million inhabitants
Argentina
CONICET (51.5%)
University of Buenos
Aires (26.6%)
National University of La
Plata (13.1%)
National University of
Cordoba (8.3%)
National University of
Mar del Plata (4.3%)
Bolivia
Autonomous University
Rene Moreno (2.6%)
National Historical
Museum Noel Kempff
Mercado (2.2%)
Bolivarian Catholic
University San Pablo
(1.5%)
Chile
University of Chile
(25.4%)
Pontifical Catholic
University of Chile
(21.9%)
University of Conception
(12.3%)
Pontifical Catholic
University of Valparaiso
(7.5%)
Austral University of
Chile (6%)
Colombia
National University of
Colombia (26.7%)
University of Antioquia
(14.6%)
Pontifical University
Javeriana (4.6%)
Cuba
University of Habana
(23.4%)
Dominican
Republic
Ministry of Agriculture
(4%)
Pontifical Catholic
University Mother and
Teacher (3%)
Ecuador
Technical University of
Loja (6.0%)
Polytechnic National
School (5.4%)
University of Cuenca
(3.7%)
Guatemala
Mexico
National Autonomous
University of Mexico
(26.2%)
National Polytechnic
Institute of Mexico
(17.3%)
Metropolitan
Autonomous University
of Mexico (5%)
Autonomous University
of Puebla (2.1%)
Autonomous University
of San Luis Potosi (2.9%)
Peru
University Cayetano
Heredia (21.6%)
National University of
San Marcos (10.3%)
Pontifical Catholic
University of Peru (7.5%)
International Potato
Centre (3.6%)
Venezuela
Central University of
Venezuela (23%)
IVIC (15.1%)
Source: compiled by author from Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded
206
Latin America
CONCLUSION
Escaping the Sisyphus trap
According to ancient Greek mythology, Sisyphus was the
craftiest of men but his chronic deceitfulness infuriated the
gods, who ended up punishing him by compelling him to roll
a boulder up a hill, only to watch it roll back down time and
time again forever. Francisco Sagasti (2004) made astute use
of the Sisyphus metaphor to describe the recurrent difficulties
developing countries face in creating endogenous research
and innovation.
The history of STI policies in Latin America can be likened to
the Sisyphus trap. Recurrent economic and political crises
since the 1960s have had a direct impact on the design and
performance of STI policies for both the supply and demand
sides. The lack of continuity of long-term public policies
and poor public governance in the majority of countries are
largely to blame for the lack of appropriate STI policies in
recent decades. How often has a new party or group come to
power in a Latin American country and immediately set about
putting a new set of rules and policies in place? Like Sisyphus,
the national innovation system sees the original policy
roll back down the hill, as the country takes a new policy
direction. As the scientific and technological hills to climb will
continue to proliferate making Sisyphus tasks even more
daunting it is also essential to devise ways of keeping the
rock on the top of the hill(Sagasti, 2004).
Since the structural adjustments of the 1990s, a new
generation of STI policy instruments has emerged that has
profoundly transformed the institutional ecosystem, legal
framework and incentives for research and innovation. In
some countries, this has been beneficial. Why then has the
gap between Latin America and the developed world not
narrowed? This is because the region has failed to overcome
the following challenges.
207
Chapter 7
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Bianchi, C. (2014) Empresas de biotecnologa en Uruguay:
caracterizacin y perpectivas de crecimiento. INNOTEC
Gestin, 6: 1629
BID (2014) ALC 2025: Amrica Latina y el Caribe en 2025.
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Development Bank): Washington, DC.
CEPAL (2015) La nueva revolucin digital: de la internet
del consumo a la internet de la produccin. Comisin
Econmica para Amrica Latina y el Caribe: Santiago.
CEPAL (2014) Nuevas Instituciones para la Innovacin: Prcticas
y Experiencias en Amrica Latina, G. Rivas and S. Rovira
(eds.). Comisin Econmica para Amrica Latina y el
Caribe: Santiago.
Crespi, G. and G. Dutrnit (eds) [2014] Science, Technology and
Innovation Policies for Development: the Latin American
Experience. Springer: New York.
Crespi, G. and P. Zuniga (2010) Innovation and Productivity:
Evidence from Six Latin American Countries. IDB Working
Paper Series no. IDB-WP-218.
Crespi, G.; Tacsir, E. and F. Vargas (2014) Innovation Dynamics
and Productivity: Evidence for Latin America. UNU-MERIT
Working Papers Series, no. 2014092. Maastricht
Economic and Social Research institute on Innovation and
Technology: Maastricht (Netherlands).
Dutrnit, G. and J. Sutz (eds) [2014] National Systems, Social
Inclusion and Development: the Latin American Experience.
Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd: Cheltenham (UK).
ECLAC (2015a) Economic Survey of Latin America and the
Caribbean. Challenges in boosting the investment cycle
to reinvigorate growth. Economic Commission for Latin
America and the Caribbean: Santiago.
ECLAC (2015b) Foreign Direct Investment in Latin America and
the Caribbean. Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean: Santiago.
ECLAC (2015c) European Union and Latin America and the
Caribbean in the New Economic and Social Context. Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean: Santiago.
Gutman, G. E. and P. Lavarello (2013) Building capabilities to
catch up with the biotechnological paradigm. Evidence from
Argentina, Brazil and Chile agro-food systems. International
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Hirsch, J.E. (2005) An index to quantify an individuals
scientific research output. PNAS, 102 (46): 16569572.
IDB (2015) Gender and Diversity Sector Framework Document.
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IDB (2014) Innovation, Science and Technology Sector
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Lemarchand, G. A. (2012) The long-term dynamics of coauthorship scientific networks: Iberoamerican countries
(19732010), Research Policy, 41: 291305.
Lemarchand, G. A. (2010) Science, technology and innovation
policies in Latin America and the Caribbean during the
past six decades. In: G. A. Lemarchand (ed) National
Science, Technology and Innovation Systems in Latin America
and the Caribbean. Science Policy Studies and Documents
in LAC, vol. 1, pp. 15139, UNESCO: Montevideo.
MINCYT (2015) Encuesta Nacional de Dinmica de Empleo e
Innovacin. Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologa e Innovacin
Productiva y el Ministerio de Trabajo, Empleo y Seguridad
Social: Buenos Aires.
Moran, T. H. (2014) Foreign Investment and Supply Chains in
Emerging Markets: Recurring Problems and Demonstrated
Solutions. Working Paper Series. Peterson Institute for
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Navarro, L. (2014) Entrepreneurship Policy and Firm
Performance: Chiles CORFO Seed Capital Program. InterAmerican Development Bank: Washington DC.
OECD (2013a) OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy: Knowledgebased Start-ups in Mexico. Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development: Paris.
OECD (2013b) Territorial Reviews: Antofagasta, Chile:
2013. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development: Paris
Prez, R. P.; Gaudin, Y. and P. Rodrguez (2012)
SistemasNacionales de Innovacin en Centroamrica.
Estudios y Perspectivas, 140. Comisin Econmica para
Amrica Latina y el Caribe: Mexico.
RICYT (2014) El Estado de la Ciencia: Principales Indicadores de
Ciencia y Tecnologa 2014. Red de Indicadores de Ciencia y
Tecnologa Iberoamericana e Interamericana: Buenos Aires.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks go to Julia Taguea Parga, Deputy-Director for
Scientific Development at the National Council for Science
and Technology (CONACYT) in Mexico and Alberto Maj
Pineyrua, Secretary-General of the Iberoamerican Programme
for Science and Technology for Development (CYTED) in
Uruguay, for contributing information to the present chapter,
and to their assistant Mnica Capdevielle. The author also
expresses his gratitude to Carlos Aguirre-Bastos, Ernesto
Fernandez Polcuch and Alessandro Bello for their contribution
to the boxes.
209
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210
Brazil
8 . Brazil
Renato Hyuda de Luna Pedrosa and Hernan Chaimovich
INTRODUCTION
Economic downturn could jeopardize recent gains
Brazils economy has experienced a severe downturn since
2011, after almost a decade of growth and a short-lived recovery
from the 20082009 global financial crisis in 2010 (Figure 8.1).
This economic slowdown has been triggered by weaker
international commodities markets, on which Brazil is highly
dependent, coupled with the perverse effects of economic
policies designed to fuel consumption. The latter eventually
caused government spending to overtake revenue by a large
margin: in 2014, Brazil had a primary deficit of over 0.5% of GDP
for the first time in 16 years; this deficit has helped to push
annual inflation rates to over 6% since 2013. Brazils economy
stagnated in 2014 (0.1% of GDP growth) and the outlook is even
worse for 2015, with the Ministry of Finance forecasting in April
this year that the economy would contract by 0.9%.
Since her re-election in November 2014, President Dilma
Roussef has overhauled national macro-economic policies.
The new Minister of Finance, Joaquim Levy, has put in place,
or proposed, a series of measures to cut spending and
increase tax revenue, with the aim of obtaining a primary
surplus of 1.2% in 2015.1 Interest rates have been raised
twice since the November election (to 12.75%) to try to curb
inflation, which hit 8.1% for the 12-month period ending
1. Given the difficulties in getting support from Congress for the fiscal policies
proposed by Minister Levy, the target for primary surplus was reduced to 0.15%
of GDP in July 2015. Recent forecasts put the contraction in GDP at 1.5% or more
for 2015.
in March 2015. To make matters worse, the giant statecontrolled oil company, Petrobrs, is currently fighting a crisis
tied to poor management and a kick-back corruption scandal.
The latter has taken a political turn, with the implication of
several prominent political figures. At the end of April 2015,
Petrobrs finally published its annual report for 2014, in
which it acknowledged losses of over 50 billion reals (R$, circa
US$ 15.7 billion), R$6 billion of which were related to the
corruption scandal.
It is against this economic and political backdrop that Brazil is
striving to maintain the momentum of reforms to its national
innovation system, including innovation in social policies.
Social inclusion progressing more slowly
The downturn in the economy is starting to rub off on
social inclusion, which had been one of Brazils success
stories, especially during the commodities boom up to
2010 when Brazil essentially managed to eliminate hunger
and extreme poverty and, thereby, narrow the income gap.
Between 2005 and 2013, unemployment rates fell from
9.3% to 5.9% of the population.
More recent data suggest that this growth cycle may already be
at an end. According to the Social Panorama on Latin America
published by the United Nations Economic Commission
for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC, 2014a), Brazil
reduced poverty rates by one-third between 2003 and 2008
but progress slowed from 2008 to 2012 and stagnated in 2013.
Preliminary data even suggest that extreme poverty may
Figure 8.1: GDP per capita and GDP growth rate for Brazil, 20032013
15 000
7.5
12 000
5.7
5.2
5
9 000
4
4.0
2.7
3
2
1
1.1
1.0
0
-0.3
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
-1
2010
2011
2012
2013
211
Chapter 8
3 000
2.5
3.2
6 000
Box 8.1: The Brazilian Institute for Pure and Applied Mathematics
The Institute for Pure and Applied
Mathematics (IMPA) in Rio de Janeiro
was set up in 1952 as part of Brazils
National Research Council (CNPq).
From the outset, IMPAs mission was
to carry out high-level mathematical
research, train young researchers and
disseminate mathematical knowledge
in Brazilian society.
212
Brazil
Box 8.2: The Brazilian Centre for Research in Energy and Materials
The National Centre for Research in Energy
and Materials (CNPEM) is the oldest social
organization in Brazil. It runs national
laboratories in the areas of biosciences,
nanotechnology and bioethanol.
It also runs the only Latin American
synchrotron light source, which has been
operational since the late 1990s. The light
source and beamline were designed and
installed using technology developed at
the centre itself (see photo, p. 210).
CNPEM is currently engaged in the
development and construction of a new
0.65% of GDP;
n Increase the number of scholarships (all levels) granted by
213
Chapter 8
to 0.90% of GDP;
n augmenting the share of the labour force that has
214
Brazil
n Biotechnology;
n Nanotechnology and new materials;
n Technology for the prevention and
engineering; and
n Engineering;
n Aerospace;
n Pharmaceuticals;
n Sustainable agricultural production;
n Oil, gas and coal;
n Renewable energy;
Source: authors
15 287
15 000
13 912
12 217
11 367
11 314
2009
2010
10 705
8 982
9 364
Chapter 8
10 000
9 913
5 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2011
2012
2013
215
216
TRENDS IN R&D
R&D expenditure targets remain elusive
Brazils economic boom between 2004 and 2012 translated
into higher government and business spending on R&D.
Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) almost doubled
to PPP$ 35.5 billion (in 2011 dollars, Figure 8.3). Most of
this growth occurred between 2004 and 2010, when GERD
climbed from 0.97% to 1.16% of GDP. Since 2010, the
government sector alone has been driving up R&D intensity,
since the non-government contribution has actually
declined from 0.57% to 0.52% of GDP (2012). Preliminary
figures for 2013 indicate slight growth in government
spending and a constant contribution from the business
sector (relative to GDP). Business R&D expenditure is likely
to contract from 2015 onwards until the economy shows
signs of recovery. Even the most optimistic analysts do not
expect this to happen before 2016. Fixed capital investment
in Brazil is expected to decline further in 2015, especially in
the manufacturing sector. This trend will certainly affect R&D
expenditure by industry. The Petrobrs crisis is expected to
have a major impact on investment in R&D, since it alone
has accounted for about 10% of the countrys annual fixed
capital investment in recent years. The recently announced
cuts to the federal budget and other austerity measures
should also affect government spending on R&D.
Brazils GERD/GDP ratio remains well below that of both
advanced economies and such dynamic emerging market
economies as China and, especially, the Republic of Korea
(see Chapters 23 and 25). At the same time, it is quite
comparable to the more stagnant developed economies
such as Italy or Spain and other major emerging markets
like the Russian Federation (see Chapter 13). It is also well
ahead of most other Latin American countries (Figure 8.4).
The gap between Brazil and advanced economies is much
greater when it comes to human resources in R&D (Figure
8.5). Also striking is the sharp decline in the share of research
personnel employed by the business sector in recent years
(Figure 8.6). This is contrary to the trend observed in most
developed and major emerging countries; it partly reflects
the expansion of R&D in higher education and partly the
anaemic growth of business sector R&D highlighted above.
Private firms are spending less on R&D
Almost all of non-government expenditure on R&D comes
from private firms (private universities performing only
a fraction of it). Since 2010, this expenditure has been
declining as share of GDP (Figure 8.3); it has shrunk from
49% to 45% (2012) of total expenditure and even to 42% in
2013, according to preliminary government data. This trend
is likely to last for some time. The business sector will, thus,
have no chance of devoting 0.90% of GDP to R&D by 2014.
Brazil
70
Non-government share (%)
1.20
60
0.48
0.59
0.63
0.60
50
0.49
0.48
GERD/GDP ratio (%)
0.57
0.56
1.00
0.59
40
0.80
33.9
32.5
0.60
0.40
25.9
0.52
0.49
18.5
28.8
0.56
053
30
0.57
0.54
0.52
0.52
21.7
20.5
28.9
35.5
20
0.49
10
0.20
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Note: The great majority of non-government funding comes from business enterprises. Private universities accounted for just 0.020.03% of GERD between 2004
and 2012. Figures 8.3 and 8.4 are based on updated GDP data for Brazil available as of September 2015 and may thus not match other indicators indexed on GDP
reported elsewhere in the present report.
Source: Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
Figure 8.4: Brazilian business sectors contribution to GERD as a share of GDP, 2012 (%)
Other countries are given for comparison
0.96
4.00
Government share (%)
0.80
0.30
Mexico 0.13
0.40 0.33
South Africa
0.76
0.58
India 0.30
Brazil
China
France
USA
Germany
Japan
Korea, Rep.
0.00
Russia 0.36
0.63
0.55
0.72
Spain
0.52
0.54
0.73
Italy
0.59
0.79
Portugal
1.16
UK
0.47
1.12
Canada
0.50
Chapter 8
1.00
0.59
0.43
1.55
1.45
1.50
0.78
2.04
2.00
1.90
2.50
0.84
2.78
3.07
3.00
0.56
3.50
Source: OECDs Main Science and Technology Indicators, January 2015; Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
217
Figure 8.5: Share of Brazilian FTE researchers per 1 000 labour force, 2001 and 2011 (%)
7.8
Mexico
Figure 8.6: FTE researchers in Brazil by sector, 2001 and 2011 (%)
Other countries are given for comparison
Argentina
South Africa
Brazil
Spain
Mexico
Russian Fed.
China
USA
Korea, Rep.
2001
2011
2001
2011
11.9
36.8
8.8
20.8
22.1
2001
15.0
62.7
13.1
63.8
6.0
25.9
2001
23.7
67.8
16.7
58.6
34.5
2011
17.6
17.4
47.7
30.3
50.4
41.1
2011
53.8
5.5
19.8
2001
38.8
56.1
2011
28.6
48.0
2001
52.3
2011
2001
35.2
3.3
73.5
2011
77.4
Government
18.9
4.8
68.1
Business
22.6
19.0
60.0
2011
20.1
25.1
62.1
2001
14.8
31.6
Higher education
218
45.2
39.5
2010
2001
49.5
44.8
28.6
8.8
16.9
7.3
0.6
1.0
1.4
1.0
Brazil
1.2
South Africa
China
Argentina
Russian Fed.
Spain
UK
Germany
USA
France
Japan
Korea, Rep.
1.0
1.5
1.7
2.0
2.9
4.7
6.1
6.3
6.7
7.0
7.3
6.8
6.3
8.0
8.2
8.8
9.2
2011
2001
9.8
10.2
11.9
14.1
Brazil
The main reasons for Brazils low levels of private-sector R&D lie
in the general populations low level of scientific and technical
skills and the lack of incentives for businesses to develop
new technology, new products and new processes. As we
saw in the previous section, all available indicators show that
Brazils education system has not equipped the population to
function properly in a technologically advanced society, nor to
contribute effectively to technological progress.
As for Brazils low level of innovation, this phenomenon is
rooted in the deeply ingrained indifference of businesses and
industry towards developing new technologies. There are
fields where technological innovation sparks interest, of course:
Embraer, the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer, Petrobrs, the
state oil company and Vale, the large mining conglomerate,
are all very competitive in their respective fields, with highly
trained personnel and technologies and processes and products
that are both innovative and competitive. These innovative
companies share a common characteristic: their staple products
are either commodities or used by the services industry, as
in the case of commercial aeroplanes. Another area where
Brazil has shown itself to be innovative and internationally
competitive is agriculture, also a commodities sector. However,
Brazil does not have a single company that is competing at the
forefront of information and communications and information
technologies (ICTs), in electronics or in biotechnology. Why is
that so? In our view, the long-standing Brazilian industrial policy
of protecting internal markets for locally produced goods (in
various guises) has played a central role in this process. Only
now are we coming to realize just how destructive this import
substitution policy can be for the development of an innovative
environment. Why would a local business invest heavily
in R&D, if it is only competing with similar non-innovative
companies operating within the same protectionist system?
The consequence of this policy has been a gradual decline in
Brazils share of global trade in recent decades, especially when
it comes to exports of industrial goods, a trend that has even
accelerated in the past few years (Pedrosa and Queiroz, 2013).6
The situation is likely to deteriorate in the short term, as the
most recent data indicate that 20142015 may turn out to
be the worst years in decades for industry, especially for the
transformation subsector of the manufacturing industry.
219
Chapter 8
61.20
Non-oriented
research
10.93
10.06
Agriculture
Industrial technology
Health
Infrastructure
5.91
5.20
2.99
Defence
1.01
Non-specified
0.81
Environmental
protection & control
0.75
Space (civilian)
0.54
Energy
0.30
Exploration of Earth
& atmosphere
0.24
Social development
& service
0.06
220
The fact that energy is a key economic sector did not prevent
the government from cutting back its spending on energy
research from 2.1% to 1.1% of the total between 2000 and 2008
and again to 0.3% in 2012. Renewable energy sources have
been the primary victim of these cuts, as public investment has
increasingly turned towards deep-sea oil and gas exploration
off Brazils southeast coast. One area that has been directly
affected by this is trend is the ethanol industry, which has had
to close plants and cut back its own investment in R&D. Part
of the ethanol industrys woes have resulted from Petrobrs
pricing policies. Under the influence of the government, its
major stockholder, Petrobrs artificially depressed petrol
prices between 2011 and 2014 to control inflation. This in
turn depressed ethanol prices, making ethanol uneconomic
to produce. This policy ended up eating into Petrobrs own
revenue, forcing it to cut back its investment in oil and gas
exploration. As Petrobrs alone is responsible for about 10% of
all fixed capital investment in Brazil, this trend, along with the
corruption scandal currently shaking the company, will certainly
have ramifications for Brazils overall investment in R&D.
Brazil generates nearly three-quarters (73%) of its electricity from
hydropower (Figure 8.8). This contribution was even as high as
four-fifths in 2010 but the share of hydropower has been eroded
by a combination of declining rainfall and ageing hydroelectric
plants, many of which date back to the 1960s and 1970s.
Brazil
Source: authors
See also: www.aneel.gov.br
2.7
21.1
2015
73.3
9. See: http://ioppublishing.org/newsDetails/brazil-shows-that-materials-matter
Hydroelectric
Thermonuclear
Conventional thermoelectric
Wind
221
Chapter 8
222
Figure
8.9: SCIENCE
Scientific REPORT
publication
trends in Brazil, 20052014
UNESCO
2015
147
India 53 733
50 000
184
40 000
Brazil 37 228
30 000
Turkey 23 596
20 000
17 106
13 830
10 000
0.74
25 944
24 703
24 694
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
5.8%
21 181
17 321
16 066
14 278
11 181
5 367
nc
es
ls
cie
So
cia
ol
og
y
ch
921
Ot
he
Ps
y
Ph
ys
ics
s
sc
ie
nc
e
ls
cie
ed
ica
M
rl
ife
nc
es
ics
em
at
h
os
cie
Ge
te
rs
pu
Co
m
849
Chapter 8
Bi
ol
at
nc
es
En
gi
ne
er
in
g
nc
e
cie
ist
em
Ch
og
ica
ry
es
ls
cie
nc
om
y
on
As
tr
re
Ag
ric
ul
tu
2 621
2 560
1 766
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Brazil
France (8 938)
UK (8 784)
Germany (8 054)
Spain (7 268)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
223
Table 8.1: Invention patents granted to Brazilians by USPTO, 20042008 and 20092013
No. of patents,
20042008
Global average
No. of patents,
20092013
Cumulative
growth (%)
164 835
228 492
38.6
328
Japan
34 048
45 810
34.5
3 592
USA
86 360
110 683
28.2
3 553
Korea, Rep.
3 802
12 095
218.1
2 433
Sweden
1 561
1 702
9.0
1 802
Germany
11 000
12 523
13.8
1 535
Canada
3 451
5 169
49.8
1 499
Netherlands
1 312
1 760
34.1
1 055
UK
3 701
4 556
23.1
725
France
3 829
4 718
23.2
722
Italy
1 696
1 930
13.8
319
Spain
283
511
80.4
111
Chile
13
34
160.0
33
China
261
3 610
1 285.3
27
South Africa
111
127
14.2
25
Russian Fed.
198
303
53.1
21
Poland
15
60
313.7
16
Argentina
54
55
3.4
14
India
253
1 425
464.2
12
Brazil
108
189
74.6
10
Mexico
84
106
25.1
Turkey
14
42
200.0
Source: USPTO
USA
Korea, Rep.
Sweden
Canada
Netherlands
Germany
1 000
France
UK
Italy
Spain
100
China
India
10
Mexico
South Africa
Russian Fed.
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Poland
Turkey
1
10
100
1 000
Publications per million inhabitants
Source: for patents: USPTO; for publications: Thomson Reuters; for population: World Banks World Development Indicators
224
10 000
Brazil
REGIONAL TRENDS
STI still dominated by the State of So Paulo
Brazil is a country of continental dimensions, with highly
diverse levels of development across its 27 states. The southern
and southeastern regions show a much higher level of
industrialization and scientific development than the northern
ones, some of which encroach on the Amazonian forest and river
basin. The centre-west is Brazils agricultural and cattle-raising
powerhouse and has been developing rapidly recently.
The starkest example of this contrast is the southeastern
State of So Paulo. Home to 22% (44 million) of the countrys
202 million inhabitants, it generates about 32% of GDP and
a similar share of the nations industrial output. It also has a
very strong state system of public research universities that
is lacking in most other states and hosts the well-established
So Paulo Research Foundation (Box 8.6). The State of So
Paulo is responsible for 46% of GERD (public and private
expenditure) and 66% of business R&D.
Figure 8.11: Relative impact of scientific publications from So Paulo and Brazil, 20002013
0.684
0.803
0.837
0.692
0.740
0.665
0.734
0.653
0.733
0.651
0.719
0.660
0.709
0.675
0.789
0.718
0.816
0.756
0.766
0.695
0.740
0.693
0.753
0.709
0.723
So Paulo
0.673
0.721
0.693
Brazil
Chapter 8
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
225
R$ 69.50
Figure
8.12:SCIENCE
Relative REPORT
shares of Brazilian states for
UNESCO
investment in science and technology
AMAZONAS
PA R
CEAR
MARANHO
RIO GRANDE
DO NORTE
PA R A B A
PIAU
PEMAMBUCO
ACRE
ALAGOAS
TOCANTINS
SERGIPE
RONDNIA
BAHIA
MATO G R O S S O
FEDERAL
DISTRICT
R$ 183.80
GOIS
MINAS GERAIS
ESPRITO SANTO
MATO G R O S S O
DO SUL
S O PAU LO
RIO DE JANEIRO
PA R A N
S A N TA C ATA R I N A
RIO GRANDE
DO SUL
Ten of Brazils research universities are found in Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo
Research universities in Brazil
Region/
Federative unit
Research universities
Region/
Federative unit
Research universities
Cear
So Paulo
University of So Paulo
Pernambuco
Minas Gerais
Rio de Janeiro
Paran
226
Santa Catarina
Distrito Federal
University of Braslia
22%
State of So Paulos
share of Brazilian
population
73%
Brazil
State of So Paulos
share of public expenditure
on R&D
RORAIMA
RORAIMA
0.2
A M A P
A M A P
0.3
AMAZONAS
PA R
1.8
3.3
4.5
TOCANTINS
0.7
RONDNIA
0.8
0.6
2.0
P E M A M B U C O 4.6
A L A G O A S 1.6
S E R G I P E 1.1
1.6
0.4
AMAZONAS
1.6
0.7
0.6
0.7
A L A G O A S 0.2
S E R G I P E 0.1
BAHIA
2.0
MATO G R O S S O
0.2
FEDERAL
DISTRICT
0.3
1.4
GOIS
GOIS
3.1
0.6
MINAS GERAIS
10.4
MATO G R O S S O
DO SUL
1.2
0.3
PEMAMBUCO
TOCANTINS
RONDNIA
FEDERAL
DISTRICT
RIO GRANDE
DO NORTE
PA R A B A
PIAU
7.6
1.6
1.0
0.3
ACRE
BAHIA
MATO G R O S S O
CEAR
MARANHO
PA R
PA R A B A
PIAU
ACRE
RIO GRANDE
DO NORTE
CEAR
MARANHO
3.9
ESPRITO SANTO
S O PAU LO
21.6
RIO DE JANEIRO
1.8
MINAS GERAIS
3.0
MATO G R O S S O
DO SUL
0.4
8.3
ESPRITO SANTO
S O PAU LO
72.9
RIO DE JANEIRO
0.2
7.1
PA R A N
PA R A N
5.5
5.6
S A N TA C ATA R I N A
3.2
S A N TA C ATA R I N A
2.1
RIO GRANDE
DO SUL
RIO GRANDE
DO SUL
0.9
5.6
86%
So Paulo dominates
higher education
spending on R&D
A M A P
31%
State of So Paulos
share of higher
education spending
on R&D
RORAIMA
0.02
0.1
1
AMAZONAS
PA R
0.1
CEAR
MARANHO
0.2
1.1
0.1
RIO GRANDE
DO NORTE
0.2
PA R
1.1
0.01
PEMAMBUCO
1.7
SERGIPE
0.2
FEDERAL
DISTRICT
0.9
State of So Paulos
share of Brazilian PhD
programmes
1.2 1
3.4
FEDERAL
DISTRICT
3.8
GOIS
1.6
MINAS GERAIS
MINAS GERAIS
0.3
ESPRITO SANTO
S O PAU LO
85.5
RIO DE JANEIRO
9.8
MATO G R O S S O
DO SUL
0.5
S O PAU LO
30.9
PA R A N
PA R A N
RIO DE JANEIRO
13.5 5
6.0
3.8
S A N TA C ATA R I N A
4.8
1.8
Chapter 8
31%
ESPRITO SANTO
BAHIA
MATO G R O S S O
PEMAMBUCO
ALAGOAS
0.2
0.1
0.1
SERGIPE
1.9
3.7
0.4
0.5
TOCANTINS
GOIS
MATO G R O S S O
DO SUL
1.9
PA R A B A
0.2
ACRE
0.1
1.9
MATO G R O S S O
RIO GRANDE
DO NORTE
PIAU
RONDNIA
BAHIA
2.5
0.4
ALAGOAS
TOCANTINS
RONDNIA
CEAR
MARANHO
PA R A B A
PIAU
ACRE
0.5
0.2
AMAZONAS
0.8
RIO GRANDE
DO SUL
S A N TA C ATA R I N A
4.0 1
RIO GRANDE
DO SUL
9.8
227
CONCLUSION
Industry must embrace innovation to remain
internationally competititve
In recent decades, Brazil has basked in the global recognition
of its achievement in reducing poverty and inequality by
means of active social policies. Since economic growth began
to falter in 2011, however, progress towards social inclusion
has also slowed. With much of the active population holding
down a job these days (unemployment was down to 5.9%
by 2013), the only way to kickstart economic growth once
more will be to raise productivity. That will take two essential
ingredients: STI and a well-educated labour force.
The volume of Brazilian publications has grown considerably in
recent years. A number of individual researchers have also been
recognized for the quality of their work, as in the case of rtur
Avila, who became the first-ever Latin American mathematician
to receive the prestigious Fields Medal in 2014.
Nevertheless, there has been a general lack of progress in
the overall impact of Brazilian science. Citations of Brazilian
publications still fall well beneath the G20 average; to some
extent, this may be due to the fact that many Brazilian articles
are still published in Portuguese in Brazilian journals of limited
circulation, thereby passing under the international radar.
If so, this lack of visibility is a temporary price to pay for the
surge in access to higher education in recent years. However,
the fact remains that other emerging economies such as India,
the Republic of Korea or Turkey have performed much better
than Brazil in the past five years or so. Raising the quality and
visibility of Brazilian science will require a concerted effort to
expand and intensify international collaboration.
Education has become a central topic of national political
debate. The new Minister of Education is promising to overhaul
228
Brazil
58000 by 2014;
n Diversify exports and increase the countrys share in
REFERENCES
Aghion, P. and P. Howitt (1998) Endogenous Growth Theory.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press: Boston (USA).
Balbachevsky, E. and S. Schwartzman (2010) The graduate
foundations of Brazilian research. Higher Education Forum,
7: 85-100. Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima
University. Hiroshima University Press: Hiroshima.
Brito Cruz, C.H. and R. H. L. Pedrosa (2013) Past and present trends
in the Brazilian research university. In: C.G. Amrhein and
B. Baron (eds) Building Success in a Global University. Lemmens
Medien: Bonn and Berlin.
ECLAC (2014a) Social Panorama of Latin America 2013, 2014.
United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean: Santiago (Chile).
Chapter 8
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Joana Santa-Cruz from the team in
charge of STI indicators at the So Paulo Research Foundation
(FAPESP) for her help in collecting and organizing the data
used in the present chapter.
229
230
European Union
9 . European Union
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, UK
INTRODUCTION
A region in a protracted crisis
With the accession of Croatia in 2013, the European
Unions membership swelled to 28 countries, representing
a combined population of 507.2 million, or 7.1% of the
global population (Table 9.1). The European Union (EU) is
expected to expand further: Albania Montenegro, Serbia, the
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey are all
candidate countries that are in the process of integrating EU
legislation into their national legal systems, whereas Bosnia
and Herzegovina and Kosovo have the status of potential
Table 9.1: Population, GDP and unemployment rates in the EU, 2013
507.2
8.5
11.2
7.3
4.3
0.9
10.5
5.6
1.3
5.4
65.6
82.0
11.1
9.9
4.6
59.7
2.0
3.0
0.5
0.4
16.8
38.5
10.5
20.0
5.4
2.1
46.7
9.6
63.9
4.2
8.3
10.4
4.9
-5.2
-1.5
3.4
4.9
7.9
-1.3
6.4
9.5
-21.0
7.4
3.9
-1.0
2.4
9.8
14.1
16.3
-0.8
27.4
-2.3
10.4
8.5
-3.9
-4.7
7.9
1.6
26 600
34 300
31 400
12 300
15 800
24 300
21 600
32 800
19 200
30 000
28 600
32 800
19 300
17 600
34 700
26 800
17 100
19 200
68 700
23 600
34 800
17 800
20 000
14 100
20 000
21 800
24 700
34 000
29 000
5-year change in
5-year change in Unemployment rate, Unemployment rate
Unemployment rate unemployment rate persons below 25
persons below
2013 (%)
(%)
years 2013 (%)
25 years (%)
10.8
4.9
8.4
13.0
17.3
15.9
7.0
7.0
8.6
8.2
10.3
5.2
27.5
10.2
13.1
12.2
11.9
11.8
5.9
6.4
6.7
10.3
16.4
7.1
14.2
10.1
26.1
8.0
7.6
3.8
1.1
1.4
7.4
8.7
12.2
2.6
3.6
3.1
1.8
2.9
-2.2
19.7
2.4
6.7
5.5
4.2
6.0
1.0
0.4
3.6
3.2
7.7
1.5
4.6
5.7
14.8
1.8
2.0
23.6
9.2
23.7
28.4
50.0
38.9
18.9
13.0
18.7
19.9
24.8
7.8
58.3
26.6
26.8
40.0
23.2
21.9
16.9
13.0
11.0
27.3
38.1
23.7
33.7
21.6
55.5
23.6
20.7
7.8
1.2
5.7
16.5
26.3
29.9
9.0
5.0
6.7
3.4
5.8
-2.6
36.4
7.1
13.5
18.7
9.6
8.6
-0.4
1.3
4.7
10.1
16.6
6.1
14.4
11.2
31.0
3.4
5.7
Chapter 9
EU28
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
UK
Population 2013
(million)
5-year GDP
growth rate
(PPP , %)
Source: Eurostat
231
Figure 9.1: Government debt to GDP ratio for selected EU countries, 20082013 (%)
180
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
rie
ne
28
No
n-
Eu
ro
co
un
t
Eu
ro
zo
EU
nd
la
nl
Fi
Po
d
an
nd
s
th
er
la
ni
a
ov
e
Ne
Sl
an
y
m
UK
Ge
r
n
ai
Sp
e
an
c
Fr
pr
us
Cy
m
iu
lg
Be
nd
la
Ire
ly
Ita
l
ga
Po
rtu
Gr
ee
ce
Source: Eurostat, April 2015; aggregate debt-to-GDP ratios for non-Eurozone countries based on authors calculations
232
European Union
Hungary, Luxembourg, Poland and Sweden, all countries
(with the notable exception of Luxembourg) which had not
adopted the euro as their national currency. In most cases,
the increase in public debt resulted from governments
bailing out3 banks. Many governments have implemented
austerity programmes to reduce their budget deficits but
these cuts have actually pushed up levels of public debt
relative to GDP, delaying the return to growth. As a result,
most member states have experienced one or more periods
of recession since 2008, defined as two or more consecutive
quarters where GDP declined in comparison to the previous
period. Between 2008 and 2014, Greece, Croatia, Cyprus,
Italy, Portugal and Spain were all in recession for more than
40 months. The only countries to have escaped recession
altogether are Bulgaria, Poland and Slovakia (Figure 9.2).
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Austria
Belgium
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Portugal
Romania
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Chapter 9
UK
Note: For Croatia, data are only available up to the first quarter of 2014. Bulgaria, Poland and Slovakia do not figure here, as they did not experience any recession
period. Slovakia is a member of the Eurozone. All other 18 members of the Eurozone are shown in italics.
Source: OECD and Eurostat
233
should be employed;
n On average, 3% of GDP should be invested in R&D;
n Greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced by at least
234
European Union
Junckers ambitious investment plan
Shortly after succeeding the Barroso Commission in October
2014, the Juncker Commission in reference to Jean-Claude
Juncker, the Commissions new president proposed a threepronged strategy for inversing the decline in investment to
GDP ratios since 2008 even among member states not fighting
banking and debt crises. The Juncker Plan for Investment in
Europe involves:
n setting up a European Fund for Strategic Investment to
8. See: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-15-5420_en.htm
9. The first two elements concerned reform of the banking union and the creation
of a single market in energy.
235
Chapter 9
The 2.7 billion being drawn from Horizon 2020 has already led
to cuts to several programmes. The biggest loser is the European
Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT), headquartered in
Budapest (Hungary). It was set up in 2008 to support innovationdriven growth by supporting qualifications (PhD programmes)
and projects (through awards) that enhance collaboration
between innovation drivers in the education, research and
business sectors. EIT is expected to lose 350million, or 13%
of its budget, between 2015 and 2020. Another casualty is the
European Research Council, which was set up in 2007 to fund
basic research, it is expected to lose 221million. This represents
a fraction of its 13 billion budget over the Horizon 2020
period (20142020). Other cuts to the Horizon 2020 budget
will affect sectorial research projects on ICTs (307 million),
nanotechnology and advanced materials ( 170million).
TRENDS IN R&D
EU28
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
UK
GERD/GDP
ratio, 2009
GERD/GDP
ratio, 2013*
Target
for 2020
Industryfinanced share
of GERD, 2013*
1.94
2.61
1.97
0.51
0.84
0.45
1.30
3.07
1.40
3.75
2.21
2.73
0.63
1.14
1.39
1.22
0.45
0.83
1.72
0.52
1.69
0.67
1.58
0.46
0.47
1.82
1.35
3.42
1.75
2.02
2.81
2.28
0.65
0.81
0.48
1.91
3.05
1.74
3.32
2.23
2.94
0.78
1.41
1.58
1.25
0.60
0.95
1.16
0.85
1.98
0.87
1.36
0.39
0.83
2.59
1.24
3.21
1.63
3.00
3.76
3.00
1.50
1.40
0.50
3.00
3.00
4.00
3.00
3.00
0.67
1.80
2.00**
1.53
1.50
1.90
2.302.60
0.67
2.50
1.70
3.00
2.00
1.20
3.00
2.00
4.00
54.9
44.1
60.2
19.4
42.8
10.9
37.6
59.8
41.3
60.8
55.4
66.1
32.1
46.8
50.3
44.3
21.8
27.4
47.8
44.3
47.1
37.3
46.0
31.0
40.2
63.8
45.6
57.3
46.5
236
Spain and the UK that are less focused than other economies
on technology-intensive industries.
Company-level R&D intensity (as a share of net sales) tends to
be strongly correlated with the productive sector. The EU R&D
Scoreboard shows that EU businesses tend to be more heavily
concentrated in R&D of medium-to-low and low intensity,
in comparison to their principal competitors, the other two
members of the Triad, the USA and Japan (Table 9.3 and
Figure 9.5).
Moreover, although EU-based companies accounted for
30.1% of total R&D spending by the worlds top 2500
companies, there are only two EU-based companies in the
top ten, both of them German and both in the automotive
sector (Table 9.3). Indeed, the top three R&D performers in
the EU are the German automotive companies Volkswagen,
Daimler and BMW (Tables 9.3 and 9.4). The automotive sector
represents one-quarter of R&D spending by EU companies
covered in the EU R&D Scoreboard, three-quarters of which is
accounted for by German automotive companies.
The EU is largely absent from the arena of internet-based
companies active in new and emerging forms of innovation.
According to Downes (2015), none of the 15 largest public
internet companies today are European. Eleven are US-based
and the remainder are Chinese. Indeed, the EUs attempts
to replicate a Silicon Valley-type experience10 have not lived
up to expectations. The principal EU giants specializing in
hardware within the digital economy (Siemens, Ericsson,
Nokia) have even lost a lot of ground in the past decade
in global R&D rankings. Nonetheless, the German-based
software and IT services company SAP has recently joined the
global top 50 R&D performers (Table 9.3).
Business R&D performance in the EU has also been weighed
down by the disappointing growth of R&D in sectors such as
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology (0.9 % R&D growth in
2013) or technology hardware and equipment (-5.4%), which
are typically R&D-intensive. Whereas the EU is almost on a par
with the USA in pharmaceuticals, it trails the USA in the area
of biotechnology (Tables 9.5 and 9.6).
There are emerging concerns in Europe about the erosion of
its science base through takeover bids from competitors. One
illustration of this concern is the aborted takeover bid by the
US pharmaceutical company Pfizer in 2014. Pfizer found itself
obliged to reassure the UK government that its 63 billion
bid to buy the Anglo-Swedish pharmaceutical company
AstraZeneca would not affect research jobs in the UK.
Although Pfizer promised that a combined company would
10. One example is the technology cluster in central and east London known as
Tech City. See: www.techcityuk.com
European Union
Figure 9.3: GERD by source of funds and performing sector, 2013 or latest available year (%)
By source of funds
100
12
90
13
11
10
21
80 29
20
14
17
9
20
21
16
15
10
13
18
13
16
17
27
37
27
70
26
23
29
28
35
52
33
27
60
31
34
43
36
43
43
34
27
39
40
48
48
47
39
35
51
52
50
35
66
40
66
30
64
61
60
60
57
55
55
50
20
48
47
47
47
46
46
44
44
44
43
41
40
38
37
32
31
10
27
24
32
22
19
UK
rtu
ga
l -1
Sp
ain
-1
M
alt
a
Ita
ly - 1
Au
st
ria
Cr
oa
t ia
Es
to
ni
a
Cz Slo v
ec
ak
h
i
a
Re
pu
bl
ic
Po
lan
d
Gr
ee
ce
Ro
m
an
ia
Lit
hu
an
ia
La
tv
i
Bu a
lg
ar
ia
Cy
pr
us 1
Po
an
y -1
ov
Sl
Ge
rm
en
ia
Fi n
lan
Be
d
lg
iu
m2
De
nm
Sw ark
ed
en 2
Fr
an
ce 1
EU
28 1
I
Lu rela
nd
xe
-1
m
bo
Ne urg 2
th
er
lan
ds
Hu
ng
ar
y
11
By performing sector
100
10
90
80
23
14
22
22
26
13
5
15
70
15
17
28
21
32
26
23
15
5
13
12
32
23
27
36
28
28
33
29
37
42
30
43
55
38
11
60
18
10
15
19
26
20
9
50
40
13
20
24
27
57
49
27
29
77
72
69
69
69
69
68
68
30
65
65
65
64
20
61
61
58
54
54
54
53
50
20
48
48
46
14
44
35
10
31
28
25
Sl
ov
en
Ire ia
lan
d -1
Hu
ng
a
Be ry
lg
iu
m
Fin
lan
d
Au
st
ri
Sw a
ed
Ge en
rm
an
y
De
nm
ar
k
Fr
an
ce
Business enterprise
Government
UK
Lu
EU
xe
28
m
bo
ur
g
Bu
l
Ne g ar
ia
t
Cz her
lan
ec
h
Re d s
pu
bl
ic
M
alt
a
Ita
ly
Sp
ain
Cr
oa
ti
Es a
to
n
P o ia
rtu
ga
l
Sl
ov
ak
ia
Po
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Gr
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ce
Ro
m
an
ia
La
tv
ia
Lit
hu
an
ia
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pr
us
15
Higher education
Private non-profit
Abroad
Chapter 9
237
Figure 9.4: BERD as a share of GDP in the EU, 2005 and 2013 (%)
Other economies are given for comparison
3.5
2005
2013
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
nd
la
Po
n
ai
Sp
ly
Ita
da
na
Ca
UK
8
2
EU
5
1
EU
ce
an
Fr
a
in
Ch
y
an
A
US
n
pa
Ja
rm
Ge
Ko
re
a,
Re
p.
0.0
238
European Union
Country
Field
R&D (
millions)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Volkswagen
Samsung Electronics
Microsoft
Intel
Novartis
Roche
Toyota Motors
Johnson & Johnson
Google
Daimler
General Motors
Merck USA
BMW
Sanofi-Aventis
Pfizer
Robert Bosch
Ford Motors
Cisco Systems
Siemens
Honda Motors
Glaxosmithkline
IBM
Eli Lilly
Oracle
Qualcomm
Huawei
Airbus
Ericsson
Nokia
Nissan Motors
General Electric
Fiat
Panasonic
Bayer
Apple
Sony
AstraZeneca
Amgen
Boehringer Ingelheim
BristolMyers Squibb
Denso
Hitachi
AlcatelLucent
EMC
Takeda Pharmceuticals
SAP
HewlettPackard
Toshiba
LG Electronics
Volvo
Germany
Korea, Rep.
USA
USA
Switzerland
Switzerland
Japan
USA
USA
Germany
USA
USA
Germany
France
USA
Germany
USA
USA
Germany
Japan
UK
USA
USA
USA
USA
China
Netherlands**
Sweden
Finland
Japan
USA
Italy
Japan
Germany
USA
Japan
UK
USA
Germany
USA
Japan
Japan
France
USA
Japan
Germany
USA
Japan
Korea, Rep.
Sweden
11 743
10 155
8 253
7 694
7 174
7 076
6 270
5 934
5 736
5 379
5 221
5 165
4 792
4 757
4 750
4 653
4 641
4 564
4 556
4 367
4 154
4 089
4 011
3 735
3 602
3 589
3 581
3 485
3 456
3 447
3 444
3 362
3 297
3 259
3 245
3 209
3 203
2 961
2 743
2 705
2 539
2 420
2 374
2 355
2 352
2 282
2 273
2 269
2 209
2 131
Change in rank
for R&D 2004-2007
+7
+31
+10
+10
+15
+12
-2
+4
+ 173
-7
-5
+17
+15
+8
-13
+10
-16
+13
-15
-4
-10
-13
+18
+47
+112
up > 200
+8
-11
-9
+4
+6
+12
-26
-2
+120
-21
-12
+18
+23
+2
+12
-18
+4
+48
+28
+23
-24
-18
+61
+27
R&D
intensity*
6.0
6.5
13.1
20.1
17.1
18.6
3.5
11.5
13.2
4.6
4.6
16.2
6.3
14.4
12.7
10.1
4.4
13.4
6.0
5.4
13.1
5.7
23.9
13.5
20.0
25.6
6.0
13.6
14.7
4.8
3.3
3.9
6.2
8.1
2.6
21.3
17.2
21.9
19.5
22.8
9.0
3.7
16.4
14.0
20.2
13.6
2.8
5.1
5.5
6.9
239
Chapter 9
Rank in
2014
Base
Activity
Germany
Germany
Germany
France
Germany
Germany
UK
Netherlands
Sweden
Finland
Italy
Germany
UK
Germany
France
Germany
Sweden
France
Germany
Germany
The Netherlands
France
Italy
Denmark
Germany
Netherlands
Spain
France
UK
Spain
The Netherlands
France
Italy
UK
France
UK
The Netherlands
France
Ireland
France
R&D intensity
( 3-year growth)
Sales
(3-year growth)
23.3
3.5
20.0
2.7
6.8
2.4
-2.5
5.1
0.1
-11.2
20.2
0.5
0.9
3.8
-3.6
9.7
5.2
-6.5
8.0
7.1
2.5
1.2
-3.9
8.6
2.5
-6.4
-2.8
31.2
6.9
5.1
3.9
0.8
11.9
9.0
9.9
9.1
12.7
9.0
11.9
8.8
15.8
6.5
7.9
2.7
-0.8
3.2
-2.3
9.0
3.8
-18.0
34.3
4.6
-8.2
3.8
-3.4
10.5
1.0
-1.2
8.6
5.0
3.1
1.6
-5.0
11.2
6.1
-7.9
-1.7
9.5
-9.2
-2.1
4.0
-1.1
-5.3
7.0
6.9
6.0
6.5
5.9
7.3
5.6
Table 9.5: EUs relative position in the global top 2 500 R&D companies, 2013
Number of companies
R&D ( billions)
Growth in 20102013 (%)
World share in 2013 (%)
R&D as a share of net sales (%)
Net sales ( billions)
EU
USA
Japan
Other countries
633
162.3
5.8
30.1
2.7
5 909.0
804
193.6
7.0
36.0
5.0
3 839.5
387
85.6
3.0
15.9
3.2
2 638.6
676
96.8
9.8
18.0
2.2
4 335.9
240
European Union
Number of companies
Health
Pharmaceuticals
Biotechnology
Health care equipment & services
Software & services
Software
Computer services
Internet
R&D ( millions)
EU
USA
EU
USA
EU
USA
47
20
23
46
98
54
26781.9
1238.4
2708.2
29150.0
12287.3
7483.5
13.2
16.0
4.4
14.0
27.2
3.8
33
15
2
86
46
20
4797.2
1311.1
97.6
22413.9
6904.8
8811.5
14.8
5.2
6.3
15.0
6.9
14.3
5.4
5.0
4.8
4.3
4.0
3.7
3.2
3.2
3.2
2.8
2.0
1.5
1.2
1
0.8
2005
2013
EU
2005
2013
USA
2005
1.2
0.9
2013
Japan
2005
2013
EU
2005
2013
USA
Medium-high
2005
2013
Japan
2005
2013
EU
2005
2013
USA
0.9
1.0
2005
2013
Japan
Note: The data concern 476 EU companies, 525 US companies and 362 Japanese companies out of the worlds top 2 500 companies according to the EU R&D
Scoreboard.
Source: Hernndez et. al (2014), Figure S3
241
Chapter 9
2004
2010
Innovation leaders
Innovation followers
Moderate innovators
Modest innovators
Source: European commission (2014c), Regional Innovation Union Scoreboard 2014; maps created using Region Map Generator
such as expensive patenting, market fragmentation, slow standardsetting and skills shortages and revolutionize the way in which
the public and private sectors work together, notably through
innovation partnerships between European institutions, national
and regional authorities and businesses. By 2015, considerable
progress had been made for all but one commitment (Table 9.7).
Commitment 5 focuses on building world-class research and
innovation infrastructure to attract global talent and foster
the development of key enabling technologies. The European
Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures has identified 44
key new research facilities (or major upgrades to existing ones).
The construction and operation of this infrastructure requires
the pooling of resources by several member states, associated
countries and also third countries. The target is for 60% of this
research infrastructure to have been completed or launched
by 2015.
242
European Union
2a
Deliverables
n L
aunch of EURAXESS, an information tool
n U
-Multirank launched in 2014 to compare
2b
Create knowledge
alliances between
business and
academia
n U
niversities and businesses took part in the
Follow-up:
Propose an integrated
framework for e-skills
n E
-competence framework adopted as a
released
Propose a European
Framework for
Research Careers and
supporting measures
created;
n E
uropean Framework for Research Careers
Remaining gaps:
Some member states still have to align their
systems on the principles of the European
Framework for Research Careers;
n P
an-European Pension fund expected to be
Construct priority
European research
infrastructure
n 1
4 types of infrastructure are providing
Simplify EU research
and innovation
programmes and
focus future ones on
the Innovation Union
n F
irst calls for research project proposals
Ensure stronger
involvement of SMEs
in future EU research
and innovation
programmes
n S
MEs instrument ready to be used in Horizon
2020
Chapter 9
Activities established
continued overleaf...
243
Deliverables
n S
trategic Innovation Agenda implemented with
n 3
5 masters degree courses created with the
n M
ore than 1000 students enrolled in EIT
EIT label;
courses;
n M
ore than 100 start-ups created;
n M
ore than 400 ideas incubated;
n 9
0 new products and services launched
10
11
Ensure cross-border
operation of venture
capital funds
n A
t least two applications have been presented
12
13
n S
tate Aid Modernisation rules ready for use as
14
Remaining gaps:
2020
the Commission
reviewed
to member states
of July 2014
n 1
3 member states still to ratify the Unitary
15
n M
ethodology applied to water directive and
16
Accelerate and
modernize standardsetting
n 3
7% faster standardization process
17a
n S
ome member states have introduced
17b
Set up an EU-level
support mechanism
and facilitate joint
procurement
Council
244
Remaining gaps:
n M
ember states yet to transpose these
European Union
Deliverables
n S
trategic Implementation Plan agreed in 2012
Establish a European
Creative Industries
Alliance
n M
ore than 45 million mobilized on top of
established in 2011
n M
ore than 3500 SMEs have benefited from
19b
Set up a European
Design Leadership
Board
n S
taff working document on Implementing an
n E
uropean Design Innovation Platform
established
n E
uropean Design Innovation Initiative call
20
Promote open
access; support smart
research information
services
n O
DIN project launched, an open access
21
Facilitate collaborative
research and
knowledge transfer
n E
uropean Technology Transfer Offices
n G
uidance on the use of consortium
2020
established;
innovation
22
Develop a European
knowledge market for
patents and licensing
n E
xpert groups established on intellectual
n R
esults of the expert group on patent
valorization to be delivered
23
24
25
n N
ational and regional smart specialization
n S
mart Specialisation Platform launched in 2012
n E
uropean Social Innovation Competition
n S
upport given to networks of incubators for
n E
uropean Prize for Innovation in the Public
n E
xpert group on public sector innovation
in 2010
26
27
Support a research
programme on social
innovation in the
public sector and pilot
a European Public
Sector Innovation
Scoreboard
in 2011;
established;
social innovation
Sector launched;
set up
Chapter 9
Launch a Social
Innovation pilot
and promote social
innovation through the
European Social Fund
n F
irst European Capital of Innovation Award
continued overleaf...
245
29
Deliverables
n E
uropean Workplace Innovation Network
place in 2013;
set up
2014
n M
ore than 700 commitments for action
n R
eference sites for sharing lessons and
n F
irst results emerging: collections of good
30
n E
URAXESS and EURAXESS links;
n N
ew scientific visa to take effect in 2016, after
n Scientific visa;
n Marie Skodowska Curie Actions;
n Destination Europe Events
31
Propose priorities
and approaches for
scientific co-operation
with third countries
involving the EU and
member states
n S
trategic Forum for International Cooperation
n O
n-going work of the Strategic Forum for
n O
ngoing dialogue with third countries and
32
Roll-out global
research infrastructure
2013 at G8 level;
33
Self-assess national
research and
innovation systems
and identify
challenges and
reforms
34a
Develop an innovation
headline indicator
34b
Monitor progress
using Innovation
Union Scoreboard
n P
eer review carried out for Belgium, Estonia,
n N
ew tool launched under Horizon 2020
member states;
246
recommendations in 2014
recently in 2015
European Union
MONITORING THE LATEST FRAMEWORK
PROGRAMMES FOR RESEARCH
Horizon 2020: the EUs biggest research programme
ever
The funding levels of the EUs successive framework
programmes for research and development have grown
consistently over time from 4 billion for the first one from
1984 to 1988 to 53 billion for the Seventh Framework
Programme for Research and Technological Development
(20072013) and nearly 80 billion for Horizon 2020, the
biggest EU research programme ever. Horizon 2020 was
proposed by the European Commission in November 2011
and adopted by the European Parliament and European
Council in December 2013.
31.7
24 441
17.0
13 095
3.5
2 696
Marie-Skodowska-Curie Actions
8.0
6 162
3.2
2 488
22.1
17 016
17.6
13 557
3.7
2 842
0.8
616
38.5
29 679
9.7
7 472
Food security, sustainable agriculture and forestry, marine maritime and inland water research and the bio-economy
5.0
3 851
7.1
5 931
8.2
6 339
4.0
3 081
1.7
1 309
Secure societies Protecting freedom and security of Europe and its citizens
2.2
1 695
0.6
462
1.1
816
3.5
2 711
2.5
1 903
TOTAL EU REGULATION
77 028
45.4
728
19.7
316
34.9
560
100.0
1 603
Chapter 9
100.0
Note: Owing to of Euratoms different legal base, its budgets are fixed for five years. For the years 20142018, the budget is estimated to be 1 603 million
and for the years 20192020 an amount of 770 million is foreseen.
Source: European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/research/horizon2020/pdf/press/fact_sheet_on_horizon2020_budget.pdf
247
Table 9.9: Number of projects within Seventh Framework Programme related to sustainable development, 20072013
Energy
Health
Materials
All projects
Share of
sustainability
projects (%)
157
71
191
188
2 993
25.1
214
140
295
355
4 552
29.3
43
45
18
23
19
590
25.1
Croatia
25
23
14
21
351
26.2
Cyprus
15
21
15
10
11
436
16.5
Czech Republic
85
63
22
77
111
1 216
29.4
197
130
97
200
186
2 275
35.6
Estonia
29
21
11
54
13
502
25.5
Finland
148
83
55
166
232
2 089
32.7
France
419
275
198
551
530
8 909
22.1
Germany
519
425
285
776
970
11 404
26.1
Greece
147
140
72
117
165
2 340
27.4
87
57
23
96
75
1 350
25.0
Ireland
108
55
35
109
117
1 740
24.4
Italy
460
296
183
509
659
8 471
24.9
Latvia
24
11
13
17
14
267
29.6
Lithuania
24
19
12
24
27
358
29.6
Luxembourg
10
19
15
233
23.6
Malta
177
16.9
Netherlands
467
298
169
558
343
6 191
29.6
Poland
100
76
53
96
166
1 892
26.0
Portugal
123
94
69
68
125
1 923
24.9
Romania
41
69
17
48
81
898
28.5
Slovakia
26
19
15
18
41
411
29.0
Slovenia
55
55
23
48
81
771
34.0
Spain
360
291
211
388
677
8 462
22.8
Sweden
145
135
88
255
258
3 210
27.4
UK
508
379
191
699
666
12 591
19.4
Agriculture
Environment
Austria
145
Belgium
331
Bulgaria
Denmark
Hungary
Note: The total for the Seventh Framework Programme includes non- thematic cooperation projects.
Source: CORDIS (www.cordis.europa.eu), data downloaded on 4 March 2015
248
European Union
had the highest number of patent applications in environmentrelated technologies per billion PPP euro GDP; moreover, the
absolute number of patent applications in this area also increased
most in these four countries between 2005 and 2011. Denmark
and Finland also figure prominently in high sustainability
research projects under the Seventh Framework Programme.
Table 9.10: Key indicators for measuring progress towards Europe 2020 objectives for societal challenges
Environment-related technologies:
patent applications to the EPO per billion GDP
in current PP
EU28
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
UK
2005
0.31
0.47
0.27
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.06
0.69
0.00
0.39
0.33
0.74
0.01
0.11
0.09
0.19
0.04
0.00
0.61
0.13
0.33
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.04
0.03
0.06
0.67
0.17
2011
0.46
0.72
0.40
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.07
1.87
0.30
0.91
0.43
1.05
0.05
0.12
0.16
0.22
0.06
0.03
0.35
0.00
0.50
0.04
0.08
0.02
0.03
0.10
0.13
1.03
0.26
Change
0.15
0.25
0.13
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.01
1.18
0.30
0.52
0.10
0.31
0.04
0.01
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.03
-0.26
-0.13
0.17
0.01
0.04
0.01
-0.01
0.08
0.07
0.36
0.09
2012
82.1
104.0
82.6
56.0
82.7
147.7
67.3
76.9
47.4
88.1
89.5
76.6
105.7
63.7
107.0
89.7
42.9
44.4
97.5
156.9
93.3
85.9
114.9
48.0
58.4
102.6
122.5
80.7
77.5
Change (%)
-11.1
-15.7
-17.1
-2.5
-13.1
-10.4
-7.4
-17.8
1.8
-9.9
-12.1
-4.2
-22.5
-17.0
-21.1
-21.8
0.4
-3.3
-10.8
9.2
-8.6
0.3
-29.7
-9.1
-10.3
-7.6
-30.8
-12.3
-12.3
2012
14.1
32.1
6.8
16.3
16.8
6.8
11.2
26.0
25.8
34.3
13.4
12.4
13.8
9.6
7.2
13.5
35.8
21.7
3.1
2.7
4.5
11.0
24.6
22.9
10.4
20.2
14.3
51.0
4.2
Change (ratio)
1.6
1.3
3.0
1.7
1.3
2.2
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.2
1.4
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.6
2.3
1.1
1.3
2.2
9.0
2.0
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.9
1.3
1.7
1.3
3.0
Chapter 9
Note: The term environment-related technologies refers to patent applications in the following thematic areas: general environmental management; energy
generation from renewable and non-fossil sources; combustion technologies with mitigation potential; technologies specific to climate change mitigation;
technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to mitigating emissions; emissions abatement and fuel efficiency in transportation; and energy efficiency
in buildings and lighting.
Source: for greenhouse gas emissions, the share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption and GDP in current PP: Eurostat; for the number
of patent applications in environment-related technologies: OECD
249
Box 9.1: The European Research Council: the first pan-European funding body for frontier research
The European Research Council (ERC)
was created in 2007 under the Seventh
Framework Programme. Through
peer-reviewed competitions, the best
researchers receive funding to perform
their frontier research in Europe. The ERC
is currently part of the first pillar (Excellent
science) of Horizon 2020, with a budget
of 13.1 billion representing 17% of the
overall budget for Horizon 2020.
Since 2007, more than 5 000 projects
have been selected for funding from
more than 50 000 applications. The
ERC counts eight Nobel laureates and
three Fields medalists among its grant
holders. Over 40 000 scientific articles
acknowledging ERC-funding appeared
in peer-reviewed high-impact journals
between 2008 and 2013 and one-third
of all ERC grantees have published in
articles listed among the top 1% most
highly cited publications worldwide.
Within the ERC, there are three core
funding schemes and one additional
scheme:
250
European Union
n The Specific Programme for People funded the training,
12. The Marie Skodowska-Curie Actions provide researchers with grants at all
stages of their career and encourage transnational, intersectorial and interdisciplinary mobility. Between 2007 and 2014, more than 32500 EU researchers
received this type of funding.
800
600
400
Estonia
Cyprus
Turkey
Poland
Czech Rep.
Ireland
Portugal
Greece
Hungary
Finland
Norway
Austria
Denmark
Belgium
Spain
Sweden
Italy
Israel
Switzerland
-200
France
Netherlands
200
251
Chapter 9
Germany
UK
A successful model
The ERC has been widely acknowledged as
a highly successful model for competitive
research funding. Its existence has had a
strong impact at the national level. Since
the ERC was created in 2007, 11 member
states have set up national research
councils, bringing the total to 23. Funding
schemes inspired by the ERC structure
have been launched by 12 member
states: Denmark, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg,
Poland, Romania, Spain and Sweden.
Table 9.11: EU member states performance in calls for research proposals within Seventh Framework Programme,
20072013
Applicants in retained proposals
Total
Number
Success
rate (%)
Austria
3 363
22.3
Belgium
5 664
26.3
Bulgaria
672
Croatia
Cyprus
Per million
Inhabitants
Rank
Total
( millions)
402.3
10
1114.9
20.9
2.0
21
521.0
1806.3
23.8
3.4
16.4
24
90.5
24
95.2
10.2
26
6.6
388
16.9
23
90.3
25
74.2
11.1
24
3.0
14
Rank
Success
rate (%)
Rank
Share of
R&D (%)
Rank
443
15.0
27
542.3
78.9
9.7
27
13.8
Czech Rep.
1 377
20.3
13
132.1
22
249.3
14.8
15
1.5
25
Denmark
22
2 672
24.2
483.1
978.2
22.5
2.0
Estonia
495
20.6
12
371.6
12
90.2
16.3
10
4.7
Finland
2 620
21.3
11
489.6
898.1
15.9
11
1.9
23
France
11 975
25.1
185.2
19
4653.7
24.7
1.5
26
Germany
17 242
24.1
210.3
16
6967.4
23.3
1.4
27
Greece
3 535
16.4
24
317.2
13
924.0
13.2
19
9.3
Hungary
1 498
20.3
13
149.8
20
278.9
15.0
14
3.4
Ireland
1921
21.9
425.4
533.0
17.2
2.9
15
11 257
18.3
20
190.6
18
3457.1
15.1
13
2.5
18
Latvia
308
21.6
10
145.4
21
40.7
13.3
18
4.6
Lithuania
411
20.0
15
131.9
23
55.1
14.2
16
3.0
13
Luxembourg
192
18.5
18
380.8
11
39.8
13.7
17
1.0
28
Malta
183
18.9
17
442.9
18.6
11.0
25
5.9
Netherlands
7 823
25.5
472.1
3152.5
23.6
4.0
Poland
2 164
18.5
18
56.5
27
399.4
11.9
21
2.2
20
Portugal
2 188
18.1
21
207.5
17
470.9
13.1
20
2.7
16
Romania
1 005
14.6
28
49.3
28
148.7
9.0
28
3.3
10
10 591
19.0
16
229.2
15
2947.9
15.3
12
3.0
12
Slovenia
858
15.6
26
421.0
164.3
11.2
23
3.1
11
Slovakia
467
17.9
22
86.6
26
72.3
11.6
22
2.5
19
Sweden
4 370
23.6
468.1
1595.0
19.7
1.8
24
16 716
22.6
267.4
14
5984.7
19.6
2.6
17
Italy
Spain
UK
252
European Union
innovation, with the majority being regional innovation
leaders and followers, including capitals such as the greater
Berlin area (Germany), Brussels (Belgium), London (UK),
Stockholm (Sweden) and Vienna (Austria). None of the
regional modest innovators attract above-average shares of
framework programme funding or structural funds, with the
notable exception of the Portuguese Autonomous Region
of Madeira. More than half of the regions that attract neither
type of funding are regional moderate or modest innovators,
suggesting that these regions do not consider innovation a
priority area for investment.
A drop in government spending on defence R&D
At this point, we shall examine the national priorities for
research in 2005 with those at the end of the Seventh
Framework Programme in 2013. Government research
spending can be broken down into 14 socio-economic
objectives by using government budget appropriations or
outlays for R&D (GBAORD). On average, the largest share
of total government spending is earmarked for the general
advancement of knowledge, a category that includes all
university R&D financed by general purpose grants from
Ministries of Education so-called General University
Funds and funds from other sources, there being a lot of
variation between countries in the way they classify research
expenditure (Table 9.12). On average, 52% of GBAORD is spent
on the general advancement of knowledge but shares range
from just 23% in Latvia to more than 90% in Croatia and Malta.
A comparison with the data for GBAORD in 2005 presented
in the UNESCO Science Report 2010 shows that the EU as a
whole is spending less on defence research, including that
for military purposes13 and basic, nuclear and space-related
R&D financed by Ministries of Defence. This drop is apparent
for all four major spenders on defence in 2005 (France, Spain,
Sweden and the UK) and parallels the trend observed in the
USA regarding defence R&D (see Chapter 5). The UK was the
only EU country in 2013 to devote a two-digit share (16%) of
the government budget to defence R&D and, even then, it
was down from 31% in 2005.
13. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, the five top
EU spenders on defence in 2014 were France, Greece and the UK (2.2% of GDP),
Estonia (2.0%) and Poland (1.90%).
253
Chapter 9
Table 9.12: EU government budget appropriation for R&D by socio-economic objective, 2013 (%)
Culture, recreation,
religion and mass
media
Education
Agriculture
Health
Industrial production
and technology
Energy
Exploration and
exploitation of space
Environment
Exploration and
exploitation of the
Earth
EU28
2.0 (1.7) 2.5 (2.7) 5.1 (4.9) 3.0 (1.7) 4.3 (2.7) 9.2 (11.0) 9.0 (7.4) 3.3 (3.5) 1.2 (3.1)
1.1
Austria
1.7 (2.1) 2.4 (1.9) 0.7 (0.9) 1.1 (2.2) 2.6 (0.8) 13.3 (12.8) 4.9 (4.4) 1.7 (2.5) 1.7 (3.4)
0.3
Belgium
0.6 (0.6) 2.2 (2.3) 8.9 (8.4) 1.7 (0.9) 1.9 (1.9) 33.5 (33.4) 2.0 (1.9) 1.3 (1.3) 0.3 (4.0)
2.1
Bulgaria
4.3
1.5
2.0
1.1
0.2
7.8
2.0
20.0
7.3
1.1
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.9
0.1
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.1
Croatia
Cyprus
0.2 (1.9) 1.0 (1.1) 0.0 (0.0) 0.7 (1.5) 0.0 (0.4) 0.0 (1.3) 3.3 (10.4) 11.6 (23.5) 4.9 (8.2)
0.6
0.9
Czech Rep.
1.8 (2.3) 2.0 (2.9) 1.9 (0.8) 4.3 (4.1) 3.2 (2.4) 14.6 (11.9) 6.4 (6.8) 3.8 (5.0) 1.2 (2.8)
1.7
Denmark
0.4 (0.6) 1.6 (1.7) 1.3 (2.0) 0.6 (0.9) 4.0 (1.7) 7.9 (6.3) 12.6 (7.2) 3.5 (5.6) 3.9 (6.3)
1.6
Estonia
1.0 (0.3) 5.5 (5.4) 2.8 (0.0) 6.1 (8.1) 1.4 (2.2) 10.4 (5.8) 9.0 (4.3) 9.5 (13.5) 3.5 (6.4)
4.6
Finland
1.3 (1.0) 1.3 (1.8) 1.6 (1.8) 1.7 (2.0) 8.4 (4.8) 20.6 (26.1) 5.3 (5.9) 4.8 (5.9) 0.1 (6.1)
0.2
France
1.1 (0.9) 1.9 (2.7) 9.7 (9.0) 6.1 (0.6) 6.7 (4.5) 1.6 (6.2) 7.6 (6.1) 2.0 (2.3) 6.6 (0.4)
6.6
Germany
1.7 (1.8) 2.8 (3.4) 4.6 (4.9) 1.5 (1.8) 5.2 (2.8) 12.6 (12.6) 5.0 (4.3) 2.8 (1.8) 1.1 (3.9)
1.2
19.0
Greece
4.7 (3.4) 2.0 (3.6) 1.4 (1.6) 4.1 (2.2) 2.4 (2.1) 2.1 (9.0) 8.0 (7.0) 3.3 (5.4) 0.5 (5.3)
Hungary
1.8 (2.9) 2.6 (9.7) 0.5 (2.3) 6.7 (2.1) 6.8 (10.4) 14.2 (19.6) 10.3 (13.1) 8.2 (16.4) 0.6 (9.1)
2.2
Ireland
0.4 (2.4) 1.2 (0.8) 2.4 (1.5) 0.5 (0.0) 0.5 (0.0) 22.3 (14.2) 5.7 (5.3) 13.4 (8.9) 2.9 (2.4)
0.0
Italy
5.5 (2.9) 2.7 (2.7) 8.7 (8.0) 1.2 (1.0) 3.8 (4.0) 11.7 (12.9) 9.6 (9.9) 3.4 (3.4) 3.9 (5.3)
0.9
Latvia
0.5 (0.6) 10.4 (0.6) 0.8 (1.1) 4.9 (2.3) 6.7 (1.7) 16.0 (5.1) 15.4 (4.0) 16.3 (7.3) 2.2 (1.7)
1.7
Lithuania
3.0 (2.6) 0.2 (6.8) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (1.8) 4.6 (3.4) 5.4 (6.0) 4.7 (12.4) 5.3 (17.5) 0.6 (20.1)
2.1
Luxembourg 0.5 (0.5) 3.2 (3.1) 0.4 (0.0) 1.0 (3.4) 1.6 (0.6) 13.2 (21.0) 18.3 (7.8) 0.5 (1.8) 11.6 (16.4)
0.4
Malta
0.2 (0.0) 0.1 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.2 (0.1) 0.4 (0.0) 0.6 (0.0) 3.8 (5.6) 0.1 (6.9)
0.0
Netherlands
0.5 (0.3) 0.7 (1.2) 3.5 (2.5) 2.6 (3.6) 2.1 (2.2) 8.8 (11.5) 4.9 (3.8) 3.1 (6.1) 0.5 (2.1)
0.5
Poland
3.4 (1.8) 5.9 (2.4) 2.4 (0.0) 6.6 (1.2) 2.2 (0.9) 11.1 (5.9) 14.8 (1.9) 4.9 (1.3) 4.3 (0.9)
0.8
Portugal
1.9 (1.6) 3.4 (3.5) 0.7 (0.2) 4.0 (4.5) 2.2 (0.9) 6.9 (15.1) 11.5 (7.6) 3.6 (9.9) 2.9 (3.4)
3.0
Romania
3.7 (1.2) 7.4 (2.1) 1.8 (2.4) 3.7 (3.4) 3.7 (0.9) 12.9 (10.7) 2.8 (4.4) 4.9 (4.3) 4.7 (0.3)
0.4
Slovakia
1.7 (0.6) 2.7 (3.3) 0.6 (0.0) 1.6 (1.0) 1.0 (11.5) 7.4 (0.0) 7.9 (1.6) 4.2 (5.0) 2.9 (3.6)
3.1
Slovenia
1.2 (0.4) 3.1 (3.1) 0.5 (0.0) 3.3 (0.8) 2.9 (0.5) 15.2 (22.6) 7.3 (2.0) 4.0 (3.2) 1.2 (2.7)
1.8
Spain
1.7 (1.6) 3.9 (3.0) 5.0 (3.5) 3.5 (5.5) 2.3 (2.2) 6.8 (18.5) 15.5 (8.2) 6.6 (6.3) 1.0 (2.2)
0.6
Sweden
0.4 (0.7) 2.1 (2.2) 1.9 (1.2) 5.0 (3.8) 4.0 (2.3) 2.6 (5.4) 1.7 (1.0) 1.5 (2.2) 0.2 (5.0)
0.1
UK
3.1 (2.3) 2.8 (1.8) 3.3 (2.0) 3.4 (1.1) 2.5 (0.4) 3.4 (1.7) 21.1 (14.7) 4.0 (3.3) 0.4 (3.5)
1.8
Note: A direct comparison between the data for 2005 and 2013 is impossible for all objectives, as the classification was revised in 2007. Social structures and
relationships has been split into Education, Culture, recreation, religion and mass media and Political and social systems, structures and processes and Other civil
research has been distributed over all other socio-economic objectives except defence. Furthermore, for some countries, the categorization of expenditure under
General advancement of knowledge differs considerably between 2005 and 2013.
2013 than in 2007 and their R&D intensity has shrunk over the
same period from 0.57 to 0.51. The economic crisis since 2008
cannot be blamed for this weak performance, as the relative
performance of the other ten new member states improved
even during the crisis years.
All 13 new member states have increased their scientific
output, including when population is taken into account.
The share of EU28 publications produced by the ten countries
which joined in 2004 increased from 8.0% in 2004 to 9.6%
in 2014 (Figure 9.9) and the share of three latest newcomers
from 1.9% in 2007 to 2.1% in 2014. The scientific productivity
254
Total R&D
appropriations
( millions)
Defence
General advancement
of knowledge: R&D
financed from sources
other than GUF
General advancement
of knowledge: share
of R&D financed from
General University
Funds
European Union
2.8
92 094
1.2
2 589
3.2
2 523
1.7
0.7
9.1
40.5
1.4
102
64.1
31.0
0.0
269
0.0
60
1.4
1 028
2.6
2 612
2.0
154
4.7
2 018
5.1
14 981
1.8
25 371
2.6
859
1.4
663
1.0
733
5.7
8 444
0.9
32
1.4
126
13.4
310
0.1
22
2.3
4 794
0.7
1 438
2.4
1 579
2.4
297
1.7
289
2.2
175
1.0
5 682
2.4
3 640
1.5
11 305
Source: Eurostat, June 2015; for 2005 data between brackets: Eurostat data
cited in UNESCO Science Report 2010
255
Chapter 9
256
European Union
92.5
10.0
92.0
8.0
6.0
91.5
91.0
4.0
90.5
2.0
90.0
0.0
0.80
1.50
0.70
1.40
0.60
1.30
0.50
1.20
0.40
2013
0.90
1.60
2012
Note:
Shares for
the EU25 for
20042006
do not take
into account
the R&D
spending by
Bulgaria,
Croatia and
Romania.
1.00
1.70
2011
0.0
1.10
1.80
2010
94.5
1.20
1.90
2009
0.5
10 new
member
states
(right axis)
1.30
2.00
2008
95.0
Bulgaria,
Croatia
& Romania
(right axis)
1.40
2.10
2007
1.0
EU15
(lef t axis)
2006
95.5
2013
1.5
2012
96.0
2011
2.0
2010
96.5
2009
2.5
2008
97.0
2007
3.0
2006
97.5
2005
3.5
2004
98.0
2.20
2005
4.0
2004
98.5
1,200
800
700
1,000
600
800
500
600
400
300
400
200
200
0
100
0
Source: for top two graphs: Eurostat, January 2015; for bottom two graphs: computed by ScienceMetrix using Thomson Reuters Web of Science
19. http://www.caast-net-plus.org
17. See: https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/horizon-2020-whats-it-china
18. http://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/index.cfm?lg=en&pg=africa#policydialogue
20. See Ralphs, G. (2015) African participation drops in Horizon 2020. Research, 18
May: www.researchresearch.com
257
Figure 9.9:SCIENCE
ScientificREPORT
publication trends in the European Union, 20052014
UNESCO
Growth is generally stronger in the newer EU member states but Austria, Denmark and Portugal
have also made great strides
100 000
Germany 91 631
UK 87 948
80 000
73 573
70 201
France 65 086
60 000
52 476
Italy 57 472
Spain 49 247
40 000
40 111
Netherlands 31 823
29 667
Poland 23 498
22 225
20 000
Sweden 21 854
16 445
Belgium 18 208
13 843
12 572
0
15 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Denmark
14 820
Austria 13 108
Portugal 11 855
12 000
9 000
8 747
8 644
7 987
7 597
6 000
5 799
4 864
3 941
3 000
2 543
258
Ireland 6 576
Hungary 6 059
5 245
Romania 6 651
European Union
Slovenia
3 301
Slovakia 3 144
3 000
Croatia 2 932
2 500
Bulgaria
2 065
2 025
2 000
Lithuania 1 827
1 931
1 756
Estonia 1 567
1 500
1 624
1 000
885
Luxembourg 854
Cyprus 814
745
500
Latvia 586
319
258
175
61
Malta 207
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
With a 34% share of world publications in 2014, the EU is still the largest bloc
for absolute authorship
450 000
EU28
400 000
350 000
USA
300 000
China
250 000
200 000
150 000
100 000
Japan
Chapter 9
50 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
259
Austria 1 368
1 559
15 412
Belgium 3 082
22 939
Bulgaria
461 327
2 018
Croatia
775 259
2 992
2 324
Cyprus 9124
2 172
Germany
10 378
15 611
Greece
1 986
901
Hungary
883
685
Ireland
2 260
Lithuania
Luxembourg
532 135
Poland
566
21 502
624
72
361
577
152
11 618
12 300
3 315
2 594
1 976
Sweden 1 949
2 184
Agriculture
Mathematics
35 461
9 447
28 255
6 785
14 815
619
117 924
Astronomy
9 859
10 916
43 647
Biological sciences
Medical sciences
6 215
6 736
1 173
1 030
28 830
4 295
327
388
1 040
40 718
1 834
2 219
661
13
10
1 900
11
54
18
55
14 309
21 462
234
7 398
4
4
3 051
2 379
306
343
393
565
218
6 311
29
361
2 160
32
3 510
45
109
3 070
3 042
64
107
1 131 30 082
2 155
2 410
2 249 12 706
974
1 116
106
62 076
40 199
168 147
Computer science
Physics
145
27
37
366
3 613
22 076 11 063
14 301
Chemistry
840
1 092
9 242 2 664
39 273
655
9 474
272
163
5 343
35
22 235
254
579
7 086
2 075
2 782
3 976
1 949
2 979
1 786 11 601
40 948
9 076
2 291
470
4 570
3 975
307
8 425
4 780
83 344
73 103
15 914
1 553
1 337
698
43
604
586
2 671
2 411
1 061
66
46
60 405
77
223
3 069
11 779
1 983
1 002
56 015
322
126
8 602
3 075
447
101
3 414
13 638
7 299
199
502
533
764
7 271
249
418
203
393
621
103 792
689
26
50
1 285
710
11 068
139 77
2 311
39
8 055
2 510 1 101
23
63
8 800
19 732
2 427
444
12 294
392
1 011 3 255
20 385
5 240
1 838
1 109
156 096
2 190
22 666 13 449
272
39 350
4 926
2 229
529
239 2 754
UK
Note: Totals
exclude 286 742
unclassified
papers.
824
16 27
3 952
4 980
Romania
Spain
1 092
145
2 312
935
Slovenia
475
5 225
29
23
519 6 806
92 457
18 035
867
Portugal
Slovakia
60 142
35 883
45 728
1 044
979
2 074
65
16 759
21 288
11 249
796
9 117
190
606
669
95
26 659
1 022
8 692
2 386
69
2 925
4 345
32 324
696 2 202
3 581
675
4 681 1 689
39 415
18
3 830
285
734
728
1 321
6 483 1 272
7 470
4 454
621
896
5 333
6 094
8 746
2 683
7 991
66
5
Malta 109
Netherlands
4 881
7 925
41
5 263
103
9 656
65 285
8 987
9 382
9 300
71
44 619
108 639
826
1 018
4 830 1 520
75 369
1 612
1 423
183
32 846
733
379
683
13 943
France 7 841
10 966
1 816
9 457
5 227
23 153
1 089
617
19 017
Finland 1 479
1 159
Latvia
224
3 033
6 525 3 213
158
230
12 839
Estonia 221150
Italy
2 318
407
Denmark 2 820
1 580
5 404
1 842
463
260
Psychology
7 146 53 003
Engineering
Social sciences
7 851
7 524
Geosciences
7.0
7.0
6.7
Slovakia
Croatia
Latvia
261
Chapter 9
Poland
5.7
5.8
7.1
Bulgaria
Lithuania
7.5
Romania
8.8
9.4
Slovenia
0.78
0.77
Croatia
Slovakia
Latvia
Lithuania
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.79
Romania
Poland
0.81
Bulgaria
0.91
0.96
Hungary
Czech Rep.
0.97
1.04
Malta
Slovenia
1.07
EU28 average
0.99
1.09
Portugal
Greece
1.10
1.15
France
Estonia
1.17
Luxembourg
1.11
1.18
Germany
Italy
1.19
Cyprus
1.11
1.21
Finland
1.27
1.28
1.30
1.23
Spain
1.42
1.42
1.32
Austria
Sweden
Ireland
UK
Belgium
Netherlands
Denmark
Austria
UK
576
Slovakia
China
Japan
USA
Canada
576
184
Latvia 287
Bulgaria 288
Romania 307
481
607
Lithuania
Malta
615
610
Poland
686
Croatia
Hungary
706
Cyprus
998
847
941
Italy
Greece
1 007
1 004
France
1 046
Spain
Czech Rep.
1 109
1 085
Germany
EU28 average
1 117
1 538
1 385
1 221
Portugal
Estonia
1 406
1 590
1 537
Slovenia
Ireland
1 591
Luxembourg
2 269
1 976
1 894
1 634
Belgium
Netherlands
Finland
Sweden
Denmark
2 628
39%
Czech Rep.
9.4
Hungary
10.3
11.2
Portugal
Greece
11.3
11.8
Malta
EU28 average
11.8
Spain
12.7
Finland
12.0
12.7
France
Italy
13.0
13.3
13.5
13.5
14.0
14.1
14.3
15.1
15.3
16.6
16.8
Estonia
Luxembourg
Germany
Cyprus
Austria
Sweden
Ireland
UK
Belgium
Denmark
Netherlands
29.6%
For comparison
Among the large EU members, the UK has the highest average citation rate, followed by Germany
The Netherlands tops the EU for quality, Cyprus and Estonia lead among the newcomers
45.5%
38.2%
The USA is the top partner for 14 EU members, including all six most-populous ones
Main foreign partners, 20082014 (number of papers)
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Austria
UK (8 978)
Italy (7 678)
France (7 425)
Belgium
UK (15 109)
Bulgaria
Germany (2 632)
USA (1 614)
Italy (1 566)
France (1 505)
UK (1 396)
Croatia
Germany (2 383)
USA (2 349)
Italy (1 900)
UK (1 771)
France (1 573)
Cyprus
Greece (1 426)
USA (1 170)
UK (1 065)
Germany (829)
Italy (776)
Czech Rep.
Germany (8 265)
USA (7 908)
France (5 884)
UK (5775)
Italy (4 456)
Denmark
UK (12 176)
Sweden (8 906)
France (6 978)
Estonia
Finland (1 488)
UK (1 390)
Germany (1 368)
USA (1 336)
Sweden (1 065)
Finland
UK (8 507)
Germany (8 167)
Sweden (7 244)
France (5 109)
France
UK (40 595)
Germany
UK (54 779)
Greece
UK (8 905)
Germany (7 438)
Italy (6 184)
France (5 861)
Hungary
USA (6 367)
Germany (6 099)
UK (4 312)
France (3 740)
Italy (3 588)
Ireland
UK (9 735)
USA (7 426)
Germany (4 580)
France (3 541)
Italy (2 751)
Italy
UK (34 639)
Latvia
Germany (500)
USA (301)
Lithuania (298)
UK (289)
Lithuania
Germany (1 214)
USA (1 065)
UK (982)
France (950)
Poland (927)
Luxembourg
France (969)
Germany (870)
Belgium (495)
UK (488)
USA (470)
Malta
UK (318)
Italy (197)
France (126)
Germany (120)
USA (109)
Netherlands
UK (29 606)
Poland
UK (8 872)
France (8 795)
Italy (6 944)
Portugal
USA (8 107)
UK (7 524)
France (6054)
Germany (5 798)
Romania
France (4 424)
Germany (3 876)
USA (3 533)
Italy (3 268)
UK (2530)
Slovakia
Germany (2 719)
USA (2 249)
UK (1750)
France (1744)
Slovenia
USA (2 479)
Germany (2 315)
Italy (2 195)
UK (1889)
France (1666)
Spain
UK (28 979)
Italy (24571)
Sweden
UK (17 928)
Italy (9371)
UK
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
262
34.0
37.9
Lithuania
EU28 average
Croatia
Germany
Portugal
Latvia
UK
Hungary
Slovakia
Finland
Netherlands
Ireland
Estonia
Sweden
Denmark
Belgium
Austria
Malta
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Poland
38.0
Romania
46.0
Italy
41.4
46.1
Greece
43.8
47.8
50.3
Slovenia
Spain
51.1
Czech Rep.
54.3
France
52.6
54.8
Bulgaria
55.0
55.8
55.9
56.9
57.5
57.9
58.3
59.1
60.8
61.7
64.8
65.6
66.3
76.1
83.0
European Union
COUNTRY PROFILES
Given the sheer size of the EU, the following country profiles
are necessarily brief and limited to those countries with a
population of more than 10 million. Moreover, the European
Commission regularly publishes detailed country profiles
of EU member states via its Erawatch series. For a profile of
Croatia and Slovenia, see Chapter 10.
BELGIUM
A steep rise in R&D intensity
Belgium has a high-quality research system.
There is a general consensus on the need to foster innovationbased competitiveness. R&D expenditure in both the public
and private sectors has climbed steeply since 2005, placing
Belgium among the EU leaders for R&D intensity (2.3% of GDP
in 2013).
In Belgium, it is the regions and communities which are
mostly responsible for research and innovation, the federal
governments role being circumscribed to providing tax
incentives and funding specific areas like space research.
Belgium experienced a period of political instability between
2007 and 2011, with the Dutch-speaking Flemish community
advocating a devolution of power to the regions, whereas the
French-speaking Walloon community preferred to maintain
the status quo. The election of a new federal government in
December 2011 put an end to the political stalemate, with
the agreed partition of the Brussels Halle Vilvoorde region
and the adoption of policies to tackle the countrys economic
downturn.
In the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders, science and
innovation policy focuses on six thematic areas addressing
societal challenges. In the French-speaking Walloon region, the
focus is on a cluster approach, with the launch of transsectorial
innovation platforms and new tools targeting SMEs. The
French-speaking Brussels region, which also hosts the European
Commission, has adopted a smart specialization approach.
CZECH REPUBLIC
FRANCE
Towards the Industry of the Future
France has a large science base but the level
of business R&D is lower than in similar countries. The
government estimates21 that dis-industrialization over the
past decade has cost France 750000 jobs and 6% of the GDP
earned from industry.
France has substantially reformed its research and innovation
system in recent years. Under President Sarkozy (20072012),
the existing system of tax credits for company research was
recalculated on the basis of the volume of research spending
rather than the size of the increase in spending over the
previous two years. As a result, companies became entitled to
a rebate of about 30% on their research expenditure for the
first 100 million and 5% thereafter. Between 2008 and 2011,
the number of enterprises benefiting from this tax rebate
doubled to 19700. By 2015, the cost of this tax rebate was
ten times higher (5 billion) than in 2003. A report published in
2013 by the Cour des comptes, Frances watchdog for public
finances, questioned the efficacity of an increasingly costly
measure, while acknowledging that it had helped to preserve
innovation and research jobs during the crisis of 20082009.
It has also been suggested that larger companies ended up
benefiting more from the tax credits than SMEs. In September
2014, President Hollande affirmed his intention of preserving
the tax rebate, which is thought to project a positive image of
France abroad (Alet, 2015).
A New Deal for Innovation
Since the election of President Hollande in May 2012, the
government has oriented its industrial policy towards
supporting economic development and job creation, in
a context of stubbornly high unemployment (10.3% in
2013), particularly among the young (24.8% in 2013). A
total of 34 sectorial industrial plans have been introduced
with a strong focus on innovation, as well as a New Deal for
Innovation designed to promote innovation for all, which
21.See (in French): www.gouvernement.fr/action/la-nouvelle-france-industrielle
263
Chapter 9
GERMANY
Digitalizing industry: a priority
Germany is the EUs most populous member
state and biggest economy. Manufacturing is one of the
economys strengths, particularly in medium-to-high-tech
sectors such as automotive, machinery and chemicals,
but its dominance of high-tech manufacturing, such as in
pharmaceuticals and optical industries, has eroded over
time. The Federal Ministry for Education and Research has
developed a High-tech Strategy to improve co-operation
between science and industry, in order to maintain
Germanys international competitiveness. Launched in 2006,
the strategy was updated in 2010, with a focus on public
private partnerships in forward-looking projects, including
some oriented towards tackling the following societal
challenges: health, nutrition, climate and energy security,
communication and mobility. One key focus of the High-tech
Strategy since 2011 has been the digitalization of industry
(Box 9.3).
In 2005, the Pact for Research and Innovation was introduced.
Within this pact, the federal government and the regions
264
architecture;
n Managing complex systems;
n A comprehensive broadband
European Union
(Lnder) agreed to increase their joint funding of the major
public research institutes regularly, such as the Fraunhofer
Society or the Max Planck Society. In 2009, it was agreed
to increase the annual growth rate of institutional funding
from 3% to 5% for the period 20112015, in order to
give the research output of Germanys public research
institutes a further boost. In addition, the Central Innovation
Programme for SMEs introduced in 2008 funds more than
5 000 projects annually.
(2.9% in 2013);
n raising the share of renewable energy to 5560% of the
boards of directors.
development;
n Regulatory framework; and
n Resource efficiency.
Chapter 9
265
ITALY
A focus on partnerships and knowledge
transfer
Italy devotes a smaller share of GDP to R&D than many of its
larger neighbours (1.3% of GDP in 2013). This makes it difficult
for Italy to move towards a more efficient research system and
reduce its specialization in low-tech sectors.
In 2013, the Ministry of Education, the University and Research
launched a strategic document, the Horizon 2020 Italia, to
boost the Italian innovation system, by aligning national
research programmes with European ones and by reforming
the governance of the research system, such as through new
competitive procedures, evaluation mechanisms and impact
assessment of public funding. A year later, the government
introduced the National Research Programme 20142020,
which proposes strengthening the Italian research system by
fostering publicprivate partnerships, knowledge transfer and
better working conditions for researchers.
266
their losses;
n allowed to raise capital using crowdfunding;
n given easier access to government funding (Central
which do not require them to justify entering into a fixedterm agreement; and
n the beneficiaries of several tax incentives, such as the
NETHERLANDS
Improving publicprivate co-ordination
The Netherlands is a strong performer in both
science and innovation. In terms of both quantity and quality,
scientific output is among the highest in the EU, when
population is taken into account. Although R&D expenditure
remains low (2.0% of GDP in 2013) in comparison with the
other more advanced member states, it is increasing (1.7% of
GDP in 2009).
The Netherlands innovation policy aims to provide a
favourable environment for all firms and targeted support
for nine so-called top sectors; the top sectors approach was
introduced in 2011 and helps businesses, the government
and research institutes co-ordinate their activities (OECD,
2014). The nine top sectors are: agriculture and food;
horticulture and propagation materials; high-tech systems
and materials; energy; logistics; creative industry; life sciences;
chemicals; and water. These nine sectors account for more
than 80% of business R&D; over the 20132016 period,
they are expected to generate more than 1 billion
(OECD, 2014).
22. See Latham and Watkins (2012) Boosting Innovative Start-ups in Italy: the New
Framework. Client Alert no. 1442.
European Union
POLAND
PORTUGAL
ROMANIA
Raising business R&D to 1% of GDP by 2020
Romanias innovation system is primarily based in
the public sector: only 30% of the countrys R&D is performed
by the business sector. Romanias scientific output is among
the lowest in the EU but it has improved significantly over
the past five years. The National Strategy for Research and
Innovation 20072013 has encourged Romanian scientists
to publish in international journals, increased the share of
competitive funding, promoted publicprivate co-operation
by providing grants for projects involving industrial partners
and promoted business innovation by introducing innovation
vouchers and tax incentives.
The new National Strategy for Research and Innovation
20142020 is expected to introduce a shift from support for
research and its corresponding infrastructure to support for
innovation. It should include additional measures to orient
research oriented towards practical goals, by developing a
partnership for innovation. This partnership is expected to
boost business R&D spending to 1% of GDP by 2020.
267
Chapter 9
268
European Union
of these loans may never be repaid. The steep rise in tuition
fees may also deter students from pursuing their education to
graduate level and discourage international students (British
physics students from a modest background can apply for a
scholarship from the Ogden Trust, see Box 9.4). In July 2015,
the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Minister of Finance) placed
the university system under renewed pressure by proposing
cuts to government subsidies for tuition fees paid by UK and
other EU nationals.
Despite the attractiveness of the UK and its reputation for
quality it produces 15.1% of the worlds most highly cited
articles for a share of just 4.1% of the global research pool ,
Box 9.5: What impact would a Brexit have on European research and innovation?
The cornerstones of the EUs single
market are what are known as the
four freedoms: the free movement of
people, goods, services and capital. It
is the free movement of people which
has cristallized discontent in the UK.
The government would like to restrict
this freedom and is planning to consult
the population on a possible exit from
the EU by the end of 2017, if it does not
obtain satisfaction from its European
partners concerning its demand for a
revision of relevant treaties.
269
Chapter 9
270
European Union
REFERENCES
Alet, C. (2015) Pourquoi le Snat a pass son rapport sur le
crdit impt recherche la dchiqueteuse. Altercoplus
online, 17 June.
Attan, M. (2015) The Juncker plan risks making innovation an
afterthought. Research Europe, 5 March.
Bttcher, B. and E. Schmithausen (2014) A future in the EU?
Reconciling the Brexit debate with a more modern EU, EU
Monitor - European Integration, Deutsche Bank Research.
Downes, L. (2015) How Europe can create its own Silicon
Valley. Harvard Business Review, 11 June.
European Commission (2015a) Innovation Union Scoreboard
2015. European Commission: Brussels.
European Commission (2015b) Seventh FP7 Monitoring Report.
European Commission: Brussels.
European Commission (2014a) Research and Innovation
performance in the EU Innovation Union progress at
country level. European Commission: Brussels.
European Commission (2014b) Report on the Implementation
of the Strategy for International Co-operation in Research
and Innovation. European Commission: Brussels.
European Commission (2014c) Research and Innovation
- Pushing boundaries and improving the quality of life.
European Commission: Brussels.
European Commission (2014e) State of the Innovation Union Taking Stock 2010-2014. European Commission: Brussels.
The Economist (2015) Why, and how, Britain might leave the
European Union. The Economist, 29 April.
271
Chapter 9
272
Southeast Europe
10 . Southeast Europe
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia
Djuro Kutlaca
Following the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, all
Southeast European countries were confronted with the challenge
of post-socialism. Unfortunately, this economic transition came at
a cost; it fragmented and deteriorated countries science systems,
resulting in brain drain and obsolete infrastructure for research
and development (R&D), as described in the UNESCO Science
Report 2005. Like Croatia and Slovenia, all five non-EU countries
have since completed their transition to open market economies.
They remain burdened, however, with high unemployment rates,
unacceptable levels of corruption and underdeveloped financial
systems.
2. The Eurozone comprises the 19 EU countries which have adopted the single
currency of the euro.
Table 10.1: Key socio-economic indicators for Southeast Europe, 2008 and 2013
Inflation,
consumer prices
(annual %)
Annual average
GDP growth
rate
Unemployed (%
of labour force)
Employment in
industry
(% total
employment)
2008
2013
2002
2008
(%)
2009
2013
(%)
2008
2013
2008
2013
2008
Albania
3.4
1.9
5.5
2.5
8 874
10 489
13.0
16.0
13.5
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
7.4
-0.1
5.6
-0.2
8 492
9 632
23.9
28.4
Croatia
6.1
2.2
4.4
-2.5
20 213
20 904
8.4
Greece
4.2
-0.9
3.6
-5.2
29 738
25 651
Macedonia, FYR
8.3
2.8
4.1
1.5
10 487
Montenegro
8.8
2.1
5.6
0.2
12.4
7.7
4.9
5.7
1.8
4.5
Serbia
Slovenia
2012
Gross fixed
capital
formation *
(% of GDP)
Exports of
goods and
services
% of GDP)
2008
2012
2008
2012
2008
2012
20.8-2
32.4
24.7
29.5
31.3
9.6
10.0
30.3
24.4
22.1
41.1
31.2
5.4
2.0
17.7
30.6
27.4
27.6
18.4
42.1
43.4
8.7
2.4
7.7
27.3
22.3
16.7
22.6
13.2
24.1
27.3
1.7
0.7
11 802
33.8
29.0
31.3
29.9
23.9
21.2
50.9
53.2
6.2
2.9
13 882
14 318
16.8
19.8
19.6
18.1
27.7
16.9
38.8
42.4
21.6
14.1
0.0
11 531
12 374
13.6
22.2
26.2
26.5
20.4
26.3-1
31.1
38.2-1
6.3
0.9
-1.9
29 047
28 298
4.4
10.2
34.2
30.8
27.5
19.2-1
67.1
71.3-1
3.3
-0.5
273
Chapter 10
INTRODUCTION
274
Southeast Europe
2020 Strategy, the SEE strategy has been designed to favour
regional co-operation, accelerate harmonization with the EUs
regulatory framework and support the accession process.
The SEE 2020 Strategys main targets are to more than double
regional trade turnover from 94billion to 210 billion,
raise the regions GDP per capita from 36% to 44% of the EU
average, reduce the regions trade deficit from 15.7% (on
average between 2008 and 2010) to 12.3% of GDP
and open up the region to 1 million new jobs, including
300000 jobs for the highly qualified.
4. See: www.rcc.int/pages/62/south-east-europe-2020-strategy
development of networks of
excellence in areas consistent with
the smart specialization of the region
and the rationalization of resource
use, focusing research on areas with
greater economic impact;
n A technology transfer programme
275
Chapter 10
environment, competitiveness;
n Inclusive growth: employment, health;
n Governance for growth: effective public services,
anti-corruption, justice.
The reasoning behind the smart growth pillar is that innovation
and a knowledge economy are the main drivers of growth and
job creation in the 21st century. To support the building block of
276
Southeast Europe
TRENDS IN R&D
Still a long way to go towards competitive business
Most Southeast European countries are faced with
stagnating or falling investment in R&D. The exception is
Slovenia, which almost doubled its R&D effort to 2.65%
of GDP between 2007 and 2013, despite being hit by
recession (Figure 10.1).
Differences in gross domestic expenditure on research
and development (GERD) become clearer when
population size is taken into account (Figure 10.2).
For example, in 2013, Slovenian investment per capita
in R&D was 4.4 times that of Croatia and 24 times that of
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In all but Slovenia, the government remains the main
source of funding (Figure 10.3). Increasingly, the academic
sector is funding and performing R&D, while the business
sector continues to play a modest role. This confirms that
countries are still in the process of restructuring their R&D
systems to make them more innovative and competitive
(Table 10.2). Even in Slovenia, the combination of
negative growth and an indebted public banking sector
has shaken investor confidence (Table 10.1 and page 291).
277
Chapter 10
2.5
Slovenia 2.59
2.0
1.5
1.25
1.0
0.5
0.95
0.80
0.55
0.52
0.0
0.22
0.02
Croatia 0.81
Greece 0.80
Serbia 0.73
Macedonia,
FYR 0.47
Montenegro
0.38
Bosnia &
Herzegovina 0.33
Albania 0.15
0.09
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
742
US $ PPP
600
500
400
300
204
200
172
71
100
0
Slovenia
Greece
Croatia
Serbia
54
53
31
13
Montenegro
Macedonia,
FYR
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
Albania
(2008)
80
7.4
8.6
80.8
14.0
15.5
1.7
0.3
39.7
0.9
2.6
52.3
22.5
7.8
25.1
53.9
3.5
31.7
59.5
60
40
42.8
8.9
0.3
26.9
63.8
42.3
30.3
25.3
20
3.3
Albania
(2008)
7.5
Croatia
Business enterprise
Greece
Government
Montenegro
Higher Education
Serbia
Private-non profit
Slovenia
1.8
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
Abroad
Note: The total for Bosnia & Herzegovina does not add up to 100%, as a further 19% has not been attributed. There are no recent data for FYR Macedonia.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, August 2015
278
Southeast Europe
Stage* of development
2012
2013
2014
2014
Macedonia, FYR
80
73
63
Efficiency-driven
Montenegro
72
67
67
Efficiency-driven
Slovenia
56
62
70
Innovation-driven
Croatia
81
75
77
Greece
91
81
Innovation-driven
88
87
Efficiency-driven
Albania
89
95
97
Efficiency-driven
Serbia
95
101
94
Efficiency-driven
*See the glossary on page 738 Source: WEF (2012, 2013, 2014) Global Competitiveness Reports. World Economic Forum
Table 10.3: Capacity of Southeast Europe to retain and attract talent, 2014
Countrys capacity to retain talent
Country
Value
Rank
(148 countries)
Country
Value
Albania
3.1
93
1.9
Croatia
Rank
(148 countries)
Albania
2.9
96
143
1.9
140
2.1
137
Croatia
1.8
141
Greece
3.0
96
Greece
2.3
127
Macedonia, FYR
2.5
127
Macedonia, FYR
2.2
134
Montenegro
3.3
81
Montenegro
2.9
97
Serbia
1.8
141
Serbia
1.6
143
Slovenia
2.9
109
Slovenia
2.5
120
Source: WEF (2014) Global Competitiveness Report 20142015; for Bosnia and Herzegovina: WEF (2013) Global Competitiveness Report 20132014
279
Chapter 10
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
58.7
61.4
Croatia
120.3
82.8
54.2
63.1
Macedonia, FYR
39.9
Slovenia
58.8
49.7
39.0
97.8
97.8
doctorate: total
doctorate: female
61.7
66.7
58.8
65.4
Greece
38.9
Serbia
319.5
152.0
160.5
71.4
9.1
9.9
Note: For Bosnia & Herzegovina and Serbia, the period covered is 20072012 and for Greece, 20072011.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, April 2015
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
2008
M
F
745
2013
M
F
829
302
2008
M
F
3 262
2013
M
F
3 332
2008
M
F
2013
M
F
2008
M
F
2013
M
F
Croatia
Greece
Macedonia, FYR
467
207
24 674
968
527
1402
716
474
198
Slovenia
2008 M
F
M
F
2008
M
F
2013
M
F
9 978
4 728
11 802
5 900
7 032
2 326
3 020
0
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, April 2015
280
19 593
9 602
2013
6 688
6 213
Montenegro 2013 M
Serbia
6 697
5 000
8 884
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
Southeast Europe
women. Slovenia stands out as being the only case where
women represent just one in five engineers. In medical
sciences and the humanities, there even tend to be more
women researchers than men (Table 10.5). This also happens
to be the case for agriculture in Montenegro, Serbia and
Slovenia, for natural sciences in Montenegro, Serbia and FYR
Macedonia and for social sciences in Slovenia.
Table 10.4: Researchers in Southeast Europe (HC) per million inhabitants by gender, 2005 and 2012
Total
Per million Per million
population
inhabitants inhabitants
(000s)
2005
2012
2012
Total
2005
Total,
2012
Women,
2005
Women,
2012
Women
(%),
2005
Women
(%),
2012
Albania
3162
545-4
1 721-4
763-4
44.3-4
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
3834
293
325+1
1 135
1 245+1
484+1
38.9+1
Croatia
4 307
2 362
2 647
10 367
11 402
4619
5 440
44.6
47.7
Greece
11125
3 025
4 069-1
33 396
45 239-1
12 147
16 609-1
36.4
36.7
2106
1 167
1 361+1
2 440
2 867+1
1 197
1 409+1
49.1
49.1+1
621
1 028
2 419-1
633
1 546-1
252
771-1
39.8
49.9-1
Serbia
9553
1 160
1 387
11 551
13 249
5 050
6577
43.7
49.6
Slovenia
2068
3 821
5969
7 664
12 362
2 659
4 426
34.8
35.8
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Women (%)
Social sciences
Women (%)
43.0
238
30.3
156
60.3
330
37.9
236
37.7
612
52.1
206
43.7
504
29.6
31
58.1
178
42.7
245
54.7
68
19.1
Croatia
1 772
49.7
3 505
34.9
2 387
56.1
803
45.8
1 789
55.6
1 146
55.4
Greece, 2011
6 775
30.7
15 602
29.5
9 602
43.0
2 362
33.1
5 482
38.0
5 416
54.1
567
46.4
438
65.1
103
49.5
322
50.0
413
64.2
104
56.7
335
37.0
441
58.5
66
54.5
291
46.0
309
51.8
Women (%)
Agriculture
149
Bosnia &
Herzegovina, 2013
Humanities
Women (%)
Women (%)
Albania, 2008
Women (%)
Natural sciences
Engineering and
technology
Table 10.5: Researchers in Southeast Europe (HC) by field and gender, 2012
Serbia
2 726
55.2
3 173
35.9
1 242
50.4
1 772
60.0
2 520
47.9
1 816
57.2
Slovenia
3 068
37.5
4 870
19.5
1 709
54.2
720
52.8
1 184
49.8
811
52.5
281
Chapter 10
Figure 10.6: Researchers (FTE) in Southeast Europe by sector of employment, 2013 (%)
Albania
58.0
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
12.2
Croatia
10.5
77.4
17.4
29.4
13.9
Greece
Macedonia, FYR
(2011)
53.2
10.5
77.4
15.4
Montenegro
(2011)
42.0
24.9
17.9
59.7
29.0
Serbia
2.3
(2012)
51.0
25.8
1.9
71.9
53.6
Slovenia
Business enterprise
Government
21.0
Higher Education
25.3
0.2
Private-non profit
20092012
Greece
139
347
Slovenia
85
132
Croatia
74
85
Serbia
20
Macedonia,
FYR
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
Albania
Montenegro
26
18
8
Table 10.6: Patents, publications and royalty payments in Southeast Europe, 20022010
Royalty payments and receipts
(US$ per capita)
2006
Albania
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Croatia
Greece
Macedonia, FYR
Serbia
Slovenia
2007
2010
20022013
1.70
2.20
0.3
4.87
2.40
3.00
3.9
50.02
55.25
3.60
3.40
45.9
52.4
6.64
12.91
2.90
3.50
25.6
28.27
3.10
3.50
2.8
85.62
159.19
3.80
4.20
135.1
282
6.39
2.39
2009
Universityindustry research
collaboration 1 (low) 7 (high)
Slovenia
Croatia
Southeast
Europe
Serbia
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
Montenegro
Slovenia
Albania
686
Serbia
0.97
503
Montenegro
307
Macedonia, FYR
157
Albania
0.79
84
48
Chapter 10
Croatia
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
Macedonia,
FYR
1 590
Serbia 4 764
4 000
Slovenia 3 301
Croatia 2 932
3 000
2 025
2 000 1 624
1 000
1 600
2005
400
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Macedonia, FYR 330
Bosnia & Herz. 323
300
200
200
0
Montenegro 191
Albania 154
106
91
42
37
46
60 1
244
775 259
2 992
63 4
276
Croatia
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
21 3
80
Slovenia 577152
33
37 32
1 842
19 19
2 837
115
208
230
176
88
885 237
24
74
1 816
40
3 075
677
2 184
359
896
198
69
619
1 001
2 979
Agriculture
Astronomy
Biological sciences
Geosciences
Mathematics
Medical sciences
1 030
61
273
94
77
1 694
45
3 070
106
Physics
2 074
23
63
179
6
7
1
2
3 067
45
72
64
107
3 042
Engineering
Computer science
5
5
107
3 895
1 092
Chemistry
95
2
13 9
125
3 830
104
3 596
140
90
1 612
154
2 140
31
Psychology
Social sciences
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Albania
Italy (144)
Germany (68)
Greece (61)
France (52)
Serbia (46)
Serbia (555)
Croatia (383)
Slovenia (182)
Germany (165)
USA (141)
Croatia
Germany (2 383)
US A (2 349)
Italy (1 900)
UK (1 771)
France (1 573)
Macedonia, FYR
Serbia (243)
Germany (215)
USA (204)
Bulgaria (178)
Italy (151)
Montenegro
Serbia (411)
Italy (92)
Germany (91)
France (86)
Russia (81)
Serbia
Germany (2 240)
USA (2 149)
Italy (1 892)
UK (1 825)
France (1 518)
Slovenia
USA (2479)
Germany (2 315)
Italy (2 195)
UK (1 889)
France (1 666)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
283
284
Southeast Europe
biotechnology;
n social sciences and Albanology;
n biodiversity and environment;
n water and energy;
Chapter 10
n health; and
n materials science.
285
CROATIA
286
Southeast Europe
of research, development and innovation are invested
effectively.
co-operation between local researchers and the diaspora,
as well as between the public and private sectors via a
Research in Industry and Academia grant scheme set
up in 2007;
Chapter 10
innovation;
n with the exception of a few big spenders, private
weak.
8. See also the glossary on page 738
287
Source: EU (2013)
and academia;
n a strong S&T base and more efficient technology transfer
288
research infrastructure.
Southeast Europe
MONTENEGRO
Greater spending on R&D but little impact
on business
The global economic crisis exposed some pre-existing
fissures in the foundations of Montenegros economy which
made it more vulnerable than anticipated to recession,
with a contraction of 5.7% of GDP in 2009. Economic
growth averaged 2.9% in 2010 and 2011 before slowing
significantly in 2012, due to a sluggish use of credit, adverse
weather conditions which reduced energy production,
the bankruptcy of a major steel mill company (Niki)
and a decline in production at a loss-making aluminium
plant (KAP). In 2013, the economy returned to growth and
inflation fell from 3.6% the previous year to 2.1%. Growth is
expected to rise to around 3.2% from 20142016, supported
by FDI in tourism and energy, as well as public investment.
In 2013, GERD represented 0.38% of GDP, a significant
increase over previous years despite a highly restrictive
budgetary policy. One of the main reasons for this
increase is the implementation of a 5 million call in 2012
for scientific and research projects covering the period
20122014. The call was announced by the Ministry of
Science, in co-operation with the Ministries of Agriculture
and Rural Development, Health, Information Society and
Telecommunications, Sustainable Development and
Tourism, Education and Sport, and Culture. Some 104
projects were selected out of 198 proposals.
The business sector funds four-tenths of R&D
As of 2013, the business enterprise sector funded 42%
of GERD in Montenegro and three sectors concentrated
the majority of R&D companies: agriculture, energy and
transportation. These three sectors accounted for 22% of
GERD in 2011. More than a third of GERD comes from the
public purse (35.2% in 2013) and a further 23% from abroad,
mainly from the EU and other international bodies.
In May 2012, Montenegro became a member of the
World Trade Organization as a consequence of the
governments commitment to opening the country to
regional and international trade. In October 2011, the
European Commission recommended opening accession
negotiations with Montenegro, which were officially
initiated on 29 June 2012.
A number of policy documents9 have identified the main
challenges facing the Montenegrin innovation system:
9. Including government documents such as Montenegro in the 21st Century:
In the Era of Competitiveness (2010). National Development Plan (2013) and the
Strategy for Employment and Human Resource Development 20122015, as well as
external reviews by the OECD and World Bank and the Erawatch Country Report
for Montenegro (2011).
289
Chapter 10
SERBIA
A better performance in innovation
Serbia is slowly recovering from the global
financial crisis. After a 3.5% contraction of GDP in 2009, the
economy has managed to maintain positive growth since
2011. For the first time in years, GDP grew by 2.5% in 2013
but should shrink to just 1% in 2014, reflecting the impact
of fiscal tightening, a lower inflow of investment and the
290
Southeast Europe
n an innovation system which is insufficiently attractive to
demand side.
The 1% GERD/GDP ratio goal within reach
In February 2010, Serbia adopted its Strategy for the Scientific
and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia 2010
2015. The overriding goal of this policy is to devote 1% of GDP
to GERD by 2015, not counting investment in infrastructure,
a goal which is currently within reach but requires additional
effort. The strategy is guided by two basic principles:
focus and partnership. Focus is to be achieved by defining
a list of national research priorities; partnership is to be
achieved through the strengthening of ties with institutions,
companies and other ministries to allow Serbia to validate its
ideas in the global market and enable scientists to participate
in infrastructural and other projects in Serbia.
The strategy defines seven national R&D priorities,
namely: biomedicine and human health; new materials
and nanoscience; environmental protection and climate
change mitigation; agriculture and food; energy and energy
efficiency; ICTs; and better decision-making processes, as well
as the affirmation of the national identity.
The Strategy for the Scientific and Technological Development of
the Republic of Serbia launched the Serbian R&D Infrastructure
Investment Initiative in January 2011 with a budget of
420million, half of which comes from an EU loan. Its
priorities are to: upgrade existing capacities (circa 70 million);
adapt existing buildings and laboratories; purchase new
capital equipment for research; develop centres of excellence
and academic research centres (circa 60 million); develop
supercomputing via the Blue Danube initiative, as well as
other ICT infrastructure ( 3080million); create a campus for
the technical science faculties of the University of Belgrade;
build science and technology parks in Belgrade, Novi Sad,
Ni and Kragujevac (circa 30 million); and implement basic
infrastructure projects, such as the construction of apartment
buildings for researchers in Belgrade, Novi Sad, Ni and
Kragujevac (circa 80 million).
In 2012, basic sciences accounted for 35% of all research
done in Serbia, applied sciences for 42% and experimental
development for the remaining 23%, according to the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics. The Strategy sets out to raise
the ratio of applied sciences. This goal is supported by a new
SLOVENIA
Despite recession, Slovenias R&D effort
has soared
With excellent infrastructure, a well-educated labour force
and a strategic location between the Balkans and Western
Europe, Slovenia has one of the highest levels of GDP per
capita in Southeast Europe. On 1 January 2007, it became the
first of the EU entrants of 2004 to adopt the euro. Slovenia has
experienced one of the most stable political transitions to a
market economy in Central and Southeast Europe. In March
2004, it became the first transition country to graduate from
borrower status to donor partner status at the World Bank. In
2007, Slovenia was invited to begin the process for joining the
OECD, which admitted it as a member in 2012.
However, long-delayed privatizations, particularly within
Slovenias largely state-owned and increasingly indebted
banking sector, have fuelled investor concerns since
2012 that the country might need financial assistance
from the EU and IMF. These woes have also affected
Slovenias competitiveness (Table 10.2). In 2013, the
European Commission granted Slovenia permission to
begin recapitalizing ailing lenders and transferring their
non-performing assets into a bad bank established to
restore bank balance sheets. The strong demand among
yield-seeking bond investors for Slovenian debt helped
the government to keep financing itself independently on
international markets in 2013. The government has embarked
on a programme of state asset sales to bolster investor
confidence in the economy, which was poised to contract
(by 1%) for the third year in a row in 2014.
Slovenia has managed the feat of raising GERD from 1.63%
to 2.59% of GDP between 2008 and 2013, one of the highest
ratios in the EU. Obviously, the fragile state of the economy
291
Chapter 10
292
Southeast Europe
n Increase the number of researchers in industry, including
for highly qualified people from all over the world; and
n Use EU structural funds, in particular, to pool resources in
CONCLUSION
Research systems need to be more responsive to
social and market demands
It is unlikely that any of the last five countries in Southeast
Europe will become EU members before at least 2020, as
the EUs current priority is to consolidate the cohesion of
its 28 existing members. It is generally admitted in Europe,
however, that the EU membership of these five countries
is ultimately inevitable, in order to ensure political and
economic stability across the region.
All five countries should use this time to make their research
systems more responsive to social and market demands.
They can learn a lot from Croatia and Slovenia, which are
now formally part of the European Research Area. Since
becoming an EU member in 2004, Slovenia has turned its
national innovation system into a driving socio-economic
force. Slovenia now devotes a greater share of GDP to GERD
than the likes of France, the Netherlands or the UK, thanks
largely to the rise of the business enterprise sector, which
today funds two-thirds of Slovenian R&D and employs the
majority of researchers. Slovenias economy remains fragile,
however, and it has chronic problems in attracting and
retaining talent.
Having only been an EU member since 2013, Croatia is
still searching for the most effective configuration for its
own innovation system; it is currently striving to follow the
best practices of the EU and incorporate its body of law
and institutional and empirical legacy into the national
innovation system.
Like Croatia, Serbia is what the EU calls a moderate
innovator. These two countries are poles apart, however,
when it comes to the weight of business R&D funding; this
accounts for 43% of GERD in Croatia but only 8% in Serbia
(in 2013). The Serbian governments biggest challenge will
be to overcome a linear understanding of the innovation
process which has resulted in a highly fragmented
innovation system; this fragmentation is the biggest
obstacle to networking the R&D sector with the rest of the
economy and society at large.
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYR Macedonia and
Montenegro are all faced with structural adjustments and
political and economic challenges which tend to have
relegated the reform of their respective innovation systems
to a lower priority. All are suffering from sluggish economic
growth, the ageing of researchers, severe brain drain, a
lack of private sector R&D and a system which encourages
academics to focus on teaching rather than research or
entrepreneurship.
293
Chapter 10
average by 2020;
n Double turnover from regional trade from 94billion to
210 billion;
n Open up the region to 300000 new highly qualified jobs
by 2020;
n Achieve minimum 9% energy savings in the region by
2018;
n Raise the share of renewable energy in gross energy
REFERENCES
Bjeli, P.; Jaimovi, D. and Tai, I. (2013) Effects of the World
Economic Crisis on Exports in the CEEC: Focus on the Western
Balkans. Economic Annals, 58 (196), January March
Council of Ministers (2009) Strategy for the Development of
Science in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 20102015. Council of
Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Erawatch (2012) Analytical Country Reports: Albania, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro,
Serbia and Slovenia. European Commission, Brussels. See:
http://erawatch.jrc.ec.europa.eu/erawatch/opencms/
index.html
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2011) Strategy for
Development of Scientific and Development Research
Activities in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
20122022. EU (2014) Innovation Union Scoreboard 2014.
European Union.
EU (2013) European Research Area Facts and Figures: Croatia.
European Union. See: http://ec.europa.eu
Jahi, E. (2011) Bosnia and Herzegovina. Erawatch country
report. European Commission: Brussels.
Kutlaca, D. and Radosevic, S. (2011) Innovation capacity in
the SEE region. In: Handbook of Doing Business in South
East Europe, Dietmar Sternad and Thomas Dring (eds).
Palgrave Macmillan: Netherlands: ISBN: 978-0-230-278653, ISBN10: 0-230-27865-5, pp. 207231.
Kutlaa, D.; Babi, D.; ivkovi, L. and trbac, D. (2014) Analysis
of quantitative and qualitative indicators of SEE countries
scientific output. Scientometrics. Print ISSN 0138-9130,
online ISSN1588-2861. Springer Verlag: Netherlands.
Lundvall, B. A. (ed.) [1992] National Systems of Innovation:
Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning.
Pinter: London.
Peter, V. and Bruno, N. (2010) International Science and
Technology Specialisation: Where does Europe stand? ISBN
978-92-79-14285-7, doi 10.2777/83069. Technopolis
Group. European Union: Luxembourg.
294
Southeast Europe
Chapter 10
295
296
INTRODUCTION
297
Chapter 11
120 000
Norway 100 898
90 000
75 058
Switzerland 84 748
60 000
Iceland 47 349
37 813
37 473
30 000
31 820
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
298
8.2
1.9
8.5
1.6
9.5
1.6
6.0
3.0
12.1
1.7
22.8
38.8
40.0
25.4
44.9
45.8
68.2
50.3
60.8
49.8
45.0
43.1
2007
2011
Iceland
2007
2013
Norway
2008
2012
Switzerland
Business enterprise
Government
From abroad
299
Chapter 11
Table 11.1: International comparisons for EFTA countries in science, 2014 or closest year
Human resources
GERD
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
53
57
57
1.6-1
2.0-1
1.4
2.9-1
1.6
2.7+1
1.9
1.7
3.0-1
16
0.66-1
0.53+1
0.83
49
43
53
10
17
51
15
25
2 594
1 978
3 102
Researcher mobility
Publication intensity
Publication impact
18
13
18
42
18
12
11
23
138
15
12
16
12
17
20
15
30
11
not ranked
11
25
10
Research excellence
Patent activity
Innovation potential
Competitiveness
300
COUNTRY PROFILES
ICELAND
A fragmented university system
Iceland was severely hit by the global financial
crisis of 2008. After its three main banks failed, the economy
slipped into a deep recession for the next two years (-5.1%
in 2009). This hindered ongoing efforts to diversify the
economy beyond traditional industries such as fisheries
and the production of aluminium, geothermal energy and
hydropower into high-knowledge industries and services.
Although most of the figures in Table 11.1 look good, they
would have looked even better a few years ago. The country
invested 2.9% of GDP in R&D in 2006, making it one of the
biggest spenders per capita in Europe, surpassed only by
Finland and Sweden. By 2011, this ratio was down to 2.5%
and, by 2013, had hit 1.9%, its lowest level since the late
1990s, according to Iceland Statistics.
Iceland has an excellent publication record, both
quantitatively and qualitatively (Table 11.1 and Figure 11.3).
301
Chapter 11
Switzerland
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
427
458
490
575
623
753
716
810
866
864
33
36
37
46
41
50
41
55
48
52
6 090
6 700
7 057
7 543
8 110
8 499
9 327
9 451
9 947
10 070
16 397
17 809
18 341
19 131
20 336
21 361
22 894
23 205
25 051
25 308
Liechtenstein
Norway
2006
2 594
1 978
3 102
Iceland
113
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
144
965
120
25
47
1 361
413
67
13 197
Medical sciences
Mathematics
1 258
399
1 042
17 382
3 937
43 279
3 193
735
Engineering
Computer science
Chemistry
Physics
49
34
40
1 570
11 281
10 251
100
105
10 143
Biological sciences
Astronomy
93
2 806
32 662
Agriculture
985
2 810
4 659
1 130
11 378
2 099
2 940
269
115
Psychology
686
824
1 251
1 010
19 368
Geosciences
Social sciences
Note: The totals by field do not include unclassified publications, which are quite numerous for Switzerland (13 214), Norway (5 612) and Iceland (563).
See the methodological note on p. 792.
All countries surpass the OECD average by far for key indicators
Average citation rate for publications 20082012
Iceland
1.29
1.12
Switzerland
Norway
18.3%
Liechtenstein
18.0%
Iceland
13.4%
Switzerland
12.3%
Liechtenstein
Norway
90.7%
OECD average 29.4%
Liechtenstein
1.56
Iceland
OECD average 11.1%
Norway
Switzerland
1.71
77.4%
68.9%
61.3%
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Iceland
USA (1 514)
UK (1 095)
Sweden (1 078)
Denmark (750)
Germany (703)
Liechtenstein
Austria (121)
Germany (107)
Switzerland (100)
USA (68)
France (19)
Norway
UK (8 854)
Sweden (7 540)
Germany (7 034)
France (5 418)
Switzerland
UK (20 732)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
302
contributions;
n a better use of the tax system to encourage the private
LIECHTENSTEIN
Innovation drives Liechtensteins economy
Liechtenstein is a special case in many
respects. It is one of Europes few remaining principalities,
a constitutional democracy combining a parliament
with a hereditary monarchy. One-third of inhabitants
are foreigners, mainly Swiss, German and Austrian. Its
tiny size 37000 inhabitants in 2013 excludes it from
most comparative S&T statistics and rankings. Its public
303
Chapter 11
7.7
7.7
Liechtenstein
(2012)
9.09
Norway
(2013)
1.5
1.5 7.3
Switzerland
(2013)
0.7
13.5
Agriculture
11.0 67.8
38.0
67.8
53
53.0
33.5
57.7
25.7
Industry
13.5
38
57.740.8
73.6
Services
24.5
7.3
48.4
20.8
46.9
18.2
50.3
15.4
47.9
41.1
46.6
32.5
2.4
35.5
57.0
1.2
52.2
Business enterprise
Government
Higher education
Private non-profit
Note: The category of other researchers includes private non-profit and not
elsewhere classified, reported only in Iceland. For Switzerland, federal and
central government researchers only are classified as government.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, April, 2015
304
2.7
34.3
16.6
1.9
28.1
18.7
Manufacturing
(subset of industry)
2008 2012
Switzerland
2008 2013
Norway
As shown in Table 11.1, the first links in the added value chain
are promising. The share of the adult population with tertiary
qualifications and/or engaged in the STI sector is one of the
highest in Europe. Norway did have a traditional weakness
in the relatively low number of PhD students and graduates
but the government has managed to remove this bottleneck;
since 2000, the number of PhD students has doubled to
match those of other northern European countries. Together
with public R&D expenditure above the OECD median and a
large pool of researchers in the business enterprise sector, this
makes for solid input to the S&T system (Figure 11.5).
2008 2011
Iceland
305
Chapter 11
24.8
Norway
(2011)
19.2
Switzerland
(2012)
30.4
Basic research
24.5
46.6
39.0
41.8
40.7
Applied research
28.9
Experimental
development
306
SWITZERLAND
Can Switzerland keep its place in the sun?
For the sixth year running, Switzerland led
the list of 144 countries analysed in the 2014
WEF Global Competitiveness Report. It performs particularly
well in higher education, training and innovation. It is also an
unrivalled hotspot for innovation, according to the European
Commissions 2014 Innovation Union Scoreboard, ahead of all
the EU countries, its fellow EFTA members and key world players
such as Japan, the Republic of Korea and USA. What is the secret
behind this striking performance and what are the chances that
Switzerland will be able to keep its place in the sun?
For one thing, Switzerland has a remarkably strong science
base. Seven of its 12 universities figure among the top 200
in the Shanghai ranking, a league table mainly focusing
on research output. Switzerland is among the top three
countries in most global rankings for the impact of its scientific
publications and is by far the most successful country per
capita in the calls for project proposals issued by the European
Research Council, a grant-funding scheme that has become
the most prestigious instrument for the support of basic
science in Europe (see Box 9.1).
Obviously, in a small country, world-class performance and
internationalism are closely linked. More than half of all
PhD-holders at the 12 Swiss universities and close to half of
the R&D personnel in the private sector are non-Swiss.
Two-thirds of faculty members of the two Federal Institutes of
Technology (ETH), the Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule
(ETHZ) in the German-speaking city of Zrich and the cole
polytechnique fdrale de Lausanne (EPFL) in the Frenchspeaking part of Switzerland, are non-Swiss.
Complementing the excellent performance of its publicly
funded universities and a couple of the institutes attached to
the ETH domain is a research-intensive private sector, led by
307
Chapter 11
308
309
Chapter 11
2014 for its capacity to find and hire the talent it needs to
preserve its advantages with respect to innovation. There
are also the more structural dangers, such as the economys
distinct dependence on the performance of a handful of R&Dintensive multinational companies. What if they falter? The
latest OECD and EU reports show that the proportion of Swiss
firms investing in innovation has fallen and that Swiss small
and medium-sized enterprises are exploiting their innovation
potential less effectively than in the past.
CONCLUSION
A few adjustments and the future looks bright
There is no doubt about it: the four small and micro-states
that make up EFTA are well positioned economically, with
GDP per capita well above the EU average and strikingly low
unemployment rates. Even if added value chains are anything
but linear, the excellent quality of higher education and R&D
output are certainly key factors in their success.
Switzerland either tops international rankings, or figures in
the top three, for R&D performance, innovation potential and
competitiveness. Its main challenge in the years to come will
be to defend its primacy, maintain high investment in basic
research in order to preserve the exceptional quality of its
universities and inject fresh public funds reserved for national
and regional initiatives into more applied, technologyoriented fields of research. Switzerland will also need to
resolve its political problems with the EU before the end of
2016 in order to ensure full participation in Horizon 2020, the
worlds most comprehensive and best-funded multinational
R&D programme.
For Norway, the challenge will be to reduce its strong
economic dependence on the not particularly R&D-intensive
petroleum industry by diversifying the economy with the
help of innovative high-tech companies and linking them to
the public R&D sector. Neither public nor private investment
in R&D does justice to a country with such a high level of
income; both will need a push.
Icelands prime challenge will be to heal the remaining open
wounds from the 2008 financial crisis and to recover lost
ground; less than a decade ago, it was an astonishingly strong
player in the research field, considering its size and remote
geographical location, with world-class figures for its GERD/
GDP ratio, scientific publications per capita and publication
impact.
12. See for instance the editorial by EPFL President Patrick Aebischer, in EPFLs
campus newspaper, Flash, in the days before the referendum.
310
in innovative enterprises;
n Norway to invest US$ 250 million between 2013 and
Chapter 11
311
312
INTRODUCTION
Six of the seven Black Sea countries were part of the former
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) up until the early
1990s. The seventh, Turkey, was less industrialized and had
been beset by recurrent economic crises up until this period.
1. Bulgaria and Romania also lie on the Black Sea but they are covered in Chapter 9.
7 099
7 774
1.7
63
17
22.1
3.2
-8.4
58.7
13 813
17 139
5.5
66
14
2.4
1.1
-0.9
Belarus
9308
-2.1
54.2
13 937
17 615
4.4
56
26
46.7
33.8
-1.0
Georgia
4323
-1.6
43.1
5 686
7 165
3.5
65
53.4
8.0
4.3
Moldova
3461
-4.1
48.8
3 727
4 669
4.0
40
19
37.2
11.0
-1.0
Turkey
75837
6.5
46.3
15178
18 975
3.3
49
26
77.7
15.0
2.0
Ukraine
44941
-2.6
41.8
8 439
8 788
-0.2
59
26
60.6
23.5
-5.0
Change over
10 years in share
of GDP, 2012 (%)
As a share of total
merchandise
exports, 2012 (%)
46.3
6.0
As a share of GDP
2012 (%)
Share employed in
industry, average
2010 2012 (%)
0.0
9515
Per capita
(current PPP$)
2013
2984
Azerbaijan
Per capita
(current PPP$)
2008
Armenia
Population (000s)
2014
As a share of adult
population
2013 (%)
Manufactured exports
Average growth
per annum
20082013
Employment
Trends in GDP
Cumulative
growth
20082013
Population trends
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics; for employment and manufactured exports: World Banks World Development Indicators, accessed November 2014
313
Chapter 12
314
315
Chapter 12
Women
(%)
Engineering
Women
(%)
Health and
welfare
Women
(%)
2.5
51
-3.0
377
28
92
23
81
11
10
30
16
-6.0
20
1.4
406-1
31-1
100-1
27-1
45-1
13-1
23-1
39-1
Belarus
24
93
19.3
1 192
55
210
50
224
37
180
52
Georgia
31
-0.3
33
7.8
406
54
63
56
65
40
33
64
Moldova
25
5.0
41
3.0
488
60
45
56
37
46
57
944
Turkey
18
4.4
69
29.5
4 506-1
47-1
1 022-1
50-1
628-1
34-1
515-1
72-1
Ukraine
36
5.0
80
1.0
8 923
57
1 273
51
35
460
59
Natural
sciences
25
Azerbaijan
Women
(%)
Armenia
Total
Change over
five years (%)
Highest score
20092013
(% of age cohort)
Change over
five years
(%)
1 579
(2013)
Azerbaijan
(2011)
Belarus
(2012)
Georgia
(2012)
Moldova
(2012)
Turkey
(2006)
Ukraine
(2012)
0.20
0.36
Expenditure on higher
education (% GDP)
2.25
2.44
0.92
0.38
Total education
expenditure (% GDP)
5.12
1.98
1.47
0.91
8.39
2.86
2.16
6.66
although they are less present in Turkey than in the postSoviet states (Figure 12.2). Belarus appears to be the only
Black Sea country that is maintaining its historically high
density of researchers but, like its neighbours, it suffers from
underinvestment in R&D.
Investment in R&D remains low
Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) has never
recovered in the post-Soviet states to the heady levels of
1989, when it represented 3% of GDP in Ukraine and well over
1% in most other countries covered by the present chapter,
316
2500
2000
Turkey 2 217
Georgia 1 183
Belarus* 1 961
1 929
1 776
1 662
Azerbaijan 1 677
1500
Ukraine* 1 451
Armenia* 1 300
1 237
1000 1 048
Moldova 932
702
500
2002 2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008 2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
3 870
Natural sciences
Women
(%)
Total
Women
(%)
48.1
2 194
46.4
Engineering
Total
546
Women
(%)
Medical sciences
Total
33.5
384
Women
(%)
Agricultural
sciences
Total
61.7
45
Social sciences
Women
(%)
66.7
Total
Women
(%)
217
Humanities
Total
47.0
484
Women
(%)
60.5
Azerbaijan
15 784
53.3
5 174
53.9
2 540
46.5
1 754
58.3
1 049
38.5
2 108
48.9
3 159
63.1
Belarus
18 353
41.1
3 411
50.6
11 195
31.5
876
64.6
1 057
60.1
1 380
59.1
434
60.8
Moldova
3 250
48.0
1 168
45.7
448
29.0
457
52.5
401
45.4
411
68.4
365
52.6
Turkey
166 097
36.2
14 823
35.9
47 878
24.8
31 092
46.3
6 888
31.6
24 421
41.1
12 350
41.9
Ukraine
65 641
45.8
16 512
44.5
27 571
37.2
4 200
65.0
5 289
55.0
4 644
61.4
2 078
67.8
*Partial data
1Researchers
500
per million inhabitants by head count
1 200
Belarus 1 183
900
837
680
Turkey 609
600
Ukraine 511
300
229
100
79
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
317
Chapter 12
2001
* based on
underestimated data,
as many researchers
have secondary jobs
in R&D
Figure 12.3: GERD/GDP ratio for the Black Sea countries, 20012013
1.2
1.0
1.02
Turkey 0.95
0.8
Ukraine 0.77
0.71
Belarus 0.69
0.6
0.54
0.4
Moldova 0.36
0.34
0.28
0.24
Armenia 0.24
0.2
Azerbaijan 0.21
Georgia 0.18
0.0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
318
Figure 12.4: GDP per capita and GERD/GDP ratio in the Black Sea countries, 20102013 (average)
For economies with GDP per capita between PPP$ 2 500 and PPP$ 30 000
2.50
Slovenia
Estonia
2.00
Chapter 12
China
Czech Republic
Portugal
1.50
Hungary
Brazil
Russian Federation
Malaysia
1.00
Serbia
India
Ukraine
Morocco
Lithuania
Turkey
Poland
South Africa
Croatia
Slovakia
Belarus
Latvia
Malta
Greece
Bulgaria
0.50
Moldova
Egypt
Costa Rica
Ghana
Montenegro
Pakistan
Armenia
Georgia
Kyrgyzstan
0
2 500
Mongolia
Macedonia, FYR
7 500
Chile
Uruguay
Azerbaijan
Sri Lanka
Namibia
Guatemala
Cabo Verde
El Salvador
Paraguay
Romania
Mexico
Cuba
Panama
Colombia
Kazakhstan
Trinidad
and Tobago
Iraq
12 500
17 500
22 500
27 500
Note: for Georgia, state budgetary expenditure on R&D only from the National Statistics Office
Source: World Bank's World Development Indicators, as of September 2014; UNESCO Institute for Statistics, March 2015
319
8. Georgia joined the WTO in 2000, Moldova in 2001, Armenia in 2003 and Ukraine in
2008. Turkey has been a member of the Global Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (the
precursor to WTO) since 1951. Neither Azerbaijan, nor Belarus is a member.
Figure 12.5: GERD in the Black Sea region by sector of performance, 2005 and 2013
100
5.8
11.4
94.2
6.5
72.6
4.0
17.0
10.8
26.8
10.4
9.3
54.6
42.1
85.5
30.2
72.8
23.8
88.6
6.2
4.7
38.6
69.8
38.6
80
73.2
65.3
65.1
60
10.4
55.3
40
47.5
11.6
44.4
33.8
20
20.9
17.9
19.9
10.3
2005
2013
Armenia
2005
2013
Azerbaijan
2005
2013
Belarus
Business enterprise
2005
Georgia
Government
2005
2013
Moldolva
2005
2013
Turkey
2005
2013
Ukraine
Higher education
Note: The data for Armenia and Georgia do not show business R&D expenditure as a separate category, since official statistics tend to use the classification system
inherited from Soviet times when all industrially oriented companies belonged to the state; although some companies have since been privatized, business
expenditure on R&D tends to be included in public sector expenditure to preserve a time series.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, March 2015
320
rate from a low starting point;9 they also top the region for a key
measure of quality, the average citation rate.
All six post-Soviet states specialize in physics. Turkeys profile
is more varied. It publishes most in medical sciences but also
specializes in engineering. Next come publications spread more
or less equally across biological sciences, chemistry and physics.
Agriculture and computer sciences are a low priority for Turkish
9. Georgia has very few national scientific journals, whereas Ukraine counts more
than 1 000 periodicals. Between 1995 and 2012 in particular, Ukrainian scientists
were incited to publish in these national journals to further their careers; not all
these journals are internationally recognized, however.
Chapter 12
Table 12.3: High-tech merchandise exports by Black Sea countries, 2008 and 2013
Per capita in US$
2008
2013
2008
2013
Armenia
Azerbaijan
2.3
3.1
-1
0.7
4.4 -1
42
Belarus
422
769
44.1
82.2
Georgia
21
23
4.7
5.3
Moldova
13
17
3.6
4.8
Turkey
1 900
2 610
27.0
34.8
Ukraine
1 554
2 232
33.5
49.3
10 823
9 022
56.4
45.0
5 208
9 103
36.2
63.7
683
798
65.7
72.6
Patent applications
to EPO
Patent applications
to USPTO
Total,
20012010
Total
20012010
Utility model
Patents
Under
the PCT
Utility model
Patents
Under
the PCT
Number
Ratio
20062010
to
20012006
Number
Ratio
20062010
to
20012006
Armenia
2.0
7.1
0.4
16
16
42
14
0.6
37
1.3
Azerbaijan
0.1
1.5
0.1
54
59
90
Belarus
7.6
11.6
0.1
74
70
1.1
93
0.8
Georgia
1.8
5.3
0.2
18
24
64
17
1.3
55
1.1
Moldova
14.2
7.7
0.3
14
62
14
0.4
12
2.5
Turkey
3.4
4.0
0.5
11
30
39
1 996
3.1
782
2.1
Ukraine
30.2
7.5
0.4
15
45
272
1.2
486
1.3
World rank
Source: National office applications from the Global Innovation Index (2014), Annex Tables 6.11, 6.12 and 6.1.3; EPO and USPTO applications from OECD Patent
Statistics online, based on EPOs Worldwide Statistical Patent Database (PATSTAT)
321
Figure
12.6:
Scientific
publication trends in the Black Sea countries, 20052014
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
Strong growth in publications in the smaller countries and Turkey
25 000
Turkey 23 596
20 000
15 000
13 830
10 000
5 000
Ukraine 4 895
4 029
0
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
1 200
1 000
Belarus 1 077
978
800
Armenia 691
600
Georgia 527
Azerbaijan 425
381
305
237
213
400
200
Moldova 248
311
0.97
0.92
250
0.8
232
0.76
200
0.70
0.6
0.63
0.60
0.55
150
0.4
122
100
116
109
72
0.2
50
45
ne
ra
i
Uk
y
ke
Tu
r
M
ol
do
va
Ge
or
gi
ru
la
Be
Aj
er
ba
ija
n
e
Uk
ra
in
y
ke
Tu
r
M
ol
do
va
Ge
or
gi
s
ru
la
Be
Aj
er
ba
ija
n
Ar
m
en
ia
322
Ar
m
en
ia
0.0
Ajerbaijan
Belarus
18
180
289
420
30
95
26
15
5
15
286
35
154
Moldova 22 76
124
1 413
982
121
240
161
5 436
72
Medical sciences
Mathematics
54
8 949
3 945
61
2 352
Chemistry
1
8
2 738
2
17
1 264
95
563
5 253
1 339
Biological sciences
Astronomy
Agriculture
122
1
5
1 028
10
232
18 508
3 314
76
325
118 341
23
10 987
313
474
497
14 101
101
827
3
9
2 440
932
45 154
7
1 091
178
687
4
29
10 288
Engineering
Computer science
Physics
9 191
Psychology
Geosciences
Social sciences
Note: : Some unclassified articles are excluded from these totals, including 28 140 for Turkey, 6 072 for Ukraine and 1 242 for Belarus.
Armenia
9.2
60.1
Ajerbaijan
5.6
53.0
Georgia
10.7
Moldova
7.9
Turkey
5.8
OECD average: 11.1%
10
71.9
71.2
18.8
Ukraine
4.4
58.4
Belarus
6.6
47.5
20
40
60
The post-Soviet states balance collaboration with Eastern and Western Europe
Main foreign partners, 20082014 (number of papers)
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Armenia
USA (1 346)
Germany (1 333)
Azerbaijan
Turkey (866)
USA (476)
Germany (459)
UK (413)
Belarus
Germany (1 419)
Poland (1 204)
USA (1 064)
France (985)
Georgia
USA (1 153)
Germany (1 046)
UK (924)
Italy (909)
Moldova
Germany (276)
USA (235)
Romania (197)
France (153)
Turkey
Germany (4 580)
UK (4 036)
Italy (3 314)
France (3 009)
Ukraine
Germany (3 882)
USA (3 546)
Poland (3 072)
France (2 451)
Italy (1 191)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix
323
Chapter 12
Ukraine
16
177
307
32
1 140
Georgia 30 176
6 380
559
64
693
513
Turkey
304
Sea basin
324
scientific infrastructure;
n Promotion of basic and applied research;
n Creation of a synergistic system of education, science and
innovation; and
n Becoming a prime location for scientific specialization in
n Life sciences;
n Renewable energy, new energy sources;
n Advanced technologies, information technologies;
10. The Bologna Process involves 46 European countries which have committed
to creating a Higher Education Area. Three key priorities are to generalize across
Europe the bachelorsmastersPhD system, quality assurance and the recognition
of qualifications. See the box in the UNESCO Science Report 2010, p. 150.
325
Chapter 12
AZERBAIJAN
Moves to reduce dependence on
commodity exports
Oil and gas extraction dominates the Azeri economy. From
the early to late 2000s, its share in GDP rose from around a
quarter to more than half, before receding somewhat in more
recent years. Oil and gas account for around 90% of exports
and the bulk of fiscal revenues (Ciarreta and Nasirov, 2012).
During a period of high oil prices, growth led by energy
exports enabled a sharp rise in per capita income and a
dramatic fall in the measured poverty rate. Non-oil GDP also
grew but, following the 20082009 global financial crisis,
economic growth slowed considerably to about 2% per year
326
327
Chapter 12
BELARUS
A specialization in engineering and oil
refining
Belarus is not well-endowed with natural resources and relies
largely on imported energy and raw materials. Historically,
the country has always specialized in processing; the main
activities of its large industrial sector (42% of GDP in 2013) are
engineering (agricultural technology and specialized heavy
vehicles such as tractors) and the refining of oil supplied
mainly by Russia. These sectors are heavily dependent on
external demand, which is why foreign trade contributes a
bigger share of GDP for this upper middle-income economy
than for any other in this group (Table 12.1). With 50% of trade
involving the Russian Federation, the Belarusian economy has
been vulnerable to the crisis currently affecting its biggest
commercial partner; for example, after the Russian ruble lost
nearly 30% of its value in just a few days in December 2014,
the value of the Belarus ruble fell by half.
The Belarusian authorities have followed a path of gradual
transition towards a market economy. The state retains
significant levers of influence over the economy and there
has only been limited privatization of large enterprises.
The authorities have developed initiatives in recent years
328
GEORGIA
Ahead on market reforms but STI could
do more to drive development
Compared with other economies at a similar stage of
development, Georgia is one of the most advanced in
implementing market-oriented reforms but also one of the least
focused on nurturing STI for socio-economic development.
With few natural resources to speak of and hardly any legacy
of heavy industry, Georgias economy has been dominated
by the agro-industry since Soviet times. As late as 2009, food
and beverages represented 39% of manufacturing output
and the share of agriculture in employment stood at 53%
(FAO, 2012). Exports of transport services (including oil and
gas via pipelines) have become important sources of revenue,
representing 56% of GDP in the last five years, according to
the World Bank. Broad-based growth is presently reducing the
relative importance of these sectors, however. The Georgian
economy grew by an average of 6% per year between 2004
and 2013, driven by a noteworthy push on structural reforms
and liberalisation starting in 2004 (World Bank, 2014).
Indeed, Georgia has been one of the most resolute reformers of
modern times when it comes to advancing economic freedoms
and improving the business environment. The country rose
101 places in the World Banks Doing Business Indicator
between 2005 and 2011. Meanwhile, its extensive anti-
329
Chapter 12
330
MOLDOVA
An alternative growth engine to replace
remittances
Moldova has one of the lowest levels of GDP per capita in Europe
and the lowest in the Black Sea region (Table 12.1). Moldovas
emigrant population is among the largest in the world, in relative
terms; it accounts for about 30% of the labour force. Workers
remittances are high (23% of GDP in 2011) but their contribution
is expected to stagnate (World Bank, 2013), so the country needs
an alternative growth engine based on exports and investment.
Moldovas economy recovered strongly from the global
financial crisis, growing by more than 7% in 20102011, but
growth has been unstable since, with GDP contracting by 0.7%
in 2012 only to rebound by 8.9% in 2013, according to the IMF.
This underlines Moldovas vulnerability to the Eurozone crisis
and climatic events such as droughts (World Bank, 2013).
After peaking at 0.55% of GDP in 2005, GERD dropped
to 0.36% in 2013, according to the UNESCO Institute
for Statistics. The share of GERD performed by business
enterprises has been very erratic, dropping from 18% in 2005
to 10% in 2010 before bouncing back to 20% in 2013. The low
level of R&D investment means that research infrastructure
remains undeveloped, although ICT networks and databases
are available to researchers to some extent.
A centralized national innovation system
The Academy of Sciences is the main policy-making body
in Moldova; it fulfils the role of ministry of science, as its
331
Chapter 12
base;
n Designing targeted incentive schemes to encourage
TURKEY
Figure 12.7: Budget breakdown of Moldovas state programmes for R&D, by thematic priority, 2012 (%)
16.7
Biomedicine, pharmaceuticals
and human health
Agricultural biotechnology,
soil fertility and food
security
2012
26.9
12.8
Nanotechnology, industrial
engineering, new materials and products
332
13.0
2.5
Table 12.5: Key development targets for Turkey to 2018 and 2023
Situation in 2012
Targets to 2018
Targets to 2023
10 666
16 000
25 000
152
227
500
1.0
1.5
GERD/GDP ratio
0.86
1.80
3.0
43.2
60.0
72109
176000
Researchers (FTE)
Chapter 12
Source: MoDev (2013); World Banks World Development Indicators, accessed November 2014; UNESCO Institute for Statistics, March 2015
333
334
in the Black Sea grouping and has not kept pace with the
expansion of the countrys STI effort in recent years: at
just 0.8% in 2013, according to the UNESCO Institute for
Statistics, it accounted for 0.01% of GDP.
n Although patenting has grown in recent years, Turkey
Next steps for Turkey
Having made great strides in the level of public support for
STI in the past decade, the public authorities now need to
consider additional measures to interconnect better the
Chapter 12
335
disciplines;
n Environmental studies;
n ICTs;
n Energy generation and energy-saving technologies;
n New materials;
n Life sciences and methods for combating the main
diseases.
The share of foreign sources in R&D funding is relatively high
in Ukraine, accounting for about 25% of GERD in 20102013.
Ukrainian state statistics do not provide information about
the distribution of funding by country of origin. However, it is
known that a substantial share is associated with the Russian
Federation, the USA, EU and China.
Ukraine concluded a new agreement with the EU on S&T
co-operation in 2010 that was implemented a year later. It has
opened up new opportunities for co-operation and creates
framework conditions for a number of joint initiatives, such
as joint research projects with EU funding, joint expeditions,
the exchange of information and so on. In July 2015, the
Ukrainian parliament ratified the agreement for the country's
associate membership of the EU's Horizon 2020 programme
(20142020).
Successive crises have eroded R&D spending
Successive crises have had a negative impact on the economy,
in general, and R&D funding, in particular: first, there was
the economic crisis of the late 2000s then depreciation of
the national currency, the Ukrainian hryvnia (UAH), and,
336
337
Chapter 12
R&D system.
However, policy measures outlined in different strategic
documents are much less concerned with identifying specific
demands for knowledge and especially with providing strategic
intelligence on structural changes in the economy. Moreover,
rather limited measures have been envisaged to improve
knowledge circulation, to meet business knowledge demands
and to increase resource mobilization in the private sector.
Ukrainian research and innovation policy with respect to
industry is almost exclusively focused on direct state support
for the six national academies of sciences, state-owned
companies and state universities. There is a noteworthy lack of
co-ordination between research policy (focusing on the quality
of academic research and the provision of skilled researchers)
and economic development policies, owing to a fragmentation
of the responsibilities of both the state ministries and agencies
and the central and regional authorities.
338
by 2020;
n All educational institutions in Azerbaijan are to have
339
Chapter 12
340
341
Chapter 12
342
Russian Federation
13 . Russian Federation
Leonid Gokhberg and Tatiana Kuznetsova
INTRODUCTION
The end of long-term resource-led growth
The Russian Federation faces a variety of challenges in
securing adequate investment in new knowledge and
technologies and deriving socio-economic benefit from
them. The UNESCO Science Report 2010 had observed
that the global financial crisis of 2008 and the ensuing
stagnation were exacerbating domestic weaknesses, such
as the limited market competition and persistent barriers
to entrepreneurship which were hampering the growth of
the Russian economy. Despite some reforms since, these
challenges have intensified since mid-2014.
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
7.2
5.2
-7.8
4.5
4.3
3.4
1.3
14.0
13.3
8.8
8.8
6.1
6.6
6.5
6.2
0.6
-10.7
7.3
5.0
3.4
0.4
Capital investment
14.0
9.5
-13.5
6.3
10.8
6.8
0.8
Exports
21.0
34.6
-36.3
32.1
31.3
2.3
-0.8
Imports
GDP
Consumer price index
Industrial production index
24.2
29.4
-36.3
33.6
29.7
5.4
1.7
4.8
-6.3
-3.4
1.5
0.4
1.3
2.1
2.9
2.6
2.1
2.5
2.7
343
Chapter 13
344
Russian Federation
Table 13.2: Objectives and quantitative targets to 2018 of the May 2012 presidential decrees in the Russian Federation
Decree
Objectives
345
Chapter 13
TRENDS IN R&D
1.29%
1.12%
The Russian Federations R&D intensity has not progressed over the past decade
Other countries are given for comparison
3.0
USA 2.81
Germany
2.94
2.55
2.5 2.46
China 2.02
2.0
EU Average
1.92
1.70
1.67
UK 1.63
1.5
Brazil 1.21
1.29
1.13
1.0 0.96
Turkey 0.95
0.79
0.71
India 0.81
South
Africa 0.76
2011
2012
2013
141.8
143.5
0.5 0.48
0.0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Federal budget allocations for civil-purpose R&D tripled between 2003 and 2013
150
140.1
120
128.8
110.9
132.2
133.0
126.8
114.1
106.4
105.0
90
GERD in billions of rubles at constant 2000 prices
81.4
Federal budget appropriations for civil-purpose R&D in billions of rubles at constant 2000 prices
60
68.4
63.2
30
35.0
27.2
25.8
2003
2004
46.1
47.7
2007
2008
72.1
60.0
38.5
346
2005
2006
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
1.5
1.0
China 1.51
0.98
0.80
UK 0.76
Turkey 0.46
0.5
0.35
0.33
0.0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2.4 4.4
25.6
GERD in the Russian Federation by socio-economic objective, 2008 and 2013 (%)
28.2
Agriculture
Energy
2013
Industry
6.9
2.6 4.3
4.4
5.4
27.6
Social development
17.4
25.1
1.5
3.0
0.8
2008
Civil space
Other fields
3.2
2.9
4.4
25.7
0.8 2.3
1.0
Source: HSE (2015a); OECDs Main Science and Technology Indicators, May 2015; for Brazil and India: UNESCO Institute for Statistics
347
348
India 53 733
50 000
Brazil 37 228
3.8%
40 000
30 000
0.51
25 944
24 703
24 694
17 106
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
191 204
Number of Russian
publications per
million inhabitants
in 2008
38 005
17 173
16 121
Number of Russian
publications per
million inhabitants
in 2014
18 800
10 733
140
in
g
Ge
os
cie
nc
es
M
at
he
m
at
ics
M
ed
ica
ls
cie
nc
Ot
es
he
rl
ife
sc
ie
nc
es
35
ne
er
En
gi
sc
er
pu
t
Co
m
Ch
em
ist
ie
nc
e
ry
951
tu
re
ul
Ag
ric
11 820
4 604
As
tro
no
Bi
m
ol
y
og
ica
ls
cie
nc
es
1 237
55 818
179
Ps
yc
ho
lo
gy
So
cia
ls
cie
nc
es
2005
Ph
ys
ics
10 000
Germany and the USA are the Russian Federations principal partners
Main foreign partners, 20082014 (number of papers)
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Russian Fed.
UK (8 575)
Italy (6 888)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
349
Chapter 13
33.0%
20 000
5. Between 2002 and 2008, there was absolute growth in the number of
researchers aged 70 years and above. Simultaneously, the ranks thinned for such
creative age groups as 4049 year-olds (down by nearly 58%) and 5059 year-olds
(down by 13%). In 2008, researchers were 49 years old, on average, compared to
40 years old for those working in the national economy as a whole.
6. Roughly 60% of Russian researchers work in Moscow, the Moscow Region and
St Petersburg. Six other regions together account for a further 20% of researchers:
350
Russian Federation
4.3
4.0
3.7
0.7
0.6
2008
0.7
2013
351
Chapter 13
2005
11. not to be confused with the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, set up in
1993 to issue grants for basic research
12. The Russian Foundation for Basic Research, the Russian Foundation for
Humanities and the Foundation for Assistance to Small Innovative Enterprises were
all set up in the early 1990s.
352
Russian Federation
also introduced grants to develop research networks and cooperation between universities and the national academies
of science and industry, within the framework of the State
Programme for the Development of Science and Technology
for 20132020. Leading universities participating in this
programme are expected to raise the share of their budget
devoted to technology transfer from 18% to 25% between
2012 and 2020.
A Basic Research Programme has been designed for
20132020 to co-ordinate national efforts. It is part of the
overarching State Programme for the Development of
Science and Technology and contains specific provisions for
selecting priorities in basic research and for an open public
evaluation of scientific achievements. These provisions
include the presentation of the programmes results in a
freely accessible database and the mandatory publication of
open-access articles on the internet.
353
Chapter 13
Box 13.1: Skolkovo Innovation Centre: a temporary tax haven near Moscow
The Skolkovo Innovation Centre is
currently under construction in the
city of Skolkovo, near Moscow. This
high-tech business complex has
been designed to attract innovative
companies and nurture startups in five priority areas: energy
efficiency and energy saving; nuclear
technologies; space technologies;
biomedicine; and strategic computer
technologies and software.
The complex was announced by
the president in November 2009. It
consists mainly of a technological
university and a technopark and is
headed by Russian oligarch Viktor
Vekselberg and co-chaired by former
Intel head Craig Barrett. In order
to woo potential residents, a bill
according the residents of Skolkovo
special legal, administrative and fiscal
privileges was adopted by the State
Duma (parliament) in September 2010.
354
Russian Federation
Restructuring to reinvigorate research
The institutional structure of the Russian R&D sector is not
yet fully adapted to the market economy. As described
in The UNESCO Science Report 2010, in the Soviet era,
basic research was conducted predominantly by the
research institutes of the state academies of science
and major universities, whereas applied research and
experimental development were concentrated mostly
in branch institutions, design bureaux and specialized
units of industrial enterprises. All R&D organizations were
state-owned. Nowadays, most of the so-called industrial
R&D in Russia is performed by large companies or legally
independent research institutes. Industrial enterprises and
design bureaux are mostly privately owned or semi-private
organizations. This said, seven out of ten R&D-performing
institutions are still state-owned, including universities and
enterprises in which the government has a share of the
capital. As already noted, small companies in the R&D sector
are underrepresented, especially in comparison with other
industrial nations (HSE, 2015a).
17.1
Other
47.7
Type of
R&D unit
18.6
7.4
9.2
Universities
Industrial
enterprises
Design
bureaux
7.2
18.9
7.4
Breakdown
of R&D
personnel
n ICTs (12.2%);
n Environmental management (6.8%);
n Life sciences (6.0%); and
n Nanotechnology (3.8%).
Research
institutes
Source: HSE (2015a)
59.7
14. Prior to the reform of 2013, there were six Russian academies: the Academies
of Sciences; Medical Sciences; Agricultural Sciences; Education; the Arts; and
Architecture and Construction Services.
15. such as bionanotechnology, neurobiology, bioinformatics, etc.
355
Chapter 13
356
Russian Federation
microscopes that allow particles on a scale of 30 nanometers
to be captured; this is a real breakthrough, with a multitude of
potential applications in electronics and medicine (Rusnano,
2013, 2014). The centre has also patented special anticorrosion
coatings, among other inventions.
Although the production of nanomaterials has grown
considerably, Russian scientific output in nanotechnologies
does not seem to be progressing as quickly as in a number of
other economies (see Figure 15.5); nor does Russian scientific
activity seem to have translated, as yet, into a significant
amount of patented inventions (Figure 13.5).
120
110
100
Japan 94.43
90
87.48
80
Chapter 13
70
60
51.98
50
40
World
average 34.91
30
29.91
Germany 26.59
UK 22.97
20 17.96
14.22
10
4.56
Italy 6.01
1.18
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
357
358
Russian Federation
smart energy systems, high-power fourth-generation watercooled nuclear reactors and optimizing energy and fuel
transportation (HSE, 2014c).
16. Some technoparks have failed to achieve prescribed objectives related to the
creation of highly skilled jobs, turnover in goods manufacturing, services rendered
to resident businesses, etc. See: http://nptechnopark.ru/upload/spravka.pdf
359
Chapter 13
360
Russian Federation
However, these contacts with the USA are now being
affected by the recent political tensions over Ukraine. For
example, joint efforts to secure nuclear materials actually
ceased when the US Department of Energy announced
the termination of co-operation in April 2014. For the
time being, co-operation between the Russian Federation
and the USA is being maintained at the level of particular
research centres and universities. This approach was
approved, for example, by a meeting of the Skolkovo
Scientific Advisory Council in November 2014 in Stanford
(USA). At this meeting, several areas were selected for joint
activities, namely brain and other bioscience research,
molecular diagnostics, environmental monitoring and the
forecasting of natural and technogenic emergencies.
361
Chapter 13
362
2018;
n Raise the average salary of researchers to 200% of the
Russian Federation
REFERENCES
Cornell University; INSEAD and WIPO (2014) Global Innovation
Index 2014: The Human Factor in Innovation. Cornell
University and World Intellectual Property Organization.
Ithaca (USA), Fontainebleau (France) and Geneva
(Switzerland).
Dekhtyaruk, Y.; Karyshev I.; Korableva, M.; Velikanova N.;
Edelkina, A.; Karasev, O.; Klubova, M.; Bogomolova, A. and
N. Dyshkant (2014) Foresight in civil shipbuilding 2030.
Foresight Russia, 8(2): 3045.
Gershman, M. and T. Kuznetsova (2014) Performance-related
pay in the Russian R&D sector. Foresight Russia, 8(3): 5869.
Gershman, M. and T. Kuznetsova (2013) The effective
contract in science: the models parameters. Foresight
Russia, 7(3): 2636.
Chapter 13
363
364
Central Asia
14 . Central Asia
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
Nasibakhon Mukhitdinova
INTRODUCTION
1. Turkmenistan had reduced its external debt to just 1.6% of GDP by 2012
(down from 35% in 2002) and Uzbekistans external debt is just 18.5% of GDP
(2012). Kazakhstans external debt has remained relatively stable at 66% (2012),
whereas Tajikistans external debt has climbed to 51% (up from 36% in 2008) and
Kyrgyzstans remains high at 89%, after dropping to 71% in 2009. Source: Sescric
database, accessed July 2014.
12
Kyrgyzstan 10.5
Turkmenistan 10.2
9.8
9
8.3
Uzbekistan 8.0
Tajikistan 7.4
Kazakhstan 6.0
5.5
5.4
3.8
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Source: World Bank (2014) Global Economic Prospects, Table A1.1, p. 100
365
366
Central Asia
High literacy and medium development
Despite high rates of economic growth in recent years, GDP
per capita in Central Asia was higher than the average for
developing countries only in Kazakhstan in 2013 (PPP$ 23 206)
and Turkmenistan (PPP$ 14 201). It dropped to PPP$ 5 167
for Uzbekistan, home to 45% of the regions population, and
was even lower for Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
Figure 14.2: GDP in Central Asia by economic sector,
2005 and 2013 (%)
Agriculture
2005 2013
Industry
2005 2013
Services
2005 2013
Manufacturing
2005 2013
6.8
Kazakhstan
4.9
12.8
40.1
53.1
58.2
31.9
Kyrgyzstan
17.7
22.4
14.4
45.7
15.6
45.7
55.6
24.0
27.4
Tajikistan
11.2
Uzbekistan
0.41
31.3
23.7
0.4
21.7
44.8
50.8
0.3
18.8
0.30
Turkmenistan
14.5
37.6
48.4
0.2
43.6
37.0
0.22
Kazakhstan
0.18
0.17
7
Kyrgyzstan 0.16
28.0
0.1
Uzbekistan
19.1
26.3
10.5
48.9
0.09
23.2
9.1
0.0
54.6
Tajikistan
0.12
10
20
30
40
50
Note: For Turkmenistan, the most recent data are for 2012.
Source: World Banks World Development Indicators, September 2014
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
60
367
Chapter 14
37.8
11.5
368
Central Asia
All three new universities teach in English and work with
partner universities in the USA, Europe or Asia on academic
programme design, quality assurance, faculty recruitment and
student admissions.
International co-operation is also a strong focus of the research
institutes and hubs set up in recent years (Boxes 14.114.5).
The mandate of these centres reflects a will to adopt a more
sustainable approach to environmental management. Centres
plan to combine R&D in traditional extractive industries, for
instance, with a greater use of renewable energy, particularly
solar.
In June 2014, the headquarters of the International
Science and Technology Center (ISTC) were moved to
Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan, three years after the
Russian Federation announced its withdrawal from the
centre. Permanent facilities within the new Science Park at
Nazarbayev University should be completed by 2016. ISTC
was established in 1992 by the European Union (EU), Japan,
the Russian Federation and the USA to engage weapons
scientists in civilian R&D projects5 and to foster technology
transfer. ISTC branches have been set up in the following
countries party to the agreement: Armenia, Belarus, Georgia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (Ospanova, 2014).
5. In the past 20 years, ISTC has provided competitive funding for about 3 000
projects in basic and applied research in energy, agriculture, medicine, materials
science, aerospace, physics, etc. Scientists from member countries interact with one
another, as well as with international centres such as the European Organization
for Nuclear Research (CERN) and with multinationals that include Airbus, Boeing,
Hitachi, Samsung, Philips, Shell and General Electric (Ospanova, 2014).
Table 14.1: PhDs obtained in science and engineering in Central Asia, 2013 or closest year
PhDs
PhDs in science
Total per
million
population
PhDs in engineering
Women PhDs
per million
population
Women
%
Total per
million
population
Women PhDs
per million
population
37
38
2.3
0.9
10.4
54
63
3.9
14
5.4
1.6
118
27
Total
Women
%
Total
Women
%
Kazakhstan
(2013)
247
51
73
60
4.4
2.7
Kyrgyzstan
(2012)
499
63
91
63
16.6
Tajikistan
(2012)
331
11
31
Uzbekistan
(2011)
838
42
152
30
Total
Note: PhD graduates in science cover life sciences, physical sciences, mathematics and statistics, and computing; PhDs in engineering also cover manufacturing
and construction. For Central Asia, the generic term of PhD also encompasses Candidate of Science and Doctor of Science degrees. Data are unavailable for
Turkmenistan.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, January 2015
369
Chapter 14
2012) but the needs are greater in the latter two countries,
which have lower standards of living. Both Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan have introduced national strategies to correct such
structural weaknesses as ill-equipped schools and universities,
inadequate curricula and poorly trained teaching staff.
Table 14.2: Central Asian researchers by field of science and gender, 2013 or closest year
Researchers by field of science (HC)
Total researchers
(HC)
Total
researchers
Engineering
and
technology
Natural
Sciences
Per
million Number Women
pop. of women (%)
Medical
and health
sciences
Agricultural
sciences
Social sciences
Humanities
Total
Women
(%)
Total
Women
(%)
Total
Women
(%)
Total
Women
(%)
Total
Women
(%)
Total
Women
(%)
Kazakhstan
(2013)
17195
1046
8849
51.5
5091
51.9
4996
44.7
1068
69.5
2150
43.4
1776
61.0
2114
57.5
Kyrgyzstan
(2011)
2224
412
961
43.2
593
46.5
567
30.0
393
44.0
212
50.0
154
42.9
259
52.1
Tajikistan
(2013)
2 152
262
728
33.8
509
30.3
206
18.0
374
67.6
472
23.5
335
25.7
256
34.0
30890
1 097
12 639
40.9
6910
35.3
4982
30.1
3659
53.6
1872
24.8
6817
41.2
6650
52.0
Uzbekistan
(2011)
Note: Data are unavailable for Turkmenistan. The sum of the breakdowns by field of science may not correspond to the total because of the fields not elsewhere classified.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, February 2015
12.3
29.6
10.3
Kazakhstan
(2013)
12.5
6.2
11.9
26.7
6.9
9.5
15.6
Kyrgyzstan
(2011)
17.7
29.1
Natural sciences
Agricultural sciences
Social sciences
Humanities
Note: Data are unavailable for Turkmenistan. The sum of the breakdowns by field of
science may not correspond to the total because of the fields not elsewhere classified.
370
Tajikistan
(2013)
21.9
25.5
21.5
22.1
23.7
22.4
Uzbekistan
(2011)
6.1
11.8
16.1
17.4
9.6
Central Asia
Figure 14.5: Central Asian researchers by sector of employment (HC), 2013 (%)
5.7
13.4
18.3
Business enterprise
33.9
Government
Kyrgyzstan
Kazakhstan
Higher education
22.4
53.6
52.7
Private non-profit
0.2
6.3
15.9
30.1
Uzbekistan
Tajikistan
69.9
77.6
Chapter 14
Note: For Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, the most recent data are for 2011. Data are unavailable for Turkmenistan.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, February 2015
371
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Figure
14.6:
UNESCO
SCIENCE REPORT
Scientific publication
trends in Central
Asia, 20052014
Astana
KAZAKHSTAN
Lake Balkash
h
36
Kazakhstan publishes
most but output remains
modest
Aral
A
Sea
Aktau
Almaty
Caspian
Sea
Bishke
kek
ke
UZBEKISTAN
Avaz
Tashkent
hkent
11
15
CHINA
TURKMENISTAN
Turkmenabat
TAJIKISTAN
Ashgabat
Dussshanbe
34.5% 55.8%
Kazakh share of Central Asian
publications in 2005
KYRGYZSTAN
AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN
INDIA
Kazakhstan 600
600
500
400
Uzbekistan 323
300
200
296
200
100
Kyrgyzstan 82
Tajikistan 46
46
4
32
5
Turkmenistan 24
0
2005
372
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
The most prolific countries Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan specialize in physics andCentral
chemistryAsia
Cumulative totals by field, 20082014
Kazakhstan
38
Kyrgyzstan
14 1
Tajikistan 2
435
54
17
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
212
37
67
36
13
84
168
Mathematics
18
40
163
Biological sciences
Other life sciences
108
61
46
204
Chemistry
67
23
57
93
3
6
725
Engineering
Computer science
Physics
5
14
554
37
442
Medical sciences
144
11
13
Astronomy
Agriculture
204
133
72
174
22
34
255
Psychology
Geosciences
Social sciences
G20 average
G20 average
1.02 1.02
G20 average
G20 average
10.2%10.2%
0.77 0.77
7.4 7.4
Chapter 14
0.67 0.67
6.2 6.2
0.51 0.51
0.48 0.48
4.5 4.5
0.39 0.39
3.0 3.0
2.9 2.9
Kazakhstan
KazakhstanKyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan
TajikistanTurkmenistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan
Kazakhstan
KazakhstanKyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan
TajikistanTurkmenistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan
The Russian Federation, Germany and the USA are the regions top partners
Main foreign partners, 20082014 (number of papers)
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Kazakhstan
USA (329)
Germany (240)
UK (182)
Japan (150)
Kyrgyzstan
Turkey/Germany (74)
USA (56)
Kazakhstan (43)
Tajikistan
Pakistan (68)
USA (46)
Germany (26)
UK (20)
Turkmenistan
Turkey (50)
USA/Italy (6)
Uzbekistan
Germany (258)
USA (198)
China/Germany (4)
Italy (131)
Spain (101)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
373
and salaries;
n grant funding to support research programmes; and
374
Central Asia
The Law on Science established a system of peer review for
research grant applications from universities and research
institutes. These competitive grants are examined by the
national research councils. The government also plans to
increase the share of funding for applied research to 30%
and that for experimental development to 50%, leaving
20% for basic research. The law introduced a change to the
tax code which reduces corporate income tax by 150% to
compensate for businesses R&D expenditure. In parallel,
the law extends intellectual property protection. In addition,
public and private enterprises are eligible for state loans, so as
to encourage the commercialization of research results and
attract investment.
In order to ensure coherence, independence and
transparency in the management of STI projects and
programmes, the government created the National Centre for
State Scientific and Technical Expertise in July 2011. A joint
stock company, the centre runs the national research councils,
monitors ongoing projects and programmes and evaluates
their impact, while maintaining a project database.
8. According to the 2009 census, Kazakhs make up 63% of the population and
ethnic Russians 24%. Small minorities (less than 3%) make up the remainder,
including Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Tatars.
375
education model;
n 100% of 36 year olds to be provided
e-learning system;
n Secondary schools to be of the same
30 developed nations;
n Kazakhstan to increase per capita GDP
376
Central Asia
9. The information here on the 2050 Strategy is taken from the presidents address:
www.kazakhembus.com/in_the_news/president-nursultan-nazarbayevs-2014-thestate-of-the-nation-address
377
Chapter 14
378
Central Asia
will be encouraged to create industries to source required
products and services. Technology parks will be reinforced,
such as the new Innovative Intellectual Cluster at Nazarbayev
University in Astana (Box 14.3) and the Alatau Information
Technology Park in Almaty.
Fifteen years to become a knowledge economy
In its 2050 Strategy, Kazakhstan gives itself 15 years to evolve
into a knowledge economy. New sectors are to be created
during each five-year plan. The first of these, covering the
years 20102014, focused on developing industrial capacity
in car manufacturing, aircraft engineering and the production
of locomotives, passenger and cargo railroad cars. During the
second five-year plan to 2019, the goal is to develop export
markets for these products.
To enable Kazakhstan to enter the world market of geological
exploration, the country intends to increase the efficiency
of traditional extractive sectors such as oil and gas. It also
intends to develop rare earth metals, given their importance
for electronics, laser technology, communication and medical
equipment.
KYRGYZSTAN
A technologically dependent country
The Kyrgyz economy is oriented primarily
towards agricultural production, mineral extraction, textiles
and the service industry. There is little incentive to create
knowledge- and technology-based industries. The insufficient
rate of capital accumulation also hampers structural changes
designed to boost innovation and technology-intensive
industries. Every key economic sector is technologically
dependent on other countries. In the energy sector, for
instance, all technological equipment is imported from
abroad and many of its assets are in foreign12 hands.
10. Kazakhstans sole nuclear power plant was decommissioned in 1999 after 26 years
of service. According to the IAEA, a joint venture with the Russian Atomstroyexport
envisages developing and marketing innovative small and medium-sized reactors,
starting with a 300 MWe Russian design as a baseline for Kazakh units.
11. This agency is a joint stock company, like many state bodies.
12. If we take the example of the Russian Federation, three partly state-owned
companies have recently invested in Krygzystans hydropower, oil and gas industries.
In 2013, RusHydro began building the first of a series of hydroelectric dams that it will
manage. In February 2014, Rosneft signed a framework agreement to buy 100% of
Bishkek Oil and a 50% stake in the sole aviation fuel provider at the countrys secondbiggest airport, Osh International. The same year, Gazprom came closer to acquiring
100% of Kyrgyzgaz, which operates the countrys natural gas network. In return for
a symbolic investment of US$ 1, Gazprom will assume US$ 40 million in debt and
invest 20 billion rubles (circa US$ 551 million) in modernizing Kyrgyz gas pipelines
over the next five years. Gazprom already provides most of the countrys aviation fuel
and has a 70% share in the retail gasoline market (Satke, 2014).
379
380
TAJIKISTAN
Strong economic growth without greater
R&D intensity
Tajikistan has recorded strong growth in recent years,
thanks to various economic reforms, including the
development of new sectors such as hydropower and tourism
and effective measures to promote macro-economic
stability. GERD increased by 157% between 2007 and 2013
(to PPP$ 20.9 million, in constant 2005 PPP$) but the
GERD/GDP ratio barely improved, rising from 0.07% to 0.12%
over the same period (Figure 14.3).
The country has considerable assets: in addition to
freshwater and diverse mineral resources, it has relatively
large expanses of undeveloped land suitable for agriculture
and environmentally friendly crops, a relatively inexpensive
labour force and a strategic geographical position thanks
to its border with China, making it a place of transit for
merchandise and transportation networks.
Central Asia
Conditions not yet in place for a market economy
The country also faces several challenges, including
widespread poverty; the need to develop the rule of law;
the high cost of combating drug trafficking and terrorism
on its border; low Internet access (16% in 2013) and a small
domestic market. The government sector is not structured to
meet the demands of a market economy and development
plans and strategies are neither interconnected nor vertically
integrated. Potential partners in the private sector and civil
society are insufficiently implicated in the development
process. To compound matters, the modest allocation of
financial resources is frequently inadequate to reach the
goals set forth in national strategic documents. The country
is also plagued by inadequate statistics.
381
Chapter 14
Only time will tell whether Tajikistan can reach other key
targets for 2015. These include providing all pupils with
adequate textbooks, involving local communities more in
problem-solving, decentralizing education funding, retraining
25% of teachers annually and founding at least 450 new
schools, all of which are to be equipped with heating, water
and sanitation, along with the renovated schools. At least 50%
of schools are also to be given access to the internet.
TURKMENISTAN
Social safety nets to cushion market transition
Turkmenistan has been undergoing rapid change
with little social upheaval since the election of President
Gurbanguly Berdimuhammadov in 2007 (re-elected in 2012),
following the death of president for life Sparamurat Niyazov.
Turkmenistan has been moving towards a market economy since
this policy was enshrined in the Constitution in 2008; in parallel,
however, the government offers a minimum wage and continues
to subsidize a wide range of commodities and services, including
gas and electricity, water, wastewater disposal, telephone
subscriptions, public transportation (bus, rail and local flights)
and some building materials (bricks, cement, slate). Economic
liberalization policies are being implemented gradually. Thus,
as the standard of living has risen, some subsidies have been
removed, such as those for flour and bread in 2012.
Today, Turkmenistan has one of the fastest-growing
economies in the world. By introducing a fixed exchange rate
of US$ 1 to 2.85 Turkmen manat in 2009, the president caused
the black foreign exchange market to disappear, making the
economy more attractive to foreign investment. A fledgling
private sector is emerging with the opening of the countrys
first iron and steel works and the development of a chemical
industry and other light industries in construction, agro-food
and petroleum products. Turkmen gas is now exported to
China and the country is developing one of the largest gas
fields in the world, Galkinish, with estimated reserves of
26 trillion m3 of gas. Avaz on the Caspian Sea has been turned
into a holiday resort, with the construction of dozens of hotels
which can accommodate more than 7 000 tourists. In 2014,
some 30 hotels and holiday homes were under construction.
minerals;
n Development of the electric power industry, with
382
Central Asia
n Automation of production;
n Conservation of the environment and, accordingly,
sector;
n Medicine and pharmaceuticals;
n Natural sciences; and
n Humanities, including the study of the countrys history,
383
Chapter 14
UZBEKISTAN
384
rule of law;
n Energyand resource savings;
n Development ofrenewable energy use;
n Development of ICTs;
n Agriculture, biotechnology, ecology and environmental
protection;
n Medicine and pharmacology;
n Chemical technologies and nanotechnologies; and
n Earth sciences: geology, geophysics, seismology and raw
mineral processing.
19% new materials, 16% medicine, 15% oil and gas, 12%
chemical technologies and 13% energy and metallurgy;
n more than 2 300 agreements were signed for experimental
Central Asia
Table 14.4: Uzbekistans most active research organizations, 2014
Physics and Astronomy
Energy
Chemical Sciences
385
Chapter 14
Box 14.5: Uzbek and US scientists add economic value to cotton fibre
A recent study could potentially have a
multibillion-dollar impact on the global
cotton industry and help cotton farmers
fend off increasing competition from
synthetic fibres.
Published in January 2014 in Nature
Communications, the study is the result
of collaboration between biologists
at the Uzbek Centre of Genomics
and Bioinformatics, the Texas A&M
University (USA) and the US Department
of Agricultures Office of International
Research Programs, which provided
most of the funding.
Sustainability and biosecurity of
cotton production are pivotal for the
Uzbek economy because agriculture
accounts for [19%] of the countrys
GDP, says lead author Prof. Ibrokhim
Abdurakhmonov, who received his
masters degree in plant breeding from
Texas A&M University in 2001 and is
now director of the Centre of Genomics
and Bioinformatics at the Academy of
Sciences in his native Uzbekistan.
The overwhelming majority of cotton
harvested worldwide is upland cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum). A cotton called
Gossypium barbadense is more desirable
because of its longer fibres and greater
CONCLUSION
Progress hampered by low investment in R&D
Most of the Central Asian republics have managed to maintain
stable economic growth throughout the global financial crisis
and even some of the highest annual growth rates in the world.
They are still in the process of transition to a market economy,
however. Progress is being hampered by the low level of
investment in R&D and, in Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan in
particular, by very low levels of internet access.
386
Central Asia
n establish a support centre for STI using a common
REFERENCES
Amanniyazova, L. (2014) Social transfers and active incomes
of population. Golden Age (online newspaper), 1 February.
See: http://turkmenistan.gov.tm
CCSTD (2013) Social Development and Standards of Living
in Uzbekistan. Statistical Collection. Committee for Coordination ofScience and Technology Development.
Government of Uzbekistan: Tashkent.
Government of Kazakhstan (2010) State Programme for
Accelerated Industrial and Innovative Development.
Approved by presidential decree no. 958, 19 March. See:
www.akorda.kz/en/category/gos_programmi_razvitiya
Oilnews (2014) Kazakhstan creates investment fund for
projects in the field of renewable energy sources. Oilnews.
See: http://oilnews.kz/en/home/news
Ospanova, R. (2014) Nazarbayev University to host International
Science and Technology Centre. Astana Times, 9 June.
President of Kazakhstan (2014) The Kazakhstan Way 2050:
One Goal, One Interest and One Future. State of the Nation
Address by President Nursultan Nazarbayev.
See: www.kazakhembus.com
2015;
n Ensure that 50% of Tajik scientific projects are in
387
Chapter 14
388
Iran
15 . Iran
Kioomars Ashtarian
INTRODUCTION
Sanctions have reshaped public policy in Iran
In the UNESCO Science Report 2010, we discussed how high oil
receipts had stimulated consumerism but divorced science
from socio-economic needs, favouring a science push rather
than a technology pull. In more recent years, Iran has been
less able to rely on oil receipts, as the embargo has tightened
its grip: oil exports shrank by 42% between 2010 and 2012,
dropping from 79% to 68% of total exports.
This predicament has reshaped Iranian public policy. The
transition from a resource-based economy to a knowledge
economy was already programmed in the Vision 2025
document adopted in 2005. However, it has taken the
hardening of sanctions and a change of government
for policy-makers to make this transition a priority.
Four of the resolutions adopted by the United Nations
Security Council since 2006 include progressively tough
sanctions. Since 2012, the USA and European Union (EU)
have imposed additional restrictions on Iranian oil exports
and on enterprises and banks accused of circumventing the
sanctions. The embargo is designed to persuade Iran to stop
enriching uranium, which can be used for both civilian and
military purposes.
389
Chapter 15
7.4%
Germany 91 631
80 000
0.81%
73 573
60 000
40 000
Iran 25 588
Turkey 23 596
20 000
13 830
Egypt 8 428
4 676
2 919
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
22.3%
27 042
19 934
14 661
12 751
12 322
6 322
5 731
3 993
5 460
324
Ph
ys
ics
153
Ps
yc
ho
lo
gy
So
cia
ls
cie
nc
es
En
pu
Co
m
in
g
Ge
os
cie
nc
es
M
at
he
m
at
ics
M
ed
ica
ls
cie
nc
Ot
es
he
rl
ife
sc
ie
nc
es
er
ne
cie
rs
te
gi
ry
ist
em
Ch
ul
Ag
ric
nc
e
432
tu
re
As
tro
no
Bi
m
ol
y
og
ica
ls
cie
nc
es
528
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Iran
USA (6 377)
Canada (3 433)
UK (3 318)
Germany (2 761)
Malaysia (2 402)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
390
Iran
are already strong. In 2012, one in seven international students
in Malaysia was of Iranian origin (see Figure 26.9). In addition
to being one of the rare countries which do not impose visas
on Iranians, Malaysia is a Muslim country with a similar level of
income. There were about 14 000 foreign students at Iranian
universities in 2013, most of whom came from Afghanistan,
Iraq, Pakistan, Syria and Turkey. The Fifth Five-Year Economic
Development Plan has fixed the target of attracting 25 000
foreign students by 2015 (Tehran Times, 2013). In a speech4
delivered at the University of Tehran in October 2014,
President Rouhani recommended establishing an Englishlanguage university to attract more foreigners.
Iran is collaborating on international projects via the
Organization of Islamic States Standing Committee on
Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH).
Moreover, in 2008, Irans Nanotechnology Initiative Council
established an Econano network5 to promote the scientific and
industrial development of nanotechnology among members
of the Economic Cooperation Organization (see Annex I, p. 736).
Iran hosts several international research centres, including
the following established within the past five years under
the auspices of the United Nations: the Regional Centre
for Science Park and Technology Incubator Development
(UNESCO, est. 2010), the International Centre on
Nanotechnology for Water Purification (UNIDO, est. 2012)
and the Regional Educational and Research Centre for
Oceanography for Western Asia (UNESCO, est. 2014).
5. See: http://econano.ir
8. The Hi-Tech Development Fund has meanwhile been helping some enterprises
to adopt energy-saving technologies. See(in Persian): www.hitechfund.ir
9. See: http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/17069
391
Chapter 15
392
Iran
Given the persistently low level of foreign direct investment
(FDI) just 0.8% of GDP in 2013 coupled with Irans
economic woes, several of Vision 2025s goals seem unrealistic.
A classic example is the target of raising gross domestic
expenditure on R&D (GERD) to 4% of GDP by 2025. Other
goals seem within reach, such as that of tripling the number
of scientific articles to 800 per million population (Table 15.1).
In 2009, the government adopted a National Master Plan for
Science and Education to 2025 which reiterates the goals of
Vision 2025. It lays particular stress on developing university
research and fostering universityindustry ties to promote the
commercialization of research results.
A focus on fostering innovation and excellence
The countrys successive five-year development plans set out
to realize collectively the goals of Vision 2025. Adopted by
law, these plans also provide the most important institutional
basis for STI policy in Iran. The current Fifth Five-Year Economic
Development Plan covers the period from 2010 to 2015.
The chapters relative to higher education and STI policy
complement those of the National Master Plan for Science
and Education.
Table 15.1: Key targets for education and research in Iran to 2025
Situation in 2013
Share of adults with at least a bachelors degree
30%
1.1%-1
3.5%
736-3
3000
33.6%-5
10%
15.0%
40%
51.5%
50%
1171
2000
239
800
0.61-2
15
-5
-5
160
50000
10000
3.7%
7.0%
1.0%
GERD/GDP ratio
0.31%-3
4.0%
30.9%-5
50%
-1
7.7%
1 270-2
2250
-2
CanadaChapter 15
393
attain 3% by 2015;
n FDI is to account for 3% of GDP by 2015;
n Scientific ties are to be developed with prestigious
394
Iran
According to the Funds president, Behzad Soltani,
4600billion Iranian rials (circa US$ 171.4million) had been
allocated to 100 knowledge-based companies by late 2014.
Sorena Sattari, Vice-President for Science and Technology,
declared12 on 13 December 2014 that, in spite of the difficulties
the country is confronting, 8000 billion rials have been
attributed to the Innovation and Prosperity Fund for 2015.
The Innovation and Prosperity Fund is the primary policy
instrument for ensuring the implementation of Articles 17 and
18 of the Fifth Five-Year Economic Development Plan:
n National organizations wishing to conduct problem-
395
Chapter 15
Medicine
Medicine Medicine
Science
Social Science
BothSocial
public
and private universities
2014
Men
2014
Men2014 Men
2007
Men
2007
Men2007 Men
44 452
85 118
Basic
Sciences
Basic
Sciences
Basic Sciences
Engineering
Engineering
Engineering
87 488
114 693
38 188
70 954
517 651
Agriculture
and
Veterinary
Agriculture
Agriculture
and
Veterinary
andScience
Veterinary
Science Science
804 119
Social science
Arts
Arts
Arts
Male
Total 1 346 274
Basic science
Male
Total 2 299 858
Engineering
Agriculture &
veterinary science
567 557
Arts
1 131 621
90 983
93 308
2007
Medicine
2013
2007
Women
2007
Women
2007 Women
63
622
73 286
2014
Women
2014
Women
1482014
142Women
103 677
137 311
148 376
208 086
373 415
Female
Total 1 482 237
Female
Total 2 136 022
209 929
823 637
204 245
1 124 533
Figure 15.3: PhD graduates in Iran by field of study and gender, 2007 and 2012
154
21 33
136
Health
164
Male
Total 1 887
427
2007
48
2012
378
92 14 15
60 6 3
100
690
14
83
76
Female
Total 824
Female
Total 1 322
82
612
396
Male
Total 2 690
341
199
Agriculture
1 036
162
Social science
Services
51 48
205
1 018
Natural sciences
Engineering
204
246
Iran
n increasing the economys resistance through regional
397
Chapter 15
59.73
2006
Basic
research
24.73
15.53
Experimental
development
16.97
25.08
2011
Applied
research
57.94
15. In Iran, each vice-president has several deputies. Under the Vice-President
for Science and Technology, for instance, there is a Deputy for Science and
Technology, a Deputy for Management Development and Resources and a Deputy
for International Affairs and Technological Exchange.
398
16. These entities are the Life Science Development Company, Information
Technology Development Centre, Iran InfoTech Development Company and the
Emad Semiconductor Company.
Iran
are dense matter, stem cells and molecular medicine, energy
recycling and conversion, renewable energies, cryptography and
coding. The priority technological industries are aerospace, ICTs,
nuclear technology, nanotechnology and microtechnologies, oil
and gas, biotechnology and environmental technologies.
In aerospace, Iran manufactures aeroplanes, helicopters and
drones. It is currently developing its first wide-body plane17 to
improve seating capacity, as the country only has about nine
aircraft per million population. The industry plans to shift its
focus from 59-seaters to planes that can seat 90120passengers,
as long as it can import the relevant technical knowledge.
Meanwhile, the Iranian Space Agency has built a number of
small satellites that are launched into low-Earth orbit using a
locally produced carrier rocket called Safir. In February 2012,
Safir transported its biggest satellite yet, weighing 50 kg
(Mistry and Gopalaswamy, 2012).
17. After purchasing the production license for the An-140 from Ukraine in 2000,
Iran built its first Iran-140 commercial passenger plane in 2003.
399
Chapter 15
Table 15.2: Government outlay for R&D in Iran by major agency, 2011
R&D centre
Deputy for Science and Technology
482 459
110 000
100686
90 000
75 000
65 000
60 000
56 274
50 000
10 000
1356166
85346
357 617
Ministry of Defence
683 157
656152
Ministry of Industry
536980
280 069
156 620
Ministry of Energy
38950
Atomic Energy Organization
169 564
480 000
12 000
440 000
86104
Other
33 147 411
95 universities and 72 institutions affiliated to the Ministry of Science, Research
and Technology
84 universities and 16 institutions affiliated to the Ministry of Health and Medical
Training
22 universities and institutions affiliated to the Ministry of Defence
32 science and technology parks
184 institutions affiliated to the Ministries of Industry and Agriculture
23 institutions affiliated to the Presidency
63 other organizations
Total
41 069 680
Note: The three following centres were established in 2014 under the Deputy for Science and Technology: the Centre for Oil, Gas and Coal Research; Centre for the
Optimization of Energy and the Environment; and the Centre for Knowledge-based Marine Companies. The budget for each ministry does not cover the universities
and other institutions associated with it.
Source: www.isti.ir; compiled by author with input from the National Research Institute for Science Policy
400
Iran
Box 15.2: The ups and downs of Irans pharmaceutical industry
There are currently 96 local
manufacturers in Iran which produce
some 30 billion units of medicine
worth about US$ 2 billion per year.
Local production covers about 92%
of the Iranian market but does not
include high-quality drugs needed
for the specific treatment of diabetes,
cancer, etc. These drugs need to
be imported, at a cost of about
US$ 1.5 billion. As the market volume
represents US$ 3.5 billion, this means
that 43% of demand is met through
imports.
Of the 96 local companies, about
30 control 85% of the market. The
biggest four players are Daroupakhsh,
Jaberebne Hayyan, Tehran Shimi and
Farabi, in descending order. These
four companies alone account for
more than 20% of the market. Local
manufacturers still rely on outdated
production lines, making the cost
of pharmaceutical manufacturing
relatively high in Iran and thus
expensive for consumers.
401
Chapter 15
Box 15.3: The Royan Institute: from infertility treatments to stem cell research
The Royan Institute was founded by
Dr Saeid Kazemi Ashtiani in 1991 as
a public non-profit research institute
for reproductive biomedicine and
infertility treatments. It publishes the
Cell Journal and the Iranian Journal of
Fertility and Sterility, both of which are
indexed in Thomson Reuters Web
of Science. The institute has its own
annual prize, the Royan International
Research Award.
The Royan Institute is administered
by the Jihad Daneshgahi (jihad here
means sacred effort in a scientific
domain), which itself comes under
the supervision of the Council of the
Cultural Revolution. The institute is
officially non-governmental but is,
in fact, part of the higher education
system and thus government-funded.
In 1998, the institute was approved by
the Ministry of Health as a cell-based
research centre. Today, it employs
46 scientists and 186 laboratory
technicians in three separate institutes:
the Royan Institute for Stem Cell
402
Iran
2011
2012
2013
28
31
33
33
98
113
131
146
310
321
340
360
2 169
2 518
3 000
3 400
16 139
16 542
19 000
22 000
Source: author, based on communication with Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, 2014
CONCLUSION
Science can grow under an embargo
We claimed in the UNESCO Science Report 2010 that Iranian
STI policy was characterized by a science push rather than
a technology pull. Today, we could say that STI policy is
characterized by a sanctions push rather than a science pull. The
increasingly tough sanctions regime since 2011 has oriented
the Iranian economy towards the domestic market. By erecting
barriers to foreign imports, the sanctions have encouraged
knowledge-based enterprises to localize production.
Iran reacted to the sanctions in 2014 by adopting an
economy of resistance a term encompassing both
403
Chapter 15
Ard
rdabi
Figure
15.5:
Trends REPORT
in
UNESCO
SCIENCE
nanotechnology in Iran
Azarbayjan-E-Sharqi
Azarbayja
bayjanE-Gharbi
Gilan
Mazandaran
Zanjan
Tehran
Kordestan
n
Hamadan
Ha
an
Kermanshahan
ha
an
Ilam
Semnan
Tehran
Markazii
Khorasan
Lorestan
Esfahan
38 146
Cha
ahar Mah
ahall
va B
Bakhtia
ari
Yazd
Khuzestan
Kohkiluyeh
Koh
eh
h va
v
Buye
yer Ahm
hmadi
Karman
1 100
1 330
1 345
1 418
1 435
1 545
1 601
1 747
1 892
2 130
2 691
2 859
3 060
Fe
d.
Au
st
ra
lia
Ca
na
d
Si
ng a
ap
or
e
Br
az
il
Po
l
Sa
a
ud nd
iA
r
Sw abi
a
itz
er
la
nd
Tu
rk
ey
Sw
ed
en
M
al
a
ys
Ne
ia
th
er
la
nd
Be s
lg
iu
m
Eg
yp
t
Ru
ss
ia
Ita
ly
3 456
3 642
3 978
n
ai
Sp
4 836
ce
Fr
an
UK
5 026
6 745
n
Ira
7 192
7 572
8 678
Re
Ge p.
rm
an
y
Ja
pa
n
a,
Ko
re
In
di
a
in
US
Ch
Sistan va
Baluchestan
Hormozgan
1 003
20 437
Fars
Note: The total for China does not include Chinese Taipei, which recorded 3 139 papers in this database in 2014.
Iran performs well for the number of nanoarticles per million inhabitants
Other countries are given for comparison
Germany 92.95
80
France 78.81
69.60
60
USA 68.76
62.08
Iran 59.37
Japan 56.26
50.81
48.79
Malaysia 41.05
40
20
404
China 25.44
Russian Fed. 22.57
19.29
17.76
13.26
10.63
8.31
5.95
5.50
4.03
3.83
3.00
2009
Turkey 18.55
Egypt 10.33
South Africa 9.21
Brazil 9.15
Mexico 7.81
India 6.17
2010
2011
2012
2013
Percentage share
Iran
3
27
Health care
Health care
Suppliers of nanomaterials
Textiles
Suppliers of nanomaterials
Textiles
Equipment/Manufacturers
Energy
12 and petroleum
Equipment/Manufacturers
Automotive
Construction
568
Automotive
Construction
20 966
23
19
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Korea, Rep.
7 000
Chapter 15
India
Germany
Japan
Number of nano-articles
6 000
France
5 000
Iran
UK
4 000
Spain
Italy
Russian Fed.
3 000
Canada
Brazil
2 000
Poland
1 000
Malaysia
Mexico
Romania
Singapore
Sweden
Saudi Arabia
Turkey
Australia
Switzerland
Netherlands
Belgium
Portugal
0
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.10
1.30
1.50
Average citation per article
1.70
1.90
2.10
2.30
2.50
Source: statnano.com (January 2015), based on data from Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, and records from European Patent
Office and US Patents and Trademark Office
405
by 2025;
n Carry business expenditure on R&D to 50% of
GERD by 2025;
n Raise the share of researchers employed by the
and 2014;
n Publish 800 scientific articles in international
REFERENCES
Davarpanah, M. R. and H. M. Moghadam (2012) The
contribution of women in Iranian scholarly publication.
Library Review, 61(4): 261271.
Dehghan, S. K. (2014) Iranian students blocked from UK STEM
courses due to US sanctions. The Guardian Online, 26 June.
Fakhari H.; Soleimani D. and F. Darabi (2013) The impact of
sanctions on knowledge-based companies. Journal of
Science and Technology Policy 5(3).
Fazlzadeh, A. and M. Moshiri (2010) An investigation of
innovation in small scale industries located in science
parks of Iran. International Journal of Business and
Management, 5(10): 148.
Ghaneirad, M. A.; Toloo, A. and F. Khosrokhavar (2008), Factors
Motives and Challenges of Knowledge Production among
Scientific Elites. Journal of Science and Technology Policy
1(2): 7186.
Ghazimi R. (2012) Irans Economic Crisis: a Failure of Planning.
See: www.muftah.org
Ghazinoory, S.; Yazdi, F. S. and A.M. Soltani (2012) Iran and
nanotechnology: a new experience of on-time entry.
In: N. Aydogan-Duda (ed.) Making It to the Forefront:
Nanotechnology a Developing Country Perspective.
Springer: New York.
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Iran
PressTV (2012) IKCO to allocate 3% of sales to research,
29 January. See: http://presstv.com/detail/223755.html
PressTV (2008) Iran invests $2.5b in stem cell research.
7 November. See: www.presstv.ir
Rezaian, J. (2013) Irans automakers stalled by sanctions.
Washington Post, 14 October 2013.
Riahi, A; Ghaneei, R.M.A. and E. Ahmadi (2013) Irans Scientific
Interaction and Commutations with the G8 Countries.
Skype Presentation. Proceedings of 9th International
Conference on Webometrics Informetrics and
Scientometrics and 14th COLLNET Meeting. Tartu, Estonia.
Tehran Times (2013) 14 000 foreign students studying in Iran.
Tehran Times, 10 July, vol. 122237.
UIS (2014) Higher Education in Asia: Expanding Out, Expanding
Up. UNESCO Institute for Statistics: Montreal (Canada).
Williams, A. (2008) Iran opens its first solar power plant.
Clean Technica. See: www.cleantechnica.com.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank the following people from the
National Research Institute for Science Policy in Iran for
their assistance in compiling information and data for the
present chapter: Akram Ghadimi, Faculty Member, Fariba
Niksiar, Responsible for International Relations and Azita
Manuchehri Qashqaie, Researcher. Thanks go also to Ali
Khajeh Naiini for his assistance in compiling tables.
Chapter 15
407
408
Israel
16 . Israel
Daphne Getz and Zehev Tadmor
INTRODUCTION
A geopolitical landscape in rapid mutation
Since the Arab Spring of 2011, the political, social, religious
and military realities of the Middle East have been profoundly
remodelled through regime change, civil war and the
emergence of opportunistic politico-military sects like
Daesh (see Chapter 17). In Israels wider neighbourhood,
relations between the Western powers and Iran could be at
a turning point (see p. 387). In the past five years, there has
been no tangible progress towards a peaceful solution to the
IsraeliPalestinian conflict, a state of affairs which may have
negative repercussions for Israels international and regional
collaboration, as well as its progress in STI. Despite the
tensions, there are instances of academic collaboration with
neighbouring Arab countries (see p. 427).
At home, the political leadership was renewed in the
March 2015 elections. In order to obtain a ruling majority
in the Knesset the Israeli parliament , the re-elected
Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu has formed a coalition
government with Kulanu (10 seats), United Torah Judaism
(6 seats), Shas (7 seats) and Bayit Yehudi (8 seats), which,
together with his own Likud party (30 seats), gives him a
ruling majority of 61 seats in the Knesset. For the first time,
a coalition of ArabIsraeli parties has obtained 14 out of the
1. There was a 12% increase in funding from government sources and international
funds.
Italy 35 281
35.0
32.5
30.0
Spain 33 094
Korea, Rep. 33 062
Israel 32 491
32 807
30 429
28 393
27.5
Portugal 27 804
27 356
26 217
Greece 25 667
25.0
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
409
Chapter 16
34 170
FDI outflow
FDI inflow
FDI outflow
2009
4 438
1 695
2.2
0.8
2010
5 510
9 088
2.5
4.1
2011
9 095
9 165
3.9
3.9
2012
8 055
3 257
3.2
1.3
2013
11 804
4 670
4.5
1.8
4.19
Israel 4.21
Korea, Rep. 4.15
3.50
3.41
3.34
Japan 3.49
Finland 3.32
Sweden 3.30
GERD/GDP ratio
Denmark 3.06
Germany 2.94
3
2.83
OECD
average 2.40
Belgium 2.28
2.46
2.40
2.19
1.96
1.81
UK 1.63
Canada 1.62
1.65
1
2006
2007
410
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Israel
Israels binary economy threatens social equity and
lasting growth
Israels binary economy consists of a relatively small,
yet world-class high-tech sector which serves as the
locomotive of the economy, on the one hand, and
the much larger but less efficient traditional industrial
and services sectors, on the other hand. The economic
contribution of the flourishing high-tech sector does not
always spill over into other sectors of the economy.
Over time, this binary economic structure has led to a wellpaid labour force living at the core of the country, namely
the Tel Aviv metropolitan area, and a poorly paid labour
force living primarily on the periphery. The growing socioeconomic gap that has resulted from the structure of the
economy and the concentration of wealth among the upper
1% is having a destabilizing effect on society (Brodet, 2008).
This duality is underpinned by a low rate of labour force
participation, compared to other OECD economies,
although the rate did rise from 59.8% to 63.7% between
2003 and 2013, thanks to improvements in the level of
education (Fatal, 2013): as of 2014, 55% of the Israeli labour
force had 13 or more years of schooling and 30% had
studied for 16 years or more (CBS, 2014). The low rate of
labour force participation in the general population stems
mainly from low levels of participation by ultra-orthodox
men and Arab women. The unemployment rate is also
higher among Arabs than Jews, particularly among Arab
women (Table 16.2).
Men
75.1
Total adult
population*
Civilian labour
force (000s)
Civilian labour
force (%)
Share of
unemployed
(%)
Jewish
4 549.5
3 061.8
67
5.8
Arabs
1 057.2
482.8
46
9.4
Males
2 818.3
1 955.9
69
6.2
Jewish
2 211.9
1 549.8
70
5.8
530.8
344.4
65
8.2
Females
2 956.7
1 722.0
58
6.2
Jewish
2 337.6
1 512.0
65
5.8
526.4
138.4
26
12.4
32.6
Chapter 16
6.2
41.0
63.0
45.7
63.0
Women
64
Men
3 677.8
Women
5 775.1
Ultra-orthodox
Total
Arab
Arabs
Arab
71.4
Employment target to 2020 (%)
Employment rate (%), 2014
411
TRENDS IN R&D
Still the world leader for R&D intensity
Israel tops the world for R&D intensity, reflecting the importance
of research and innovation for the economy. Since 2008,
however, Israels R&D intensity has weakened somewhat (4.2%
in 2014), even as this ratio has experienced impressive growth in
the Republic of Korea, Denmark, Germany and Belgium (Figure
16.2) [Getz et al., 2013]. Business expenditure on R&D (BERD)3
continues to account for ~84% of GERD, or 3.49% of GDP. The
share of higher education in GERD has decreased since 2003
from 0.69% of GDP to 0.59% of GDP (2013). Despite this drop,
Israel ranks 8th among OECD countries for this indicator.
The lions share of GERD (45.6%) in Israel is financed by
foreign companies (Figure 16.5), reflecting the large scale of
activity by foreign multinational companies and R&D centres
in the country.
The share of foreign funding in university-performed R&D is also
quite significant (21.8%). By the end of 2014, Israel had received
875.6 million from the European Unions (EUs) Seventh
Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (20072013),
3. refers to GERD performed by the business enterprise sector
2 000
High tech
Mediumhigh
Mediumlow
Low tech
Total
1 753
1 500
1 057
1 000
881
890
821
688
577
500
452
582
412
0
2000
2001
412
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Israel
2.0
14.0
2.0
56.0
39.2
11.4
2.2
1.8
2007 2011
Performing
84.9
83.0
Business enterprise
Government
Private non-profit
Abroad
27.0
48.0
50.7
51.5
General
University
Funds
45.5
1.8 12.0
1.3
2.3 13.5
1.2
30.9
32.6
32.6
29.7
Advancement
of industrial
technology
11.1
Higher education
Agriculture,
forestry and
fisheries
7.9
6.2
6.6
5.5
4.5
3.9
Social services
3.4
5.7
3.2
Non-oriented 3.3
(basic) research 4.4
22.0
1.1
Infrastructure 0.8
development 1.2
2.7
1.0
Environmental 0.9
protection 0.9
2.7
Health
0.9
0.6
0.5
10.2
0.4
Exploration and
0.2
exploitation of
0.3
the Earth
2.0
Chapter 16
0.3
Production and
0.7
utilization of
1.2
energy
4.1
Israel 2007
Israel 2010
Israel 2013
OECD countries (average 2013)
Note: The data for Israel do not include defence R&D. The data for Israel
diverge strongly from those for the OECD in two categories: health and nonoriented research. The low percentage in health can be explained by the fact
that, in Israel, R&D in hospitals is assigned to the business sector and not to
the government sector. The high percentage in non-oriented research for the
OECD (22%) and the low percentage for Israel (4.4%) can be explained by the
fact that the OECD indicator encompasses a variety of subjects.
Source: adapted from Getz et al. (2013)
413
2006
80.3
3.7
15.9
Applied
research
13.2
61
61
55
80
84
75
68
69
63
Social
sciences
36
Experimental
development
PhD
Education
and teacher
training
52
11.4
Masters degree
Humanities
39
Basic
research
Bachelors degree
2013
52
Business and
management
26
48
50
75.5
50
53
51
Law
24
54
55
Medicine
34
69
414
82
86
Paramedical
studies
63
Mathematics,
statistics
10 and computer
sciences
11
29
28
24
37
36
39
64
65
Biological
sciences
27
58
52
56
50
Agriculture
27
14
28
Physical
sciences
76
Engineering
and
architecture
Total
27
24
32
56
61
53
Israel
in university faculty. In colleges, another 400 new positions
are to be created, entailing a 25% net increase. The new
faculty will be hired via the institutions regular recruitment
channels, some in specific research areas, through
the Israeli Centres of Research Excellence programme
described below (Box 16.1).
The increase in faculty numbers will also reduce the
student-to-faculty ratio, the target being to achieve a
ratio of 21.5 university students to every faculty member,
compared to 24.3 at present, and 35 students for every
faculty member in colleges, compared to 38 at present.
This massive increase in the number of faculty positions,
alongside the upgrading of research and teaching
infrastructure and the increase in competitive research
funds, should help Israel to staunch brain drain by enabling
the best Israeli researchers at home and abroad to conduct
their academic work in Israel, if they so wish, at institutions
offering the highest academic standards.
The new budgeting scheme described above is mainly
concerned with the human and research infrastructure in
universities. Most of the physical development (e.g. buildings)
and scientific infrastructure (e.g. laboratories and expensive
equipment) of universities comes from philanthropic
donations, primarily from the American Jewish community
(CHE, 2014). This latter source of funding has greatly
compensated for the lack of sufficient government funding
415
Chapter 16
Figure 16.9: University graduates in Israel, by field of study, 2006/2007 and 2012/2013
20 000
Change
40%
16 917
15 000
12 044
10 000
Change
6%
7 169
7 566
Change
1%
3 200
3 827
2 090 2 119
0
Humanities
Social
sciences
416
Change
12%
Change
20%
5 000
Law
Change
9%
1 599 1 747
Medicine
Change
-1%
Change
-7%
2 038 1 886
1 208 1 199
Physical
sciences
Biological
sciences
Change
-13%
430
3 602
4 018
375
Agriculture
Engineering
& architecture
Israel
6.93
Expenditure on education
6.79
6.36
6.13
5.88
5.63
5.61
5.54
5.59
5.64
5
4
3
2
1.16
1.25
2002
2003
1
0
%
1.05
1.02
0.97
0.99
0.90
0.96
0.94
0.91
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
The first six ranked among the worlds top 500 universities4 in 2014
in the Shanghai Ranking5. These six also ranked in the top 200
World Universities in Computer Science6 for the same year. Three
Israeli research universities rank among the top 75 in mathematics
and four among the top 200 in physics and chemistry.
Over the 20072014 period, Israeli projects benefiting from
the European Research Councils Starting Grants (see Box 9.1)
4. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Technion figured among the top
100, Tel Aviv University and the Weizmann Institute among the top 200.
5. Shanghai Academic Ranking of World Universities, 2014
6. The Technion and Tel Aviv University ranked among the top 20, the Hebrew
University and Weizmann Institute among the top 75.
417
Chapter 16
Figure
16.11:
Scientific
publication
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
2015 trends in Israel, 20052014
1.15
30 000
Switzerland
Austria
Norway
Sweden
Israel
Chile
25 000
25 308
11.9%
21 854
20 000
16 445
16 397
15 000
11 196
9 884
10 000
13 108
49.3%
10 070
8 664
6 224
6 090
5 000
2 912
0
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
1.84
1.78
1.66
1.52
14 613
1.28
Number of Israeli
publications
1.06
1.04
0.58
0.52
4 252
5 115
2 882
4 435
834
lo
gy
ls
cie
So
cia
ho
Ps
yc
Ph
ys
ics
es
rl
he
579
Ot
ica
ed
M
ife
ls
sc
cie
ie
nc
nc
es
ics
m
he
at
cie
os
Ge
at
nc
es
g
er
ne
gi
En
cie
rs
te
pu
in
nc
e
ry
ist
em
Ch
ls
cie
nc
es
451
Co
m
Bi
ol
og
ica
re
tu
ul
Ag
ric
2 937
1 382
As
tro
no
m
y
1 076
0.72
0.62
es
0.51
1.09
10 332
nc
Israels world
share (%)
Note: A further 6 745 papers are unclassified. Israel accounts for 0.1% of the global population.
Israel
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Germany (7 219)
UK (4 895)
France (4 422)
Italy (4 082)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix
418
Israel
Four priority research areas which will impact daily life
The Israeli Science Foundation is the main source of research
funding in Israel and receives administrative support from the
Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The foundation provides
competitive grants in three areas: exact sciences and technology;
life sciences and medicine; and humanities and social sciences.
Complementary funding is provided by binational foundations,
such as the USAIsrael Binational Science Foundation (est. 1972)
and the GermanIsraeli Foundation for Scientific Research and
Development (est. 1986).
The Ministry of Science, Technology and Space funds thematic
research centres and is responsible for international scientific
co-operation. The Ministrys National Infrastructure Programme
aims to create a critical mass of knowledge in national priority
fields and to nurture the younger generation of scientists.
Investment in the programme mainly takes the form of
research grants, scholarships and knowledge centres. Over
80% of the ministrys budget is channelled towards research in
academic institutions and research institutes, as well as towards
419
Chapter 16
member;
n initiating and promoting two micro-research satellites;
n developing in-house knowledge, in order to increase
420
cybersecurity industry.
n Cleantech Renewable Energy Technology Centre (2012):
Israel
Table 16.3: Grants by the Israeli Office of the Chief Scientist, by R&D programme, 20082013, NIS
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
1 009.0
1 245.0
1 134.0
1 027.0
1 070.0
1 021.0
159.0
199.0
159.0
187.0
134.0
138.0
3.2
2.7
0.8
3.2
0.7
1.6
Magneton (2000)
31.1
30.8
32.9
26.8
28.0
23.8
71.0
82.0
75.0
63.0
55.0
59.0
5.0
7.8
6.9
7.6
6.9
6.2
44.9
79.5
198.3
150.0
131.0
80.8
4.6
14.8
10.9
7.6
8.6
8.2
65.4
95.4
100.7
81.9
84.4
105.6
Nofar (2002)
Traditional Industries Support (2005)
R&D Centres (2010)
Cleantech (2012)
Source: Office of the Chief Scientist, 2015
421
Chapter 16
422
Israel
In order to reach these targets, the government has introduced
a national programme to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Its total budget for the period 20112020 amounts to
NIS 2.2 billion (US$ 0.55 billion); in 20112012, NIS 539 million
(US$ 135 million) was allocated to the following measures:
n Reduction of residential consumption of electricity;
n Support for emissions reduction projects in the industrial,
423
Chapter 16
5.85
3.68
th
e
1.54
tu
ga
l
1.64
Ne
Po
r
US
A
1.76
Ge
rm
an
y
2.16
rla
nd
2.30
rw
ay
gi
u
2.40
Be
l
Fin
la
nd
2.75
No
2.89
Fr
an
ce
5
-1
EU
nm
De
Sw
ed
en
ar
k
UK
Isr
ae
l
2.97
In US$ millions
2 500
2 135
2 076
2 000
1 944
2 296
2012
2013
1 500
1 122
1 000
1 250
2008
2009
2010
2011
424
Israel
10 000
Figure 16.13: Domestic and foreign patent applications to the Israeli Patent Office, 19962012
8 020
8 000
7 515
Foreign
Domestic
6 740
6 762
Total
6 265
7 249
6 801
6 886
6 769
6 793
5 895
6 000
4 811
6 347
4 571
4 485
5 948
5 250
4 000
3 256
3 381
5 381
4 883
5 008
6 207
5 272
5 390
5 800
5 523
6 019
4 463
3 121
3 134
1 804
2 000
6 487
7 745
1 229
1 430
1996
1997
1 317
1 437
1998
1999
1 490
1 381
1 382
1 432
1 479
1 529
1 567
1 673
1 539
1 379
1 449
1 363
774
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
7 000
Israel 6 455
6 000
5 000
Switzerland 4 394
3 000
Finland 2 760
2 645
2 602
2 410
2 338
2 000
Belgium 2 211
1 811
Denmark 2 059
Austria 2 008
1 293
1 115
1 000 1 065
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Note: The top two countries registered 268 782 (USA) and 88 686 (Japan) patents respectively in 2012. Israel ranked tenth worldwide.
Source: USPTO
425
Chapter 16
Sweden 4 390
Netherlands 4 303
4 000
426
Israel
Another example of trilateral co-operation is the Africa
Initiative signed by Israel, Germany and Ghana in 2012. The
three implementing partners are the Israeli and German
agencies for international development co-operation, Mashav
and GIZ, and Ghanas Ministry of Food and Agriculture. The
aim is to develop a thriving citrus value chain in Ghana, in
line with the ministrys policy of enhancing productivity to
improve the livelihoods of farmers.
In October 2013, the Israeli Minister of Agriculture signed
an agreement establishing a joint IsraeliVietnamese fund
for agricultural R&D, together with a free-trade agreement
between the two countries.
Projects in the Middle East
Israel participates in the intergovernmental project for a
Synchrotron Light Source for Experimental Science and
Applications in the Middle East (SESAME), a third-generation
synchrotron light source in Allan (Jordan) which functions
under the auspices of UNESCO. The current members of
SESAME are Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Pakistan,
the Palestinian Authority and Turkey. The SESAME facility is
expected to be fully operational by 2017 (see Box 17.3).
The Israeli Academic Centre in Cairo was initiated in 1982
by the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Funded
by the Council for higher Education, it is entrusted with the
task of strengthening research ties between universities
and researchers in Israel and Egypt. The centre operated
successfully until 2011 when the political climate in Egypt
cooled towards Israel. Since that time, the centre has
operated on a smaller scale.
CONCLUSION
A need to prepare for tomorrows science-based
industries
The Israeli economy is driven by industries based on
electronics, computers and communication technologies, the
result of over 50 years of investment in the countrys defence
infrastructure. Israeli defence industries have traditionally
focused on electronics, avionics and related systems. The
development of these systems has given Israeli high-tech
industries a qualitative edge in civilian spin-offs in the
software, communications and Internet sectors.
However, the next waves of high technologies are
expected to emanate from other disciplines, including
molecular biology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals,
nanotechnology, material sciences and chemistry, in intimate
synergy with ICTs. These disciplines are rooted in the basic
research laboratories of universities rather than the defence
industries. This poses a dilemma. In the absence of a national
policy for universities, let alone for the higher education
system as a whole, it is not clear how these institutions will
manage to supply the knowledge, skills and human resources
needed for these new science-based industries.
There is no single umbrella-type organization that
co-ordinates all of STI and formulates STI policy in Israel.
In order to safeguard the long-term relevance of Israeli
R&D and the countrys innovation capabilities, a holistic
R&D framework and strategy should be implemented. This
framework should involve the various actors of the STI system:
the Office of the Chief Scientist in the Ministry of the Economy
and other government ministries, Israels research universities
and research centres of excellence, its hospitals and academic
medical centres and its corporate R&D laboratories.
The Sixth Higher Education Plan (20112015) sets out to
improve the quality and competitiveness of the higher
education system. It contains important recommendations,
such as that of raising the number of academic staff by about
850 over the next six years and encouraging minorities to
study at university in anticipation of the looming shortage
of professionals in Israel. Enhancing the integration of ultraorthodox men and Arab women in the labour force and their
educational level will be vital to safeguard Israels growth
potential in the years to come.
427
Chapter 16
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Breznitz, D. and A. Zehavi (2007) The Limits of Capital:
Transcending the Public Financer Private Producer Split
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Brodet, D. (2008) Israel 2028: Vision and Strategy for the
Economy and Society in a Global World. Presented by
a public committee chaired by Eli Hurvitz. USIsrael
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Elkin-Koren, N. (2007) The Ramifications of Technology
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by 2020.
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Getz, D.; Leck, E. and V. Segal (2014). Innovation of Foreign R&D
Centres in Israel: Evidence from Patent and Firm-level data.
Samuel Neaman Institute: Haifa.
Getz,D.; Segal,V.; Leck,E. and I. Eyal (2010) Evaluation of the
Nofar Programme (in Hebrew). Samuel Neaman Institute:
Haifa.
Golovaty, J. (2006) Identifying Complementary Measures to Ensure
the Maximum Realisation of benefits from the Liberalisation
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Chapter 16
429
430
Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen
INTRODUCTION
The global financial crisis has ricocheted on the region
The Arab world1 is of strategic importance, owing to its location
and wealth of oil and natural gas: 57% of the worlds proven oil
reserves and 28% of those for gas (AFESD et al, 2013).
The tremors of the global financial crises of 2008 and 2009 and
the subsequent recession in most developed countries affected
Arab states in a variety of ways. The oil-exporting countries of
the Gulf Cooperation Council felt such tremors, most being
characterized by open financial and commercial systems with
high exposure to global financial markets and close association
with the global commodity markets (AFESD et al, 2010). Not
so countries such as Algeria, Libya, Sudan and Yemen, where
local capital markets are not directly linked to global markets.
However, as their economies also rely on oil revenue, the Brent
crude price significantly affects their fiscal policy.
In, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Syria and
Tunisia, where the banking sector is dependent on national
borrowing sources, the economy was not directly affected
by fluctuations in global capital markets. Such countries
nevertheless felt these external economic shocks through their
close association with the markets of developed countries
and other major trading partners in the European Union (EU)
and USA. Needless to say, their exports depend primarily on
demand from the developed countries, in addition to income
from tourism, remittances from expatriate workers and foreign
direct investment (FDI) flows (AFESD et al, 2010).
1. Although members of the League of Arab States, Djibouti and Somalia are profiled
in Chapter 19 on East and Central Africa.
2. with a few exceptions, such as Kuwait, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates
431
Chapter 17
432
15
Oman 11.3
11.0
10
Saudi Arabia 9.3
7.7
UAE 4.7*
4.7
4.5*
4.4
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.2*
2.9
2.7
2.7
2.6
1.8
1.4
1.0
Syria 4.1
Libya 3.3
4.5
Qatar 1.5
Algeria 4.8
Lebanon 4.4*
Mauritania 4.0
Bahrain 3.9
Morocco 3.8
Iraq 3.6
Jordan 3.5
Kuwait 3.2
Yemen 2.9
Tunisia 2.0*
Egypt 1.7
0
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
*SIPRI estimate
Note: The low figure for Egypt (1.7%) in 2013 only tells half the story, as it excludes the economic activities of the Egyptian armed forces and American aid, which cover
80% of military procurement (Gaub, 2014).
Source: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute database, accessed January 2015
433
Chapter 17
Table 17.1: Socio-economic indicators for the Arab States, 2008 and 2013
2008
GDP average
annual
growth ( %)
GDP per
capita
(current PPP$)
Population
(000s)
2013
2008
2013
Employment
rate (% of adult
population)
Unemployment
rate (% of labour
force)
2008
2010
2011
2013*
2008
2013
2008
2013
4.4
3.7
63.9
65.0
7.8
7.4
-2.4
6.1
66.0
66.3
1.8
3.1
1 116
1 332
40 872
43 824
Kuwait
2 702
3 369
95 094
85 660
Oman
2 594
3 632
46 677
44 052
6.4
2.2
52.1
59.9
8.4
7.9
Qatar
1 359
2 169
120 527
131 758
15.4
7.5
85.1
86.2
0.3
0.5
26 366
28 829
41 966
53 780
5.9
6.0
48.6
51.8
5.1
5.7
6 799
9 346
70 785
58 042
0.0
2.7
74.0
76.9
4.0
3.8
21 704
24 407
4 250
3 958
3.8
-3.2
40.6
40.3
15.0
17.4
Saudi Arabia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
-1
-1
75 492
82 056
9 596
11 085
5.7
2.0
43.9
42.9
8.7
12.7
Iraq
29 430
33 417
11 405
15 188
6.0
8.2
35.3
35.5
15.3
16.0
Jordan
5 786
6 460
10 478
11 782
5.0
2.7
36.6
36.3
12.7
12.6
Lebanon
4 186
4 467
13 614
17 170
9.1
1.7
43.2
44.4
7.2
6.5
Sudan
34 040
37 964
3 164
3 372
3.2
-6.5
45.3
45.4
14.8
15.2
Syria
20 346
40.1
10.9
3 597
4 170
3 422
4.2
5.6
31.7
31.6
26.0
23.4
35 725
39 208
11 842
13 304
2.4
3.0
37.9
39.6
11.3
9.8
Libya
5 877
6 202
27 900
21 397
3.6
-11.6
43.2
42.6
19.1
19.6
Mauritania
3 423
3 890
2 631
3 042
2.2
5.9
36.3
37.2
31.2
31.0
Morocco
30 955
33 008
5 857
7 200
4.7
4.0
46.2
45.9
9.6
9.2
Tunisia
10 329
10 887
9 497
11 092
3.9
2.2
40.9
41.3
12.4
13.3
4 921 -1
Maghreb
Algeria
* For Kuwait, Oman and United Arab Emirates, the years are 20112012.
Note: Palestine is designated as the West Bank and Gaza here, owing to data coverage issues.
Source: World Banks World Development Indicators, May 2015
434
140
Venezuela
121
Algeria
121
Nigeria
119
Ecuador
117
Iraq
106
Angola
98
93
Libya
Qatar
90
Kuwait
UAE
75
70
65
Source: adapted from Wall Street Journal (2014), based on data from the
Government of Libya, Angolan Ministry of Finance, International Monetary
Fund, Arab Petroleum Investments Corp., Deutsche Bank
435
Chapter 17
Saudi Arabia
Brent crude
price on
16 January 2015:
US$ 50 per barrel
14.5
15.6
7.2
19.4
29.7
73.1
Morocco
16.6
8.6
43.0
4.1
15.4
69.6
37.6
10.1
Agriculture
8.2
61.4
0.7
25.1
60.6
50.2
8.6
28.5
16.2
28.1
Sudan
19.8
41.5
54.9
5.3
Tunisia
39.2
66.9
15.5
47.6
46.3
3.4
Mauritania
Head counts
41.9
10.5
21.7
17.0
40.3
8.5
Services
30.0
59.0
Industry
Note: For the West Bank and Gaza, data are for 2012. Palestine is designated as the West Bank and Gaza here, due to data coverage issues.
Source: World Banks World Development Indicators, January 2015
Figure 17.4: FDI inflow to selected Arab economies as a share of GDP, 20062013 (%)
15.75
15.32
15
12.27
10
9.42
9.34
Lebanon 6.83
5.87
5.77
5.75
5.14
4.97
4.86
4.29
3.75
1.98
1.57
Syria 3.07
0.59
0.38
0.12
West Bank
& Gaza 1.59
2006
2007
2008
2009
436
2010
2011
2012
Jordan 5.34
Sudan 3.27
Morocco 3.24
Bahrain 3.01
UAE 2.61
Tunisia 2.25
Egypt 2.04
Oman 2.04
Arab world 1.70
Saudi Arabia 1.24
Iraq 1.24
Kuwait 1.05
Algeria 0.80
Qatar -0.41
Yemen -0.37
2013
n New materials;
n Electronics;
n Information technologies;
n Space sciences: applications in navigation systems,
nanobiotechnology, etc.
437
Chapter 17
438
2009
0.04
2013
0.04
Bahrain
2009
0.43
Egypt
2013
2009
0.68
0.05
Iraq
2011
0.03
0.43
2008
Jordan
Libya
0.86
2014
2009
0.11
Kuwait*
0.30
2013
0.64
2006
Morocco
0.73
2010
2009
0.13
Oman
0.17
2013
Qatar
0.47
2012
2009
0.07
Saudi Arabia*
0.71
2009
Tunisia**
0.68
2012
Chapter 17
UAE
2011
0.49*
439
42.8
Bahrain* (2013)
41.2
Kuwait* (2013)
37.3
Iraq (2011)
34.2
Morocco (2011)
30.2
Oman (2013)
21.1
Palestine (2013)
22.6
Jordan (2008)
22.5
21.9
Qatar (2012)
Saudi Arabia* (2009)
1.4
*partial data
Note: For Bahrain, data only cover the higher education sector; for Kuwait
and Saudi Arabia, data only cover the government sector.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, January 2015
Figure 17.6: Arab researchers and technicians (FTE) per million inhabitants, 2013 or closest year
The total number of researchers is given in brackets
Technicians per million inhabitants
53
192
Qatar (1 203)
587
581
Palestine (2 492)
576
-1
294
179
61
426
397
135
Kuwait-1* (439)
172
Libya (1 140)
54
864
137
Oman (497)
10
Bahrain (67)
Sudan (597)
50
19
Note: For Bahrain, data only cover the higher education sector; for Kuwait, data only cover the government sector. Data are also partial for Moroccan technicians.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, January 2015; for Libya: Libyan Authority for Research, Science and Technology; for Sudan: National Research Centre
440
Table 17.2: Arab researchers (HC) by field of employment, 2013 or closest year (%)
Selected economies
Year
Engineering and
technology
Natural sciences
Medical and
health sciences
Agricultural
sciences
Social sciences
Humanities
Unclassified
Total
Women
Total
Women
Total
Women
Total
Female
Total
Women
Total
Women
Total
Women
29.9
11.9
44.9
5.2
43.8
8.8
33.4
13.3
35.6
33.2
36.5
2013
14.3
41.8
13.4
Oman
2013
15.5
13.0
13.0
6.2
6.5
30.0
25.3
27.6
24.3
23.7
13.2
22.1
2.2
33.3
Qatar
2012
9.3
21.7
42.7
12.5
26.0
27.8
1.6
17.9
14.3
34.6
4.8
33.7
1.3
31.8
Saudi Arabia*
2009
16.8
2.3
43.0
2.0
0.7
22.2
2.6
0.0
0.5
36.4
Egypt
2013
8.1
40.7
7.2
17.7
31.8
45.9
4.1
27.9
16.8
51.2
11.4
47.5
20.6
41.0
Iraq
2011
17.7
43.6
18.9
25.7
12.4
41.4
9.4
26.1
32.3
35.7
9.3
26.7
0.0
28.6
Jordan
2008
8.2
25.7
18.8
18.4
12.6
44.1
2.9
18.7
4.0
29.0
18.1
32.3
35.3
10.9
Palestine
2013
16.5
10.9
5.8
4.8
27.7
34.2
Libya
2013
14.3
15.0
17.0
18
24.4
0.1
11.5
0.1
2.0
20.0
12.4
20.0
32.4
20.0
Morocco
2011
33.7
31.5
7.6
26.3
10.4
44.1
1.8
20.5
26.1
26.6
20.4
27.8
Maghreb
Table 17.3: Arab tertiary graduates in science, engineering and agriculture, 2012 or closest year
Science, engineering
and agriculture
Engineering, manufacturing
and construction
Number
Number
Share of science,
engineering and
agriculture (%)
Number
Share of science,
engineering and
agriculture (%)
Number
Share of science,
engineering and
agriculture (%)
Algeria
2013
255 435
62 356
24.4
25 581
41.0
10.0
32 861
52.7
12.9
3 914
6.3
1.5
Egypt
2013
510 363
71 753
14.1
21 446
29.9
4.2
38 730
54.0
7.6
11 577
16.1
2.3
Jordan
2011
60 686
7 225
11.9
3 258
45.1
5.4
2 145
29.7
3.5
1 822
25.2
3.0
Lebanon
2011
34 007
8 108
23.8
3 739
46.1
11.0
4 201
51.8
12.4
168
2.1
0.5
Morocco
2010
75 744
27 524
36.3
17 046
61.9
22.5
9 393
34.1
12.4
1 085
3.9
1.4
Palestine
2013
35 279
5 568
15.8
2 832
50.9
8.0
2 566
46.1
7.3
170
3.1
0.5
Qatar
2013
2 284
671
29.4
119
17.7
5.2
552
82.3
24.2
0.0
0.0
Saudi Arabia
2013
141 196
39 312
27.8
25 672
65.3
18.2
13 187
33.5
9.3
453
1.2
0.3
Sudan
2013
124 494
23 287
18.7
12 353
53.0
9.9
7 891
33.9
6.3
3 043
13.1
2.4
Syria
2013
58 694
12 239
20.9
4 430
36.2
7.5
6 064
49.5
10.3
1 745
14.3
3.0
Tunisia
2013
65 421
29 272
44.7
17 225
58.8
26.3
11 141
38.1
17.0
906
3.1
1.4
UAE
2013
25 682
5 866
22.8
2 087
35.6
8.1
3 742
63.8
14.6
37
0.6
0.1
441
Chapter 17
Agriculture
Year
Science
Science
Engineering
Agriculture
Science, engineering
and agriculture
Bahrain
2014
66.3
27.6
0.0
42.6
Jordan
2011
65.2
13.4
73.4
51.9
Oman (2009)
1.13
4.2
Lebanon
2011
61.5
26.9
58.9
43.5
Algeria (2008)
1.17
4.3
Oman
2013
75.1
52.7
6.0
56.8
Palestine
2013
58.5
31.3
37.1
45.3
Qatar
2013
64.7
27.4
0.0
34.0
Saudi Arabia
2013
57.2
3.4
29.6
38.8
Syria (2009)
Sudan
2013
41.8
31.8
64.3
41.4
Tunisia (2012)
Tunisia
2013
63.8
41.1
69.9
55.4
UAE
2013
60.2
31.1
54.1
41.6
Country
Year
2.2
Qatar (2008)
2.4
Bahrain (2012)
2.6
3.8
Yemen (2008)
442
4.0
4.6
Jordan (2008)
2.6
4.9
Iraq (2008)
5.1
5.1
Morocco (2013)
1.24
5.1
1.75
6.2
1.11
6.3
Expenditure on education
as a share of GDP (%)
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, July 2015; for Iraq and Jordan:
UNDP (2009) Arab Knowledge Report, Table 5-4, p. 193.
7. http://highlycited.com/archive_june.htm
2010
2011
2012
2010
2011
2012
2010
2011
2012
605
618
683
1 625
1 591
1 528
2 230
2 209
2 211
197
882
880
843
1034
1 049
1 040
643
643
931
990
Morocco
152
169
Saudi Arabia
288
347
Algeria
76
94
119
730
803
781
806
897
900
Tunisia
113
137
150
508
543
476
621
680
626
Jordan
45
40
48
429
360
346
474
400
394
Yemen
85
20
36
55
37
49
75
44
Lebanon
13
13
Sudan
Syria
Source: WIPO statistics database, December 2014; Thomson Reuters Web of Science, data treatment by Science-Metrix
Figure 17.9: High-tech exports from the Arab world, 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012
As a share of manufactured exports (%)
9.79
Morocco 7.69
6.68
Tunisia 4.89
UAE 3.20
2.76
2006
Jordan 2.50
Lebanon 2.01
1.87
1.62
1.23
0.94
0.80
0.61
0.55
0.51
0.34
0.31
0.06
0.01
Kuwait 0.52
2008
2010
Syria 1.3
Sudan 0.70
Egypt 0.58
Saudi Arabia 0.56
Algeria 0.50
Yemen 0.22
Bahrain 0.15
Qatar 0.04
2012
443
Chapter 17
Oman 3.39
10 000
Egypt 8 428
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 919
Tunisia 3 068
2 000
1 362
1 214
0
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2 500
Algeria 2 302
2 000
Morocco 1 574
1 500
UAE 1 450
Qatar 1 242
1 000
Jordan 1 093
Lebanon 1 009
990
795
500
444
641
530
526
462
283
168
120
109
93
89
72
70
41
27
Iraq 841
Kuwait 604
Oman 591
Sudan 309
Syria 229
Yemen 202
Libya 181
Bahrain 155
Mauritania 23
Palestine 14
67.2%
548
371
276
115
29
24
10
Palestine
Morocco
47
Algeria
Egypt
Bahrain
Jordan
Oman
UAE
Kuwait
Lebanon
Tunisia
Saudi Arabia
Qatar
58
Mauritania
101
Yemen
146
Sudan
151
Syria
154
Iraq
174
Libya
203
The Arab States publish most in life sciences, followed by engineering and chemistry
Cumulative totals by field, 20082014
Algeria 26895
945
Bahrain 63
124
Egypt
1 338
185
Iraq
96 9
Jordan
Libya
317
770
795
Morocco
243
26
1 049
Palestine 3
1 382
588
705
226
266
5 376
406
27
1 081 40
97
UAE 28
960
Yemen 23 2
547
130
Agriculture
Mathematics
442
380
Astronomy
Medical sciences
14
131
1 706
82
5 491
165
123
83
Biological sciences
Other life sciences
433
63
Chemistry
Physics
2 805
20
6
1
25
38
80
3 484
38
83
167
2
18
Psychology
30
3
Engineering
18
1 485 117
1 390
172
Computer science
4
26
433
6 60 2
10
2 573
260
2
10
229
427
1 184
13
36
81
339
2
3
1
1 436
5 490
14
1 516
1 743
24
32
72 10
2 436
786
1 731
17 70
21
526
92 125
117
389
3 808
23
53
433 16
41
106
Geosciences
Social sciences
Note: The totals do not include unclassified publications, which make up a sizeable share in some cases: Saudi Arabia (8 264), Egypt (6 716), Tunisia (2 275),
Algeria (1 747), Jordan (1 047), Kuwait (1 034) and Palestine (77).
445
Chapter 17
141
Sudan
56
127
301 951
4
1 870
354
1 105
153
28
800
689
5 656
258
14
51
23 155 11
21
70
19
2
6
559
873
93
488
147
235
36
96
3 968
343
1 255
208
115
13
1 905
836
73
72
438
162
12
121
8 346
385
7
29
2 194
8
61
215
923
80
20
Syria
133
254
31
448
18
432
Qatar 48
Tunisia
124
35
Oman 106 15
Saudi Arabia
1 029
290
451
2 141 1 126
213
593
162
5 918
717
214
974
244
502
175
302
17
608
339
281
708
50
57
693
566
Mauritania
136
7 036
236
127
20
3 177
29 19
387 14
21
393
6 653
Kuwait 465
Lebanon
1 586
Figure 17.10
(continued)REPORT
UNESCO
SCIENCE
Qatar and Saudi Arabia have the highest citation rate
Average citation rate for publications, 20082012
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Qatar
0.96
Sudan
11.5
Saudi Arabia
0.85
10.8
Lebanon
7.9
Lebanon
0.78
UAE
7.7
UAE
0.78
Yemen
7.7
Yemen
0.78
Mauritania
Egypt
0.73
Mauritania
0.73
Oman
0.73
Kuwait
Egypt
Tunisia
Libya
6.1
Jordan
Algeria
0.63
Libya
4.7
Tunisia
4.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
5.2
Bahrain
3.8
Palestine
3.8
Iraq
3.7
0.50
0.0
5.9
0.64
0.53
Bahrain
Kuwait
5.9
0.56
Iraq
6.2
Sudan
0.58
Palestine
6.3
Syria
5.9
0.66
Morocco
Oman
Morocco
0.68
Algeria
6.5
1.0
0.75
0.74
Syria
Jordan
7.5
10
China has become a key collaborator for Iraq, Qatar and Saudi Arabia
Main foreign partners, 20082014
Algeria
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
France (4 883)
Spain (440)
USA (383)
Italy (347)
Bahrain
Egypt (101)
UK (93)
USA (89)
Tunisia (75)
Egypt
USA (4 725)
Germany (2 762)
UK (2 162)
Japan (1 755)
Iraq
Malaysia (595)
UK (281)
USA (279)
China (133)
Germany (128)
Jordan
USA (1 153)
Germany (586)
UK (450)
Canada (259)
Kuwait
USA (566)
Egypt (332)
UK (271)
Canada (198)
Lebanon
USA (1 307)
France (1277)
Italy (412)
UK (337)
Canada (336)
Libya
UK (184)
Egypt (166)
India (99)
Malaysia (79)
France (78)
Mauritania
France (62)
Senegal (40)
USA (18)
Spain (16)
Tunisia (15)
Morocco
France (3 465)
Spain (1 338)
USA (833)
Italy (777)
Germany (752)
Oman
USA (333)
UK (326)
India (309)
Germany (212)
Malaysia (200)
Palestine
Egypt (50)
Germany (48)
USA (35)
Malaysia (26)
UK (23)
Qatar
USA (1 168)
UK (586)
China (457)
France (397)
Germany (373)
Saudi Arabia
Egypt (7 803)
USA (5 794)
UK (2 568)
China (2 469)
India (2 455)
Sudan
Germany (193)
UK (191)
USA (185)
Malaysia (146)
Syria
France (193)
UK (179)
Germany (175)
USA (170)
Italy (92)
Tunisia
France (5 951)
Spain (833)
Italy (727)
USA (544)
United Arab
Emirates
USA (1 505)
UK (697)
Canada (641)
Germany (389)
Egypt (370)
Yemen
Malaysia (255)
Egypt (183)
USA (106)
Germany (72)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
446
12
Chapter 17
BAHRAIN
447
Figure 17.11: Internet access and mobile phone subscriptions in Arab states, 2013
Per 100 inhabitants
200
96.1
69.0
72.9
56.0
6.2
Mauritania
Iraq
Libya
Algeria
Yemen
Sudan
Syria
Tunisia
Jordan
Palestine
Egypt
Morocco
Saudi Arabia
Oman
Lebanon
Kuwait
Qatar
UAE
Bahrain
9.2
16.5
16.5
20.0
22.7
26.2
43.8
44.2
46.6
49.6
56.0
60.5
73.7
80.6
50
66.5
70.5
75.5
85.3
88 .0
90.0
102.0
100
102.5
115.6
121.5
128.5
141.8
152.6
154.6
165.0
171.9
165.9
150
176.5
190.3
Internet access
Mobile phone subscriptions
EGYPT
Revolutionary fervour has spilled over into
science
Current national policy documents in Egypt all consider
science and technology to be vital for the countrys
future. The Constitution adopted in 2014 mandates the
state to allocate 1% of GDP to R&D and stipulates that the
state guarantees the freedom of scientific research and
encourages its institutions as a means towards achieving
448
By field of education
Natural sciences
Humanities
Engineering
sciences
Medical
and health
sciences
20
12
2013
51
Social sciences
Agricultural
sciences
449
Chapter 17
IRAQ
Scientific research inscribed in the
Constitution
Once a regional powerhouse of R&D, Iraq has lost its
institutional and human capital to successive wars since 1980
and the subsequent exodus of its scientists. Since 2005, the
Iraqi government has been seeking to restore the countrys
proud heritage. Iraqs Constitution of 2005 stipulates that the
State shall encourage scientific research for peaceful purposes
that serve humanity and shall support excellence, creativity,
innovation and different aspects of ingenuity (Article 34).
In 2005, UNESCO began helping Iraq to develop a Master Plan
for Science, Technology and Innovation that would ultimately
cover the period 20112015, in order to revive the economy
in the aftermath of the US-led invasion in 2003 and to address
pressing social needs such as poverty and environmental
degradation. Following an analysis of the strengths and
weaknesses of different sectors, UNESCO accompanied
Iraq in preparing a Framework and Agenda for Action (2013)
to complement the countrys National Development Plan
for the years 20132017 and to set the stage for a more
comprehensive STI policy.
450
JORDAN
Plans for an observatory of STI
Jordans Higher Council for Science and
Technology (est. 1987) is an independent public body that
acts as a national umbrella organization forscientific research.
It is the Higher Council for Science and Technology which
drew up the first national policy for science and technology in
1995. In 2013, it completed the national Science, Technology
and Innovation Policy and Strategy (20132017), which has
seven broad objectives. These are to:
n incite the government and the scientific community to
research;
For over six years, the Higher Council for Science and
Technology has been involved in a project that is setting up
an Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation, in
collaboration with the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA). The observatory
will maintain the countrys first comprehensive database of
domestic R&D and is to be hosted by the council.
In 2013, the Higher Council for Science and Technology
published the National Innovation Strategy, 20132017, which
had been prepared11 in collaboration with the Ministry of
Planning and International Co-operation with the support of
the World Bank. Targeted fields include energy, environment,
health, ICTs, nanotechnology, education, engineering
services, banking and clean technologies.
Revival of two research funds
Jordans Scientific Research Support Fund12 was revived in
2010 after being instituted in 2006. Administered by the
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, it finances
investment in human resources and infrastructure through
competitive research grants related to ecological water
management and technological applications. The fund backs
entrepreneurial ventures and helps Jordanian companies to
solve technical problems; it also encourages private bodies to
allocate resources for R&D and provides university students
with scholarships based on merit. So far, the fund has provided
13million Jordanian dinars (circa US$18.3 million) to finance
R&D projects in Jordan, 70% of which has been used to fund
projects in energy, water and health care.
opportunities;
n translate the results of R&D into commercial ventures; and
n contribute to excellence in training and skills acquisition.
451
Chapter 17
KUWAIT
A difficult transition
The contribution of most non-oil economic
sectors in Kuwait declined after the Iraqi invasion in
1990, especially after hundreds of companies and foreign
institutions, including banking and investment brokers,
moved their operations elsewhere in the region. The
economic slowdown was mainly due to the flight of capital
and the cancellation of important development projects
like the petrochemical project with the Dow Chemical
Company, which filed a lawsuit against Kuwait demanding
compensation of US$ 2.1 billion. In May 2012, Dow Chemical
won the case, thus increasing Kuwaits financial losses
(Al-Soomi, 2012).
In the past few years, there have been some missed
opportunities to implement development projects of
452
sector;
n Web and Arabized software technologies;
n Mathematical modelling, including financial/economic
applications;
LEBANON
Three instituitions dominate research
Despite the existence of over 50 private
universities and one public one, most research13 in Lebanon is
carried out by just three institutions: the Lebanese University,
Saint-Joseph University and the American University of Beirut.
On occasion, these three institutions collaborate with one of
the four research centres managed by the National Council
for Scientific Research (CNRS, est. 1962) and/or the Lebanese
Agricultural Research Institute.
13. http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55535/11998897175Lebanon.pdf/
Lebanon.pdf
14. UNESCO has an office in Beirut and ESCWA is hosted by Lebanon.
453
Chapter 17
9%
38%
9%
20062010
17%
Environment
& natural
resources
27%
LIBYA
The legacy of extreme state control still
visible
During the four decades preceding the 2011 uprising, the
Libyan economy had drifted towards near-complete state
control. Private property ownership and private sector
activity in sectors such as retail and wholesale trading
were severely curtailed by law, while uncertainty over tax
and regulatory regimes prevented the development of
economic activity beyond the oil sector; today, this sector
is still officially controlled by the National Oil Corporation,
which mimics a ministry, in addition to being a regulatory
agency and state-owned company. Mining and quarrying
represented 66% of GDP in 2012 and 94% of government
revenue a year later (AfDB, 2014).
This economic and intellectual suffocation led to largescale brain drain, making Libya dependent on a sizeable
immigrant population to drive highly skilled sectors, among
others. There are currently an estimated 2 million foreign
workers in Libya, most of whom are illegal (ETF, 2014).
454
2020
2025
2030
2040
172
5 000
6 000
7 500
10 000
0.86
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
20
50
100
200
25
100
200
500
1 000
188
350
650
1 250
2 250
10
50
100
200
10
15
20
30
10
30
10
15
40
6 000
8 000
10 000
8 000
8 000
135
90
70
50
30
3.5
3.7
3.9
4.0
4.5
Number of patents
Source: Libyan National Planning Council (2014) National strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation
455
Chapter 17
-1
MAURITANIA
operating a business;
n A weak entrepreneurial base sustained by the lack of
456
of tertiary institutions;
n Improve the relevance of the curricula, the quality of
development issues.
For the first time, the current administration has managed
to collect relatively comprehensive data on higher
education and scientific research data across the country.
These data should enable the Ministry of Higher Education
and Scientific Research and line ministries to identify the
main obstacles to research.
16. The council was founded in accordance with the provisions of Article 168 of the
Moroccan Constitution of 2011.
17. The National Strategy for the Development of Scientific Research to 2025 (2009)
recommended raising the secondary enrolment rate from 44% to at least 80% and
the tertiary enrolment rate for 1923 year-olds from 12% to over 50% by 2025.
457
Chapter 17
458
PALESTINE
An observatory of STI
In 2014, PALAST launched its Science, Technology and
Innovation Observatory, which had been developed with
the support of ESCWA. The observatorys main purpose
is to collect data on STI on a regular basis and promote
networking.
Hundreds of entrepreneurial web sites have been created by
young Palestinians in the past few years to showcase new
digital products that include games and software for specific
professions. Although internet connection costs have fallen
by almost 30% in recent years, the lack of connectivity
to a 3G network in the West Bank and Gaza Strip hinders
the use of mobile applications for education, health and
entertainment.
QATAR
Incentives for entrepreneurship
Besides its oil and gas industry, Qatar relies on
the petrochemical, steel and fertilizer industries to drive
the economy. In 2010, Qatar showed the worlds fastest
growth rate for industrial production: 27.1% over the
previous year. Qataris enjoy the worlds highest GDP
per capita (PPP$131 758) and one of the worlds lowest
unemployment rates: 0.5% (Table 17.1).
Chapter 17
459
SAUDI ARABIA
Policies to reduce dependence on foreign
labour
As part of its agenda for embracing the knowledge
economy, the government has launched a multibillion dollar
development scheme to build six greenfield cities and
industrial zones. By 2020, these industrial cities are expected
to generate US$150 billion in GDP and create 1.3 million
jobs. This strategy has been endorsed by the record number
of non-oil exports in 2013. However, Saudi Arabia remains
overdependent on foreign labour: there are only 1.4 million
Saudis employed in the private sector, compared with
8.2 million foreigners, according to the Ministry of Labour
(Rasooldeen, 2014). The government is trying to recruit
citizens through a drive dubbed Saudization.
460
SUDAN
Conflict and brain drain undermining
development
Sudan has been plagued by armed conflict in the past decade:
the conflict in Darfur, which lasted from 2003 until the signing
of a ceasefire agreement with rebel groups in 2010; and a longstanding conflict in the south of the country, which resulted in the
establishment of South Sudan as an independent state in 2011.
Sudan has had its own academy of sciences since 2006 but
otherwise has struggled to consolidate its science system over
the past decade. One impediment is the loss of young talent
461
Chapter 17
SYRIA
An exodus of scientific talent
Despite hosting prestigious international
research institutes such as the International Centre for
Agricultural Research in Dry Areas and the Arab Centre for the
Study of Arid Zones and Dry Lands, Syrias S&T system was
in a dire state even before the outbreak of civil war in 2011.
Syrian parliamentarian Imad Ghalioun estimated in 2012
that, even before the uprising, the government had allocated
just 0.1% (US$ 57million) of GDP to R&D and, afterwards, as
little as 0.04% of GDP (Al-Droubi, 2012). The civil war has led
to an exodus of scientific talent. In 2015, the United Nations
estimated that four million Syrians had sought refuge in
neighbouring countries since 2011, mainly Jordan, Lebanon
and Turkey.
20. Within Islam, Awqaf is a voluntary donation of money or assets which are held
in trust for charitable purposes. Zakat is an obligatory religious tax paid by every
Muslim that is considered one of the five pillars of Islam. There are established
categories of beneficiary of this tax, which is used to maintain a socio-economic
equilibrium by helping the poor.
462
TUNISIA
Greater academic freedom
During the difficult transition to democracy
over the past four years, science and technology have often
taken a back seat to more pressing problems. This has led to
frustration in the scientific community at the speed of reform.
The situation has improved for scientists in terms of academic
freedom but other concerns persist.
Chapter 17
The economy has proved relatively resilient over the past four
years, thanks partly to its broad base, with well-developed
agricultural, mining, petroleum and manufacturing sectors. This
helped to cushion the drop in tourism, which accounted for
18% of GDP in 2009 but only 14% four years later. Tourism was
beginning to recover when terrorist acts against a museum and
hotel complex in March and June 2015 once more destabilized
the industry. Tunisias relative stability and reputed health
clinics have also made it a beacon for medical tourism.
463
Box 17.6: Masdar City: a greenprint for the city of the future
Masdar City is located about half an
hour from Abu Dhabi. This artificial city
is being constructed between 2008 and
2020 as a greenprint for the city of the
future. The aim is to build the worlds
most sustainable city, one capable of
combining rapid urbanization with low
consumption of energy, water and waste.
The city blends traditional Arabic
architectural techniques with modern
technology to cope with high summer
temperatures and capture prevailing
464
465
Chapter 17
YEMEN
No scope for science in current political
quagmire
Yemen boasts several universities of repute, including the
University of Sanaa (est. 1970). Yemen has never adopted a
national S&T policy, though, nor allocated adequate resources
to R&D.
Over the past decade, the Ministry of Higher Education and
Scientific Research has organized a number of conferences
to assess the reality of scientific research in the country and
identify barriers to public-sector research. The ministry also
launched a task force in 2007 to establish a science museum
and instituted a presidential science prize in 2008. In 2014,
ESCWA received a request from the ministry for assistance in
establishing an STI observatory in Yemen; this endeavour has
since come to a standstill in the face of the escalating conflict.
Yemen has not held parliamentary elections since 2003. The
tremors of the Arab Spring led to President Saleh ceding power
to his deputy, Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, in February 2012, and
to the establishment of a National Dialogue Conference at the
initiative of the Gulf Cooperation Council. In 2015, tensions
deteriorated into war between forces of the former regime and
those of President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, who is backed by
several Arab countries.
CONCLUSION
A need for a coherent agenda and sustainable funding
The Arab Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation
adopted by the Council of Ministers of Higher Education and
Scientific Research in the Arab World in 2014 proposes an
ambitious agenda. Countries are urged to engage in greater
international co-operation in 14 scientific disciplines and
strategic economic sectors, including nuclear energy, space
sciences and convergent technologies such as bio-informatics
and nanobiotechnology. The Strategy advocates involving
scientists from the diaspora and urges scientists to engage in
public outreach; it also calls for greater investment in higher
education and training to build a critical mass of experts and
staunch brain drain.
The Strategy nevertheless eludes some core issues, including
the delicate question of who will foot the hefty bill of
implementing the strategy. How can heavily indebted
466
Chapter 17
467
468
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
469
Chapter 17
470
West Africa
18 . West Africa
Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cte dIvoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo
INTRODUCTION
A drive to achieve middle-income status by 2030
Most West African countries are striving to achieve lower
or upper middle-income status1 within the next 15 years.
This goal is enshrined in the current development plans and
economic policies of Cte dIvoire, Gambia, Ghana, Liberia,
Mali, Senegal and Togo, for instance. Nigeria even plans to
join the worlds top 20 economies by 2020. Yet, for two-thirds
of West African countries, middle-income status remains an
elusive goal: annual GDP per capita remains below US$ 1 045
in all of Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
Liberia, Mali, Niger, Sierra Leone and Togo.
Countries development plans tend to have three main
thrusts: wealth creation, greater social equity and more
sustainable development. In their quest for middle-income
status, they are giving priority to improving governance
15
Liberia 11.3
10
9.5
8.7
6.9
6.1
5.9
5.6
4.9
4.5
4.3
3.4
3.0
2.9
1.3
1.2
-0.9
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Chapter 18
-5
2013
471
472
West Africa
Mauritania Iron ores and concentrates (46.7%), copper ores and concentrates (15.6%),
octopus (10.5%)
Mauritius Tunas, skipjack & bonito (15.3%), solid cane or beef sugar (10.5%), cotton t-shirts
& the like (7.4%)
Benin Cotton (19.0%), petroleum oils or bituminous minerals (13.7%), gold (13.4%)
Botswana Unworked diamonds (74.3%), other non-industrial diamonds (7.2%),
gold in semi-manufactured forms (5.4%)
Burkina Faso Cotton (44.9%), gold in unwrought forms
(29.4%), gold in semi-manufactured forms (5.4%)
Morocco Phosphoric acid and polyphosphoric (8.2%), ignition wiring sets and other wiring sets
of a type used for vehicles, aircrafts, ships (6.1%), diammonium hydrogenorthosphosphate (4.5%)
Mozambique Aluminium, not alloyed (28.8%), light oils & preparations (12.1%), liquefied
natural gas (5.4%)
Namibia Unworked diamonds (30.1%), unrefined copper (13.4%),
natural uranium & its compounds (13.2%)
Senegal Petroleum
& other oils (20.8%),
inorganic chemical elements,
oxides & halogen salts (12.0%), fresh &
frozen fish (9.0%)
COMOROS
Cte dIvoire Cocoa beans (31.8%), petroleum & other oils, crude (12.3%),
natural rubber (7.2%)
Djibouti Live animals (23.0%), sheep (18.1%), goats (15.6%)
Egypt Petroleum & other oils, crude (24.0%), liquefied natural gas (11.1%),
Equatorial Guinea Petroleum & other oils, crude (73.6%), liquefied natural gas (19.8%)
Eritrea Gold (88.0%), silver (4.9%)
Ethiopia Unroasted coffee (39.5%), sesamum seeds (19.7%), fresh cut flowers (10.2%)
Gabon Petroleum & other oils, crude (85.4%), manganese ores & concentrates (6.7%)
Gambia Wood (48.6%), cashew nuts (16.2%), petroleum & other oils (6.5%)
Ghana Gold (36.0%), cocoa beans and paste (16.5%), petroleum & other oils, crude (22.0%)
Guinea Gold (40.5%), bauxite (34.0%), alumine (9.0%)
Guinea-Bissau Cashew nuts (83.9%)
seeds (4.2%)
Sudan Petroleum & other oils, crude (65.6%), Sheep (10.6%), sesamum
Swaziland Raw sugar cane (17.4%), odoriferous substances used in food & beverages (14.8%),
iron ores & concentrates (10.9%)
Kenya Black tea (20.0%), fresh cut flowers (12.1%), unroasted coffee (5.9%)
Tanzania Precious metal ores & concentrates (11.7%), tobacco (11.5%), unroasted, not
decaffeinated coffee (6.6)
Lesotho Diamonds (45.5%), mens/boys cotton trousers & shorts (13.4%), womens/girls
synthetic trousers & shorts (6.1%)
Togo Gold (12.1%), natural calcium phosphates, phosphatic chalk (11.7%), light oils
& preparations (10.3%)
Liberia Iron ores & concentrates (21.1%), natural rubber (19.3%), tankers (12.3%)
Tunisia Petroleum & other oils, crude (11.2%), ignition wiring sets and other wiring sets of a
type used for vehicles, aircrafts, ships (6.2%); mens/boys cotton trousers and shorts (4.3%)
Libya Petroleum & other oils, crude (88.4%), natural gas in gaseous state (5.6%)
Madagascar Cloves (15.8%), shrimps & prawns (7.2%), titanium ores & concentrates (5.5%)
Malawi Tobacco (50.1%), natural uranium & its compounds (10.4%), raw sugar cane (8.0%)
Zambia Cathodes (47.6%), unrefined copper (26.1%), maize, excl. seed (5.0%)
Zimbabwe Tobacco (30.8%), ferro-chromium (11.6%), cotton (9.6%)
Chapter 18
Uganda Unroasted, not decaffeinated coffee (30.6%), cotton (5.6%), tobacco (5.5%)
473
Lead institution
Benin
Applied Mathematics
University of
Abomey-Calavi
Burkina
Faso
International Institute of
Water and Environmental
Engineering (2iE)
Cameroon
University of Yaound
Ghana
University of Ghana
University of Ghana
Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and
Technology
Nigeria
Senegal
Togo
Federal University of
Agriculture
Dryland Agriculture
Bayero University
University of Port
Harcourt
Obafemi Awolowo
University
Redeemers University
University of Jos
University of Benin,
Nigeria
Materials
African University of
Science and Technology
University of Gaston
Berger, St Louis
Poultry Sciences
University of Lom
474
City
Ouagadougou
Ouagadougou
Bobo-Dioulasso
Ouagadougou
Cte dIvoire
Abidjan
Mali
Bamako
Niger
Niamey
Niamey
Dakar
Dakar
Dakar
Saint-Louis
Dakar
Lom
Burkina Faso
Senegal
Togo
Source: WAEMU
West Africa
COMOROS
GM commercialized crops
Confined field trials and biosafety laws
Confined field trials without biosafety laws
Biosafety laws without confined field trials
Chapter 18
475
476
West Africa
Community of West
African States (ECOWAS): 15 states,
population of circa 300 million;
n Economic
Community of Central
African States (ECCAS), 11 states,
population of circa 121 million;
n Southern
African Development
Community (SADC), 15 states,
population of circa 233 million;
n Common
n Intergovernmental
Authority on
Development (IGAD), 8 states,
population of circa 188 million.
477
Chapter 18
incubators;
n help companies specializing in electronics to set
activities.
Countries are also encouraged to work with the ECOWAS
Commission to improve data collection. Of the 13 countries
which participated in the first phase5 of the African Science,
Technology and Innovation Indicators Initiative (ASTII), just
four from ECOWAS contributed to ASTIIs first collection of
R&D data for publication in the African Innovation Outlook
(2011): Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal (NPCA, 2011).
5. ASTII was launched in 2007 by the African Unions New Partnership for Africas
Development (NEPAD), in order to improve data collection and analysis on R&D.
TRENDS IN EDUCATION
Efforts to generalize primary education are paying off
One of West Africas toughest challenges will be to educate
and train young people and develop a highly skilled labour
force, particularly in science and engineering. Illiteracy
remains a major hurdle to expanding science education: only
two out of three young people (62.7%) between the ages of
15 and 24 are literate, with the notable exception of Cabo
Verde (98.1%). The proportion of literates is as low as one
person in four in Niger (23.5%).
478
West Africa
The considerable efforts made at the primary level are paying
off, with the average enrolment rate having risen from 87.6%
to 92.9% between 2004 and 2012 (Table 18.3). According to
the ECOWAS Annual Report (2012), enrolment has increased by
as much as 20% since 2004 in four countries: Benin, Burkina
Faso, Cte dIvoire and Niger.
Primary (%)
Secondary (%)
2009
2012
2009
114.87
122.77
Burkina Faso
77.68
84.96
Cabo Verde
111.06
111.95
Cte dIvoire
79.57
94.22
Gambia
85.15
Ghana
Guinea
Benin
Guinea-Bissau
Tertiary (%)
2012
2009
2012
54.16+1
9.87
12.37-1
20.30
25.92
3.53
4.56
85.27
92.74
15.11
20.61
39.08+1
9.03
4.46
85.21
58.84
105.53
109.92
58.29
58.19
8.79
12.20
84.60
90.83
34.29-1
38.13
9.04
9.93
45.16
9.30
11.64
+1
116.22
Liberia
99.64
102.38
Mali
89.25
88.48
39.61
44.95+1
6.30
7.47
Niger
60.94
71.13
12.12
15.92
1.45
1.75
Nigeria
85.04*
38.90*
Senegal
84.56
83.79
36.41+1
41.00-1
8.04
128.23
132.80
43.99
54.94
9.12
Togo
+1
-1
-1
-1
-1
+1
+1
10.31
479
Chapter 18
Table 18.4: Tertiary enrolment in West Africa, 2007 and 2012 or nearest available year
By level and field of study, selected countries
735
3 693
128
284
16 801
49 688
2 405
1 307
8 730
296
2 119
57 541
23 008
269
Ghana, 2008
64 993
124 999
281
6 534
18 356
52
7 290
9 091
Ghana, 2012
89 734
204 743
867
3 281
24 072
176
8 306
14 183
Mali, 2009
10 937
65 603
127
88
6 512
69
950
Mali, 2011
10 541
76 769
343
25
1 458
82
137
1 550
36
Niger, 2009
3 252
12 429
311
258
1 327
30
Niger, 2011
3 365
14 678
285
139
1 825
21
303
12 946
100
219
203
1 892
928
58
50
67
17
2 147
1 554
7 817
1 039
240
29
1724
263
6 794
32
946
4 744
57 1 001
7 424
132
3 830
10 144
69
602
408
1 214
5 202
662
23
2 024
3 956
315
871
1 814
479
1 330
2 072
213
56
PhD
1 236
24 259
Postsecondary
7 964
PhD
Health
Postsecondary
PhD
Postsecondary
PhD
Postsecondary
Postsecondary
Engineering, manufacturing
and construction
Agriculture
Science
PhD
Total
1st & 2nd
degree
Figure 18.3: West African PhD students enrolled in S&T fields by gender, 2007 and 2012 or closest year
Selected countries
1 314
480
Agriculture
1
r2
01
1
ge
Ni
i2
01
Health
al
20
aF
as
o
Bu
rk
in
aF
as
in
rk
Bu
00
1
20
1
1
ge
r
Ni
i2
01
M
al
al
i2
00
12
M
20
an
a
20
Gh
an
a
20
Gh
20
aF
as
o
in
rk
aF
as
Bu
in
Science
i2
al
100
12
100
200
20
200
08
300
an
a
300
20
400
Gh
400
an
a
500
20
500
Gh
600
07
600
700
08
700
12
800
07
800
rk
Bu
WOMEN
12
MEN
West Africa
TRENDS IN R&D
Selected countries
Burkina Faso (2009)
Cabo Verde (2011)
0.20
0.07
Gambia (2011)
0.13
Ghana (2010)
0.38
Mali (2010)
Nigeria (2007)
0.66
0.66
0.22
Senegal (2010)
0.54
Togo (2012)
0.22
Ghana
0.2
Senegal
0.3
96.0
3.8
52.0
31.4
16.2
Government
Private non-profit
Note: Complete data for each sector are unavailable for other West African
countries.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, January 2015
Total
39
17.3
1.0
Mali, 2010
443
32
14.1
Nigeria, 2007
5 677
39
Senegal, 2010
4 679
242
Togo, 2012
344
27.4
64
13.7
26
15.5
49
30.4
0.0
60.0
12.5
0.0
0.0
50.0
33.3
38.3
59.9
164
17.5
120
7.7
135
19.3
183
14.1
197
18.6
118
26.8
49.0
34.0
16.9
23.4
0.0
19.6
80.4
361
24.8
0.1
4.1
95.0
841
16.9
99
14.1
898
31.7
110
27.9
2 326
27.2
296
17.1
36
9.4
22.1
77.9
32
7.1
13
7.8
40
8.3
63
3.8
14.1
88
14.1
Note: The sum of the breakdown by field of science may not correspond to the total because of fields not elsewhere classified.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, January 2015
481
Chapter 18
941
12.8
Women (%)
Ghana, 2010
121
Humanities
100.0
12.2
Women (%)
0.0
98
Social
Sciences
36.0
Women (%)
51
Agricultural
Sciences
25
Women (%)
Women (%)
Higher
education (%)
Engineering
Government
(%)
Women (%)
Business sector
(%)
21.6
Natural
Sciences
Women (%)
48
Per million
population
742
Numbers
Burkina Faso, 2010
COUNTRY PROFILES
BENIN
A need to match R&D with development
needs
In Benin, the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
is responsible for implementing science policy. The National
Directorate of Scientific and Technological Research handles
planning and co-ordination, whereas the National Council for
Scientific and Technical Research and National Academy of
Sciences, Arts and Letters each play an advisory role.
Financial support comes from Benins National Fund for
Scientific Research and Technological Innovation. The
Benin Agency for the Promotion of Research Results and
Technological Innovation carries out technology transfer
through the development and dissemination of research results.
The regulatory framework has evolved since 2006 when the
countrys first science policy was prepared. This has since
been updated and complemented by new texts on science
and innovation (the year of adoption is between brackets):
n A manual for monitoring and evaluating research
482
West Africa
The main research structures are the Centre for Scientific and
Technical Research, National Institute of Agricultural Research,
National Institute for Training and Research in Education,
Office of Geological and Mining Research and the Centre for
Entomological Research. The University of Abomey-Calavi also
deserves mention for having been selected by the World Bank
as a centre of excellence in applied mathematics (Table 18.1).
The main challenges facing R&D in Benin are the:
n unfavourable organizational framework for R&D: weak
BURKINA FASO
S&T have become a development priority
Since 2011, Burkina Faso has clearly made S&T
a development priority. The first sign was the creation of
the Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation in January
2011. Up until then, management of STI had fallen under the
Department of Secondary and Higher Education and Scientific
Research. Within this ministry, the Directorate General for
Research and Sector Statistics is responsible for planning. A
separate body, the Directorate General of Scientific Research,
Technology and Innovation, co-ordinates research. This is
a departure from the pattern in many other West African
countries where a single body fulfils both functions.
In 2012, Burkina Faso adopted a National Policy for Scientific
and Technical Research, the strategic objectives of which are
to develop R&D and the application and commercialization
of research results. The policy also makes provisions for
strengthening the ministrys strategic and operational capacities.
population in 2013;
n an insufficient utilization of research results; and
n brain drain.
7. Funding comes from the national budget and various annual subsidies: 0.2% of
tax revenue, 1% of mining revenue and 1% of the revenue from operating mobile
phone licenses. The funds also benefit from royalties on sales from the results of
research and the patent license agreement concerning inventions funded by the
public purse.
483
Chapter 18
Figure
18.6:
Scientific
publication trends in West Africa, 20052014
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
Scientists from Gambia and Cabo Verde publish most in international journals
Per million inhabitants, 2014
0.93
65.0
49.6
25.5
23.2
21.9
0.57
21.2
15.6
11.0
Gambia
Cabo
Verde
Benin
Senegal Ghana
10.0
8.9
Mali
8.7
7.3
5.8
4.1
Togo
Sierrra
Leone
Niger
Guinea
2.5
Liberia
2 500
2 000
Nigeria 1 961
1 500
1 000 1 001
2005
600
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Ghana 579
500
400
Senegal 338
300
Burkina Faso 272
Benin 270
200
100
484
210
208
116
110
86
71
68
68
34
19
12
5
4
1
Mali 141
Gambia 124
Niger 108
Togo 61
Guinea 49
Sierra Leone 45
Guinea-Bissau 37
Cabo Verde 25
Liberia 11
West Africa
207
Burkina Faso
94
Cabo Verde
532
Cte d'Ivoire
255
27
160
6
Niger
Nigeria
1 250
116
1
78
118
559
Sierra Leone
10
41
37
10
21
5
1
38
1
26
32 4 85
782
58
22
54
45
495 37
862
51
2
8
2 2
7 7
103
163
189
30
266
87 109
2 747
78
478
4 71
68
111
Agriculture
Astronomy
Biological sciences
Geosciences
Mathematics
Medical sciences
21
Chemistry
261
91
750
87 7 46
1
10
6
2261
302
23
160
Senegal
204
292
66
50
3
22
99
5 1
22 26
5
13
394
13
76
75
35
114
336
67
259
16
11
70 5
Guinea-Bissau 1
Togo
90
22
33
78
648
Mali
49
286
Ghana
Liberia
95
427
Gambia 6
Guinea
39
23
78
6
6
471
15
89
Physics
1
5
1
2 12
1
2
Engineering
Computer science
4
33
Psychology
Social sciences
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Benin
France (529)
Belgium (206)
USA (155)
UK (133)
Netherlands (125)
Burkina Faso
France (676)
USA (261)
UK (254)
Belgium (198)
Germany (156)
Cabo Verde
Portugal (42)
Spain (23)
UK (15)
USA (11)
Germany (8)
Cte dIvoire
France (610)
USA (183)
Switzerland (162)
UK (109)
Gambia
UK (473)
USA (216)
Belgium (92)
Netherlands (69)
Kenya (67)
Ghana
USA (830)
UK (636)
Germany (291)
Netherlands (256)
Guinea
France (71)
UK (38)
USA (31)
China (27)
Senegal (26)
Guinea-Bissau
Denmark (112)
Sweden (50)
USA (24)
Liberia
USA (36)
UK (12)
France (11)
Ghana (6)
Canada (5)
Mali
USA (358)
France (281)
UK (155)
Senegal (97)
Niger
France (238)
USA (145)
Nigeria (82)
UK (77)
Senegal (71)
Nigeria
USA (1309)
UK (914)
Germany (434)
China (329)
Senegal
France (1009)
USA (403)
UK (186)
Belgium (139)
Sierra Leone
USA (87)
UK (41)
Nigeria (20)
China/Germany (16)
Togo
France (146)
Benin (57)
USA (50)
Chapter 18
1st collaborator
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix, November 2014
485
486
CTE DIVOIRE
A plan to consolidate peace and promote
inclusive growth
With the political crisis now over, the incoming government
of President Alassane Ouattara has vowed to restore the
country to its former leading role in sub-Saharan Africa. The
National Development Plan for 20122015 has two primary
objectives: to achieve double-digit growth by 2014 and to
turn Cte dIvoire into an upper middle-income country
by 2020. A second national development plan is under
preparation for 20162020.
The budget for the National Development Plan is broken down
into five strategic areas: greater wealth creation and social equity
(63.8%, see Figure 18.7), provision of quality social services for
vulnerable populations, particularly women and children (14.6%),
good governance and the restoration of peace and security
(9.6%), a healthy environment (9.4%) and the repositioning of
Cte dIvoire on the regional and international scenes (1.8%).
Key targets of the Plan requiring recourse to S&T include:
n rehabilitation of the railway linking Abidjan to Burkina
West Africa
n expansion of the countrys fibre optic10 network,
children under the age of five, free childbirth care and free
emergency care (health);
n construction of latrines in rural areas, rehabilitation of
8.81
13.30
8.63
8.61
4.02
38.9
Energy
Mining
Economy
Commerce: 2.63
Post and ICTs: 2.28
Scientific research: 1.20
Tourism: 0.42
Handicrafts: 0.67
GAMBIA
A desire to link training with STI
development
Gambias Programme for Accelerated Growth and
Employment, covering the period 20122015, drives its own
vision of attaining middle-income status. One of the smallest
countries in West Africa, with a per capita GDP of PPP$ 1666,
Gambia is conscious of the need for a robust STI capacity to
address its pressing development challenges. Just 14% of
the population has access to internet, for instance, and only
three in four Gambians have access to a clean water supply.
487
Chapter 18
11. This may be at least partly due to the fact that the Medical Research Council
in Gambia, a unit of the UKs council of the same name, is classified as a private
non-profit institution.
488
GHANA
A desire to create a science culture
The Ghana Shared Growth and Development
Agenda 20142017 contextualizes the sector-specific policies
for agriculture, industry, health and education defined by
the National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy12
(2010). The main objectives of this policy are to use STI to
reduce poverty, increase the international competitiveness
of enterprises and promote sustainable environmental
management and industrial growth. The long-term goals
of the policy are to create a science and technology culture
oriented towards problem-solving.
Ghana has one of West Africas most developed national
innovation systems. There is a Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, established in 1958, with 13 specialized
institutes for research on crops, animals, food, water and
industry. The export of cocoa contributed over 40% of the
countrys foreign exchange earnings up until the 1980s and
still contributes about 20%. The Cocoa Research Institute
of Ghana plays an important role in developing the cocoa
industry, through research into crop breeding, agronomy,
pest management and extension services, among others.
Other scientific institutions include the Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission, the Centre for Scientific Research into Plant
Medicine and the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical
Research at the University of Ghana.
Ghana has only a small pool of researchers (39 per million
population in 2010) but they are increasingly publishing
in international journals. Ghanas scientific publication
record almost tripled between 2005 and 2014 (Figure 18.6).
This performance is all the more noteworthy in that Ghana
devoted just 0.38% of GDP to GERD in 2010 (see Table 19.5).
Greater investment needed to stimulate R&D
Between 2004 and 2011, Ghana invested 6.3% of GDP in
education, on average, and between one-fifth and one-quarter
of this in higher education. The number of students enrolled
in degree courses shot up from 82000 to 205000 (12% of the
age cohort) between 2006 and 2012 and the number of PhD
candidates from 123 to 867 (see Table 19.4).
The investment in education has not lived up to expectations,
as it has not acted as a stimulus for R&D. This is because science
and engineering are accorded insufficient status in Ghana.
Government scientists and academics (who perform 96%
of GERD) receive an inadequate budget and private sector
opportunities are rare. In the 2000s, successive governments
made efforts to enhance the infrastructure for modern business
12. This policy followed a review of Ghanas national innovation system by UNCTAD,
the World Bank and Ghanas Science and Technology Policy Research Institute.
West Africa
development. They fostered business incubators for ICTs,
industrial parks for textiles and garments and smaller
experimental incubators within research institutes like the
Food Research Institute. These are all located in the AccraTema metropolis where they are too inaccessible for the
thousands of entrepreneurs living outside the capital who
need these facilities to develop their businesses.
GUINEA
Middle-income status by 2035
Following the death of President Lansana
Conte in 2008, Guinea experienced a severe political crisis
until the election of the current President Alpha Conde
in November 2010. This challenging political transition
plunged the country into an economic recession in 2009
(-0.3% growth), prompting the government to extend its
Poverty Reduction Strategy to 2012.
The ambition of the new authorities is to transform Guinea
into a middle-income economy within 25 years. This
ambition will be articulated in Guinea 2035, which was under
preparation in 2015. The government intends to promote:
n the collection of economic intelligence, in order to
489
Chapter 18
13. In addition, there are ten polytechnics, one in each of Ghanas ten
administrative regions and 23 institutes for vocational and technical training.
The evolving policy on polytechnics is to transform these into technical
universities.
GUINEA-BISSAU
Political troubles have undermined the
economy
Once hailed as a model for African development, GuineaBissau has suffered a civil war (19981999), followed by
several coups dtat, the latest in April 2012. Political
instability has undermined the economy, making it one of the
poorest countries in the world.
Guinea-Bissau is dependent on primary crops mainly
cashew nuts for its foreign exchange and subsistence
agriculture. There are other resources that could be exploited
and processed, such as fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, clay,
granite, limestone and petroleum deposits.
Guinea-Bissaus long-term vision is encapsulated in GuineaBissau 2025 Djitu ten (1996). The governments vision is
articulated in the first National Strategy for Poverty Reduction
covering the period 20082010 and its successor covering
20112015. The title of the latter reflects the strategys
overarching goals, Reducing Poverty by Strengthening the
State, Accelerating Growth and Achieving the Millennium
Development Goals.
Higher education policy currently under review
Like most WAEMU countries which share a common currency
(the CFA), Guinea-Bissau has made considerable efforts in the
past five years to improve its higher education system. These
efforts have been supported by Guinea-Bissaus partners
and especially by WAEMU through its Support to Higher
Education, Science and Technology Project and its assistance
in developing Guinea-Bissaus higher education policy in 2011.
This policy is currently under review, in consultation with key
stakeholders, particularly private-sector employers, socioprofessional organizations, policy-makers and civil society.
490
LIBERIA
Strong economic growth has not spilled
over into the STI sector
Liberia is a country recovering from a quarter of a century of
civil war. Although it has turned the page of strife since the
election of President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf in 2005, the economy
remains in ruins and, since early 2014, has been struggling with
the crippling effects of the Ebola epidemic. With GDP per capita
of just PPP$ 878 in 2013, Liberia remains one of the poorest
countries in Africa.
The country does have considerable natural assets, including
the largest rainforest in West Africa. Its economy is based on
rubber, timber, cocoa, coffee, iron ore, gold, diamonds, oil and
gas. Between 2007 and 2013, the economy grew by 11% on
average. Even though this economic recovery is commendable,
it has not spilled over into the STI sector.
Low public spending on agriculture and education
Nor has public spending risen in such key sectors as
agriculture (less than 5% of GDP) and education (2.38% of
GDP), where just 0.10% of GDP goes to higher education.
Although Liberia has achieved universal primary education,
less than half of pupils attend secondary school. In addition,
university enrolment has stagnated: almost the exact same
number of students (33000) were enrolled in degree courses
in both 2000 and 2012. At the other extreme, Liberia shares
the distinction with Sierra Leone of devoting more of GDP to
health (15%) than any other country in sub-Saharan Africa.
An emphasis on better governance
Liberia has set its sights on becoming a middle-income country
by 2030, in its National Vision: Liberia Rising 203014 (Republic of
Liberia, 2012). The first priority will be to create the conditions
for socio-economic growth, through better governance
14. Liberia Rising 2030 follows on the heels of Lifting Liberia, the countrys poverty
reduction strategy for 20082011.
West Africa
practices such as respect for the rule of law, infrastructure
development, a more business-friendly environment, free
basic education and more trained teachers, investment in
technical and vocational education and higher education.
Liberia Rising cites a World Bank Doing Business survey (2012)
in which 59% of Liberian firms identified lack of electricity
and 39% lack of transportation as a major constraint.
With the entire infrastructure for energy generation and
distribution having been destroyed by the war, it is planned
to make greater use of renewable energy and to install
affordable power services, with more access to fuel that
does not contribute to deforestation. Being able to supply
electricity to most of the economy is considered essential
for achieving middle-income status. Emphasis is being
placed on ensuring greater inclusiveness, as instability and
conflict remain the primary risk to long-term wealth creation
in LiberiaThe challenge will be to turn away from the
traditional practice of concentrating wealth and power in the
elite and in Monrovia (the capital).
It is expected that financing for the National Vision will come
essentially from large mining companies including those
currently prospecting offshore for oil and gas and from
development partners. In 2012, FDI contributed 78% of GDP,
by far the largest share in sub-Saharan Africa (Republic of
Liberia, 2012).
Liberia has not yet published an STI policy but it does have a
national industrial policy, Industry for Liberias Future (2011),
a National Environmental Protection Policy (2003), a National
Biosafety Framework (2004) and a National Health Policy
(2007).
An S&T college for the University of Liberia
In higher education, the main development has been the
commissioning of the T.J.R. Faulkner College of Science and
Technology in 2012 at the University of Liberia. The latter was
founded in 1862 and already had two colleges, the College of
Agriculture and Forestry and the College of Medicine. Other
universities also have science and engineering faculties.
Liberia also has specialized institutions such as the Liberia
Institute for Biomedical Research and the Central Agriculture
Research Institute.
491
Chapter 18
MALI
NIGER
The countrys first STI policy
In Niger, several ministries are involved in
designing S&T policy but the Ministry of Higher Education,
Scientific Research and Innovation is the principal player.
The National Policy on Science, Technology and Innovation was
approved in 2013 and was awaiting adoption by parliament in
2015. In parallel, UNESCO is helping Niger develop a strategic
implementation plan.
In March 2013, Niger participated in a subregional workshop15 in
Dakar co-organized by UNESCOs Global Observatory of STI Policy
Instruments (GOSPIN) programme and AOSTI. The workshop
was the first step in mapping research and innovation in Niger.
In 2010, Niger created a Support Fund for Scientific Research
and Technological Innovation (FARSIT). With an annual
budget of CFA 360 million ( 548 000), FARSIT aims to support
research projects of socio-economic relevance; strengthen
the capacity of institutions, teams and laboratories to conduct
R&D; encourage creativity and technological innovation; and
improve research training.
NIGERIA
The National Fund for STI approved
Nigeria plans to use its Vision 20:2020: Economic
Transformation Blueprint (2009) to place it among the top
20 economies16 in the world by 2020, with annual per capita
income of at least US$ 4000. Vision 20:2020 integrates STI
into the development of key economic sectors and is built on
three pillars, namely: optimizing the nations key sources of
economic growth; guaranteeing the productivity and wellbeing of Nigerians; and fostering sustainable development.
One of the nine strategic targets of Vision 20:2020 was initially
to set up a US$ 5 billion endowment fund to finance the
establishment of a National Science Foundation. This fund was
pledged by former President Olusegun Obasanjo (19992007)
towards the end of his mandate and has not materialized.
Progress towards other targets is hard to evaluate for lack of
data, examples being the target of investing a share of GDP in
R&D comparable to that of the 20 leading economies or that of
increasing numbers of R&D personnel.
In 2011, the Federal Executive Council approved the
allocation of 1% of GDP to set up a National Science,
Technology and Innovation Fund. This strategy features in
the Science, Technology and Innovation Policy approved by
the Federal Executive Council in 2011, which recommends
putting in place reliable funding arrangements to ensure that
R&D focuses on national priorities. Four years later, this fund
has not yet materialized.
16. For details of Nigeria 20:2020, see the UNESCO Science Report 2010: the Current
Status of Science around the World, p. 309.
17. The Federal Ministry of Science and Technology is supported by the National
Council on Science and Technology, the National Assembly Committees on
Science and Technology and the National Centre for Technology Management.
Nigeria being a federal republic, there are also relays in the state ministries and
assemblies.
492
West Africa
Source: www.tetfund.gov.ng
Chapter 18
493
SENEGAL
A focus on higher education reform
In 2012, Senegal adopted a National Strategy
for Economic and Social Development for
20132017, based on the vision of its Senegal Emerging Plan,
Senegals development plan for becoming an upper middleincome country by 2035. Both documents consider higher
education and research as a springboard to socio-economic
development and thus a priority for reform.
In early 2013, a national dialogue was held on the future of
higher education. It produced 78 recommendations that the
Ministry of Higher Education and Research has since translated
into an action plan entitled Priority Programme Reform and
the Development Plan for Higher Education and Research,
20132017 (PDESR). This action plan was adopted in stages by
the Presidential Council on Higher Education and Research
through 11 presidential decisions taken by the Head of State,
including a funding commitment of US$ 600 million over five
years.
In its first year of implementation, PDESR created three
new public universities: the University of Sine Saloum of
Kaolack in central Senegal, specializing in agriculture, the
Second University of Dakar, situated 30 km from Dakar and
specializing in basic sciences, and the Virtual University of
Senegal. Within the plan, a network of vocational training
institutes and upgraded laboratories has been developed
with the introduction of high bandwidth to connect public
universities with one another.
A lot remains to be done, however. There is little synergy
in R&D, which suffers from a low budget and inadequate
18. See: www.youwin.org.ng
494
West Africa
n the National Fund for Agricultural and Food Research,
the 1980s.
SIERRA LEONE
Inclusive, green and middle-income by 2035
Sierra Leone also aspires to become an inclusive,
green middle-income country by 2035, in the words of the
countrys Agenda for Prosperity: the Road to Middle Income
Status, 20132018.19 Current GDP per capita may be only US$
809 per year but the fact that GDP progressed by 20.1% in
2013 gives cause for hope of realizing this goal. Sierra Leone
has, of course, been struggling with the Ebola epidemic. Some
95 health workers have died, a sad reminder of the countrys
inadequate health facilities: there is just one doctor for 50000
people.
Among the Agenda for Prosperitys objectives to 2035, those
which will depend upon science and technology include:
TOGO
A first STI policy
In July 2014, Togo took a major step by
developing its first National Policy for Science, Technology
and Innovation and the action plan for its implementation.
In addition, a Presidential Council on the Future of Higher
Education and Research was established, following a national
consultation. Togo has identified such a wide range of priority
research areas that they encompass almost all scientific fields:
agriculture, medicine, natural sciences, humanities, social
sciences and engineering and technology.
The Ministry of Higher Education and Research is responsible
for implementing science policy, in tandem with the
Directorate for Scientific and Technical Research, which is in
charge of co-ordination and planning.
every village;
n modern infrastructure with reliable energy supplies;
n world-standard ICTs (just 1.7% of the population had
resource exploitation.
CONCLUSION
Research networks need sustainable funding
The overall development goal for ECOWAS countries is to attain
lower or upper middle-income status. This ambition permeates
their respective development plans and policies. Even for those
countries which have moved into the middle-income bracket,
there is the fundamental challenge of diversifying the economy
and ensuring that wealth creation impacts positively on the
lives of all citizens. Development entails building roads and
hospitals, expanding railways, installing telecommunications,
495
Chapter 18
496
operational by 2023;
n Put in place a continent-wide economic and monetary
REFERENCES
AfDB, OECD and UNDP (2014) African Economic Outlook 2014.
African Development Bank, Organisation of Economic
Cooperation and Development and United Nations
Development Programme.
AOSTI (2014) Assessment of Scientific Production in the African
Union, 20052010. African Observatory of Science,
Technology and Innovation: Malabo, 84 pp.
ECOWAS (2011a) ECOWAS Policy for Science and Technology:
ECOPOST. Economic Community for West African States.
ECOWAS (2011b) ECOWAS Vision 2020: Towards a Democratic
and Prosperous Society. Economic Community for West
African States.
West Africa
Essayie, F. and B. Buclet (2013) Synthse: Atelier-rencontre sur
lefficacit de la R&D au niveau des politiques et pratiques
institutionnelles en Afrique francophone, 89 octobre
2013, Dakar. Organisation of Economic Cooperation and
Development.
Gaillard, J. (2010) Etat des lieux du systme national de
recherche scientifique et technique au Bnin. Science Policy
Studies Series. UNESCO: Trieste, 73pp.
ISSER (2014) The State of the Ghanaian Economy in 2013.
Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research.
University of Ghana: Legon.
Juma, C. and I. Serageldin (2007) Freedom to Innovate:
Biotechnology in Africas Development. Report of High-level
Panel on Modern Biotechnology.
MoEdST (2007) Education Sector Plan A Road Map to a Better
Future, 20072015. Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology of Sierra Leone: Freetown.
MoEnST (2010) National Science, Technology and Innovation
Policy. Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology
of Ghana: Accra.
MoESC (2007) Description du programme sectoriel de
lducation 20082015. Ministry of Education and Scientific
Research of Guinea-Bissau: Conakry.
See: http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org
MoHER (2013a) Dcisions prsidentielles relatives
lenseignement suprieur et la recherche. Ministry of
Higher Education and Research of Senegal: Dakar, 7 pp.
MoHER (2013b) Plan de dveloppement de lenseignement
suprieur et de la recherche, 20132017. Ministry of Higher
Education and Research of Senegal: Dakar, 31 pp.
MoHERST (2013) National Science, Technology and Innovation
Policy. Ministry of Higher Education, Research, Science and
Technology of Gambia: Banjul.
MoSHESR (2009) Document de politique nationale de
lenseignement suprieur et de la recherche scientifique.
Ministry of Secondary and Higher Education and Scientific
Research of Mali: Bamako.
See http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org
497
Chapter 18
A schoolboy studies at home using a book illuminated by a single electric LED lightbulb in
July 2015. Customers pay for the solar panel that powers their LED lighting through regular
instalments to M-Kopa, a Nairobi-based provider of solar-lighting systems. Payment is made
using a mobile-phone money-transfer service.
Photo: Waldo Swiegers/Bloomberg via Getty Images
498
Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo (Republic of), Djibouti,
Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Uganda
INTRODUCTION
Mixed economic fortunes
Most of the 16 East and Central African countries covered
in the present chapter are classified by the World Bank
as being low-income economies. The exceptions are
Cameroon, the Republic of Congo, Djibouti and the newest
member, South Sudan, which joined its three neighbours
in the lower middle-income category after being promoted
from low-income status in 2014. Equatorial Guinea is the
regions only high-income country but this classification
masks great variations in income levels; poverty is
widespread and life expectancy at birth is among the
regions lowest, at 53 years (Table 19.1).
All but four nations are classified as heavily indebted poor
countries, the exceptions being Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea,
Kenya and South Sudan. Poverty and high unemployment
are endemic in the region. Life expectancy varies between
50 and 64 years, a strong indicator of the developmental
challenges facing the region.
The regions economic fortunes have been a mixed bag
since 2010. Several countries have managed to raise their
GDP growth rates, or at least maintain them at 20042009
levels: Burundi, Chad, Comoros, Eritrea and Kenya.
Two have sustained some of the highest growth rates in
Africa Cameroon and Ethiopia and one recorded 24%
growth in its first year of existence: South Sudan. Of note
is that only two of these countries are oil-exporters: Chad
and South Sudan.
Five of the continents top 12 oil-producing countries are
found in East and Central Africa (Figure 19.1). Economic
growth is expected to slow down in Africas oil-exporting
countries, following a slump in Brent crude prices since
mid-2014, as African exporters have fewer reserves than
the Gulf States to tide them over until prices recover.
Analysts suggest several explanations for the current drop
in value of conventional sources of oil. On the one hand,
clean energy policies have fostered the development of
more fuel-efficient technology, including in the automotive
industry. In parallel, technological developments in
hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and horizontal drilling have
made it profitable to extract oil from unconventional
sources, such as tight rock formations [shale oil in the USA
and oil (tar) sands in Canada], deep-sea oil (most countries
are now finding deposits) and biofuels (Brazil and others);
high global oil prices until recently have allowed countries
Chapter 19
499
Ibrahim African
governance Index, 2014
6.80
5.64
5.83
6.65
4.59
0.54
5.56
-36.00
3.97
3.50
3.44
8.48
8.70
5.00
-4.84
1.33
10.49
5.89
4.80
7.59
2.30
0.33
5.74
5.49
11.31
2.41
4.97
2.15
3.20
7.44
5.12
4.10
5.39
4.68
4.00
2.80
5.28
5.52
2.21
13.13
2.78
7.28
5.12
3.27
6.71
4.48
1
9
2
3
3
8
6
4
1
2
1
4
10
7
2
1
6
1
4
6
2
1
56
6
8
30
5
2
35
9
8
3
1
5
6
25
4
4
4
83
1
21
27
11
17
3
9
44
18
3
21
38
2
34
51
49
30
41
40
47
35
45
50
32
27
23
7
42
48
17
10
31
33
16
28
1
22
6
29
37
11
12
9
5
25
52
4
24
19
15
36
13
46
88.6
5.0
38.6
7.7
41.7
39.9
14.6
7.8
17.7
17.0
14.9
61.4+1
9.2
2.4
7.0
8.3
24.6
7.9
9.6
15.3
88.9
8.5
23.6
4.8
36.9
30.2
35.1
97.1
10.9
58.0
48.5
6.6
13.2
26.2
41.3
40.6
93.9
57.1
91.9
43.6
68.8
51.3
58.8
39.8
87.0
43.2
76.0
92.1+1
42.6
13.2
75.8
54.4
52.4
35.8
42.7
28.6
42.1
28.1
99.2
33.6
67.2
34.3
45.6
60.3
59.9
96.3
36.7
81.3
38.9
55.0
48.4
41.6
49.1
79.2
Mobile phone
subscriptions per 100
population, 2013
No of products
accounting for more than
75% of exports, 2012
7 736
1 791
15 752
1 684
772
6 416
2 830
604
2 089
1 446
5 868
809
3 210
2 999
33 768
1 196
1 380
19 264
1 661
3 992
1 253
1 407
2 795
2 576
878
1 414
780
1 642
17 714
1 105
9 583
916
5 602
1 474
2 971
2 242
24 587
1 544
12 867
2 030
6 685
2 443
1 391
1 674
3 925
1 832
51.9
59.3
47.4
56.3
54.1
74.9
55.0
50.1
51.2
60.9
58.8
49.9
50.8
61.8
53.1
62.8
63.6
63.4
58.8
61.1
56.1
54.3
61.7
49.3
60.5
64.7
55.2
55.0
74.5
50.2
64.3
58.4
52.5
64.0
66.3
63.4
74.2
45.6
55.0
56.7
55.2
48.9
61.5
56.5
59.2
58.1
59.8
3.05
2.64
0.86
2.82
3.10
0.95
2.51
1.99
2.96
2.36
2.46
2.70
2.38
1.52
2.74
3.16
2.52
2.34
3.18
2.05
2.51
2.41
2.65
1.10
2.37
2.78
2.81
3.00
0.38
2.44
1.92
3.87
2.78
2.71
2.50
2.89
0.50
1.84
2.91
0.69
3.84
1.45
3.01
2.55
3.31
3.26
3.13
Access to improved
water, (%), 2011
22 137
10 600
2 039
17 420
10 483
504
22 819
4 709
13 211
752
4 559
69 360
20 805
886
778
6 536
96 506
1 711
1 909
26 442
12 044
1 746
45 546
2 098
4 397
23 572
16 829
15 768
1 249
26 473
2 348
18 535
178 517
12 100
198
14 548
93
6 205
10 806
53 140
11 739
1 268
50 757
6 993
38 845
15 021
14 599
Access to improve d
sanitation (%), 2011
Annual population
growth rate (%), 2014
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo, Rep.
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Cte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome & Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Population (000s),
2014
Table 19.1: Socio-economic indicators for sub-Saharan Africa, 2014 or closest year
99.4
28.2
45.7
13.1
53.7
37.8
9.0
59.3
31.9
23.2
60.0
72.0
19.2
19.0
14.3
7.0
99.4
20.2
60.0
48.0
56.5
84.7
15.0
26.5
14.6
22.0
37.2
19.10
4.90
15.00
4.40
1.30
37.50
6.40
3.50
2.30
6.50
6.60
2.20
2.60
9.50
16.40
0.90
1.90
9.20
14.00
12.30
1.60
3.10
39.00
5.00
4.60
2.20
5.40
2.30
39.00
5.40
13.90
1.70
38.00
8.70
23.00
20.90
50.40
1.70
1.50
48.90
24.70
4.40
4.50
16.20
15.40
18.50
61.87
93.26
160.64
66.38
24.96
100.11
70.39
29.47
35.56
47.28
104.77
41.82
95.45
27.97
67.47
5.60
27.25
214.75
99.98
108.19
63.32
74.09
71.76
86.30
59.40
36.91
32.33
129.07
123.24
48.00
118.43
39.29
73.29
56.80
64.94
92.93
147.34
65.66
49.38
145.64
25.26
71.47
55.72
62.53
44.09
71.50
96.35
500
Nigeria
Angola
1 756
Algeria
1 721
661
Egypt
516
Libya
Equatorial Guinea
269
Congo, Rep
267
Sudan
262
South Sudan
262
Gabon 240
Ghana
106
Chad
103
Source: www.eia.gov
501
Chapter 19
Figure 19.2: Composition of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa by economic sector, 2013 (%)
Angola
10.1
32.1
49.5
Botswana 2.5
22.9
Cameroon
47.2
Eritrea
43.0
32.0
49.6
20.2
Guinea
43.7
59.9
26.4
Malawi
27.0
50.2
37.2
43.4
51.7
17.5
58.4
7.5
43.0
56.5
Agriculture
20.8
33.9
56.9
Services
Note: Data are unavailable for Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Somalia and South Sudan.
Source: World Banks World Development Indicators, April 2015
15.5
54.0
12.0
23.2
53.7
25.3
9.6
43.8
47.7
30.8
Togo
Uganda
13.2
29.9
44.8
-2
8.0 2.0
32.6
33.8
6.3
11.3
67.8
Tanzania
502
13.6
24.0
59.5
6.4
15.9
86.3
Sierra Leone
5.2
14.9
64.3
Seychelles 2.4
Zambia
9.0
22.0
33.4
19.8
6.1
19.4
57.0
Rwanda
10.9
13.2
33.4
21.0
Senegal
17.0
20.8
60.5
Zimbabwe
22.7
24.3
29.0
6.1
10.7
18.8
72.5
Niger
Swaziland-2
16.1
35.0
Mauritius 3.2
3.3
16.4
54.2
42.3
Nigeria
11.7
31.8
44.7
57.5
Mali-1
Mozambique
11.7
19.8
38.8
Madagascar
13.7
42.7
50.7
8.3
Liberia-1
6.5
37.7
29.5
Kenya
5.8
28.5
42.1
Guinea-Bissau
4.0
11.9
64.0
21.9
Ghana
5.7
22.4
45.0
4.0
2.5
16.9
63.0
Ethiopia
Namibia
12.7
22.3
79.3
14.5
Lesotho
4.3
55.5
3.9
-4
-1
16.6
38.2
72.0
22.3
Cote d'Ivoire
7.0
12.5
41.0
23.6
2.7
15.4
50.4
20.8
4.4
6.5
13.7
33.1
37.1
14.4
29.9
32.0
51.5
Comoros
Gabon
17.0
54.3
Chad
-1
9.5
17.7
74.9
Djibouti-6
42.4
8.1
6.4
29.4
39.8
Cabo Verde-1
5.7
36.9
47.8
Burundi
8.2
14.0
60.5
22.9
Burkina Faso
Congo, Rep.
7.2
57.8
36.5
Benin
31.1
Industry
7.4
8.1
10.0
8.2
12.8
503
Chapter 19
Military
expenditure
(% of GDP),
2013
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo, Rep.
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Cte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome & Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
South Africa
South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
4.9
1.0
2.0
1.3
2.2
0.5
1.3
2.6-3
2.0-2
1.1-3
1.3
1.5-1
3.6-5
4.0-4
0.8
1.3
0.6-6
0.5
1.7-1
1.6
2.1
0.7
0.5
1.4
1.4
0.2
0.8-3
3.0
1.1-1
0.5
1.1
0.002
0.9
0.001
1.1
9.3-1
3.0
0.9
1.6-2
1.9
1.4
2.6
Public health
expenditure
(% of GDP),
2013
Public
expenditure
on agriculture
(% of GDP),
2010
Public
expenditure
on education
(% of GDP),
2012
2.5
2.5
3.1
3.7
4.4
3.2
1.8
2.0
1.3
1.9
3.2
1.9
1.9
5.3
2.7
1.4
3.1
2.1
3.6
3.3
1.7
1.1
1.9
9.1
3.6
2.6
4.2
2.8
2.4
3.1
4.7
2.4
1.1
6.5
2.0
2.2
3.7
1.7
4.3
0.8
6.3
2.7
4.5
4.3
2.9
<5
<5
<5
11
10
<5
<5
<5
6
<5
<5
21
8
9
<5
<5
<5
<5
8
28
11
<5
6
<5
13
6
7
7
14
<5
<5
<5
5
7
9
<5
10
3.5-2
5.3-2
9.5-3
3.4-1
5.8
5.0-1
3.0
1.2-1
2.3-1
7.6-4
6.2-2
1.6-2
4.6-4
4.5-2
2.1-6
4.7-2
4.1
8.1-1
2.5
6.6-2
13.0-4
2.8
2.7
5.4-1
4.8-1
3.5
5.0-6
8.5-2
4.4
4.8
9.5-2
5.6-2
3.6-1
2.9
6.6
0.7-1
7.8-1
6.2-2
4.0
3.3
1.3-4
2.0-2
Government
expenditure
on tertiary
education
(% of GDP),
2012
0.2-6
0.8-2
3.9-3
0.8
1.2
0.8-1
0.2
0.3-1
0.4-1
1.1-4
0.7+1
0.4-2
0.9-5
0.7-2
0.2-2
0.3
1.1-1
0.8
1.1-6
4.7-4
0.1
0.4
1.4-1
1.0-1
0.3
0.6-6
2.0-2
0.8
0.6
1.4-2
1.2-1
0.7
0.8
0.2-1
1.0-1
1.7-2
1.0
0.4
0.5-7
0.4-2
Expenditure
on tertiary
education
(% total public
expenditure on
education), 2012
FDI inflows
(% of GDP),
2013
8.7-6
15.6-2
41.5-3
20.2-1
20.6
16.6-1
7.8
27.3-1
16.3-1
14.6-4
10.9-2
24.0-2
21.0-5
16.5-2
3.5-2
7.4
13.1-1
33.4
15.4-6
36.4-4
3.6
15.2
26.6-1
21.3-1
7.9
12.1-6
23.1-2
17.6
13.3
24.6-2
32.5-1
23.2
11.9
25.3-1
12.8-1
28.3-2
26.1
11.5
25.8-7
22.8-2
-5.7
3.9
1.3
2.9
0.3
2.2
1.1
0.1
4.0
2.3
14.5
5.2
1.2
19.6
12.3
1.3
2.0
4.4
2.8
6.7
2.2
1.5
0.9
1.9
35.9
7.9
3.2
3.7
2.2
42.8
6.9
8.5
1.1
1.5
3.4
2.0
12.3
3.5
2.2
0.6
4.3
1.9
4.8
6.8
3.0
504
transfer;
n Conflict prevention, resolution and peace-building; and
n Co-ordination, institutional development and
partnership.
Indicators Initiative;
n Establishment of the African Observatory for Science,
505
Chapter 19
506
Africa.
STISA-2024 can learn from the review of the CPA. For instance,
the reviewers considered a pan-African fund as being vital to
sustain the networks of centres of excellence, encourage creative
individuals and institutions to generate and apply science and
technology and to promote technology-based entrepreneurship.
Although STISA-2024 states that it is urgent to set up an African
Science and Technology Innovation Fund, it identifies no
specific funding mechanism. Notwithstanding this, the African
Union Commission has already heeded another of the reviews
recommendations by encouraging member countries to align
their national and regional strategies on STISA-2024.
Gender equality on the development agenda
The 2012 review observed that, although the CPA did not have
specific programmes in this area, implementing institutions had
put initiatives in place to promote the role of women in STI. One
initiative they cited were the regional scientific awards for women
(US$ 20 000), which recompensed 21 recipients between 2009 and
2012. The EAC, ECOWAS, SADC and the Economic Community of
Central African States have all participated in these awards.
A number of governments in East and Central Africa are also
promoting gender equality in their policies and development
plans. Examples are:
n Burundis Vision 2025 promises an energetic policy to
507
Chapter 19
43.7
43.7
Mauritius (2012)
41.9
39.8
35.4
Mozambique (2010)
32.2
Lesotho (2011)
31.0
Zambia (2008)
30.7
Botswana (2012)
27.2
Angola (2011)
27.1
Kenya (2010)
25.7
Tanzania (2010)
25.4
Zimbabwe (2012)
25.3
Senegal (2010)
24.9
Uganda (2010)
24.3
Nigeria (2007)
23.3
23.1
Gabon (2009)
22.4
Cameroon (2008)
21.8
Rwanda (2009)
21.8
Gambia (2011)
20.0
Malawi (2010)
19.5
Ghana (2010)
18.3
Mali (2011)
16.0
Burundi (2011)
Ethiopia (2013)
Togo (2012)
14.5
13.3
10.2
508
IceAddis
Mekelle ICT
Business Incubator
ActivSpaces (Box 19.3)
CiHub (Box 19.3)
Digitising Cameroon
CAMEROON
@TheHub
CURAD (see p. 529)
Outbox
Hive Colab (see p. 529)
SOUTH
Grameen Foundation
SUDANAppLab
ETHIOPIA
SOMALIA
Bantul@b
Bantul@b
REP. OF
CONGO
DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC
OF CONGO
UGANDA
KENYA
RWANDA
Somaliland BITS
(see p. 527)
TANZANIA
Kinu
CosTech
Dar es Salaam Innovation Space
TANZICT Innovation Space
Dar Tekinohama Business Incubator
COMOROS
509
Cameroon
Ethiopia
32 761
39 139
2 047
874
32 880
2 863
35 811
PhD
241
149
236
48
47
127
467
42
Science
Engineering
Agriculture
Health
Table 19.3: Gross enrolment ratio for education in East and Central Africa, 2012 or closest year
Primary
Burundi
Cameroon
Central African R.
Chad
Comoros
Congo, Rep.
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Rwanda
Somalia
South Sudan
Uganda
Male
138.0
117.9
109.3
108.2
105.9+1
105.5
73.1
91.8
93.4-6
114.1
132.3
37.6-5
102.9-1
106.5+1
Female
136.9
103.2
81.3
82.4
99.9+1
113.4
65.9
89.6
80.5-6
114.6
135.1
20.8-5
68.1-1
108.2+1
Secondary
Total
137.4
110.6
95.2
95.4
103.0+1
109.4
69.5
90.7
87.0-6
114.4
133.7
29.2-5
85.7-1
107.3+1
Male
33.0
54.3
3.6
31.2
62.8+1
57.5
49.4
32.8-7
35.5-6
69.5
30.8
10.1-5
28.7+1
Female
24.2
46.4
12.1
14.3
65.0+1
49.8
38.1
23.6-7
22.3-6
64.5
32.8
4.6-5
25.0+1
Tertiary
Total
28.5
50.4
17.8
22.8
63.9+1
53.7
43.8
28.2-7
28.9-6
67.0
31.8
7.4-5
26.9+1
Male
4.2-2
13.7-1
4.2
3.6-1
10.6
12.7
5.9-1
3.0-2
4.2-7
4.8-3
7.8
4.9-1
Female
2.2-2
10.1-1
1.5
0.9-1
9.1
8.0
4.0-1
1.1-2
1.3-7
3.3-3
6.0
3.8-1
Total
3.2-2
11.9-1
2.8
2.3-1
9.9
10.4
4.9-1
2.0-2
2.8-7
4.0-3
6.9
4.4-1
510
Table 19.4: Tertiary enrolment by level of programme in sub-Saharan Africa, 2006 and 2012 or closest years
Bachelors
and
masters
PhD or
equivalent
Year
Postsecondary
non-degree
Bachelors
and
masters
PhD or
equivalent
Total
tertiary
48 694
2011
142 798
50 225
2011
110 181
22 257
2011
39 894
30 472
2012
16 801
49 688
2 405
68 894
29 269
Total
tertiary
Angola
2006
Benin
2006
Botswana
2006
Burkina Faso
2006
Burundi
2006
17 953
2010
Cabo Verde
2006
4 567
2012
580
Cameroon
2006
14 044
104 085
2 169
120 298
2011
2006
1 047
3 415
4 462
2012
3 390
9 132
12 522
Chad
2005
12 373
2011
24 349
Comoros
2007
2 598
2012
2006
229 443
2012
Congo, Rep.
2012
18 116
20 974
213
39 303
Cte d'Ivoire
2007
60 808
156 772
2012
57 541
23 008
269
80 818
Eritrea
9 270
48 694
21 202
10
11 800
244 233
6 087
511 251
2010
4 679
7 360
12 039
Ethiopia
2005
191 165
47
191 212
2012
173 517
517 921
1 849
693 287
Ghana
2006
27 707
82 354
123
110 184
2012
89 734
204 743
867
295 344
Guinea
2006
42 711
2012
11 614
89 559
101 173
Guinea-Bissau
2006
3 689
Kenya
2005
36 326
69 635
7 571
113 532
Lesotho
2006
1 809
6 691
8 500
2012
15 697
9 805
Liberia
25 507
2012
10 794
33 089
43 883
2006
9 368
37 961
2 351
49 680
2012
33 782
54 428
2 025
90 235
Malawi
2006
6 298
6 298
2011
12 203
2012
8 504
88 514
260
97 278
Mauritius
2006
9 464
12 497
260
22 221
2012
8 052
32 035
78
40 165
Mozambique
2005
28 298
28 298
2012
123 771
123 779
Namibia
2006
5 151
8 012
22
13 185
Niger
2006
2 283
8 925
6 222
15 278
2005
658 543
724 599
8 385
Rwanda
2006
11 208
1 391
527
37 149
2012
Nigeria
2012
71 638
2006
2012
1 421
1 421
Senegal
2006
62 539
2010
92 106
Seychelles
2006
2012
100
South Africa
Madagascar
Mali
11 210
2012
336 514
264
21 764
655 187
14 020
1 005 721
Swaziland
2006
5 692
5 692
2013
7 823
234
8 057
Tanzania
2005
8 610
39 626
3 318
51 554
2012
142 920
386
166 014
Togo
2006
3 379
24 697
28 076
2012
10 002
55 158
457
65 617
Uganda
2006
92 605
2011
140 087
2012
26 175
94 012
Zimbabwe
Note: Data are unavailable for Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan and Zambia.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, May 2015
511
Chapter 19
Year
Postsecondary
non-degree
Figure 19.6: GERD in sub-Saharan Africa by field of science, 2012 or closest year (%)
Available countries
Botswana (2012)
30.0
7.9
30.0
Burundi (2010)
Ethiopia* (2010)
6.5
4.7
15.5
14.0
7.4
5.3
Nigeria (2007)
33.0
33.0
Uganda (2010)
9.0
3.9
12.2
Natural Sciences
7.1
4.4
512
6.2
17.3
4.1
23.1
8.0
28.8
24.3
27.3
10.3
19.3
10.3
18.1
17.2
48.9
18.1
Engineering
7.7
29.8
Agricultural sciences
3.9
6.6
10.9
1.6
16.7
3.9
8.0
64.4
*Whenever data do not add up to 100% for this indicator, it is because part of the data remain unattributed.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, April 2015
3.0
44.8
16.3
14.8
13.2
7.2
27.5
34.5
Mauritius (2012)
4.8
47.4
13.3
Madagascar* (2011)
Togo (2012)
2.9 1.7
95.2
Mozambique (2010)
27.3
12.6
3.2
2.2
21.9
14.1
Social sciences
Humanities
818
Figure 19.7: Researchers in sub-Saharan Africa per million inhabitants (HC), 2013 or closest year
350
Gabon (2009)
Senegal (2010)
344
318
285
261
233
Botswana (2012)
123
Malawi (2010)
343
120
Nigeria (2007)
Namibia (2010)
115
Benin (2007)
Kenya (2010)
109
Madagascar (2011)
Mauritius (2012)
105
Ghana (2010)
96
Togo (2012)
Cameroon (2008)
87
Ethiopia (2013)
206
83
Uganda (2010)
74
Burkina Faso (2010)
200
73
Angola (2011)
Zimbabwe (2012)
69
54
Rwanda (2009)
Tanzania (2010)
49
Zambia (2008)
66
40
Burundi (2011)
Mali (2010)
35
Gambia (2011)
64
31
Central African Rep. (2009)
Mozambique (2010)
21
Lesotho (2011)
631
Chapter 19
GERD per
researcher (HC)
in current PPP$
thousands
Business
Government
Higher
education
Private
non-profit
Abroad
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Kenya
Lesotho
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Nigeria
Senegal
Seychelles
South Africa
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
0.26+2
0.20-2
0.12
0.07
0.08-2
0.61+2
0.58-2
0.13
0.38-1
0.79-1
0.01
0.11
1.06-1
0.66-1
0.18+1
0.46-1
0.14-1
0.22-4
0.54-1
0.30-6
0.73+1
0.52-1
0.22+1
0.48-1
0.34-3
37.8+2
2.6-2
0.8
4.5
0.5-2
8.3+2
90.4-2
2.0
11.3-1
19.8-1
0.3
1.5
7.8-1
10.8-1
31.1+1
4.0-1
11.8-1
9.4-4
11.6-1
46.7-6
93.0+1
7.6-1
3.0+1
7.1-1
8.5-3
109.6+2
22.3
17.3
2.3-2
95.3+2
258.6-2
59.1
108.0-1
62.1-1
14.3
13.3
168.1-1
109.3+1
60.6-1
34.4-1
78.1-4
18.3-1
290.8-6
113.7+1
110.0-1
30.7+1
85.2-1
172.1-3
5.8+2
11.9-2
0.7+2
29.3-2
0.1-1
4.3-1
0.3+1
19.8-1
0.2-4
4.1-1
38.3+1
0.1-1
13.7-1
73.9+2
9.1-2
59.9-3
100
100
79.1+2
58.1-2
38.5
68.3-1
26.0-1
100.0
91.2-2
72.4+1
18.8-1
78.6-1
96.4-4
47.6-1
45.4+1
57.5-1
84.9+1
21.9-1
12.6+2
12.2-2
0.2-3
1.8+2
9.5-2
0.3-1
19.0-1
44.7
20.7+1
0.1-4
0.0-1
0.8+1
0.3-1
0.0+1
1.0-1
0.7+2
1.3-2
0.2+2
45.6
0.1-1
3.5-1
0.1+1
3.0-1
1.7-4
3.2-1
2.5+1
0.1-1
3.1+1
6.0-1
6.8+2
59.6-2
39.9-3
2.1+2
3.1-2
15.9
31.2-1
47.1-1
3.4
8.8-1
6.4+1
78.1-1
1.5-1
1.0-4
40.5-1
13.1+1
42.0-1
12.1+1
57.3-1
513
ERITREA
Figure 19.8:
Scientific
publication
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
trends in East and Central Africa,
20052014
11.3%
DJIBOUTI
CHAD
SOMALIA
CENTRAL
AFRICAN REPUBLIC
SOUTH
SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
CAMEROON
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
UGANDA
GABON
REPUBLIC
OF CONGO
KENYA
RWANDA
6.3%
BURUNDI
COMOROS
12.9%
Kenya 1 374
900
Ethiopia 865
Uganda 757
Cameroon 706
600
300
571
303
281
244
70
56
13
2005
35
20
5
0
514
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
26
Chad 26
21
20
Eritrea 22
8
3
2
1
1
0
Somalia 7
15
10
2006
Central African
Rep. 32
30
25
Rwanda 143
Gabon 137
Congo,
Rep.111
Burundi 18
Djibouti 15
Eq. Guinea 4
Sth. Sudan 0
Comoros 0
Burundi
Cameroon
23
203
12
1 132
210
6
17
Ethiopia
414
12
23
14
Rwanda
31
Uganda
157 5
451
33
Mathematics
Medical sciences
3 19
11
37
505
1
3
12
153
16
14
6 16
Psychology
11
71 36
13 82
1 229
Engineering
Computer science
10
3
74 49
68 205
1 773
195
Physics
24 8
101 117
1 000
Chemistry
Biological sciences
Astronomy
Agriculture
11 3
20
10
36 192 13
12
1 310
2 3
27
38
90
91
7
3
3 10
3
45
369
176
6
3
144
31
2 626
323
587
13
11
11
120 51
6
866
Gabon 6
44
577
10 8
Geosciences
Social sciences
Gabon
80.1
Cameroon
30.9
Kenya
30.2
Congo, Rep.
24.3
Uganda
19.5
Rwanda
Ethiopia
71.0% 95.3%
Lowest (Ethiopia) and highest (Rwanda) share of foreign
co-authors among 7 most prolific countries, 20082014;
the G20 average is 24.6%
11.8
9.0
Scientists co-author most with partners outside Africa, some also with Kenya and South Africa
Main foreign partners of the 12 countries with the most publications, 20082014 (number of papers)
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Burundi
Belgium (38)
China (32)
USA (18)
Kenya (16)
UK (13)
Cameroon
France (1 153)
USA (528)
Germany (429)
UK (339)
France (103)
USA (32)
Cameroon (30)
Gabon (29)
Senegal (23)
Chad
France (66)
Switzerland (28)
Cameroon (20)
UK/USA (14)
Congo, Rep.
France (191)
USA (152)
Belgium (132)
UK (75)
Djibouti
France (31)
USA/UK (6)
Canada (5)
Spain (4)
Eritrea
USA (24)
India (20)
Italy (18)
Netherlands (13)
UK (11)
Ethiopia
USA (776)
UK (538)
Germany (314)
India (306)
Belgium (280)
Gabon
France (334)
Germany (231)
USA (142)
UK (113)
Netherlands (98)
Kenya
USA (2 856)
UK (1 821)
Germany (665)
Netherlands (540)
Rwanda
USA (244)
Belgium (107)
Netherlands (86)
Kenya (83)
UK (82)
Uganda
USA (1 709)
UK (1 031)
Kenya (477)
Sweden (311)
Switzerland (68)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
515
Chapter 19
23
19
16
134
27
Djibouti
Kenya
326
81
Chad 1 3
Eritrea
189 15 179
Central
African Rep.
Congo, Rep.
20
BURUNDI
An STI policy and the launch of R&D surveys
Burundi is a landlocked country with an economy
dominated by subsistence agriculture. It has enjoyed a period
of political stability and rapid economic development since
the end of the civil war a decade ago. The World Banks Doing
Businessreport even named Burundi one of the worlds top
economic reformers in 20112013 for its efforts to streamline
business, attract foreign investment and climb out of the league
of the worlds poorest countries (World Bank, 2013).
preserve land;
In 2010, the Department of Science, Technology and Research
was created within the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research to co-ordinate STI across the economy. Burundi then
adopted a National Policy on Science, Research and Technological
Innovation in 2011 (Tumushabe and Mugabe, 2012).
In 2011, Burundi published its Vision 2025 document.
The main targets to 2025 are to:
elections;
5. The annual population growth rate in Burundi had accelerated to 3.1% by 2014,
see Table 19.1.
516
CAMEROON
Governance Programme.
GDP (it had almost reached 14% by 2013, see Figure 19.2);
fibre-optic cables.
The policy has spawned the following initiatives to promote
the deployment of ICTs, among others (IST-Africa, 2012):
Chapter 19
technological development;
n expanding the number of tractors from 0.84 per 100
517
population; and
n doubling energy consumption, mainly through the
CHAD
Plans to diversify mining
In recent years, Chad has suffered from flooding
and drought, as well as conflicton its borders. Relations
with Sudan improved after the signing of a non-aggression
pact in 2010 but instability in Libya, Nigeria and Central
African Republic since 2012 has forced it to raise its defence
budget to handle a flood of refugees and counter growing
cross-border threats, including that posed by the Boko
Haram sect.
The economy has become dependent on oil over the past
decade. This has produced erratic growth patterns as oil
production has fluctuated. Chad hopes to double production
in 2016, thanks to increased output from its Mangara and
518
COMOROS
Mobile phone technology fairly developed
The three small islands which make up
Comoros group a population of 752000, half of whom are
under the age of 15. The economy is agrarian (37.1% of
GDP), with manufacturing accounting for just 7% of national
income. Although less than 7% of the population had access
to internet in 2013, nearly one in two inhabitants (47%)
subscribed to a mobile phone. Improved sanitation reaches
only 17% of the population but 87% have access to clean
water (Table 19.1).
In 2008, Comoros devoted a relatively large share of GDP
to education (7.6%), one-sixth of which went to higher
education (Table 19.2). One in ten (11%) young people
attend the countrys single public university, the University
of Comoros, founded in 2003. By 2012, the university had a
student roll of over 6000, double that in 2007, but no PhD
students (Table 19.4).
REPUBLIC OF CONGO
A push to modernize and industrialize
The Republic of Congo was the worlds fourth
fastest-growing economy in 2010, according to the World
Bank. The government plans to turn Congo into an emerging
economy by 2025, through Vision 2025. Adopted in 2011, this
document foresees the diversification and modernization
of the economy, which is heavily dependent on oil, and
the development of secondary and tertiary education to
provide the necessary skills base. To promote the rule of
DJIBOUTI
Education a priority
Expenditure on public education accounted
for 4.5% of GDP in 2010. Schooling is free and seven out
of ten children now attend primary school, although the
ratio is higher for boys than for girls (Table 19.3). Until the
founding of the University of Djibouti in 2006, students had
to go abroad to study and could apply for a government
sponsorship, a situation which fostered brain drain. In May
2014, the university launched an e-campus in the presence of
6. For details of UNESCOs work with the Republic of Congo since 2004, see the
UNESCO Science Report 2010.
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
International commitment, little domestic
output
Founded in 1995, the National University of Equatorial Guinea
is the countrys main tertiary institution. It has faculties of
agriculture, business, education, engineering, fisheries and
medicine.
In 2012, President Obiang Nguema Mbasogo made funds
available for the UNESCOEquatorial Guinea International
Prize for Research in the Life Sciences. In addition to
rewarding research undertaken by individuals, institutions
or other entities, the prize promotes the establishment and
development of centres of excellence in the life sciences. The
fact that the prize is international in character rather than
aimed at citizens of Equatorial Guinea has attracted criticism
within the country, which has high levels of poverty, despite
being classified as a high-income country thanks to its oil-rent
economy.
In February 2013, Equatorial Guinea applied to the African
Union to host the African Observatory for Science, Technology
and Innovation, the mandate of which is to collect data on
the continents STI capabilities. Having offered US$ 3.6 million
and being the only applicant, Equatorial Guinea won the bid.
Progress in establishing the facility has since been hampered
by various administrative and political obstacles.
519
Chapter 19
ERITREA
Urgent development challenges
Eritrea faces numerous development challenges.
Just 0.9% of the population had access to internet in 2013
and 5.6% a mobile phone subscription (Table 19.1). There
is also little access to improved sanitation (9%) and clean
water (43%). To compound matters, the population is
growing at one of the fastest rates in sub-Saharan Africa:
3.16% in 2014 (Table 19.1).
Two-thirds of the population worked in the services sector
in 2009. With gold accounting for 88% of exports in 2012
(see Figure 18.1), there is an urgent need to diversify the
economy to ensure sustainability and attract FDI, which
contributed just 1.3% of GDP in 2013. Economic growth
has been erratic, attaining 7.0% in 2012 but only 1.3% in
2013.
The Eritrea Institute of Technology is the main institution for
higher studies in science, engineering and education. The
facilities and capacity of the institute are continually being
upgraded, thanks to largely external funding, although
the Ministry of Education also contributes. The number of
students graduating each year is rising steadily but from a
low starting point. In 2010, just 2% of the 1823 year-old
cohort was enrolled in university and there were not as yet
any PhD students (Tables 19.3 and 19.4). The number of
Eritrean publications in the Web of Science dropped from
29 in 2006 to 22 in 2014 (Figure 19.8).
The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC),
Eritrean Science and Technology Development Agency
(ESTDA) and National Science and Technology Advisory
Board were all established in 2002. The NSTC is responsible
for the formulation, review and approval of policies but
no specific S&T policy has been published since 2002,
as far as can be ascertained. ESTDA is an autonomous
corporate body with two main objectives: to promote and
co-ordinate the application of S&T for development under
the guidance of NSTC and to build the national capability
for R&D.
ETHIOPIA
An ambitious plan for growth and
transformation
For the past decade, Ethiopia has enjoyed
some of the fastest economic growth in Africa among
agrarian economies. The government is now focusing on
modernization and industrialization to realize its ambition
of turning Ethiopia into a middle-income economy by 2025.
The government recognizes that STI will be a prerequisite for
realizing its Growth and Transformation Plan for 20112015.
A government report has since mapped progress over the
first two years of implementation (MoFED, 2013):
n improved crop and livestock productivity and soil and
to 693 300 between 2009 and 2011; the target is for 40%
of students to be women by 2015;
n a national survey of research and innovation in 20112012
520
0.79
Ethiopia (2013)
0.61
Gabon (2009)
0.58
Tanzania (2010)
Uganda (2010)
0.52
Burundi (2011)
0.48
0.12
GABON
A plan to green Gabon by 2025
Gabon is one of the most stable countries
in Africa. Despite being one of the continents rare upper
middle-income economies, it is characterized by considerable
inequality in income distribution. There is also limited
infrastructure, including in the transport, health, education
and research sectors (World Bank, 2013).
The economy is dominated by oil but, with production
starting to decline, the government has been implementing
political and economic reforms since 2009 to transform
Gabon into a developed country by 2025. This ambition is
encapsulated in the government strategy, Emerging Gabon:
Strategic Plan to 2025, which aims to set the country on the
path to sustainable development, which is at the heart of
the new executives policy,7 according to the Strategic Plan.
Adopted in 2012, it identifies two parallel challenges: the
need to diversify an economy dominated by oil exports
(84% in 2012, see Figure 18.1) and the imperative of reducing
poverty and fostering equal opportunity.
The three pillars of the plan are:
n Green Gabon: to develop the countrys natural resources
521
Chapter 19
522
June 2013;
n the official presentation of the National Climate Plan to the
(Box 19.4).
n Geothermal energy is being developed in the Rift Valley,
523
Chapter 19
A game-changing act?
STI policy in Kenya has been given a major
boost by the Science, Technology and Innovation Act passed
in 2013. The act contributes to the realization of Kenya Vision
2030, which foresees the countrys transformation into a
middle-income economy with a skilled labour force between
2008 and 2030. Kenya already hosts9 several hubs for training
and research in life sciences, including the Biosciences Eastern
and Central Africa Network (Box 19.1) and the International
Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology. In line with Vision
2030, Kenya is participating in the AfDBs East Africas Centres
of Excellence for Skills and Tertiary Education in Biomedical
Sciences programme (Box 19.2).
The act also created the National Research Fund and made
provisions for the fund to receive 2% of Kenyas GDP each
financial year. This substantial commitment of funds should
enable Kenya to reach its target of raising GERD from 0.79% of
GDP in 2010 to 2% by 2014.
Kenya reviewed its Science, Technology and Innovation Policy
in 2012 but the revised policy is still before parliament. The
draft is nonetheless serving as a reference document for the
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
Towards a digital Kenya
In August 2013, the Ministry of Information, Communication
and Technology established a state-owned corporation
named the Information and Communication Technology
Authority. Its functions include centralized management of
all government ICT functions; maintenance of ICT standards
across government; and the promotion of ICT literacy,
524
RWANDA
Infrastructure, energy and green
innovation a priority
In a context of rapid economic and demographic growth, STI
holds one of the keys to Rwandas sustainable development.
This conviction is embodied in Rwandas Vision 2020 (2000)
for becoming a middle-income country by 2020 and in its
National Policy on Science, Technology and Innovation, published
in October 2005 with support from UNESCO and the United
Nations University. The priority given to STI is also reflected
in Rwandas First Economic Development for Poverty Reduction
Strategy, 20072012. If STI is not an explicit priority in the
Second Economic Development for Poverty Reduction Strategy,
20132018, it is implicit in the priority given in the document
to ICTs, energy and green innovation (Figure 19.10), as well as
in the proposal to create a Climate Change and Environment
Innovation Centre. The five priorities are to:
Energy: 36.3
ICTs: 11.9
Share of
expenditure
20132018
(%)
Finance:
0.8
Decentralization:
0.8
Transport: 11.7
Agriculture: 10.5
525
Chapter 19
Masters
Female
Male
PhD
Female
Male
Female
Education
763
409
187
60
3 339
3 590
261
204
364
204
462
205
39
11
Agriculture
369
196
125
211
Services
171
292
5 780
5 167
309
228
TOTAL
Source: Government of Rwanda
526
SOMALIA
A first innovation hub
Somalia is in the process of state- and
peacebuilding. In the run-up to elections in 2016, it is
developing a constitution with key provisions on powerand resource-sharing. The government is also pursuing the
development of federalism by building the capacity of interim
regional administrations and establishing such bodies where
none exists. The government has also recently applied to
become a member of the EAC.
The Al-Shabaab group continues to terrorize the population
in parts of the country under its control. About 730000
Somalis face acute food insecurity, the vast majority of them
internally displaced people. Some 203 000 children require
emergency nutrition, mainly due to lack of access to clean
water, sanitation infrastructure and better hygiene, according
to the United Nations Humanitarian Co-ordinator for Somalia,
Philippe Lazzarini, in January 2015.
Agriculture is the mainstay of Somalias largely informal
economy, accounting for about 60% of GDP and employing
two-thirds of the labour force. The country continues to rely
heavily on international aid and remittances, as well as imports
of food, fuel, construction materials and manufactured goods.
The more stable parts of the country can nevertheless boast of
a vibrant private sector, including as concerns the provision of
such vital services as finance, water and electricity.
Somalias first innovation hub was established in 2012.
Somaliland provides mobile and internet services and
fosters social enterprise incubation and social and disruptive
innovation (see glossary, p. 738), accompanied by training. The
hub was set up by Reconstructed Living Lab, a registered social
enterprise based in South Africa, with its partner Extended Bits
and funding from the Indigo Trust, a UK-based foundation.
SOUTH SUDAN
Priorities: raising education and R&D
spending
The worlds youngest nation and Africas 55th country, South
Sudan gained independence after seceding from Sudan in
July 2011. Its economy is highly dependent on oil, which
generates about 98% of government revenue. Part of this
revenue goes towards paying Sudan for the right to use its
pipelines to transport oil to the sea for export.
With the economy suffering from a dearth of skilled human
resources in all the key sectors, education is a government
priority. The Education Act (2012) states that primary
education shall be free and compulsory to all citizens in South
527
Chapter 19
UGANDA
Sustainability at the heart of STI policy
The overarching arm of the National Science,
Technology and Innovation Policy (2009) is to strengthen
national capability to generate, transfer and apply scientific
knowledge, skills and technologies that ensure sustainable
utilisation of natural resources for the realisation of Ugandas
development objectives.
The policy precedes Uganda Vision 2040, which was launched
in April 2013 to transform Ugandan society from a peasant
to a modern and prosperous country within 30 years, in the
words of the Cabinet. Uganda Vision 2040 vows to strengthen
the private sector, improve education and training, modernize
infrastructure and the underdeveloped services and
agriculture sectors, foster industrialization and promote good
governance, among other goals. Potential areas for economic
development include oil and gas, tourism, minerals and ICTs.
528
Energy Conservation;
n
more than 30 innovation clusters for
n
an academic records management
n
a Centre for Renewable Energy and
system;
n
more than 30 internet laboratories
Centre.
Source: http://cedat.mak.ac.ug/research/
presidential-initiative-project.html
529
Chapter 19
CONCLUSION
Social and environmental innovation emerging priorities
The period since 2009 has witnessed a considerable gain
in interest for STI in East and Central Africa. Most countries
have based their long-term planning (vision) documents
on harnessing STI to development. Most governments are
perfectly cognizant of the need to seize the opportunity of
sustained growth to modernize and industrialize, in order to
participate effectively in a rapidly evolving world economy
and ensure sustainability. They know that infrastructure
development, better health care, food, water and energy
security and economic diversification will require a critical
mass of scientists, engineers and medical staff who are
currently in short supply. These planning documents tend
to reflect a common vision for the future: a prosperous
middle-income country (or higher) characterized by good
governance, inclusive growth and sustainable development.
Governments are increasingly looking for investors rather
than donors. Conscious of the importance of a strong
private sector to drive investment and innovation for socioeconomic development, governments are devising schemes
to support local businesses. As we have seen, the fund
developed by Rwanda to foster a green economy provides
competitive funds to successful public and private applicants.
In Kenya, the Nairobi Industrial and Technology Park is being
developed within a joint venture with a public institution,
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology.
In the past few years, governments have witnessed the
economic spin-offs from the first technology incubators in
Kenya, which have been incredibly successful in helping startups capture markets in information technology, in particular.
Many governments are now investing in this dynamic sector,
including those of Rwanda and Uganda. Spending on R&D is
on the rise in most countries with innovation hubs, driven by
greater investment by both the public and private sectors.
Most of the social innovation observed in East and Central
Africa since 2009 tackles pressing development issues:
overcoming food insecurity, mitigating climate change,
the transition to renewable energy, reducing disaster risk
and extending medical services. The leading technological
breakthrough in the region (the MPesa payment service via a
mobile phone) had been designed to bridge the ruralurban
divide in access to banking services, addressing the financial
needs of the poor masses at the bottom of the pyramid. This
technology has since permeated virtually all sectors of the
East African economy, mobile payments having become a
common feature of banking services.
We have seen that both pan-African and regional bodies
are themselves now convinced that STI is one of the keys to
530
GDP by 2014;
The sources of East and Central Africas heightened interest
in STI are multiple but the global financial crisis of 20082009
certainly played a role. It boosted commodity prices and
focused attention on beneficiation policies in Africa. The
global crisis also provoked a reversal in brain drain, as visions
of Europe and North America struggling with low growth
rates and high unemployment discouraged emigration and
encouraged some to return home. Returnees are today playing
a key role in STI policy formulation, economic development and
innovation. Even those who remain abroad are contributing:
remittances are now overtaking FDI inflows to Africa.
The focus on sustainable development is a fairly new trend.
The commodities boom in recent years has brought home to
governments that they are sitting on a gold mine literally,
in some cases. Growing foreign interest in the natural
endowments of countries such as Burundi, Cameroon, Gabon
and Rwanda has made them increasingly conscious of the
need to preserve their rare and valuable ecosystems to ensure
their own sustainable development.
students to 40%;
n Establish four technical secondary schools to raise the
531
532
Chapter 19
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Jeremy Wakeford from the
Quantum Global Research Laboratory in Switzerland
for contributing information for the country profiles of
Cameroon, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, Kenya and Uganda.
Thanks go also to Dr Abiodun Egbetokun from Tshwane
University of Technology (South Africa) for his assistance in
collecting data for the present chapter.
533
534
Southern Africa
20 . Southern Africa
Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius,
Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe
INTRODUCTION
535
Chapter 20
Change since
2009 (%)
HDI ranking,
2013 (change
since 2008)
Unemployment
rate, 2013
(% of total
labour force)
Poverty rate*,
2010 (change
since 2000)
Gini, 2010
(change since
2000)
149(2)
Angola
21.5
13
Botswana
2.0
67.5
Lesotho
6.8
67.42(-)
42.60(-)
108
(2)
18.4
27.83
60.46(-)
12
187
(1)
8.0
95.15
44.43
2.1
163
24.7
(-)
73.39
54.17(+)
Madagascar
22.9
12
155
3.6
(+3)
95.1
40.63(+)
Malawi
16.4
12
174(0)
7.6
88.14(-)
46.18(+)
Mauritius
1.2
63
(9)
8.3
(+)
1.85
35.90(+)
Mozambique
25.8
11
179(1)
8.3
82.49(-)
45.66(-)
Namibia
2.3
16.9
43.15
61.32(-)
Seychelles
0.1
1.84
65.77
South Africa
52.8
119
Swaziland
1.2
148
Tanzania
49.3
Zambia
(0)
(-3)
127
(3)
70(-12)
(-)
(-)
24.9
26.19
65.02(-)
(-5)
22.5
(-)
59.11
51.49(-)
13
160(5)
3.5
73.00(-)
37.82(+)
14.5
13
143
13.3
86.56
57.49(+)
Zimbabwe
14.1
10
160(16)
5.4
TOTAL SADC
293.8
10
(2)
(7)
(-)
(+)
* calculated as the share of the population living on less than US $2 per day.
Note: The reference year for the poverty rate and Gini index is 2010 or the closest year; see glossary, p.738.
Source: World Banks World Development indicators, April 2015; for HDI: UNDPs Human Development Reports
4.7
Botswana (2009)
13.0
3.9
Namibia (2010)
9.5
2.0
8.5
7.8
6.2
Tanzania (2010)
1.7
Malawi (2011)
1.4
6.2
5.4
5.0
3.7 2.0
Seychelles (2011)
1.2
3.6
3.5
Angola (2010)
Madagascar (2012) 0.4
2.7
2.0
Congo,
Dem. Rep. (2010) 0.4
Zambia (2008)
1.6
1.3
Tertiary education
536
Southern Africa
5-year
change
(%)
7 039
7 488
12 404
657
Lesotho
Madagascar
Angola
Botswana
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Malawi
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Overseas development
assistance/GFCF*
2009
(%)
2013
(%)
6.4
2.4
6.8
15 247
22.9
-7.8
5.8
783
19.1
2.9
8.5
2 101
2 494
18.7
3.4
5.5
26.5
33.0
1 426
1 369
-4.0
-4.0
2.4
14.9
30.0
713
755
5.9
9.0
5.0
64.3
153.9
15 018
17 146
14.2
3.0
3.2
6.7
893
1 070
19.7
6.5
7.4
130.8
Patents,
20082013
FDI inflow,
2013
(% of GDP)
2009
(%)
2013
(%)
2.1
1.6
-5.7
7.8
2.2
1.3
87.2
38.3
5.2
1.9
7.9
3.2
5.9
2.2
85.0
42.8
-1
8 089
9 276
14.7
0.3
5.1
13.1
7.8
6.9
Seychelles
19 646
23 799
21.1
-1.1
5.3
9.8
5.2
12.3
South Africa
11 903
12 454
4.6
-1.5
2.2
1.7
1.8
2.2
663
Swaziland
6 498
6 471
-0.4
1.3
2.8
17.2
31.9
0.6
Tanzania
2 061
2 365
14.7
5.4
7.3
35.6
26.2
4.3
Zambia
3 224
3 800
17.8
9.2
6.7
17.4-3
6.8
Zimbabwe
1 352
1 773
31.2
6.0
4.5
76.7
46.3
3.0
Chapter 20
2009
GDP growth
537
Figure 20.2: GDP in SADC countries by economic sector, 2013 or closest year
Angola
10.1
32.1
Botswana 2.5
60.5
59.9
27.0
60.5
13.2
33.4
13.2
29.9
44.8
43.8
47.7
33.8
43.0
Services
8.2
33.9
56.9
Agriculture
7.4
23.2
56.5
12.0
6.3
11.3
67.8
9.6
10.9
20.8
86.3
7.5
10.7
17.0
50.2
6.1
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
18.8
24.3
29.0
Seychelles 2.4
Zambia
16.1
54.2
72.5
11.7
31.8
57.5
3.2
Mozambique
Namibia
16.6
38.2
26.4
Malawi
Mauritius
41.0
8.3
Madagascar-4
5.7
36.9
20.8
-1
7.2
57.8
31.1
Industry
12.8
Targets include:
n ensuring that 50% of decision-making positions in the
538
Southern Africa
n increasing intra-regional trade to at least 35% of total
Chapter 20
programmes;
n excessive reliance on external financial support targeting
539
n
build knowledge, data, capacity and
540
Southern Africa
Date of adoption/
period of validity
Angola
Yes
2011
Botswana
Yes
1998; 2011
No
Lesotho
Yes
20062011
Madagascar
Yes
2013
Malawi
Yes
20112015
Mauritius
No
Mozambique
Yes
2003; 20062016
Namibia
Yes
1999
Seychelles
No
South Africa
Yes
Chapter 20
they remain firmly linked to the state apparatus for S&T, with little
participation by the private sector in policy design. In 2014, 11
out of the 15 SADC countries had STI policies in place (Table 20.3).
However, STI policy documents are rarely accompanied by
implementation plans and allocated budgets for implementation.
Some SADC countries without dedicated policies for STI
nevertheless appear to be relatively active in developing
programmes to promote universityindustry collaboration and
innovation. Mauritius is one such example (see p. 551).
2010
Swaziland
(draft)
Tanzania
Yes
1996; 2010
Zambia
Yes
1996
Zimbabwe
Yes
2002; 2012
Malawi (2010)
0.73
0.42
Tanzania (2010)
0.38
Zambia (2008)
0.28
Botswana (2012)
Mauritius (2012)
Namibia (2010)
0.26
0.18
0.14
0.08
0.01
541
542
818
Botswana (2012)
344
Namibia (2010)
343
285
Mauritius (2012)
Congo, Dem. Rep (2009)
206
Zimbabwe (2012)
200
Malawi (2010)
Madagascar (2011)
Angola (2011)
123
109
73
Tanzania (2010) 69
Mozambique (2010) 66
Zambia (2008)
Lesotho (2011)
49
21
Southern Africa
Rank
Change in
rank since
2000
Knowledge
Index
Economic
Incentive
Regime
Innovation
Education
ICTs
62
Mauritius
5.5
4.6
8.22
4.41
4.33
5.1
67
-15
South Africa
5.2
5.1
5.49
6.89
4.87
3.6
85
-18
Botswana
4.3
3.8
5.82
4.26
3.92
3.2
89
-9
Namibia
4.1
3.4
6.26
3.72
2.71
3.7
106
-9
Swaziland
3.1
3.0
3.55
4.36
2.27
2.3
115
-4
Zambia
2.6
2.0
4.15
2.09
2.08
1.9
119
-6
Zimbabwe
2.2
2.9
0.12
3.99
1.99
2.6
120
-12
Lesotho
2.0
1.7
2.72
1.82
1.71
1.5
122
-6
Malawi
1.9
1.5
3.33
2.65
0.54
1.2
127
-2
Tanzania
1.8
1.4
3.07
1.98
0.83
1.3
128
-2
Madagascar
1.8
1.4
2.79
2.37
0.84
1.1
129
Mozambique
1.8
1.0
4.05
1.76
0.17
1.1
142
-1
Angola
1.1
1.0
1.48
1.17
0.32
1.4
Chapter 20
Country
Knowledge
Economy
Index
Namibia (2010)
43.7
43.7
41.9
Mauritius (2012)
35.4
Madagascar (2011)
32.2
Mozambique (2010)
Lesotho (2011)
31.0
Zambia (2008)
30.7
Botswana (2012)
27.2
Angola (2011)
27.1
Tanzania (2010)
25.4
Zimbabwe (2012)
25.3
Malawi (2010)
19.5
543
Figure 20.6:
Scientific
publication
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
SEYCHELLES
1.20
SWAZILAND
LESOTHO
10 000
10 000
8 000
8 000
6 000
6 000
4 000
4 000
800
800
700
4 235
4 2352005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014Tanzania 770
Tanzania 770
700
600
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
Malawi 322
Zimbabwe
Malawi 322310
Zambia 245310
Zimbabwe
Botswana
210
Zambia 245
Madagascar
188
Botswana 210
Mozambique158
Madagascar 188
323
323
173
116
173
114
116
112
114
96
112
55
96
55
Mozambique158
Strong
growth in Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo
150
Namibia 139
150
Namibia 139
120
Congo,
Dem. Rep 114
Congo,
Dem. Rep 114
Mauritius 89
120
90
90
60
60
30
30
0
0
544
80
Mauritius 89
80
49
Angola 45
49
22
21
17
22
12
21
5
17
12
52005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Seychelles
Angola
45 34
Swaziland
Seychelles 25
34
Lesotho
1625
Swaziland
Lesotho 16
Southern Africa
Angola 2
48
Botswana
58
Malawi
76
Mauritius
24
Mozambique
38
298
76
7 41
192
16 6
50
23
15
Madagascar
1
140
3 23
1
80
131
104
29
58
Tanzania
4 329
256
10
1 045
173
69
Medical sciences
4 3
272
470 3 424
749
1
9
9
3
5115
23 94
22 3
12 37
12 5
19 34
8 758
9
26
1 278
478
2
9 21
161
Physics
13
318
Engineering
Computer science
Chemistry
Biological sciences
Astronomy
Mathematics
1 714
17
534
Agriculture
30
5 022
1 10
41
80
336
8
1
14
61
3
423
Zimbabwe
386 3 655
69
17 1
43
44
13 696
Zambia 29
22
125
72
1 398
South Africa 1 863
17
Swaziland
7
1
18
1 188
39 5
7 34
2
7 18
6
7
20
9
9
3
16 3
171
Psychology
Geosciences
Social sciences
Seychelles and South Africa have the most publications per million inhabitants
364
175
103
lle
s
he
Se
yc
an
Bo
ts
rit
au
M
So
Af uth
ric
a
s
iu
ia
ib
m
ba
m
Zi
Na
bw
nd
ila
al
M
az
Sw
aw
a
bi
m
an
nz
Ta
ag
59
21
20
ad
19
16
ia
r
ca
as
th
so
Le
bi
M
oz
am
e
qu
la
go
15
Za
An
De Con
m go
.R ,
ep
.
71
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Angola
Portugal (73)
USA (34)
Brazil (32)
UK (31)
Spain/France (26)
Botswana
USA (367)
UK(139)
Canada (58)
Germany (51)
Belgium (286)
USA (189)
France (125)
UK (77)
Switzerland (65)
Lesotho
USA (34)
UK (13)
Switzerland (10)
Australia (8)
South Africa (78)
Madagascar
France (530)
USA (401)
UK (180)
Germany (143)
Malawi
USA (739)
UK (731)
Mauritius
UK (101)
USA (80)
France (44)
India (43)
Mozambique
USA (239)
Spain (193)
UK (138)
Portugal (113)
Namibia
USA (184)
Germany (177)
UK (161)
Australia (115)
Seychelles
UK (69)
USA (64)
Switzerland (52)
France (41)
Australia (31)
South Africa
USA (9 920)
UK (7 160)
Germany (4 089)
Australia (3 448)
France (3 445)
Swaziland
USA (59)
UK (45)
Tanzania
USA (1 212)
UK (1 129)
Kenya (398)
Switzerland (359)
Zambia
USA (673)
UK (326)
Switzerland (101)
Kenya (100)
Zimbabwe
USA (395)
UK (371)
Netherlands (132)
Uganda (124)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
545
Chapter 20
3
7
3 16
194
Seychelles 2
9
13
601
6
97
77
24 23 25
5 4
5 9
22
102
59
232
31
Namibia 13
162
4
29 17
470
216
524
62
11
2 1
11
61
ANGOLA
Progress in higher education, despite
governance issues
Angola is considered as having a viable national innovation
system (Table 20.5). The biggest obstacle to the countrys
development prospects lies in governance. Angola ranks
poorly on the Corruption Perceptions Index (161st out of
175) and Ibrahim Index of African Governance (44th out of
52, see Table 19.1). A recent UNESCO study has identified a
correlation between low scientific productivity and ineffective
governance (UNESCO, 2013).
Angola has the advantage of being minimally reliant on donor
funding for its investment needs, being the second-largest
oil producer in Africa after Nigeria and one of SADCs fastestgrowing economies (see Figure 19.1). It ranks in the top half
of SADC countries for GDP per capita and saw average annual
growth of almost 3% over the period 20082013. Angolas
income inequality is relatively low among SADC countries but
it has a high poverty rate. It is deemed to have medium human
development.
Table 20.5: Status of national innovation systems in the
SADC region
Category
Fragile
Viable
Evolving
546
BOTSWANA
Good governance
Along with Tanzania, Botswana has one of the
longest post-independence histories of political stability in
Africa. A multiparty democracy, it is deemed the continents
best-performing country by the Corruption Perceptions Index
(31st out of 175) and ranks third in Africa in the Ibrahim Index
of African Governance (see Table 19.1). Real GDP per capita
is relatively high and growing but the country nevertheless
ranks second in the SADC for inequality and there is
widespread poverty (Table 20.1). Botswanas incidence of HIV
(18.5% of the population) is also among the highest in the
world, according to the Botswana AIDS Impact Survey of 2013.
Botswana is the worlds top producer of diamonds, in terms
of value. Despite being heavily reliant on the mining sector,
Botswana has escaped the resource curse to a large extent
Southern Africa
by delinking public expenditure and revenue from the mining
sector. This revenue is invested in a savings fund to enable an
anti-cyclical fiscal policy. Revenue from diamonds has been
invested in public goods and infrastructure and the government
has long established universal scholarship schemes which fully
subsidize education at all levels (AfDB, 2013).
547
Chapter 20
LESOTHO
A compact to develop the private sector
and social services
In mid-2014, this mountainous kingdom with a population
of two million experienced a political crisis after parliament
was suspended, prompting an attempted military coup.
The SADC brokered a solution to the crisis which resulted in
parliamentary elections being brought forward by two years
to March 2015. The party of the outgoing prime minister was
returned to power in what the SADC described as a free, fair
and credible election.
According to national figures, 62.3 % of the population
lives below the national poverty line and unemployment is
high, at 25.4% With 23% of 1549 year-olds infected with
HIV,14 average life expectancy stands at less than 49 years.
Human development is low, with Lesotho ranking 158th out
of 187 countries in 2012, despite having registered some
improvement since 2010 (Government of Lesotho and UNDP,
2014). GDP per capita grew by 18.7% over the period
20092013 (Table 20.2).
Three in four inhabitants live in rural areas and are dependent
on subsistence agriculture. Since agricultural productivity is
low and only 10% of the land is arable, Lesotho relies heavily
on imports from South Africa. It also depends on its South
African neighbour for employment and for the purchase of its
main natural resource: water.
Within the country, the government remains the main
employer and greatest consumer, accounting for 39% of GDP
in 2013. Lesothos largest private employer is the textile and
garment industry; approximately 36000 Basotho, mainly
women, work in factories which produce garments for export
to South Africa and the USA (see Figure 18.2). Diamond
mining has grown in recent years and may contribute 8.5% to
GDP by 2015, according to current forecasts. Lesotho remains
extremely dependent on donor funding.
In 2007, Lesotho signed a six-year US$362.5 million
Millennium Challenge Account Compact to strengthen the
health care system, develop the private sector and broaden
access to improved water supplies and sanitation. Thanks to
Lesothos strong performance and continued commitment
to democratic principles and good governance, the country
became eligible in December 2013 to apply for a second
compact15 funded by the Millennium Challenge Account. The
process of compact development takes two years, so, if the
application is successful, the second compact will become
effective in 2017.
14. See: www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/lesotho
15. See: www.lmda.org.ls
548
Southern Africa
Major obstacles to economic growth, private sector-led
entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation in Lesotho relate
to the fact that the government has not managed to use its
resources efficiently to provide public services that encourage
high levels of private investment and entrepreneurship.
MADAGASCAR
A research policy oriented towards
development
In Madagascar, the coup dtat of 2009 resulted in international
sanctions which have curtailed donor funding. Today, the
economy is faltering: GDP per capita dropped by 10.5% over
the period 20082013. Madagascar has the second-highest
reported poverty rate within the SADC after the Democratic
Republic of Congo, even though it has a median ranking
within the community for human development.
In terms of governance, Madagascar actually dropped from
118th to 127th place out of 175 countries between 2013 and
2014 in the Corruption Perceptions Index. All governance
indices identify political instability as an aggravating factor for
corruption and vice versa and as being the main obstacle to
creating an enabling and healthy business environment (IFC,
2013). Like many countries, Madagascar observes International
of graduates;
n foster research and innovation;
n offer diversified courses to meet national socio-economic
needs;
n improve the governance of public universities; and
n develop high-quality private universities and technical
institutes.
Between 2000 and 2011, the number of students enrolled in
Madagascars public universities more than doubled from
22 166 to 49 395, according to the Ministry of Education
and Scientific Research. Nearly half attended the University
of Antananarivo. The great majority of PhD students were
enrolled in science and engineering disciplines (SARUA, 2012).
The student population at both public and private universities
almost doubled between 2006 and 2012 to 90 235 but the
number of PhD candidates actually shrank (Table 19.4).
Madagascar does not have a national STI policy but it did
adopt a national research policy in December 2013 to
promote innovation and the commercialization of research
results for socio-economic development. This policy is
accompanied by five Master Plans of Research related to
renewable energies, health and biodiversity, agriculture and
food security, environment and climate change. These plans
have been identified as priorities for R&D; other plans are
being elaborated in 20152016.
Moreover, a Competitive Fund for Research and Innovation
is currently being set up. It is intended to strengthen the
relationship between research and socio-economic benefits
and to throw bridges between public researchers and the
549
Chapter 20
MALAWI
Wooing investors to diversify the economy
Malawi has been a multiparty parliamentary
democracy since 1994. For the past 10 years, the economy
has grown annually by 5.6% on average, making it the sixthfastest growing economy in the SADC. It is projected that,
between 2015 and 2019, annual growth in real GDP will
range from 6% to 5% (IMF, 2014). Malawis ratio of donor
funding to capital formation rose considerably over the
period 20072012. At the same time, its attempts to diversify
the agriculture sector and move up the global value chain
have been seriously constrained by poor infrastructure, an
inadequately trained work force and a weak business climate
(AfDB et al., 2014).
Malawi has one of the lowest levels of human development
in the SADC (see Tables 19.1 and 20.2) but it is also one of
three African countries that are making especially impressive
progress for several Millennium Development Goals, along
with Gambia and Rwanda, including with regard to primary
school net enrolment (83% in 2009) and gender parity, which
has been achieved at primary school level (UNESCO, 2014a).
The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which
accounts for 27% of GDP (Figure 20.2) and 90% of export
revenue. The three most important export crops are tobacco,
tea and sugar with the tobacco sector alone accounting
for half of exports (see Figure 18.2). Malawi spends more on
agriculture (as a share of GDP) than any other African country
(see Table 19.2). Over 80% of the population is engaged in
subsistence farming, with manufacturing earning just 10.7%
of GDP (Figure 20.2). Moreover, most products are exported in
a raw or semi-processed state.
Malawi is conscious of the need to attract more FDI to foster
technology transfer, develop human capital and empower
the private sector to drive economic growth. FDI has been
growing since 2011, thanks to a government reform of
the financial management system and the adoption of an
Economic Recovery Plan. In 2012, the majority of investors
came from China (46%) and the UK (46%), with most FDI
inflows going to infrastructure (62%) and the energy sector
(33%) [UNESCO, 2014a].
550
Southern Africa
17. A Science and Technology Fund was also established by the Science and
Technology Act of 2003 to finance research and studies through government
grants and loans; it was not yet operational by 2014 (UNESCO, 2014b).
MAURITIUS
Competing with South Africa as an
investment hub
Mauritius is a small island nation with 1.3 million inhabitants.
Unemployment is low and the country counts the secondhighest GDP per capita in the SADC; it grew by more than
17% over the period 20082013. Mauritius also ranks
second-highest in the SADC region for human development
and has the third-best score in the Corruption Perceptions
Index (47th out of 175), behind Botswana (31st) and
Seychelles (43rd). In 2012, there were almost twice as
many students enrolled in higher education as in 2006
(Table 19.4).
The economy is driven by tourism, textile manufacturing,
sugar and financial services. There has been a rapid
diversification of the economic base towards ICTs,
seafood, hospitality, property development, health care,
renewable energy, education and training, which have
attracted both local and foreign investors. Mauritius
status as an investment hub for new businesses has also
provided significant opportunities for offshore companies.
This diversification is largely due to the governments
determination to move the economy up the value chain
towards an economy based on high skills and technology.
The strategy has worked: in 2013, Mauritius overtook
South Africa to become the most competitive economy in
sub-Saharan Africa.
551
Chapter 20
552
in R&D.
In response to these recommendations, the government took
a series of measures to boost R&D, including the:
n provision, in 2014, of Rs 100 million (circa US$3 million)
Southern Africa
MOZAMBIQUE
NAMIBIA
A need to diversify the economy
While Namibia is classified as a middle-income
country on the basis of its GDP per capita, its Gini coefficient
(see the glossary, p. 738) reveals one of the worlds highest
levels of inequality, despite a modest improvement since 2004.
Namibia also suffers from an unemployment rate of 16.9 %
(Table 20.1) and widespread poverty, with the majority of the
population surviving on subsistence agriculture. To this must
be added the impact of long periods of severe drought and
a high prevalence of HIV and AIDS. Namibia also ranks 128th
out of 186 countries for human development. These indicators
point to the formidable obstacles that Namibia must overcome,
if it is to shake off its over-reliance on mining (see Figure 18.2),
which only employs about 3% of the population.
Namibias long-term development strategy is guided by
Vision 2030, a planning document adopted in 2004 to reduce
inequalities and move the nation significantly up the scale
of human development, to be ranked high among the
developed countries21 in the world. Five driving forces were
identified to realize the objectives of Vision 2030: education,
science and technology; health and development; sustainable
agriculture; peace and social justice; and gender equality.
In 2010, Namibia still had a low GERD/GDP ratio (0.14%) but it
did count 343 researchers (head count) per million inhabitants,
one of the regions better ratios. The countrys KEI and KI
values are also quite high, even though Namibia dropped nine
places between 2000 and 2012. Two factors no doubt explain
this relatively good performance: Namibias market-friendly
environment, which benefits from its proximity to South
Africa; and its two reputable universities which have produced
a critical mass of skilled workers over the past two decades, as
well as a small, well-trained professional and managerial class.
21. See: www.gov.na/vision-2030
553
Chapter 20
554
SEYCHELLES
A first university and national STI institute
Having recovered from virtual economic
collapse in 20072008, Seychelles is now a rising star (AfDB
et al., 2014). It comes out on top in the SADC region for
GDP per capita, human development and unemployment
and poverty levels. It is also one of the top-scorers for good
governance, low corruption and general security. Despite
these achievements, not everyone in this small island state
is seeing the benefits. The economy is primarily based on
tourism, agriculture and fisheries but economic growth has
been led almost exclusively by the tourism sector. As a result,
Seychelles has the greatest level of inequality of any SADC
country.
There are no recent R&D data for Seychelles. In 2005, the
country had a low GERD/GDP ratio (0.30%) and, given its
population of 93000, only a handful of researchers: 14. The
main research institute is the Seychelles Centre for Marine
Research and Technology (est. 1996).
Seychelles first university dates only from 2009; it welcomed
its first 100 students in 2012 (see Table 19.4). Though still in
its infancy, the University of Seychelles is developing rapidly.
It has already established strong collaboration with other
universities in the SADC region (SARUA, 2012).
Parliament passed a bill creating the countrys first National
Institute of Science, Technology and Innovation in 2014. In
January 2015, the government upgraded the Department of
Entrepreneurship Development and Business Innovation to
ministry status, adding the portfolio of investment.
Southern Africa
SOUTH AFRICA
South Africa is the main destination for FDI inflows to the SADC
region, attracting about 45% of the regions FDI in 2013, a slight
decrease from 48% in 2008. South Africa is also establishing itself
as a main investor in the region: over the same six-year period, its
outward flows of FDI almost doubled to US$5.6 billion, powered
by investment in telecommunications, mining and retail in
mostly neighbouring countries. In 2012, South Africa invested
in more new FDI projects in Africa than any other country in
the world. Moreover, among emerging economies, it is the
second-biggest investor in least developed countries after
India, according to the United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development.
Through the Department of Science and Technology, South
Africa has entered into 21 formal bilateral agreements with
other African countries in science and technology since 1997,
most recently with Ethiopia and Sudan in 2014 (Table 20.6).
Within three-year joint implementation plans which define
spheres of common interest, co-operation tends to take the
form of joint research calls and capacity-building through
information- and infrastructure-sharing, workshops, student
exchanges, development assistance and so on.
A negative trade balance in high-tech
South Africa trades mainly with Botswana (21%), Swaziland,
Zambia and Zimbabwe (12% each) and Angola (10%). This
contrasts with the main destinations for South African FDI,
which are Mauritius (44 %), Tanzania (12%) and Mozambique
(7%). Table 20.7 shows that South Africa has a consistently
high negative trade balance in high-tech products, along
with the rest of the SADC economies, making it a peripheral
national innovation system in the global arena.
STI to help diversify the economy by 2030
The vision of the National Development Plan (2012) is for
South Africa to become a diversified economy firmly
grounded in STI by 2030. This transition is guided by the
Ten-Year Innovation Plan (20082018) and its five
grand challenges: biotechnology and the bio-economy
555
Chapter 20
Angola (2008)
Basic sciences
Aeronautics
Indigenous knowledge
Environment and
climatechange
Mathematics
ICTs
Energy
Mining / Geology
Water management
Algeria (1998)
Laser technology
Space
Agriculture /Agro-processing
Biotechnology
Biosciences
STI policy
Intellectual property
Joint co-operation
agreement (signed)
Human development
Botswana (2005)*
Egypt (1997)
l
l
Ethiopia (2014)
Ghana (2012)**
Kenya (2004)*
Lesotho (2005)
Malawi (2007)
Mali (2006)
Mozambique (2006)**
Namibia (2005)*
Nigeria (2001)
Rwanda (2009)
l
l
Senegal (2009)
Sudan (2014)
Tanzania (2011)
Tunisia (2010)
Uganda (2009)
l
l
Zambia (2007)*
Zimbabwe (2007)
l
l
l
l
l
*partner of the African Very Long Baseline Interferometry Network and of the Square Kilometre Array
**partner of the African Very Long Baseline Interferometry Network
Source: compiled by authors via the DST
556
Southern Africa
most recent is the Centre of Excellence in Scientometrics and
Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, the work of which
is expected to lead to better decision-making in STI policy and
consolidate related national information systems.
Table 20.7: International trade by the SADC in high-tech products, 20082013, in US$ millions
TOTAL
Import
2008
251.7
Botswana
2009
352.9
2010
248.0
274.1
303.7
2008
2009
2010
24.4
2011
21.1
0.4
1.6
7.4
10.7
5.5
52.6
152.4
1.7
3.4
2.0
22.7
2012
2013
15.1
44.6
62.7
16.6
28.4
151.8
177.0
141.6
Malawi
112.5
148.9
208.3
285.4
Mauritius
284.3
327.8
256.6
255.2
344.8
343.5
101.1
21.9
6.2
9.8
10.6
6.3
Mozambique
167.3
148.6
125.4
134.1
189.2
1 409.2
6.1
23.8
0.5
71.2
104.7
82.1
Namibia
199.5
403.8
334.9
401.9
354.6
378.9
22.0
108.0
32.1
2013
254.1
Seychelles
2012
Madagascar
Lesotho
Export
2011
140.2
0.2
2.0
...
11.0
42.8
49.3
46.6
71.7
10 480.4
7 890.5
10 190.3
11 898.9
10 602.2
11 170.9
2 056.3
1 453.3
1 515.6
2 027.3
2 089.1
2 568.6
Tanzania
509.1
532.2
517.4
901.7
698.4
741.6
11.8
18.1
27.4
43.0
98.9
50.0
Zambia
209.7
181.9
236.4
354.9
426.7
371.2
8.8
5.9
4.6
222.0
55.2
40.0
Zimbabwe
116.8
201.1
393.3
343.1
354.2
447.3
80.0
7.3
9.2
9.7
20.4
18.5
South Africa
557
Chapter 20
SWAZILAND
STI development undermined by social
problems
The Kingdom of Swaziland is the second-smallest country in
Southern Africa after the Seychelles, with a population of less
than 1.3 million. In spite of being classified as a lower middleincome country, Swaziland shares characteristics with Africas
low-income countries. About 78% of the population derives
its livelihood from subsistence agriculture and 63% lives
in poverty that is exacerbated by regular food shortages.
Unemployment has remained high over the past decade, at
about 23% (Figure 20.1). There is also a high prevalence of
HIV and AIDS: 26% among the adult population.
The ratio of donor funding to capital formation is high
but fell considerably over 20072009. Economic growth
has been sluggish for over a decade, hovering between
1.3% and a high of 3.5% in 2007. In 2011, the country even
slipped into recession (-0.7%). GDP per capita is nevertheless
situated at the higher end of the SADC scale (Table 20.1).
The economy is closely tied to that of neighbouring South
558
Southern Africa
Africa for trade and its currency is pegged on the South
African rand.
559
Chapter 20
560
Southern Africa
ZAMBIA
561
Chapter 20
development;
n Accelerate commercialization of research results;
n Search for scientific solutions to global environmental
challenges;
ZIMBABWE
A country emerging from a long crisis
Between 1998 and 2008, the Zimbabwean
economy contracted by a cumulative 50.3%, sending GDP
per capita plummeting to less than US $400. In July 2008,
inflation peaked at 231 000 000%. By this time, 90% of the
population was unemployed and 80% were living in poverty.
Infrastructure had deteriorated, the economy had become
more informal and there were severe food and foreign
currency shortages. The economic crisis was accompanied
by a series of political crises, including a contested election
in 2008 which resulted in the formation of a government of
national unity in February 2009 (UNESCO, 2014b).
The economic crisis coincided with the implementation of
the Fast-track Land Reform Programme from 2000 onwards
which compounded the decline in agricultural production by
reducing the cropping area of traditionally large commercial
crops such as wheat and maize. In parallel, FDI shrank after
23. The Agricultural Research Trust has also been active in Zimbabwe since 1981.
562
and
n Foster international collaboration in STI.
Southern Africa
Following the elections of 2013, the incoming government
replaced the Medium Term Plan 20112015 elaborated by its
predecessor with a new development plan, the Zimbabwe
Agenda for Sustainable Economic Transformation (ZimAsset,
20132018). One objective of ZimAsset is to rehabilitate and
upgrade national infrastructure, including the national power
grid, road and railway network, water storage and sanitation,
buildings and ICT-related infrastructure (UNESCO, 2014b).
CONCLUSION
From economic integration to a regional innovation
system?
To date, intra-African trade remains dismally low, at
approximately 12% of total African trade,25 in spite of the
formation of numerous regional economic communities. Both
prominent pan-African organizations, such as the African
Union (AU) and the New Partnership for Africas Development
(NEPAD), and regional bodies such as SADC have clear visions
of the criteria for integration and the rationale behind it. The
development of regional STI programmes is high on the list of
priorities. However, several factors are hampering economic
integration, including the similar economic structure of
countries based on mineral resources and agriculture , poor
economic diversification and low levels of intraregional trade.
Nevertheless, the most formidable obstacle of all to regional
integration is probably the resistance of individual governments
to relinquishing national sovereignty.
563
Chapter 20
KEY
TARGETS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA
2015;
n Ensure that 50% of decision-making positions in the
investment in R&D;
REFERENCES
AfDB (2013) African Economic Outlook 2013. Special Thematic
Edition: Structural Transformation and Natural Resources.
African Development Bank.
564
Southern Africa
Government of Lesotho and UNDP (2014) Lesotho Millennium
Development Goals Status Report 2013.
IERI (2014) Revisiting some of the Theoretical and Policy Aspects
of Innovation and Development. IERI Working Paper 2014-1.
Institute for Economic Research on Innovation: Pretoria.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The present chapter has been informed by the valuable input
of experts and practitioners from various SADC countries and
the SADC Secretariat. Special thanks go to Anneline Morgan,
Special Technical Advisor for STI at the SADC Secretariat,
for supplying reference materials and for her constructive
suggestions.
565
Chapter 20
566
South Asia
21 . South Asia
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
INTRODUCTION
Healthy economic growth
To the outsider, the seven economies of South Asia covered
in the present chapter may appear to possess similar
characteristics and dynamics. In reality, however, they are
quite diverse. Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Nepal are lowincome economies, Bhutan, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are lower
middle-income economies and the Maldives is an upper
middle-income economy.
Three out of four South Asians are Indian. This single country
accounts for 80% of the regions GDP of US$ 2 368 trillion. As
India is the object of a separate chapter (see Chapter 22), the
12 000
Maldives 11 657
10 000
Sri Lanka 9 738
8 000
Bhutan7 405
6 801
6 000
India 5 418
5 202
4 000
Pakistan 4 602
4 065
3 481
Bangladesh 2 948
2 904
2 000
Nepal 2 245
1 723
1 520
Afghanistan 1 946
1 020
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
567
Chapter 21
Figure 21.2: FDI inflows to South Asia as a share of GDP, 20052013 (%)
20
Maldives 15.7
15
10
5
5.3
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
6
5
4
4.3
Bhutan 2.8
3
2
2.0
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.8
India 1.5
Sri Lanka 1.4
Bangladesh 1.0
Pakistan 0.6
Nepal 0.4
Afghanistan 0.3
0.0
568
South Asia
In the past decade, India has assumed responsibility for
hosting two regional bodies, the South Asian University
(Box 21.1) and the Regional Biotechnology Centre for training
and research (see p. 612). These success stories illustrate the
potential of STI for fostering regional integration. There are
also instances of bilateral co-operation in STI. For instance, an
Indo-Sri Lankan Joint Committee on Science and Technology
was set up in 2011, along with an Indo-Sri Lankan Joint
Research Programme. The first call for proposals in 2012
covered research topics in food science and technology;
applications of nuclear technology; oceanography and Earth
science; biotechnology and pharmaceuticals; materials
science; medical research, including traditional medical
systems; and spatial data infrastructure and space science.
Two bilateral workshops were held in 2013 to discuss
potential research collaboration on transdermal drug delivery
systems and clinical, diagnostic, chemotherapeutic and
entomological aspects of Leishmaniasis, a disease prevalent
in both India and Sri Lanka that is transmitted to humans
through the bite of infected sandflies.
Box 21.1: The South Asian University: shared investment, shared benefits
The South Asian University opened
its doors to students in August
2010. It plans to become a centre of
excellence with world-class facilities
and staff. It currently offers seven
PhD and masters programmes in
applied mathematics, biotechnology,
computer science, development
economics, international relations,
law and sociology.
Students come predominantly from
the eight SAARC countries and enjoy
heavily subsidized tuition fees. Some
students from non-SAARC countries
may also be admitted on a full costrecovery basis. Admission is governed
by a quota system, whereby each
member country is entitled to a
specific number of seats in each
programme of study. Every year, the
university conducts a SAARC-wide
entrance test in all the major cities
of South Asia. PhD aspirants also have
to present their thesis proposal and
undergo a personal interview.
In 2013, the university received
4133 applications for its programmes
from all eight South Asian countries,
Source: www.sau.ac.in
569
Chapter 21
Figure 21.3: Public expenditure on education in South Asia, 2008 and 2013 or closest years
6.82
5.89
4.80
4.72
4.65
3.81
3.35
3.21
2.56
2.75
2.23
1.17
0.93
0.29
0.51
0.30
2007
2009
Bangladesh
2008
2011
0.55
0.51
2011
2012
Maldives
2008
0.45
2009
Bhutan
1.90
2.06
0.21
0.37
1.72
1.26
2012
India
0.50
2010
Nepal
2008
2013
Pakistan
0.32
2009
2012
Sri Lanka
37.55
36.45
Public spending on education
as a share of GDP (%)
Public spending on higher education
as a share of GDP (%)
Higher education spending as a share
of total spending on education (%)
19.40
18.19
13.50
18.73
13.46
11.47
11.04
10.65
9.35
6.63
2007
2009
Bangladesh
2008
2011
Bhutan
2009
2012
India
2011
2012
Maldives
2008
2010
Nepal
2008
2013
Pakistan
570
2009
2012
Sri Lanka
South Asia
did the number of faculty members in public universities.
The government adopted a gender strategy in 2013 to raise
the ratio of women among students and faculty (see p. 579).
Available data for Bangladesh on tertiary enrolment show
a steep rise in PhD students in engineering between 2009
and 2011 (from 178 to 521), despite a modest government
investment. In Sri Lanka, the number of PhD students has
climbed equally rapidly in engineering but also in science
and agriculture. There is no breakdown by field of study for
Pakistan but the number of PhD students also shows rapid
growth (Tables 21.1 and 21.2). Pakistan and Sri Lanka now
have the same share of university students enrolled in PhD
programmes (1.3%) as Iran (see Figure 27.5).
ICT policies but infrastructure needs to catch up
In recent years, South Asian governments have developed
policies and programmes to foster the development and use
of information and communication technologies (ICTs). For
instance, the Digital Bangladesh programme is central to
realizing the countrys vision of becoming a middle-income
economy by 2021 (see p. 581). The World Bank and others are
partnering with governments to accelerate the movement.
Examples are the Youth Solutions! Competition for budding
entrepreneurs (Box 21.2) and Bhutans first information
technology (IT) park (see p. 584).
Table 21.1: Tertiary enrolment in Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, 2009 and 2012 or closest years
Total
Post-secondary diploma
Bachelors and
masters degrees
PhD
1 582 175
124 737
1 450 701
6 737
Bangladesh (2012)
2 008 337
164 588
1 836 659
7 090
Pakistan (2009)
1 226 004
62 227
1 148 251
15 526
Pakistan (2012)
1 816 949
92 221
1 701 726
23 002
261 647
12 551
246 352
2 744
271 389
23 046
244 621
3 722
Bangladesh (2009)
Table 21.2: University enrolment in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka by field of study, 2010 and 2012 or closest years
Science
Bachelors
and
masters
degrees
Bangladesh (2009)
223 817
Bangladesh (2012)
Engineering
PhD
Bachelors
and
masters
degrees
766
37 179
267 884
766
24 396
28 688
Agriculture
PhD
Bachelors
and
masters
degrees
178
14 134
62 359
521
250
8 989
455
14 179
Health
PhD
Bachelors
and
masters
degrees
PhD
435
23 745
1 618
21 074
445
28 106
1 618
16
4 407
56
8 261
1 891
147
3 259
683
8 638
1 891
571
Chapter 21
Figure 21.4: Internet users and mobile phone subscribers per 100 inhabitants in South Asia, 2013
181.2
Internet users
Mobile phone subscribers
95.5
76.8
74.4
70.7
72.2
70.8
70.1
44.1
29.9
21.9
15.1
5.9
Afghanistan
6.5
Bangladesh
Bhutan
572
13.3
India
Maldives
Nepal
10.9
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
South Asia
TRENDS IN R&D
Overall, R&D spending in South Asia has not kept pace with
economic growth over the past five years. The fact that
both the public and private sectors exhibit similar trends
is indicative of the broader lack of capacity and failure to
prioritize research. This is also attributable to the relatively
low levels of disposable income and commercial market
development, as well as the limited margin for manoeuvre in
government budgets when it comes to allocating funds
to R&D.
0.84
0.8
0.80
0.82
India 0.82
0.80
0.79
0.63
0.6
0.45
0.4
Nepal 0.30
Pakistan 0.29
0.33
0.26
0.2
0.11
0.17
0.05
0.0
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Note: Data are unavailable for Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives. The data for Nepal are partial and relate to Government R&D budget instead of R&D
expenditure; those for Pakistan exclude the business enterprise sector.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, June 2015
573
Chapter 21
Figure 21.6: South Asian ranking for private-sector expenditure on R&D, 20102014
4.0
3.82
3.49
3.5
3.31
3.33
Sri Lanka
3.34
3.07
Bhutan
2.92
3.25
3.19
3.0
3.00
3.00
2.96
2.61
2.57
2.5
2.43
2.47
2.79
2.69
Pakistan
2.91
Nepal
2.61
2.40
2.36
2.41
2.38
2.35
Bangladesh
2.28
2.0
2006
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Source: World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Index, accessed December 2014
574
Figure 21.7: Researchers (HC) and technicians in South Asia per million inhabitants and by gender, 2007 and 2013
or closest years
82
328
333
328
333
82
93
82
93
333
93
224
Researchers
Technicians
Researchers
Technicians
Researchers
Technicians
249
249
224
188
224
188
249
191*
124
124
191*
Pakistan
29.8
2007
2013
2013
72.7
71.2
% Men
% Women
123
2006
123
123
2010
36.9
41.5
Sri Lanka
2006
2010
58.5
63.1
188
124
191*
27.3
2007
Chapter 21
328
249
2002
249
449*
7.8
15.0
249
449*
Nepal
2002
2010
449*
2010
85.0
* partial data
92.2
2013
Total
resident
Resident
applications
per million
inhabitants
Total
non-resident
Total
resident
Resident
applications
per million
inhabitants
Total
non-resident
Bangladesh
29
0.19
270
60
0.39
243
Bhutan
3.00
India
5 314
4.53
23 626
10 669
8.62
32 362
Nepal
0.12
18
0.67
12
Pakistan
91
0.55
1 647
151
0.84
783
Sri Lanka
201
10.0
264
328
16.4
188
575
Figure
21.8:
Scientific
publication trends in South Asia, 20052014
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
Strong growth in Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan since 2009
8 000
Pakistan
6 778
7 000
6 000
5 000
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
Bangladesh
1 394
1 142
511
283
158
Nepal 455
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
50
2014
Afghanistan 44
40
30
Bhutan 36
20
Maldives 16
10
0
8
7
1
Pakistan produces the most articles related to nanotechnology per million inhabitants
Countries world rank is shown between brackets
3.0
2.5
Pakistan (74)
2.66
2.0
1.5
1.0
Nepal (85)
1.01
0.70
0.49
0.24
0.14
0.5
0.0
Bangladesh (90)
0.42
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Bangladesh
0.79
Bhutan
0.2
0.4
0.6
27.9
Nepal
16.2
Bangladesh
0.74
0
36.6
Sri Lanka
0.76
Afghanistan
45.5
Pakistan
0.81
47.0
Maldives
0.96
Pakistan
576
Bhutan
1.02
8.8
Afghanistan
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0
10
20
30
40
50
South Asia
Bangladesh
Bhutan
33
10
438
53
Pakistan
554
14
131
57
11
92 10
76
6 721
193
249
Agriculture
Mathematics
612
75
1 059
26
27
268
4 101
741
14 151
1 183 1 289
17
98
121
1 1
18 65 2 55
2 799
52
725
Psychology
12
3 571
23
Engineering
Computer science
Physics
629
587
2 863
320
10
40
Chemistry
Biological sciences
Medical sciences
11
93
180
Astronomy
642
19
511
1 341
810
22
11
204
112
12
44
Geosciences
Social sciences
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Afghanistan
USA (97)
UK (52)
Pakistan (29)
Egypt/Japan (26)
Bangladesh
USA (1394)
Japan (1218)
UK (676)
Malaysia (626)
Bhutan
USA (44)
Australia (40)
Thailand (37)
Japan (26)
India (18)
Maldives
India (14)
Italy (11)
USA (8)
Australia (6)
Sweden/Japan/UK (5)
Nepal
USA (486)
India (411)
UK (272)
Japan (256)
Pakistan
USA (3 074)
China (2 463)
UK (2 460)
Germany (1 684)
Sri Lanka
UK (548)
USA (516)
Australia (458)
India (332)
Japan (285)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix
Afghanistan
Maldives
9.7
Bangladesh
Afghanistan
6.8
Nepal
8.3
Pakistan
7.2
Sri Lanka
2
Bhutan
Nepal
Bangladesh
76.5
71.0
65.8
Pakistan
90.8
Sri Lanka
6.0
0
96.5
G20 average: 24.6%
7.6
Bhutan
97.9
10
42.3
0
20
40
60
80
100
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix; for nano-articles: statnano.com, see Figure 15.5
577
Chapter 21
Sri Lanka
114
1 688
Maldives
Nepal
5 2 6 1
578
Men
Women
Total
122 847
63 837
153 314
Afghan university student population
in 2014
100 000
20.5%
50 000
30 467
4 462
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2003 2014
19.9%
Chapter 21
7 870
National Higher
Education Strategic
Plan: 20102014
(published 2010)
Higher Education
Gender Strategy
(published 2013)
Target
Current situation
579
580
BANGLADESH
Great strides in education
The Bangladesh Education Sector Review 2013
commissioned by the World Bank recognizes significant
achievements in primary education since 2010. Net enrolment
rates have risen steadily, attaining 97.3% in 2013. Over the
same period, the completion rate at primary level rose from
60.2% to 78.6%. Gender parity at both primary and secondary
levels has been achieved well ahead of the MDG target set
for 2015. The percentage of girls attending school has even
surpassed that of boys in recent years.
The quality of education has also improved: according to the
Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics,
class sizes in secondary schools reportedly shrank from 72 to
44 pupils per class between 2010 and 2013. Repetition rates at
primary school level dropped from 12.6% to 6.9% over the same
period, with a parallel improvement in the pass rate for
the Secondary School Certificate examination and the closing
of the gender gap for this indicator. By mid-2014, over
9 000 primary school classrooms had been built or rehabilitated,
with the installation of water and sanitary facilities.
Among the drivers of this positive change, the Education for All
2015 National Review identifies the conditional cash transfer to
children from poor families at primary level and to rural girls at
secondary level; the use of ICTs in education; and the distribution
of free textbooks to schools, which can also be downloaded free
of charge from the governments e-book website.4
Among the remaining challenges identified by the Education
Sector Review (2013), about five million children are still not
attending school and the rate of progression from primary
to secondary school (60.6% in 2013) has not improved. The
review estimates that education plans should target the
hardest-to-reach populations. It also pinpoints the need for
a substantial rise in budgetary allocations to secondary and
higher education. In 2009, the last year for which data are
available, just 13.5% of the education budget went to higher
education, representing 0.3% of GDP (Figure 21.3).
Despite low levels of funding, enrolment in bachelors and
masters degrees rose from 1.45 million to 1.84 million between
2009 and 2012, with particularly strong growth in S&T fields.
Growth was most impressive in engineering (+68%), where
enrolment in PhD programmes almost tripled between 2009
and 2012 (Table 21.2). This augurs well for the governments
strategy of fostering industrialization and economic
diversification. Some 20% of university students are enrolled
in a masters programme, one of the highest ratios in Asia, but
only 0.4% enrol in a PhD programme (see Figure 27.5).
4. See: www.ebook.gov.bd
South Asia
ICTs at heart of education policies
After several unsuccessful attempts, the first formal National
Education Policy was adopted in 2010. Key strategies include
providing one year of pre-primary schooling for all children;
extending compulsory primary education from Grade 5 to
Grade 8 by 2018; expanding vocational/technical training
and curricula; making all pupils ICT-literate by the completion
of primary school; and updating the syllabuses of higher
education to meet international standards.
The Master Plan for ICT in Education for 2012 2021 sets out to
generalize the use of ICTs in education. ICTs were introduced in
2013 as a compulsory subject for higher secondary school pupils
intending to sit public examinations in 2015. According to the
Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics, the
share of secondary schools with computer facilities rose from
59% to 79% between 2010 and 2013 and the percentage of
secondary schools with internet shot up from 18% to 63%.
Science and ICTs for middle-income status by 2021
The Perspective Plan of Bangladesh to 2021 was finalized in
2012 to operationalize the countrys blueprint for becoming
a middle-income economy by 2021, Vision 2021; one thrust
of the Perspective Plan is to improve the quality of education,
with an emphasis on science and technology. Curricula are to
be upgraded and the teaching of mathematics, science and
information technology encouraged. An innovative people will
technology;
n raise GERD significantly from the current level of 0.6% of GDP;
n increase productivity in all spheres of the economy, including
581
Chapter 21
18.2
Maldives
17.1
India
16.3
Bhutan
24.0
Bangladesh
Afghanistan
21.2
56.1
27.6
38.3
17.3
44.6
57.0
4.2
12.1
9.0
24.8
73.3
12.9
22.5
7.1
human resources;
Sri Lanka
49.2
35.1
Pakistan
Nepal
25.1
53.8
10.8
Agriculture
15.7 6.6
56.8
Services
21.1
32.5
Industry
14.0
17.7
Manufacturing
(subset of industry)
582
been funded;
South Asia
Revamping industry
Although Bangladeshs economy is based predominantly on
agriculture (16% of GDP in 2013), industry contributes more
to the economy (28% of GDP), largely through manufacturing
(Figure 21.10). The National Industrial Policy (2010) sets out to
develop labour-intensive industries. By 2021, the proportion
of workers employed in industry is expected to double to 25%.
The policy identifies 32 sectors with high-growth potential.
These include established export industries such as the readymade garment sector, emerging export industries such as
pharmaceutical products and SMEs.
Chapter 21
BHUTAN
Happiness in times of social change
The Kingdom of Bhutans approach to all
aspects of national development is guided by its focus
on the overarching concept of gross national happiness.
This concept is encapsulated in Bhutan 2020: A Vision for
Peace, Prosperity and Happiness, the countrys development
blueprint since 1999. Bhutan 2020 identifies five principal
development objectives: human development; culture and
heritage; balanced and equitable development; governance;
and environmental conservation.
The Bhutanese have the third-highest level of income in
South Asia after the Maldives and Sri Lanka. Per-capita GDP
rose steadily between 2010 and 2013 (Figure 21.1). Over the
past decade, the traditional, mainly agricultural economy has
become more industrialized (Figure 21.10). As the contribution
from other sectors has risen, the role of agriculture has
declined.
Traditionally, Bhutanese women have held a relatively elevated
position in society; they tend to have greater property rights
than elsewhere in South Asia, with women rather than men
inheriting property in some areas. Industrial development over
the past decade appears to have had a negative impact on the
traditional place of women in society and their participation
in the labour force. The employment gap had been narrowing
since 2010 but started widening again in 2013, by which time
72% of men were in gainful employment, compared to 59% of
women, according to the National Labour Force Survey Report
(2013). The unemployment rate nevertheless remains low, at
just 2.1% of the population in 2012.
A focus on the green economy and IT
Bhutans private sector has thus far played a limited role in the
economy. The government plans to change this by improving
the investment climate through policy and institutional
reform and by developing the IT sector, in particular. In 2010,
583
industries;
n Promotion of cultural and spiritually sensitive industries;
n Investment in services which promote Brand Bhutan; and
n Creation of a knowledge society.
584
South Asia
many may be opting for vocational training at this stage of
their education. The National Human Resource Development
Policy (2010) announced that vocational education would be
introduced in schools from Grades 6 to 10 and that public
private partnerships would be put in place to improve the
quality of training at vocational and technical institutes.
A national council proposed to frame research
The Tertiary Education Policy (2010) fixed the target of raising
university enrolment from 19% to 33% of 19 year-olds by
2017. The policy observed that mechanisms needed putting
in place to measure the level of research activity in Bhutan
and recommended an initial scoping exercise. The policy
identified the following challenges for research:
REPUBLIC OF MALDIVES
Special circumstances call for sustainable
solutions
The Republic of Maldives remains heavily reliant on fossil
fuels, despite the obvious advantages of local energy
generation for the archipelago. A number of initiatives have
been taken to promote the uptake of solar and winddiesel
hybrid systems for electricity generation, which are financially
feasible (Van Alphen et al., 2008). A study by the Republic of
Maldives (2007a) identified a number of constraints, including
deficient regulatory frameworks which weaken public
private partnerships and limited technical and managerial
capacities in energy transmission and distribution. Similar
conclusions can be drawn for the transportation sector, which
585
Chapter 21
NEPAL
Moderate growth, falling poverty
Despite its prolonged political transition since
the end of the civil war in 2006, Nepal has registered a
moderate rate of growth averaging 4.5% over 20082013, as
compared to the low-income country average of 5.8%. Nepal
was hardly affected by the global financial crisis of 20082009,
as it remains poorly integrated in global markets. Exports of
goods and services as a share of GDP nevertheless fell from
23% to 11% between 2000 and 2013. Contrary to what one
would expect from a country at Nepals stage of development,
the share of manufacturing has also gone down slightly in the
five years to 2013, to just 6.6% of GDP (Figure 21.10).
The country is on track to reach a number of MDGs,
particularly those in relation to the eradication of extreme
poverty and hunger, health, water and sanitation (ADB, 2013).
Nepal will need to do much more, though, to reach the MDGs
relating to employment, adult literacy, tertiary education
or gender parity in employment, which are more germane
to science and technology. The country has some key
advantages, notably high remittances from abroad 20.2%
of GDP between 2005 and 2012 and the countrys proximity
to high-growth emerging market economies such as China
and India. Nepal lacks an effective growth strategy, though, to
harness these advantages to accelerated development. The
Asian Development Banks Macroeconomic Update of Nepal
underlined in February 2015 the deficient investment in R&D
and innovation by the private sector as being key constraints
to supply capacity and competitiveness.
2013
586
2011
27 473
385 454
28 570
477 077
Science, technology and engineering
All fields
South Asia
sciences would help the country to absorb and apply
knowledge and inventions produced abroad. The exact
balance of policy focus in this area is a difficult call to make
in the absence of a more in-depth review of Nepals
innovation constraints and options. Moreover, whereas
the UNESCO Science Report 2010 and national studies (such
as NAST, 2010) have advocated a greater focus on basic
research in Nepal, some of the countrys more recent policy
pronouncements establish the priority of learning in applied
science and technology over pure science; this is the case,
for example, of the declared objectives of the planned
Nanotechnology Research Centre (Government of Nepal,
2013a).
technicians;
Potential to attract more the diaspora
The UNESCO Science Report 2010 had noted the low number
of PhD students in Nepal and the modest level of scientific
production. In 2013, there were still only 14 PhD degrees
awarded in Nepal.
At the same time, Nepal has a relatively large tertiary student
population abroad, numbering 29 184 in 2012. That year,
the Nepalese represented the eighth-largest foreign student
population in natural and social sciences and engineering
disciplines in the USA7 and the sixt- largest in Japan,
according to the National Science Foundations Science
& Engineering Indicators, 2014. Between 2007 and 2013,
569 Nepalese nationals earned PhDs in the USA. Likewise,
there are sizeable Nepalese tertiary student communities in
Australia, India, the UK and Finland8. There is a potential to
harness this expatriate talent for the development of Nepals
future S&T potential, provided the right circumstances and
momentum can be provided to woo them back home.
6. although there was a break in the data series between 2002 and 2010
7. after China, the Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, India, Canada, Viet Nam and
Malaysia
8. www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/international-student-flow-viz.aspx
587
Chapter 21
public sector;
n Energy, water and food security;
n Private sector-led growth and entrepreneurship;
n Developing a competitive knowledge economy through
regional connectivity.
9. according to the Institute for Conflict Management, South Asia Terrorism Portal;
see: www.satp.org/satporgtp/icm/index.html.
588
Within this vision, the first and sixth pillars are directly relevant
to the STI sector, whereas the overall global competitiveness
of the country will depend on innovation in certain
competitive sectors. Moreover, government-led infrastructure
projects being planned as part of this vision include the
construction of a highway linking Lahore and Karachi, the
Peshawar Northern Bypass, Gawadar Airport and the Gawadar
Free Economic Zone.
The government plans to reconfigure the current energy mix to
overcome power shortages. About 70% of energy is generated
using furnace oil, which is costly and has to be imported. The
government plans to convert furnace oil plants to coal and is
investing in several renewable energy projects, which are one
of the priorities of Vision 2025.
Energy is one focus of the new PakistanChina Economic
Corridor Programme. During the Chinese presidents April 2015
visit to Pakistan, 51 memoranda of understanding were signed
between the two governments for a total of
US$ 28 billion, much of it in the form of loans. Key projects
within this programme include developing clean coal-based
power plants, hydropower and wind power, a joint cotton
biotech laboratory to be run by the two ministries of science
and technology, mass urban transportation and a wide-ranging
partnership between the National University of Modern
Languages in Islamabad and Xinjiang Normal University in
Urumqi. The programme takes its name from the planned
corridor that is to link the Pakistani port of Gwadar on the Sea
of Oman to Kashgar in western China near the Pakistani border,
through the construction of roads, railway lines and pipelines.
In January 2015, the government announced two policies to
facilitate the deployment of solar panels across the country,
including the removal of taxes on imports and sales of solar
panels. After these taxes were introduced in 2013, the volume
of solar panel imports had shrunk from 350 MW to 128 MW.
Through the second policy, the State Bank of Pakistan and the
Alternative Energy Development Board will allow home-owners
to leverage their mortgage to pay for the installation of solar
panels for a value of up to five million rupees (circa US$50000),
with comparatively low interest rates (Clover, 2015).
Pakistans first STI policy
Among the most critical determinants for the success of any
countrys STI sector are the institutional and policy systems
responsible for managing relevant public policies. The
Federal Ministry of Science and Technology has overseen the
S&T sector since 1972. However, it was not until 2012 that
Pakistans first National Science, Technology and Innovation
Policy was formulated: this was also the first time that the
government had formally recognized innovation as being
a long-term strategy for driving economic growth. The
policy principally emphasizes the need for human resource
South Asia
development, endogenous technology development,
technology transfer and greater international co-operation in
R&D. However, it is not clear whether any part of the policy has
been implemented since its release.
The policy was informed by the technology foresight exercise
undertaken by the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology
from 2009 onwards. By 2014, studies had been completed
in 11 areas: agriculture, energy, ICTs, education, industry,
environment, health, biotechnology, water, nanotechnology
and electronics. Further foresight studies are planned on
pharmaceuticals, microbiology, space technology, public
health (see a related story in Box 21.6), sewage and sanitation,
as well as higher education.
589
Chapter 21
Table 21.4: Researchers (FTE) in Pakistans public sector by employer, 2011 and 2013
Government
Women (%)
Higher education
Women (%)
Share of total
researchers working
in government (%)
Share of total
researchers working
in higher education (%)
2011
9 046
12.2
17 177
29.6
34.5
65.5
2013
8 183
9.0
22 061
39.5
27.1
72.9
Note: Data for Pakistan exclude the business enterprise sector. FTE refers to full-time equivalents.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, June 2015
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
0
10
20
30
40
Billions of Pakistani rupees
590
50
60
South Asia
the 2006-2007 peak of 0.33% to 0.19% in 20112012. In the
interests of Vision 2025s stated goal of building a knowledge
economy, Pakistans public policy apparatus will need to
undertake a fundamental reprioritization of development
spending, such as by giving itself the means to reach the
target of devoting 1% of GDP to higher education.
22
2005
53
2009
57
57
70
2013
66
2014
69
0
Private
Public
37
87
87
50
100
150
Number of degree awarding instituitions
200
SRI LANKA
Strong growth since conflicts end
Mahinda Chintana: Vision for the Future
2020 (2010) is the overarching policy setting Sri Lankas
development goals to 2020; it aims to turn Sri Lanka into a
knowledge economy and one of South Asias knowledge
hubs. The newfound political stability since the end of the
prolonged civil war in 2009 has spawned a building boom
since 2010, with the government investing in strategic
development projects to build or expand motorways, airports,
seaports, clean coal plants and hydropower. These projects
are designed to turn Sri Lanka into a commercial hub, naval/
maritime hub, aviation hub, energy hub and tourism hub. The
Strategic Investment Projects Act of 2008 (amended in 2011
and 2013) was introduced to provide a tax-free period for the
implementation of strategic development projects.
In order to attract FDI and technology transfer, the
government has signed a series of agreements with foreign
governments, including those of China, Thailand and the
Russian Federation. Within an agreement signed in 2013,
for instance, the Russian State Atomic Energy Corporation
(ROSATOM) is assisting Sri Lankas Atomic Energy Authority
in developing nuclear energy infrastructure and a nuclear
research centre, as well as providing training for workers. In
2014, the government signed an agreement with China for
the expansion of the Port of Colombo and the development
of infrastructure (port, airport and motorway) in Hambantota,
which the government plans to turn into Sri Lankas second
urban hub after the capital. The agreement with China also
covers technical co-operation on the Norochcholai Coal
Power Project.
Between 2010 and 2013, GDP increased by 7.5% per year on
average, up from 3.5% in 2009. In parallel, GDP per capita
grew by 60% from US$2 057 to US$ 3 280 between 2009 and
2013. Although Sri Lankas rank in the knowledge economy
index dropped from 4.25 to 3.63 between 1999 and 2012, it
remains higher than for all other South Asian countries.
591
Chapter 21
592
19.5
49.2
2008
Private
non-profit
31.3
0.2
Higher
education
27.1
31.7
2010
Government
41.0
South Asia
programmes recognize the graduates of other signatory
bodies as having met the academic requirements for entry
into the engineering profession. This recognition offers future
Sri Lankan and Indian engineers easy mobility throughout the
signatory countries.11
n Shelter;
n Energy;
n Textile industry;
n Environment;
n Mineral resources;
n Software industry and knowledge services;
ecosystem;
11. Among the other signatories are Australia, Canada, Ireland, Japan, Rep. Korea,
Malaysia, New Zealand, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Turkey, the UK and USA.
See: www.iesl.lk
knowledge.
Nanotechnology a priority
Development of the industrial sector has accelerated since
the Cabinet approved12 the National Biotechnology Policy in
2010 and the National Nanotechnology Policy in 2012.
Nanotechnology got its first institutional boost in 2006
with the launch of the National Nanotechnology Initiative.
Two years later, the government established the Sri Lanka
Institute of Nanotechnology (SLINTEC) in an unprecedented
joint venture with the private sector (Box 21.7). In 2013, the
Nanotechnology and SciencePark opened, along with the
Nanotechnology Centre of Excellence, which provides high
quality infrastructure for nanotechnology research. In 2013,
Sri Lanka ranked 83rd for the number of nano-articles in the
Web of Science per million inhabitants (Figure 21.8). It trails
Pakistan (74th), India (65th) and Iran (27th) for this indicator
(for India and Iran, see Figure 15.5).
12. A third sectorial policy on human genetic material and data was still in draft
form at the time of writing in mid-2015.
593
Box 21.7: Developing smart industry through the Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology
The Sri Lanka Institute of
Nanotechnology (SLINTEC) was
established in 2008 as in a joint
venture between the National
Science Foundation and Sri Lankan
corporate giants that include
Brandix, Dialog, Hayleys and
Loadstar. Its aims are to:
n build anational innovation
platformfor technology-based
economic development by
helping to raise the proportion of
high-tech exports from 1.5% to
10% of total exports by 2015 and
through the commercialization
ofnanotechnology;
n deepen collaboration between
594
performance tyres;
n Apparel and textile: high-end fabrics,
nanotechnology-based external
medical sensor with a view to
enabling remote health monitoring,
detergents, cosmetics, etc.;
n Nano-materials: ilmenite, clay,
Source: http://slintec.lk
South Asia
Smart Sri Lanka reposes on six programmatic strategies to
achieve its goal:
n ICT policy, leadership and institutional development;
n Information infrastructure;
n Re-engineering government;
n ICT human resource development;
n ICT investment and private sector development; and
n The e-society.
CONCLUSION
A need to blend local and external capacity
There have been some significant improvements in education
since 2010 in South Asia, along with more modest progress
in developing national innovation systems. In both areas, low
levels of public funding have been an obstacle to development
but, in the case of education, government efforts have been
supplemented by projects funded by international donor
agencies. Despite gains in net primary school enrolment,
uptake to secondary-level education enrolment nevertheless
remains relatively low: the most populous countries,
Bangladesh and Pakistan, have reported levels of only 61%
(2013) and 36% (2012) respectively.
Universal primary and secondary education is only the first step
towards developing the requisite professional and technical skills
that countries will need to realize their ambition of becoming
a knowledge economy (Pakistan and Sri Lanka) or middleincome country (Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal) within the next
decade. Building an educated labour force will be a prerequisite
for developing the high-value-added industries needed to
undertake the desired industrial diversification. Education
planning will need to include investment in infrastructure,
programmes to improve teaching skills and the development of
curricula that match skills with employment opportunities.
13. See: www.nenasala.lk
595
Chapter 21
in Bhutan;
1% of GDP by 2018;
n Increase expenditure on higher education to at least
REFERENCES
596
South Asia
MoHE (2012) Sri Lanka Qualifications Framework. Ministry of
Higher Education of Sri Lanka: Colombo.
MoTR (2011) Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy.
Ministry of Technology and Research of Sri Lanka: Colombo.
MoLHR (2013) 11th National Labour Force Survey Report 2013.
Department of Employment, Ministry of Labour and Human
Resources of Bhutan: Thimpu.
NAST (2010) Capacity Building and Management of Science,
Technology and Innovation Policies in Nepal. Final Report.
Prepared for UNESCO by Nepal Academy of Science and
Technology.
Chapter 21
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Prof. Hari Sharma, Director of the
Alliance for Social Dialogue in Nepal, for his insights into STI
development of Nepal, and Prof. Sirimali Fernando, CEO of the
Coordinating Secretariat for Science, Technology and Innovation
in Sri Lanka, for sharing information on current dynamics related
to the implementation STI strategies in Sri Lanka.
They would also like to thank Drs Atta ur Rahman and
Mukhtar Ahmed, respectively former and current Chairs of
the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, for providing
valuable insights into the reform of higher education in
Pakistan. Thanks go also to Mr Mustafa Naseem at the
Information Technology University Punjab for his assistance in
preparing the case study on dengue fever.
The authors also take this opportunity to thank the Afghan
Ministry of Higher Education and Ahmad Zia Ahmadi from
the UNESCO Kabul office for supplying the information and
data on the status of higher education reform in Afghanistan.
Thanks go also to the editor of the present report, Susan
Schneegans, for her role in developing the country profile of
Afghanistan.
597
598
India
22 . India
Sunil Mani
INTRODUCTION
Jobless growth: an emerging concern
For the first time in its history, Indias economy grew at around
9% per annum between 2005 and 2007. Ever since, GDP has
been progressing at a much slower pace of around 5%, primarily
as a corollary of the global financial crisis in 2008, even though it
did bounce back briefly between 2009 and 2011 (Table 22.1).
Table 22.1: Positive and disquieting features of Indias socio-economic performance, 20062013
2006
2008
2010
2012
2013
9.3
3.9
10.3
4.7
4.7
33.5
36.8
33.7
31.3
30.1
34.7
38.1
36.5
35.5
34.8
37.20-1
21.9
64.9
-1
24.7-1
8.90
34.72
33.11
32.96
30.76+1
5.87
18.84
15.14
11.10
9.20+1
15.4
17.1
17.5
18.1
8.35
11.99
9.31
10.91
35.7
0.22
6.15
33.4
0.20
0.12
599
Chapter 22
4. See Box 21.1 for details of the South Asian University, a SAARC project.
3. The low level of job creation may be explained by the fact that the services
sector is dominated by retail and wholesale trade (23%), followed by real estate,
public administration and defence (about 12% each) and construction services
(about 11%). See Mukherjee (2013).
600
5. Each of the five BRICS contributes an equal financial share to the bank, which is
to be endowed with initial capital of US$ 100 billion. The bank is headquartered
in Shanghai (China), with India holding the presidency and a regional antenna in
South Africa.
0.76
50 691
46 106
45 961
41 983
38 967
24 703
27 785
32 610
37 228
6.4%
2006
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
38 429
36 263
16 296
11 207
241
697
Ps
yc
ho
lo
gy
So
cia
ls
cie
nc
es
Ph
ys
ics
in
g
Ge
os
cie
nc
es
M
at
he
m
at
ics
M
ed
ica
ls
cie
nc
Ot
es
he
rl
ife
sc
ie
nc
es
er
ne
gi
En
sc
er
pu
t
Co
m
Ch
em
ist
ry
ie
nc
e
246
As
tro
no
Bi
m
ol
y
og
ica
ls
cie
nc
es
tu
re
ul
Ag
ric
6 764
4 996
3 037
India
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Germany (8 540)
UK (7 847)
France (5 859)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix
601
Chapter 22
21.3%
2014
602
India
(excluding individuals) went to private enterprises in 2013.
As a corollary of this trend, research councils are playing a
smaller role than before in industrial R&D.
Innovation is dominated by just nine industries
More than half of business R&D expenditure is distributed
across just three industries: pharmaceuticals, automotive and
IT (Figure 22.3) [DST, 2013]. This implies that the subsidies
have not really helped to spread an innovation9 culture across
a wider spectrum of manufacturing industries. The subsidies
simply seem to have enabled R&D-intensive industries like
pharmaceuticals to commit even more resources than before
to R&D. The government would do well to commission a
serious study into the effectiveness of these tax incentives. It
should also envisage the idea of providing the business sector
with grants to encourage it to develop specific technologies.
9. The consultations evoked in the UNESCO Science Report 2010 (p. 366) did not give
rise to a national innovation act, as the draft bill was never presented to parliament.
35.5
34.2
34.8
Automotive: 13.98
35.5
32.78
30
29.2
25
Pharmaceuticals: 27.72
37.5
35
30.9
30.63
30.34
28.3
28.86
29.54
25.04
20
15
Information
technology:
9.53
10
6.87
5
4.16
2.72
2.6
5.94
5.96
2010
2011
3.86
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Private
Public
Electrical and
electronics:
3.66
Defence industries:
8.63
Chemicals:
5.00
Biotechnology:
3.80
Agriculture and
agricultural
machinery: 8.61
Industrial
machinery: 5.07
603
Chapter 22
Patents granted
(% of total)
Value-added
manufacturing
(% of total)
FDI (% of total)
Maharashtra
Mumbai, Pune
11
31
20
39
Gujarat
Ahmedabad, Vadodara,
Surat
12
13
Tamil Nadu
Chennai, Coimbatore,
Madurai
13
10
13
Andhra Pradesh*
Hyderabad, Vijayawada,
Visakhapatnam
Karnataka
Bangalore, Mysore
11
Delhi
Delhi
11
14
46
80
58
78
State
Major cities
Note: Andhra Pradesh was divided into two states, Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh, on 2 June 2014. Located entirely within the borders of Telangana,
Hyderabad is to serve as the joint capital for both states for up to 10 years.
Source: Central Statistical Organization; DST (2013); Department of Industrial
Policy and Performance
604
2 500
Total patents
High technology patents
1 234
1 098
2005
634
546
2008
2009
316
380
481
384
187
2004
516
2003
476
2001
235
363
342
178
1999
1997
98
125
53
26
47
205
500
2006
679
866
1 000
1 033
1 500
1 365
1 691
2 000
2007
2010
2011
2012
2013
Chapter 22
Share (%)
Domestic
Multinational
companies
Total
Domestic
Multinational
companies
2008
17
97
114
14.91
85.09
2009
21
129
150
14.00
86.00
2010
51
245
296
17.23
82.77
2011
38
352
390
9.74
90.26
2012
54
461
515
10.49
89.51
2013
100
1 268
1368
7.30
92.71
67
60
50
44
21
1997
1999
2001
2003
35
35
2004
2005
44
57
44
28
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Pharmaceuticals
Share %
IT
31.91
11.54
1997
8.99
1999
2001
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
605
Figure 22.5: Receipts, payments and net trade balance in the use of IPRs in India, 20002014
3 500
3 208
3 000
2 500
2 000
1 500
US$ millions
1 000
500
0
-500
311
281
54
-257
-1 000
-1 500
-2 000
Payments
-2 500
Receipts
-3 000
-4 000
-3 400
-3 500
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
606
From
China to the
USA
Total US
exports from
India & China
India
China
2006
427
92
9 276
4.60
0.99
2007
923
473
13 032
7.08
3.63
2008
1 494
585
16 322
9.15
3.58
2009
1 356
765
16 641
8.15
4.60
2010
1 625
955
18 927
8.59
5.05
2011
2 109
1 287
22 360
9.43
5.76
Note: This table lists only those R&D services exported from India and China by
the affiliates of US multinational companies to their parent company in the USA
Source: National Science Board (2014)
India
There are seven characteristics which typify frugal
innovation:
28.92
2010
29.4
28.24
2009
2008
16.24
2007
15.92
2004
2003
2002
formal R&D;
8.51
10.27
7.64
8.93
Share of foreign companies (%)
India has not only become a hub for frugal creations; it is also
codifying them then exporting them to the West.
Despite the overwhelming popularity of frugal innovation,
innovation policies in India do not explicitly encourage
frugal innovation. This oversight needs addressing. Nor is the
phenomenon sufficiently documented. Radjou et al. (2012)
have nevertheless managed to identify a series of goods
and services which qualify as frugal innovation. These are
summarized in Box 22.1 and Table 22.4.
607
Chapter 22
2001
12.99
2005
11.39
2006
INNOVATION
COMPANY
INVOLVED IN
DEVELOPMENT
DIFFUSION
GOODS
MICRO-PASSENGER CAR, THE TATA NANO
This product has a virtual monopoly in its niche market. The
original Nano cost about US$ 2 000.
Tata
VNL Limited
General Electric
Healthcare
Godrej, an Indian
company
Vortex, an Indian
company, and the
Indian Institute
of Technology
Madras
First Energy, an
Indian company
Life Spring
Eko
SERVICES
608
India
TRENDS IN GOVERNMENT RESEARCH
The government sector is the main employer of scientists
If you take a group of 100 researchers in India, 46 will work
for the government, 39 for industry, 11 for academia and
4 for the private non-profit sector. This makes the government
the main employer. The government sector also spends the
majority of the R&D budget (60%), compared to 35% for
industry and just 4% for universities.
Indian Council
of Agricultural
Research: 10.75
Council of Scientific
and Industrial
Research: 9.95
Ministry of
New and
Renewable
Energy: 0.10
Ministry of
Communication
and
Technology:
1.22
Department of Science
and Technology: 8.30
Department of
Biotechnology: 2.71
Indian Council of Medical Research: 2.18
Ministry of Earth Sciences: 1.67
Ministry of Environment and Forests: 1.55
12. See the UNESCO Science Report 2010 for the complete 2006 data (p. 371).
In order to improve its profile, the CSIR has put in place three
broad strategies since 2010. The first consists in combining the
skill sets in a range of its laboratories to create networks for the
execution of a specific project. The second strategy consists in
setting up a series of innovation complexes to foster interaction
with micro-enterprises and SMEs, in particular. So far, three
13. This programme is one of four executed by the Centre for Technology
Commercialization, which was set up by FICCI in 2006. For details, see:
https://thecenterforinnovation.org/techcomm-goes-global
14. These figures are based on an answer to question no. 998 in the upper house of
Indias parliament, the Rajya Sabha, on 17 July 2014.
11. India has the worlds 3rd-biggest armed forces and is the 10th-biggest spender
on defence. The defence budget represented 2.4% of GDP in 2013, compared to
2.9% in 2009, according to the World Bank.
609
Chapter 22
610
India
of clumps;
n
the transplanting of seedlings at a
9.99
Average annual growth in yield for key food crops in India, 19802014 (%)
19801981 to 19891990
19901991 to 19992000
93
80
20002001 to 20132014
Rate %
4.1
40
2.31
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
-15.5
2005
-20
2004
Cotton
0.61
0
2003
-0.41
Nine
oilseeds
2002
2.43
Sugar
cane
1.15
0.75
1.24
1.05
1.29
Wheat
20
2001
Rice
1.83
3.1
3.19
1.34
1.82
Growth rate %
60
Note: The diffusion rate for Bt cotton resembles the familiar S-shaped pattern
noted by many observers of the rate of diffusion of new technologies.
Source: Based on Table 8.3, Ministry of Finance (2014) Economic Survey 20132014
611
Chapter 22
34.15
30
25
20
15
10
7.25
20132014
20122013
20112012
20102011
20092010
20082009
20072008
20062007
20052006
20042005
612
17. India procures about 70% of its equipment needs abroad. The government
adopted a defence procurement policy in 2013 which gives preference to
indigenous production by Indian firms or within joint ventures.
18. For more on Indias space programme, see the box entitled A Space Odyssey in
the UNESCO Science Report 2010, p. 367.
India
US $ millions
9 000
6 000
4 151.32
3 000
Chapter 22
805.15
53.29
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Source: Compiled from UN Comtrade database and World Banks World Development Indicators
19. See Ramani et al. (2014) for a survey of nanotechnology development in India.
20. The Nano Mission has so far produced 4476 papers published in SCI journals,
about 800 PhDs, 546 M.Tech and 92 MSc degrees (DST, 2014, p. 211). See also:
http://nanomission.gov.in and, for the top 30 worldwide for the volume of
nano-related articles in 2014, Figure 15.5
613
Figure 22.11: Green energy technology patents granted to Indian inventors, 19972012
50
Total green technology patents
46
40
Solar
30
28
20
13
10
1997
1999
2001
2003
2004
614
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
India
TRENDS IN HUMAN RESOURCES
The private sector is hiring more researchers
If the number of R&D personnel23 in India increased annually
by 2.43% between 2005 and 2010, this was entirely due to
the 7.83 % increase each year in R&D personnel working for
private companies. Over the same period, the number of
government employees engaged in R&D actually declined,
even though the government remains the largest employer of
R&D personnel (Figure 22.12). This trend further substantiates
the claim that Indias national innovation system is becoming
increasingly business-oriented.
23. The term R&D personnel encompasses researchers, technicians and support staff.
Figure 22.12: Indian FTE researchers by sector of employment and gender, 2005 and 2010
Men
226 218
Women
2010
Men
19 227
Women
22 100
2 873
Men
129 379
Women
269 198
Chapter 22
42 980
20 449
149 828
Men
374 824
Women
66 302
441 126
50
100
Men
2005
Women
47 883
22 100
250
300
350
281 800
Men
Women
200
233 917
Women
Men
150
74 082
13 167
87 249
Men
330 099
Women
61 050
Government
391 149
Higher education
Totals
615
Men
2011/2012
767 845
389 431
Women
Men
414 201
Women
188 720
602 921
1 370 766
792 615
Men
578 151
Women
50
Science
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
Total
616
650
700
750
800
India
617
Chapter 22
618
REFERENCES
Brinton, T. J. et al. (2013) Outcomes from a postgraduate
biomedical technology innovation training program: the
first 12 years of Stanford Bio Design. Annals of Biomedical
Engineering, 41(9): pp. 1 8031 810.
Committee on Agriculture (2012) Cultivation of Genetically
Modified Food Crops: Prospects and Effects. Lok Sabha
Secretariat: New Delhi.
DHE (2014) Annual Report 20132014. Department of Higher
Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development:
New Delhi.
DHE (2012) Annual Report 20112012. Department of Higher
Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development:
New Delhi.
DST (2014) Annual Report 20132014. Department of Science
and Technology: New Delhi.
India
DST (2013) Research and Development Statistics 20112012.
National Science and Technology Information
Management System. Department of Science and
Technology: New Delhi.
DST (2009) Research and Development Statistics 20072008.
National Science and Technology Information
Management System. Department of Science and
Technology: New Delhi.
Gruere, G. and Y. Sun (2012) Measuring the Contribution of Bt
Cotton Adoption to Indias Cotton Yields Leap. International
Food Policy Research Institute Discussion Paper 01170.
Heller, K. Emont, J. and L. Swamy (2015) Indias green bond:
a bright example of innovative clean energy financing.
US Natural Resources Defense Council. Switchboard, staff
blog of Ansali Jaiswal, 8 January.
619
Chapter 22
620
23 . China
China
Cong Cao
INTRODUCTION
The new normal
Chinas socio-economic situation has evolved since 20091 in
a climate of uncertainty caused first by the global financial
crisis of 20082009 then by the domestic transtion in political
leadership in 2012. In the immediate aftermath of the US
subprime mortgage crisis in 2008, the Chinese government took
swift action to limit the shockwaves by injecting RMB4 trillion
(US$576 billion) into the economy. Much of this investment
targeted infrustructure projects such as airports, motorways
and railroads. Combined with rapid urbanization, this spending
spree on infrastructure drove up the production of steel,
cement, glass and other building-block industries, prompting
concern at the potential for a hard landing. The construction
boom further damaged Chinas environment. For example,
outdoor air pollution alone contributed to 1.2 million premature
deaths in China in 2010, nearly 40% of the world total (Lozano
et al., 2012). When China hosted the AsiaPacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC) summit in mid-November 2014, factories,
offices and schools in Beijing and surrounding areas were all
closed for several days to ensure blue skies over the capital for
the duration of the summit.
621
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1: Trends in GDP per capita and GDP growth in China, 20032014
12 609
12 000
GDP per capita in constant 2011 PPP $
GDP growth rate
16.0
14.2
11 290
11 000
14.0
12.7
12.0
10.0
10.1
10.5
11.3
9 000
9.2
10.0
9 080
9.6
9.3
8 274
8 000
9 862
8.0
7.7
7 624
7 000
7.7
7.4
6.0
6 997
4.0
6 167
6 000
10 550
10 000
5 506
2.0
5 000
4 976
4 547
0.0
4 000
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
622
China
TRENDS IN R&D
Source: www.chinabusinessreview.com
623
Chapter 23
Figure 23.2: Chinese GERD/GDP ratio and BERD/GDP ratio, 20032014 (%)
2.5
GERD/GDP
BERD/GDP ratio
2.09
2.08
2.0
1.98
1.84
1.70
1.76
1.59
GERD/GDP (%)
1.5
1.47
1.32
1.39
1.47
1.40
1.36
1.23
1.22
1.13
1.0
0.89
0.96
0.98
1.26
1.05
0.81
0.68
0.5
0.0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Source: National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (various years) China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology
100
102.98
86.87
80
70.63
60
58.02
46.16
40
37.10
30.03
24.50
20
19.66
15.40
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Source: National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (various years) China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology
624
2013
China
Figure 23.4: GERD in China by type of research, 2004, 2008 and 2013 (%)
6.0
4.8
4.7
12.5
20.4
2004
2008
73.7
2013
82.8
Basic research
10.7
84.6
Applied research
Experimental development
Source: National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (various years) China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
1 095
1 153
1 365
1 503
1 736
1 965
2 291
2 554
2 883
3 247
3 533
847
887
1 044
1 143
1 314
1 480
1 717
1 905
2 140
2 398
2 596
651
820
979
1 105
1 195
1 283
1 405
1 538
1 646
1 720
1 794
504
631
749
841
904
966
1 053
1 147
1 222
1 270
1 318
11.09
13.33
15.62
17.39
18.85
20.21
21.45
22.32
23.08
23.91
24.68
8 582
10 255
11 946
13 230
14 266
15 218
16 073
16 645
17 130
17 658
18 137
Source: National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (various years) China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology
625
Chapter 23
2003
Figure 23.5: Applications and patents granted to Chinese and foreign inventors, 20022013
Applications
1 000
Thousands
Domestic
Foreign
Total
825 136
800
704 936
600
400
200
80 232
40 426
39 806
0
2002
120 200
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Granted patents
250
Thousands
Domestic
Foreign
Total
207 688
200
150
143 535
100
64 153
50
27 473
15 605
5 868
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Source: National Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Science and Technology (various years) China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology
626
0.98
USA
China
300 000
267 521
256 834
250 000
10.0%
200 000
150 000
100 000
66 151
50 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
24.4%
2014
152 306
144 913
117 016
63 414
44 757
30 066
21 735
5 956
2 712
Ps
yc
ho
lo
gy
So
cia
ls
cie
nc
es
Ph
ys
ics
g
Ge
os
cie
nc
es
M
at
he
m
at
ics
M
ed
ica
ls
cie
nc
Ot
es
he
rl
ife
sc
ie
nc
es
pu
En
te
gi
rs
ne
cie
er
in
nc
e
ry
ist
em
Ch
Co
m
As
tro
no
Bi
m
ol
y
og
ica
ls
cie
nc
es
tu
re
ul
Ag
ric
1 318
1 138
China
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
UK (25 151)
Note: The statistics for China do not include Hong Kong SAR or Macao SAR.
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by ScienceMetrix
627
Chapter 23
628
China
impossible, by the fact that these results are considered
public goods, thus disincentivizing researchers engaged in
technology transfer. With few exceptions, Chinese enterprises
still depend on foreign sources for core technologies.
According to a World Bank study, China had a US$ 10billion
deficit in 2009 in its intellectual property balance of payments,
based on royalties and license fees (Ghafele and Gibert, 2012).
These problems have forced China to put its ambition on
hold of embarking on a truly innovation-driven development
trajectory. Indeed, Chinas drive to become a global leader in
STI is tied to its capacity to evolve towards a more efficient,
effective and robust national innovation system. Upon closer
examination, there is a lack of co-ordination between the
various actors at the macro level, an unfair distribution of
funding at the meso level and an inappropriate performance
evaluation of research projects and programmes, individual
scientists and institutions at the micro level. It would seem to
be both urgent and inevitable to institute reforms across all
three levels of the national innovation system (Cao et al., 2013).
629
Chapter 23
630
China
Advanced manufacturing
technology
Transportation
Large aircraft
Agriculture
Environment
Energy
Advanced large-scale pressurized water reactors and nuclear power plants with hightemperature, gas-cooled reactors (Box 23.5)
Health
ICTs
Space technologies
Source: National Medium- and Long-term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (20062020)
40 000
17 000
1989
80 000
33 000
1992
190 000
60 000
1995
250 000
81 000
1998
300 000
100 000
2001
420 000
140 000
2004
815 000
198 000
2007
1 211 700
319 700
2010
1 905 400
632 200
2013
3 058 600
1 444 800
Returnees
631
Chapter 23
accordingly. The outcome of the review will also feed into the
formulation of the Thirteenth Five-Year Plan (20162020) and
the launch of the S&T systemic reform.
It would nevertheless appear that the review of the Mediumand Long-Term Plan will re-affirm the so-called whole
nation system (juguo tizhi) approach, by which the nations
resources are channelled towards select prioritized areas.4
This approach is reminiscent of the state-led development of
Chinas strategic weapons programmes (liangdan yixing) from
the mid-1960s onwards through resource concentration and
mobilization. Along with the introduction of top-level design
into the formulation of reform initiatives, it may become a
hallmark of innovation in China in the years to come.
4. This approach originated from Chinas state-run sports system, or whole nation
system where it was the practice to concentrate the entire nations resources
on the training of athletes who showed promise for winning China medals at
the Olympic Games. The success of Chinas strategic weapons programmes in
the 1960s and 1970s and subsequent national defence programmes has been
attributed to such a metaphor, which is also used to describe the 16 megaengineering programmes launched under the Medium- and Long-Term Plan to 2020.
632
China
Reform of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
The latest reform of CAS once again raises the question of the
academys place in Chinas national S&T system, a question
which first came up at the academys inception immediately
after the founding of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949.
At the time, research and training were separated at
universities and industrial R&D institutes focused on specific
problems in their particular sectors. These were the glory
days of the academy, when it contributed, in particular, to
the success of the strategic weapons programmes through a
mission-oriented disciplinary development strategy.
CAS would quickly become a victim of its own success, after
its high visibility attracted keen attention from the political
leadership and other actors in the S&T system. In the mid-1980s
when China began reforming its S&T system, CAS was forced
to adopt a one academy, two systems approach. This strategy
consisted in concentrating a small number of scientists on basic
research and following the global trend in high technology,
while encouraging the majority of its staff to engage in the
commercialization of research results and projects of direct
relevance to the economy. The overall quality of research
suffered, as did the academys ability to tackle fundamental
research questions.
Reform or be reformed!
In the past couple of years, CAS has come under enormous
pressure from the political leadership to produce visible
achievements. The loss of independence of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, the successor to the Soviet Academy
of Sciences on which CAS was modelled, in a top-down
reform in 2013 (see Box 13.2), has sent a chilling signal: if CAS
does not reform itself, others will. This realization prompted
current CAS President Bai Chunli to take advantage of Xis
call for CAS to become a pioneer in four areas (see p. 628) to
propose a sweeping reform of the academy through a new
Pioneering Action Initiative (shuaixian xingdong jihua). The
aim of this initiative is to orient the academy towards the
international frontier of science, major national demands and
the battleground for the national economy by re-organizing
existing institutes into four categories:
n centres of excellence (zhuoyue chuangxin zhongxin) focused
633
Chapter 23
Box 23.4: Water body pollution control and treatment: a mega-engineering programme
The mega-engineering programme of
water body pollution control and
treatment has been designed to
address the technology bottleneck in
Chinas efforts to control and treat
pollution of water bodies. In particular,
the programme aims to achieve a
breakthrough in key and generic
technologies related to water pollution
control and treatment, such as
industrial pollution source control and
treatment, agricultural non-point
source pollution control and treatment,
urban sewage treatment and recycling,
purification and the ecological
restoration of water bodies, drinking
water safety and water pollution
monitoring and early warning.
The programme focuses on four rivers
(Huai, Hai, Liao and Songhua), three
lakes (Tai, Chao and Dianchi) and the
Three Gorges Reservoir, the largest
dam in the world. Projects have been
carried out within the six major themes
634
Source: http://nwpcp.mep.gov.cn
China
Source: www.nmp.gov.cn
635
Chapter 23
636
China
5.8
6.4
7.8
19.1
6.5
4.3
17.1
8.2
8.4
2012
12.3
9.1
15.5
2012
8.3
8.6
12.2
9.6
10.9
9.6
10.6
9.7
Biotechnology
Biotechnology
Transportation
Transportation
Biotechnology
Biotechnology
Agriculture
Agriculture
Environment
Environment
Agriculture
Agriculture
Information
Information
technology
technology
Transportation
Transportation
Energy
Energy
Remote
Remote
sensing
sensing
Materials
Materials
Energy
Energy
Information
Information
technology
technology
Ocean
Ocean
Environment
Environment
Ocean
Ocean
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Materials
Materials
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Remote
Remote
sensing
sensing
Chapter 23
PRIORITIES OF CHINAS NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR KEY BASIC R&D (973 PROGRAMME)
Distribution of new projects by field (%)
7.3 0.9
7.3
7.1
16.4
4.1
18.4
7.4
8.1
13.6
2012
8.2
8.0
2012
18.3
10.6
10.0
9.1
9.1
10.0
11.7
14.4
Health
Health
sciences
sciences
Materials
Materials
science
science
Megascientific
Megascientific
frontier
frontier
Information
Information
Megascientific
Megascientific
frontier
frontier
Young
Young
scientist
scientist
project
project
Health
Health
Materials
Materials
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
andand
engineering
engineering
sciences
sciences
Energy
Energy
science
science
Synthesis
Synthesis
science
science
Energy
Energy
Synthesis
Synthesis
science
science
Resource
Resource
andand
environmental
sciences
environmental
sciences
Agriculture
Agriculture
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
andand
engineering
engineering
Agricultural
Agricultural
science
science
Megascientific
Megascientific
goalgoalorientated
orientated
research
research
Resource
Resource
andand
environmental
environmental
Information
Information
science
science
Source: Planning Bureau of Ministry of Science and Technology (2013) Annual Report of the National Programmes of Science and Technology Development.
637
levels;
638
methane;
n having an installed nuclear power capacity of 58 Gigawatts
China
There are several reasons for Chinas emphasis on
diversifying its energy mix. In addition to environmental
considerations, China is eager to reduce its reliance on
foreign energy suppliers. Currently, China receives nearly
60% of its oil and over 30% of its natural gas from foreign
sources. For domestic production to make up 85% of total
energy consumption by 2020, China will need to increase its
production of natural gas, shale gas and coalbed methane.
The new energy action plan also calls for deepwater drilling,
as well as for the development of oil and gas extraction in
its neighbouring seas by undertaking both independent
extraction projects and co-operative projects with foreign
countries (Tiezzi, 2014).
639
Chapter 23
CONCLUSION
methane by 2020;
n Achieve an installed nuclear power capacity of 58
640
REFERENCES
Cao, C.; Li, N.; Li, X. and L. Liu (2013) Reforming Chinas S&T
system. Science, 341: 46062.
Cao, C.; Suttmeier, R. P. and D. F. Simon (2006) Chinas 15-year
science and technology Plan. Physics Today, 59 (12) (2006):
3843.
Cyranoski, D. (2014a) Chinese science gets mass
transformation. Nature, 513: 4689.
Cyranoski, D. (2014b) Fundamental overhaul of Chinas
competitive funding. Nature (24 October). See: http://blogs.
nature.com.
Ghafele, R. and B. Gibert (2012) Promoting Intellectual Property
Monetization in Developing Countries: a Review of Issues
and Strategies to Support Knowledge-Driven Growth.
Policy Research Working Series 6143. Economic Policy
and Debt Department, Poverty Reduction and Economic
Management Network, World Bank.
Gough, N. (2015) Default signals growing maturity of Chinas
corporate bond market. New York Times, 7 March.
Liu, F.-C.; Simon, D. F.; Sun, Y.-T. and C. Cao (2011) Chinas
innovation policies: evolution, institutional structure and
trajectory. Research Policy, 40 (7): 91731.
Lozano, R. et al. (2012) Global and regional mortality from
235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a
systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study
2010. The Lancet, 380: 2095128.
National Bureau of Statistics (2014) China Statistical Yearbook
2014. China Statistical Press. Main Items of Public
Expenditure of Central and Local Governments.
OECD (2014) Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2014.
November. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development: Paris.
Simon, D. F. (2010) Chinas new S&T reforms and their
implications for innovative performance. Testimony
before the USChina Economic and Security Review
Commission, 10 May 2010: Washington, DC.
See www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/5.10.12Simon.pdf.
Suttmeier, R.P. (2007) Engineers rule, OK? New Scientist,
10November, pp. 7173.
China
Suttmeier, R.P.; Cao, C. and D. F. Simon (2006a) Knowledge
innovation and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Science,
312 (7 April):5859.
Suttmeier, R.P.; Cao, C. and D. F. Simon (2006b) Chinas
innovation challenge and the remaking of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences. Innovations: Technology, Governance,
Globalization, 1 (3):7897.
Tiezzi, S. (2014) In new plan, China Eyes 2020 energy cap. The
Diplomat. See: http://thediplomat.com.
UNESCO (2012) All for one and one for all: genetic solidarity in
the making. A World of Science, 10 (4). October.
Van Noorden, R. (2014) China tops Europe in R&D intensity?
Nature 505 (14 January):14445.
Yoon, J. (2007) The technocratic trend and its implication
in China. Paper presented as a graduate conference on
Science and Technology in Society, 31 March1 April,
Washington D.C.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank Prof. Richard P. Suttmeier for
his comments on the draft chapter and Dr Yutao Sun for
providing information on some of the statistics used in the
present chapter.
641
642
Japan
24 . Japan
Yasushi Sato and Tateo Arimoto
INTRODUCTION
Two turning points in Japanese politics
Twice, Japan has experienced a political turning point in
the past decade. The first came in August 2009, with the
electoral defeat of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which
had dominated Japanese politics for over half a century.
Frustrated by the LDPs failure to shake Japan out of a two
decade-long economic slump, Japanese voters placed their
hopes in the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ). Three prime
ministers followed in quick succession, none of whom
succeeded in rebooting the economy. Twenty-one months
after the Great East Japan Earthquake triggered a tsunami and
the Fukushima nuclear disaster in March 2011, disillusioned
voters returned the LDP to power in the December 2012
general election.
The new prime minister, Shinzo Abe, put in place a set of
extraordinarily active fiscal and economic policies which have
been dubbed Abenomics. After news emerged that Japan
had officially slipped into recession following an increase in
taxation on consumption, the prime minister called a snap
election in December 2014 to consult the public on whether
or not to pursue Abenomics. His party won a landslide victory.
Population (millions)
Government debt
as a share of GDP (%)*
2008
-1.0
127.3
21.6
171.1
2013
1.5
127.1
25.1
224.2
643
Chapter 24
644
Japan
Thus, the Fourth Basic Plan made a radical transition from
discipline-based to issue-driven STI policy.
In June 2013, just months after the Abe governments pledge
to revive the economy rapidly, the government introduced
a new type of policy document, the Comprehensive Strategy
on STI, a combination of a longer-term vision and actions of a
one-year duration. The Comprehensive Strategy enumerated
concrete R&D themes in such fields as energy systems, health,
next-generation infrastructure and regional development,
while at the same time proposing ways of improving the
national innovation system. The plan also identified three
key directions for STI policy: smartization,1 systemization
and globalization. In June 2014, the government revised
the Comprehensive Strategy, specifying the following areas
as being important cross-cutting technological fields for
realizing the strategys vision: ICTs, nanotechnology and
environmental technology.
Getting universities to play a more active role in
innovation
Any general document related to STI policy in Japan in
the past decade has consistently laid heavy emphasis on
innovation and universityindustry collaboration. A rationale
often put forward is that Japan is doing fairly well in scientific
research and technological development but is losing
ground in terms of value creation and competing on the
world stage. Politicians, government officials and industrial
leaders all believe that innovation is the key to recovery from
Japans chronic economic stagnation. They also agree that
universities should play a more active role in this endeavour.
1. Smartization is a term underlying such concepts as smart grid and smart city.
2. The Bayh-Dole Act (officially The Patent and Trademark Law Amendments Act)
of 1980 authorized US universities and businesses to commercialize their federally
funded inventions.
Table 24.2: Collaboration between universities and industry in Japan, 2008 and 2013
Year
Number of
joint research
projects
Number of
new university
start-ups
2008
17 638
43 824
19 201
170 019
90
2013
21 336
51 666
22 212
169 071
52
Note: Here, universities include technical colleges and inter-university research institutes.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, April 2015
645
Chapter 24
3. Formerly the Council for Science and Technology Policy, it was strengthened
and renamed in 2014.
646
Japan
647
Chapter 24
2014
2008
Number of universities
Number of university
students
2011
2014
18-year-old population
Note: The number of university students here includes all undergraduate and graduate students.
51.5
1 237 294
2011
51.0
2 855 529
2008
49.1
2 893 489
2014
1 180 838
2 836 127
2008
1 201 934
781
2011
765
780
Figure 24.1: Number of universities and university students in Japan, 2008, 2011 and 2014
2008
2011
2014
648
Japan
Scientific advice has come to the fore since the triple
catastrophe
The importance of maintaining a dialogue between scientists
and policy-makers has been recognized more recently.
The issue of scientific advice came to the fore after the
Great East Japan Earthquake of March 2011. There was a
widespread perception that the government was unable
to mobilize scientific knowledge to cope with the triple
catastrophe. A series of symposia were held to discuss the
role of scientific advice in policy-making and the idea was
tabled of appointing science advisors to the prime minister
and other ministers, although this idea has not materialized
yet. Meanwhile, the Science Council of Japan (the Japanese
Academy of Sciences) revised its Code of Conduct for
Scientists in January 2013, adding a new section on scientific
advice. A stronger commitment to this issue on the part
of policy-makers will be necessary for Japan to participate
actively in the rapidly evolving international discussion on
this topic.
649
Chapter 24
Year
GERD
( billion)
GERD/GDP
ratio (%)
Government expenditure
on R&D (GOVERD)
( billion)
GOVERD/GDP
ratio (%)
2008
17 377
3.47
1 447
0.29
0.69
2009
15 818
3.36
1 458
0.31
0.76
2010
15 696
3.25
1 417
0.29
0.71
2011
15 945
3.38
1 335
0.28
0.73
2012
15 884
3.35
1 369
0.29
0.74
2013
16 680
3.49
1 529
0.32
0.79
650
Japan
Industrial
Life sciences
Life sciencessector*
6 653
Industry
Industry
1 501
6 226
1 646
Industry
Industry
2 793
Industry
Industry
2 119
2008
2013
Total 13 262
Total 12 343
903
899
24
653 155
5 18 669
111
University
University
Other Other
fields fields
Ocean
development
University
sector
Ocean
development
2 084
646
577
University
University
900
2 124
1 057
OtherOther
fieldsfields
University
University
2008
2013
Total 3 445
Total 3 700
144
88
108
145
13
491
17
55
9 72
PrivatePrivate
& Public
& Public
* business enterprises
with capital of
100 million or more
8
Private
Private
& Public
& Public
Chapter 24
96
125
44
56
342
Private
& Public
Private
& Public 482
88
2008
331
114
2013
Total 1 721
Total 1 742
99
118
74
82
190
24
312
52
16
133
203
312
651
Universities
% female
892 406
890 669
Non-profit
% female
Total
% female
2008
Businesses
% female
2009
Public institutions
% female
86 864
81 915
16 271
16 281
87 366
82 103
15 901
16 463
2008
23.4%
16.2%
14.6%
34 287
317 658
531 423
8.1%
9 038
13.0%
10 147
35 084
305 847
13.0%
14.3%
2013
2013
14.1%
2012
23.3%
2011
7.1%
2010
539 591
91 241
81 889
16 471
15 842
87 458
83 492
15 685
15 892
82 530
87 273
15 557
16 260
80 561
84 512
15 491
16 445
Masters degree* entrants
PhD entrants
PhD graduates
652
Source: MEXT (2013, 2014c) Statistical Abstract of Education, Science and Culture
Japan
28.9
Science
24.7
Engineering
15.8
20.0
20.0
7.1
9.5
10.8
16.5
Universities
Public
institutions
Private non-profit
organizations
Time spent
on teaching
784
(26.9%)
995
(34.1%)
Chapter 24
2008
Total working
hours
2 920
1 142
(39.1%)
731
(28.4%)
Time spent
on other
activities*
942
(36.6%)
Time spent
on research
2013
Total working
hours
2 573
900
(35.0%)
653
606
80 000
78 000
77 083
76 950
76 244
576
75 924
75 606
76 000
75 870
75 801
74 000
74 203
72 000
73 128
72 769
70 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
10.9
10.2
0.88
9.5
8.7
8.2
7.6
6.8
Tokyo
12.8
20082014
6.6
6.3
Chemistry
Engineering
Medical
sciences
Physics
7.8%
121 907
95 630
76 693
66 655
53 819
24 473
1 362
nc
es
gy
So
cia
ls
cie
lo
ch
o
Ps
y
es
Ph
ys
ics
cie
Ot
he
rl
ls
ica
ed
M
ife
sc
ie
nc
nc
es
ics
at
m
he
at
os
Ge
cie
nc
es
er
in
g
gi
ne
te
r
pu
Co
m
Bi
1 547
822
En
sc
ie
nc
e
ist
m
Ch
e
cie
ls
ol
og
ica
ry
es
nc
m
y
no
tro
11 356
6 081
5 918
As
Ag
ric
ul
tu
re
11 834
27.1%
Share of Japanese papers with foreign coauthors, 20082014; the OECD average is 29.0%
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Japan
UK (14 796)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix, November 2014; for Japans world share of
publications: NISTEP (2009, 2014) Indicators of Science and Technology
654
Japan
Box 24.2: Why the increase in Japanese Nobel laureates since 2000?
Every year, Japanese people excitedly
await the announcement from Sweden
of the years Nobel laureates. If Japanese
scientists are named, great celebration
by the media and the public follows.
2000
2001
2003
2008
2010
2011
20.6
69.8
17.2
67.7
67.6
2009
17.9
17.1
67.1
67.1
2007
17.4
67.3
2006
17.3
65.9
2005
17.3
63.2
2004
15.2
14.0
59.6
63.0
2002
13.1
13.2
62.1
13.7
11.1
59.4
60.4
2012
655
Chapter 24
Granted
patents
Examination
time (months)
PCT international
applications
2008
391002
159961
29
28027
2013
328436
260046
11
43075
992 901
Patent
applications
656
2013
2008
170 929
203 372
US$ millions
680 331
2008
578
600
2 225
millions
Source: Japan Patent Office (2013, 2014) Annual Report of Patent Administration
2013
Technology exports
Technology imports
Source: Statistics Bureau (2014); UNCTAD (2009, 2014) World Investment Report
Japan
Figure 24.10: Japans progress towards targets under the Kyoto Protocol, 2012
Other countries are given for comparison
%
25
20
20.4
15
10
5
8
0
0
-5
-8
1.4
3.3
-1
-6
-8.4
-11.8
-10
-12.5
-15
-20.3
-20
-25
-30
-35
-32.7
Australia
EU-15
Japan
New Zealand
-34.5
Russian Federation
Source: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan, National Institute for Environmental Studies
7. China and India did not have specific targets under the Kyoto Protocol and the
USA was not a signatory.
8. Japans legal framework in this field consists of the Basic Act on Biodiversity
(2008) and the Act on Promotion of Regional Co-operation for Biodiversity (2010).
657
Chapter 24
658
Japan
the Japanese government is now promoting STI via grants
and other programmes in a broad range of fields, including
environment, infrastructure, mobility, ICTs and robotics, using
such keywords as sustainable, safe and secure, friendly to
senior and challenged people, hospitable and exciting.
Another possibility for Japan will be to promote creative
industries in such areas as digital contents, online services,
tourism and Japanese cuisine. The Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry (METI) has been promoting the Cool
Japan Initiative for several years now, which culminated
in the establishment of the Cool Japan Fund Inc. by law in
November 2013 to help Japans creative industries spread
their wings abroad. Such endeavours could be more tightly
integrated into Japans overall STI policy.
Almost a quarter of a century has passed since the Japanese
economy entered the doldrums in the early 1990s. During
this prolonged economic slump, each of the industrial,
academic and governmental sectors in Japan has undergone
reforms. Many electric, steel and pharmaceutical firms were
merged and restructured, as were financial institutions;
national universities and national research institutes were
semi-privatized; and government ministries went through
a comprehensive reorganization. These reforms have surely
strengthened the foundation for R&D in Japans industrial,
academic and government sectors. What is needed now is for
Japan to have confidence in its national innovation system.
It needs to adopt forward-looking policies and arm itself with
the courage to pursue the necessary reforms to adapt to the
changing global landscape.
more by 2015;
n Position 100 institutions among the worlds top 50 in
2013) by 2020.
659
Chapter 24
REFERENCES
660
Republic of Korea
25 . Republic of Korea
Deok Soon Yim and Jaewon Lee
INTRODUCTION
Time for a new development model
The Republic of Korea1 has become a benchmark for
successful economic development. Between 1970 and 2013,
GDP per capita grew from US$ 255 to US$ 25976, driven by
the strong manufacturing and industrial capabilities that
turned it into one of Asias economic tigers. Among the
many factors contributing to this success story is the countrys
commitment to technological progress and to developing an
educated, skilled labour force. Today, the Republic of Korea
is the only nation to have transformed itself from a major
recipient of foreign aid into a major donor.
Population (thousands)
Population growth rate (%)
GDP (current US$ millions)
GDP per capita (current US$)
GDP growth rate (%)
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
48948
49182
49410
49 779
50 004
50 219
0.62
0.62
0.60
0.57
0.55
0.53
1 002 216
901 934
1 094 499
1 202 463
1 222 807
1 304 553
20 474
18338
22151
24155
24453
25976
2.82
0.70
6.49
3.68
2.29
2.97
79.8
80.3
80.6
81.0
81.4
4.67
2.76
2.96
4.00
2.20
1.31
3.20
3.60
3.70
3.40
3.20
3.1
661
Chapter 25
Israel 4.21
Korea, Rep 4.15
4.17
Japan 3.49
Finland 3.32
3.26
3.12
USA 2.81
2.55
OECD
average 2.40
2.27
2.15
China 2.02
1.07
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
strategic technologies;
n Regional technological innovation;
n A stronger national base for S&T2; and
662
Republic of Korea
The 577 Initiative chalked up some impressive achievements
(MEST, 2011):
n An increase in the number of publications recorded in
3. The Global Green Growth Institute was originally conceived by the Lee
government as an NGO. It became an international body in 2012 after the signing
of agreements with 18 governments. See: http://gggi.org
4. The biggest contributions to the Green Climate Fund were pledged by the
USA (US $3 billion), Japan (US$ 1.5billion), Germany, France and the UK
(US$ 1 billion each). Some developing countries made pledges of a more modest
nature, including Indonesia, Mexico and Mongolia.
663
Chapter 25
Table 25.2: The Republic of Koreas R&D targets to 2012 and 2017
Unit of measure
31.3
59.30+1
40.7
68.9
Percentage of GDP
3.00
4.15
5.00
5.00
7.8
13.2
Percentage of GDP
0.74
0.95+1
1.0
Percentage share
25.3
35.2
35.0
40.0
Percentage share
12.0-2
18.0
Government investment in
green technology
In KRW trillions
Government investment in
quality of life
Percentage of government
expenditure on R&D
15.0
20.0
222 000
315 589
47
64
100
Government-financed R&D
expenditure
Researchers (FTE)
Human
capital
investment
Output
Situation
as of 2012
Target
to 2017 of
Third Basic
Plan
In KRW trillions
GERD
Financial
investment
Situation
as of 2007
Target
to 2012
of Second
Basic Plan
In KRW trillions
Total number
Per 10000 population
+1
+1
92.4
(total over 20122017)
490 000-1
0.4
0.6
COSTII score
9th
7th
Total number
29 565
49 374
35 000
0.39-1
0.50
Technology competitiveness
of SMEs
74.8-1
85.0
Early-stage entrepreneurial
activity
7.8
10.0
Total
6050 000
6690 000
US$
23527
25 210
30 000
Contribution of R&D to
economic growth
Percentage of GDP
US dollars
US dollars millions
Technology trading
30.4-1*
35.4**
40.0***
19000
25 000
2178
4032
8000
0.43
0.48
0.70
664
40.0****
Republic of Korea
n Identify five strategic areas for national technological
n Solar energy
n Next-generation (5G)
communication technology
n Advanced materials
n Environment-friendly
automobiles, etc.
28
Health and longevity:
35
treatment
diagnosis
20
8
9
buildings, etc.
Safe society:
n Social disaster prediction and
response:
nuclear safety
e
nvironmental disaster risk
reduction, etc.
enhancement, etc.
665
Chapter 25
Total investment
(KRW 6.2 trillion)
n Personalized drug
TRENDS IN R&D
Information technology
convergence and new industry:
2006
0.69
2.14
2.76
0.78
2008
2.21
0.84
2010
0.97
2011
0.98
2012
1.00
2013
1.00
3.97
Basic research
12.34
Applied research
19.07
2.34
Experimental
development
3.40
2.49
4.71
Total R&D
14.07
22.18
2.76
3.71
3.01
3.14
2005
0.95
2.28
2004
2009
2003
2007
5.03
15.41
24.15
Government share
Share of industry
4.14
2006
5.43
17.77
27.34
4.92
2007
6.21
20.17
31.30
5.54
2008
6.77
22.19
34.50
71.80
6.85
2010
2009
7.57
23.51
37.93
27.98
7.99
Business
enterprise
sector
Foreign sources
Government
and other
national sources
2010
0.22
27.12
43.85
9.01
2011
0.30
8.74
10.12
30.76
24.02
49.89
10.15
2013
2012
75.68
10.57
34.72
55.44
10.67
2013
11.32
37.32
59.31
666
Republic of Korea
funds. The share of GERD devoted to basic research rose from
15.2% in 2006 to 18.1% in 2009, a share maintained ever since.
This was largely thanks to the Second Basic Research Promotion
Plan, which raised the basic research budget from 25.6%
of government spending on R&D (2008) to 35.2% (2012). In
parallel, funding allocated to individual basic scientists tripled
over the same period from KRW 264 billion to KRW 800 billion
(circa US$ 936 million) [MSIP, 2014a].
The current government is pursuing this policy. This can be
seen in the budget allocated to the International Science
Business Belt, currently under construction in the city of
Daejeon. This ambitious project was enshrined in the Basic
Plan for an International Science Business Belt, adopted by the
Lee government in 2011. The aim is to correct the impression
that the Republic of Korea made the transition from a poor
agricultural country to an industrial giant through imitation
alone, without developing an endogenous capacity in basic
sciences. A National Institute for Basic Science opened on the
site in 2011 and a heavy ion accelerator is currently under
construction to support basic research and provide linkages
to the business world (Box 25.1). Between 2013 and 2014,
the Park government doubled the business belts budget to
KRW210 billion (circa US$246 million) [Kim, 2014].
2021. It will form part of the multifunctional research facility now called
RAON. Here, researchers will be able to
carry out groundbreaking research in
basic science and look forward to
discovering rare isotopes. RAON will be
hosted by the Institute for Basic Science,
which is itself under construction. It
should open its doors in 2016. The
institute plans to attract world-renowned
scientists and to cultivate an environment
that maximizes the researchers
autonomy; it intends to make its mark
among the top 10 world-class research
institutes in basic science with a
measurable impact on society by 2030.
667
Chapter 25
Figure
25.6:
Scientific
publication trends
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
in the Republic of Korea, 20052014
Seou
ou
oul
0.89
Sejong
50 000
Spain
49 247
Republic of Korea
40 000
7.9%
30 000
29 667
25 944
20 000
27.6%
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
57 604
55 846
42 282
38 979
35 005
9 458
8 676
7 525
7 015
495
734
Ps
yc
ho
lo
gy
So
cia
ls
cie
nc
es
Ph
ys
ics
g
Ge
os
cie
nc
es
M
at
he
m
at
ics
M
ed
ica
ls
cie
nc
Ot
es
he
rl
ife
sc
ie
nc
es
in
er
ne
gi
En
rs
cie
ist
pu
te
em
Co
m
Ch
ul
Ag
ric
nc
e
ry
1 714
tu
re
As
tro
no
Bi
m
ol
y
og
ica
ls
cie
nc
es
1 896
The USA remains the Republic of Koreas main partner, followed by Japan and China
Main foreign partners, 20082014 (number of papers)
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Rep. of Korea
India (6 477)
Germany (6 341)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
668
Republic of Korea
conglomerates accounted for 71 % of all private investment in
R&D in 2009 and 74% in 2012. This shows that just a handful
of major companies are the principal investors in Korean R&D,
even though SMEs and venture companies play a key role by
establishing and operating R&D centres.
Strong growth in domestic and international patents
The number of domestic patents registered more than
doubled between 2009 and 2013 from 56732 to 127330
(KIPO, 2013). This is quite a feat, especially coming as it does
in the wake of the global financial crisis. In 2013, Koreans took
third place (14548) for the number of patents registered in
the USA, behind Japan (51919) and Germany (15498).
Transport,
telecommunications
and other
infrastructure
Industrial production
and technology
63.45
6.56
6.41
Energy
Socio-economic
objectives
(%)
6.13
4.32
Defence
3.29
Environment
General progress
in knowledge 2.33
Agriculture 2.15
Exploration and
exploitation of space 0.82
Culture, recreation,
religion and mass
media 1.32
Education 1.16
Figure 25.8: Triadic patent family registrations in the Republic of Korea, 19992012
3 500
0.14
Number of triadic patent families (priority years)
3 000
0.12
0.05
1999
2000
0.04
0.02
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
669
Chapter 25
2 877.76
2 659.94
2 453.17
2 104.31
1 828.06
1 981.66
0.06
1 157.70
908.63
0.05
0.10
0.08
600.68
500
1 569.98
1 500
2 348.12
2 194.27
2 000
1 000
2 749.26
2 569.52
2 500
Figure 25.9: Changes in Republic of Koreas competitiveness ranking in science and technology, 19992014
0
5
6
8
10
15
20
25
26
26
30
35
33
36
40
45
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2012
2013
Source: IMD (2014) World Competitiveness Yearbook. Institute of Management Development: Lausanne (Switzerland)
670
2011
2014
The Republic of Korea has one of the worlds greatest researcher intensities
Other countries are given for comparison
1.93
1 484
USA (2011)
8.81
1 252
Japan
10.19
6.17
660
Russian Fed.
441
Germany
8.54
361
Korea, Rep.
12.84
Sweden
13.33
62
Denmark
41
Finland
39
Singapore (2012)
34
14.86
15.68
10.17
322
185 936
188 413
197 536
202 075
204 247
214 195
671
Chapter 25
6. https://www.creativekorea.or.kr
7. http://economy.hankooki.com/lpage/industry/201410/e20141028102131120170.htm
672
Republic of Korea
The government is also encouraging Korean collaboration
with world-class laboratories through a home-grown scheme,
the Global Research Laboratory Programme, which was
launched in 2006. Each year, the Ministry of Science, ICTs and
Future Planning and the National Research Foundation invite
Korean research institutions to answer their call for project
proposals. These proposals may concern basic sciences or
technological fields, as long as the research topic necessitates
collaboration with laboratories abroad. Successful joint
projects may be awarded annual funding of KRW500 million
(circa US$ 585000) for up to six years. The number of Global
Research Laboratory projects has increased from 7 in 2006 to
48 in 2013 (MSIP, 2014a).
The current government is particularly keen to see the private
sector develop core technologies by investing in foreign
companies. The National Plan for International Co-operation
in Science, Technology and ICTs (2014) sets out to do just that.
A key element of the plan is the establishment of the Korea
Innovation Centre, which will play a supporting role for
Korean researchers and entrepreneurs eager to invest abroad
while attempting to woo foreign investors to Korean shores
(Box 25.3).
Some forms of international assistance also incorporate
science and technology, such as the Techno Peace Corps
programme, which funds postdoctoral students. Another
example is the project being implemented by the government
in Viet Nam to establish the Viet NamKorea Institute of
Science and Technology. The government also plans to
establish centres for appropriate science and technology in
developing countries, in order to provide post-management of
projects, including consultancies and education; for example,
the government has established an innovative Water Centre
CONCLUSION
A new orientation towards entrepreneurship and
creativity
The Republic of Korea has come through the global financial
crisis since 2008 remarkably unscathed. However, this
should not mask the fact that the country has outgrown its
catch-up model. China and Japan are competing with Korean
technology in global markets and exports are slipping as
global demand evolves towards green growth.
The government has decided to respond to this increasingly
competitive global market by raising its investment in R&D,
strengthening the manufacturing sector and developing
new creative industries. The countrys investment in R&D
has already risen quite substantially but there is now some
doubt as to whether this has produced the desired result.
It may be that investment in R&D has reached a point where
marginal growth in the performance of R&D is close to
zero. The Republic of Korea thus now needs to optimize the
management of its national innovation system to take full
advantage of this rising investment.
Without a corresponding restructuring of industry and its
accompanying innovation system, the injection of R&D funding
Chapter 25
overseas ventures;
Source: www.msip.go.kr
673
REFERENCES
and 2017;
n Ensure that SMEs achieve 85% of their potential
674
Republic of Korea
MSIP (2013b) Statistical Report on the Technology Trade on
Korea in Accordance with the OECD Technology Balance
of Payments Manual. Ministry of Science, ICT and Future
Planning: Gwacheon.
MSIP (2013c) Survey of Research and Development in Korea
2012. Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning:
Gwacheon.
NSTC (2013a) Third Basic Plan for Science and Technology,
20132017. National Science and Technology Council:
Seoul.
NSTC (2013b) Science and Technology Yearbook 2012.
National Science and Technology Council: Gwacheon.
NSTC (2012) Science and Technology Yearbook 2011.
National Science and Technology Council: Gwacheon.
675
676
Malaysia
26 . Malaysia
Rajah Rasiah and V.G.R. Chandran
INTRODUCTION
Stable economic growth but challenges lie ahead
The Malaysian economy grew by 4.1% per year on average
between 2002 and 2013, pausing only briefly in 2009 at the
height of the global financial crisis (Figure 26.1). The rapid
return to positive growth in 2010 can be at least partly
attributed to the two stimulus packages adopted by the
government in November 2008 and March 2009.
Malaysia was an early convert to globalization. Since
the launch of export-oriented industrialization in 1971,
multinational corporations have relocated to Malaysia,
fuelling a rapid expansion in manufactured exports that
has helped turn the country into one of the worlds leading
exporters of electrical and electronics goods. In 2013 alone,
Malaysia accounted for 6.6% of world exports of integrated
circuits and other electronic components (WTO, 2014).
Rapid growth and the consequential tightening of the
labour market led the Malaysian government to focus
from the 1990s onwards on a shift from a labour-intensive
economy to an innovation-intensive one. This goal is
encapsulated in The Way Forward (1991), which fixes a target
of achieving high-income status by 2020. Whereas Malaysia
has done remarkably well over the past two years in terms
7.43
6.78
7
6
6.30
5.39
6.00
5.64
5.79
5.33
5.58
5.19
4.83
4.73
4
3
2
Chapter 26
1
0
-1
-1.51
-2
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
677
678
Malaysia
ISSUES IN STI GOVERNANCE
Growing expectations of S&T for inclusive development
Despite significant progress since the 1970s, Malaysia is not
yet in the same league as dynamic Asian economies such
as the Republic of Korea, with which it is often compared.
Governance issues and weak institutional capabilities in
STI figure at the top of the list of current shortcomings.
In addition, budget deficits have recently started putting
pressure on public investment levels, including research
and development (R&D). In particular, recurrent crises
have pushed the government to shift expenditure towards
addressing socio-economic problems.
Innovation for inclusive development has risen in the public
policy agenda and is currently being widely discussed in
Malaysia, in a context of low farm productivity, increasing
health-related problems, natural disasters, environmental
problems and even monetary inflation. In 2014, the
government launched transdisciplinary research grants
with the objective of including societal benefits among
the performance criteria at Malaysias research universities
and providing incentives to promote science in support of
poverty alleviation and sustainable development.
Multimedia
Super Corridor
(MSC) Malaysia (1997)
Technology Acquisition
Fund (1996)
Agro-Biotechnology
R&D Initiative (2006)
Demonstrator
Application Grant
Scheme (2006)
Biotechnology
Acquisition Fund
(2006)
Biotechnology
Commercialization
Fund (2006)
Industrial Technical
Assistance Fund
(1990)
Chapter 26
Fundamental Research
Grant Scheme (2006)
Long-term Research
Grant Scheme (2009)
High Impact Research
(2009)
PRE-SEED FUNDING
RESEARCH
DEVELOPMENT
COMMERCIALIZATION
679
680
Malaysia
India
Thailand
Indonesia
4.03
4.0
3.74
3.47
3.12
3.29
3.0
2.62
2.16
2.0
0.84
0.79
2.16
1.70
1.47
1.0
2.01
1.76
1.01
1.07
1.06
0.82
0.80
0.82
2009
1.98
1.13
0.39
0.25
0.08
2008
1.84
2.02
2010
2011
2012
Malaysia
Box 26.1: A multinational platform to drive innovation in electrical goods and electronics
This platform was initiated by ten leading
electrical and electronic companies:
Advanced Micro Devices, Agilent
Technologies, Altera, Avago Technologies,
Clarion, Intel, Motorola Solutions,
National Instruments, OSRAM and Silterra.
These companies generate close to
MYR 25 billion (circa US$ 6.9billion) in annual
revenue and spend nearly MYR 1.4 billion on
R&D. Government grants have been utilized
extensively by these multinational firms
since 2005 (Rasiah et al, 2015a).
World share,
2012 (%)
Share of
manufacturing
exports, 2000 (%)
Share of
manufacturing
exports, 2010 (%)
Share of
manufacturing
exports, 2012 (%)
Malaysia
4.05
3.33
3.08
59.57
44.52
43.72
Thailand
1.49
1.92
1.70
33.36
24.02
20.54
Indonesia
0.50
0.32
0.25
16.37
9.78
7.30
India
0.18
0.57
0.62
6.26
7.18
6.63
Korea, Rep.
4.68
6.83
6.10
35.07
29.47
26.17
Brazil
0.52
0.46
0.44
18.73
11.21
10.49
Japan
11.10
6.86
6.20
28.69
17.97
17.41
Singapore
6.37
7.14
6.44
62.79
49.91
45.29
China
3.59
22.82
25.41
18.98
27.51
26.27
United States
17.01
8.18
7.48
33.79
19.93
17.83
European Union
33.82
32.31
32.00
21.40
15.37
15.47
681
Chapter 26
Source: www.crest.my
World share,
2010 (%)
World share,
2000 (%)
6 000
Number of patents
5 000
4 000
APPLICATIONS
3 364
GRANTED
Domestic
3 000
Foreign
2 381
2 000
1 608
1 439
1 000
381
223
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
0 21
682
53
British Telecommunications
57
67
81
Philips Electronics
435
Motorola
MIMOS Berhad
41
34
33
30
29
Malaysia
applicants are also encouraged to commercialize their
findings. The TechnoFund and E-science Fund, on the other
hand, focus exclusively on commercialization. There is a
serious need to assess their role and success rate in promoting
commercialization. There is also a need to strengthen
institutional capabilities in technoparks and to ensure that
these public goods effectively target the commercialization of
knowledge, with a minimum rate of failure in translating these
grants into products and services worth commercializing,
which is known as a minimum dissipation of rents (Rasiah et
al., 2015a). Most multinational corporations established in
Malaysia specialize in ICTs and are located in the Kulim High
Tech Park (Kedah) and Penang (Table 26.2).
Figure 26.6: Key indicators for Malaysias oil palm industry, 20002014
60
59
57
53
50
45
44
40
50
49
48
39
30
26
25
21
Chapter 26
31
30
20
10
40
22.9
18.0
13.4
10.6
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Source: Malaysian Palm Oil Board (2015); United Nations COMTRADE database
Source: www.mpob.gov.my
683
Table 26.2: Semiconductor firms in Penang and Kedah with R&D and/or chip design, 2014
Origin
Year
USA
1972
Integrated device
manufacturing
Altera
USA
1994
Integrated device
manufacturing
Design centre
Singapore
1995
Integrated device
manufacturing
USA
1971
Integrated device
manufacturing
Globetronics
Malaysia
1991
Fabless
Infineon
Germany
2005
Integrated device
manufacturing
Wafer fabrication
Intel
USA
1972
Integrated device
manufacturing
Intel
USA
1991
Integrated device
manufacturing
Design centre
Marvell Technology
USA
2006
Fabless
Design centre
Germany
1972
Integrated device
manufacturing
Wafer fabrication
Renesas Semiconductor
Design
Japan
2008
Integrated device
manufacturing
Design centre
Renesas Semiconductor
Malaysia
Japan
1972
Integrated device
manufacturing
Malaysia
1995
Foundry
Wafer fabrication
Avago Technology
Fairchild
Osram
Silterra
Structure
Main activity
Upgrading
Note: Fabless refers to the design and sale of hardware devices and semiconductor chips while outsourcing the fabrication of these devices to a semiconductor
foundry.
Source: Rasiah et al. (2015a)
684
Malaysia
University reform has boosted productivity
In 2006, the government introduced a Higher Education Strategic
Plan Beyond 2020 which established five research universities over
the next three years and raised government funding for higher
education. For more than a decade, public expenditure on higher
education has accounted for about one-third of the education
budget (Thiruchelvam et al., 2011). Malaysia spends more on
higher education than any of its Southeast Asian neighbours
but the level of commitment had slipped somewhat between
2003 and 2007 from 2.6% to 1.4% of GDP. The government has
since restored higher education spending to earlier levels, as it
accounted for 2.2% of GDP in 2011 (see Figure 27.5).
The meteoric rise in scientific publications since 2009
(Figure 26.7) is a direct consequence of the governments
decision to promote excellence at the five research universities,
namely: Universiti Malaya, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia and Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. In 2006, the government decided to
provide grants for university research. Between 2008 and 2009,
these five universities received an increase of about 71% in
government funding (UIS, 2014).
Along with this targeted R&D funding, key performance
indicators were changed for the teaching staff, such as by
making the publication record of staff an important criterion for
promotion. In parallel, the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE)
designed and implemented a performance measurement
and reporting system for universities in 2009, which were also
entitled to conduct self-assessments and self-monitoring.
One spin-off from the increase in R&D funding by MoHE was that
the share of basic research rose from 11% of GERD in 2006 to
34% in 2012. The bulk of the budget still goes towards applied
research, which represented 50% of GERD in 2012. Between
2008 and 2011, the lions share of scientific publications focused
on engineering (30.3%), followed by biological sciences (15.6%),
chemistry (13.4%), medical sciences (12.0%) and physics (8.7%).
Private
(%)
2007
Total
enrolment
(000s) 2010
Private
(%)
2010
Bachelors
degree
389
36
495
45
Masters
degree
35
13
64
22
PhD
11
22
18
685
Chapter 26
9 998
10 000
8 925
Malaysia
Romania
6 628
6 100
6 000
4 266
5 777
2009
2010
3 983
2 934
2 543
6 657
2011
2012
2 225
1 813
2005
6 485
2 852
2 000
1 559
6 651
7 550
5 165
4 000
7 738
7 607
8 000
2006
2007
2008
0.83
8.4%
2013
2014
46.4%
9 430
6 817
5 135
4 240
2 872
2 413
1 862
1 338
812
nc
es
gy
lo
So
cia
ls
cie
ch
o
Ps
y
Ph
ys
ics
nc
es
rl
he
Ot
M
ed
ica
ife
ls
sc
cie
ie
nc
es
ics
at
m
he
at
cie
os
Ge
ee
gi
n
En
Co
m
pu
nc
es
g
rin
nc
e
te
Ch
rs
em
cie
ist
ry
es
nc
cie
ls
Bi
ol
og
ica
As
tro
no
m
y
re
tu
ul
Ag
ric
206
89
111
39
Note: The total by field excludes unclassified publications (11 799) between 2008 and 2014.
Malaysia
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
UK (3 076)
India (2 611)
Australia (2 425)
Iran (2 402)
USA (2 308)
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
686
Malaysia
7 000
Rep. of Korea
Malaysia
Singapore
China
6 440
6 438
6 000
5 742
5 000
4 933
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 780
1 186
1 000
1 020
599
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
In 2005, Malaysia adopted the target4 of becoming the sixthlargest global destination for international university students
by 2020. Between 2007 and 2012, the number of international
students almost doubled to more than 56 000, the target
being to attract 200 000 by 2020. Among member states of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesian
students were most numerous, followed by Thais. By 2012,
Malaysia was one of the top ten destinations for Arab students;
the upheaval caused by the Arab Spring has incited a growing
number of Egyptians and Libyans to try their luck in Malaysia
but there has also been a sharp rise in the number of Iraqis
and Saudis. Particularly strong growth has also been observed
among Nigerian and Iranian students (Figure 26.9).
Concerns about the declining quality of education
The ratio between university students enrolled in fields related
to science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)
and those enrolled in non-STEM disciplines has grown since 2000
from 25:75 to 42:58 (2013) and may soon reach the governments
target of 60:40. There is evidence, however, that the quality of
education has declined in recent years, including the quality of
teaching. The results of the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA) in 2012 show that Malaysian 15 year-olds
perform below average in mathematics and scientific literacy.
Indeed, Malaysias score has declined significantly in some fields,
with only one out of 100 Malaysian 15 year-olds being able to
solve complex problems, in comparison to one out of five in
Singapore, the Republic of Korea and Japan. In 2012, Malaysians
also scored lower in knowledge acquisition (29.1) and utilization
of knowledge (29.3) than teenagers in Singapore (62.0 and 55.4
respectively) or the average for all PISA participants (45.5 and 46.4
respectively).
A number of the education reforms implemented since 1996
have faced resistance from teachers. The most recent national
education blueprint (20132025), adopted in 2012, aims to
provide equal access to quality education, develop proficiency in
the English and Malay languages and to transform teaching into
a profession of choice. In particular, it seeks to leverage ICTs to
scale up quality learning across Malaysia and improve the delivery
capabilities of the Ministry of Education through partnerships
with the private sector, in addition to raising transparency and
accountability. A central goal will be to promote a learning
environment that promotes creativity, risk-taking and problemsolving by both teachers and their pupils (OECD, 2013). As it
takes time for education reforms to deliver results, consistent
monitoring of these reforms will be the key to their success.
4. See: http://monitor.icef.com/2012/05/malaysia-aims-to-be-sixth-largesteducation-exporter-by-2020
687
Chapter 26
Figure 26.9: Number of degree-seeking international students in Malaysia, 2007 and 2012
By country of origin
424 397
393
1 023
729
107
529
897
59
32
392
Rest of the world
Iran
Indonesia
China
Nigeria
Yemen
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Iraq
Other ASEAN
Maldives
Libya
Saudi Arabia
Somalia
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Singapore
Jordan
Botswana
Kazakhstan
India
Republic of Korea
Egypt
621
632
4 426
1 268
738
1 179
2007
Total 30 581
1 011
2 442
1 271
497
5 704
5 810
796
674
697
548
513
645
460
946
1 088
1 116
1 130
9 876
1 163
1 199
1 448
2012
Total 56 203
1 782
2 033
8 170
2 132
3 090
6 222
4 442
6 033
688
Malaysia
TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL
CO-OPERATION
A Malaysian centre for SouthSouth co-operation
When ASEAN Vision 2020 was adopted in 1997, its stated
goal was for the region to be technologically competitive by
2020. Although the focus of ASEAN has always been on the
creation of a single market along the lines of the European
model, leaders have long acknowledged that successful
economic integration will hinge on how well member states
manage to assimilate science and technology. The ASEAN
Committee on Science and Technology was established
in 1978, just eleven years after ASEAN was founded by5
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
Since 1978, a series of action plans have been developed
to foster co-operation among member states, in order to
create a more even playing field in STI. These action plans
cover nine programme areas: food science and technology;
biotechnology; meteorology and geophysics; marine
science and technology; non-conventional energy research;
micro-electronics and information technology; materials
science and technology; space technology and applications;
and S&T infrastructure and the development of resources.
Once the ASEAN Economic Community comes into effect in
late 2015, the planned removal of restrictions to the crossborder movement of people and services should spur
co-operation in science and technology and enhance the
role of the ASEAN University Network (see Chapter 27).
In 2008, the Malaysian government established the
International Centre for SouthSouth Cooperation in Science,
Technology and Innovation, under the auspices of UNESCO.
The centre focuses on institution-building in countries of
the South. Most recently, it ran a training course on the
maintenance of infrastructure from 10 March to 2 April 2015,
in collaboration with the Malaysian Highway Authority,
Construction Industry Development Board, the Institution
of Engineers Malaysia and the Master Builders Association
Malaysia.
5. Brunei Darussalam joined in 1984, Viet Nam in 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar in
1997 and Cambodia in 1999.
689
Chapter 26
CONCLUSION
690
levels;
n Preserve at least 50% of land as primary forest, as
Malaysia
REFERENCES
Chandran, V.G.R. (2010) R&D commercialization challenges
for developing countries Special Issue of AsiaPacific Tech
Monitor, 27(6): 2530.
Chandran, V.G.R. and C.Y. Wong (2011) Patenting activities by
developing countries: the case of Malaysia. World Patent
Information, 33 (1):5157.
MASTIC (2012) National Survey of Innovation 2023. Malaysian
Science and Technology Information Centre: Putrajaya.
Morales, A. (2010) Malaysia Has Little Room for Palm Oil
Expansion, Minister Says. Bloomberg News Online,
18 November.
MoSTI (2013) Malaysia: Science Technology and Innovation
Indicators Report. Ministry of Science, Technology and
Innovation: Putrajaya.
MoSTI (2009) Brain Gain Review. Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation: Putrajaya.
NSRC (2013) PRE Performance Evaluation: Unlocking Vast
Potentials, Fast-Tracking the Future. National Science and
Research Council: Putrajaya.
OECD (2013) Malaysia: innovation profile. In: Innovation in
Southeast Asia. Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development: Paris.
Rasiah, R. (2014) How much of Raymond Vernons product
cycle thesis is still relevant today? Evidence from the
integrated circuits industry. Paper submitted to fulfil the
Rajawali Fellowship at Harvard University (USA).
Rasiah, R. (2010) Are Electronics Firms in Malaysia Catching Up
in the Technology Ladder? Journal of Asia Pacific Economy,
15(3): 301319.
Chapter 26
691
692
Australia, Cambodia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Indonesia, Kiribati, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Federated States
of Micronesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa,
Singapore, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Viet Nam
INTRODUCTION
Figure 27.1: GDP per capita in Southeast Asia and Oceania, 2013
In thousands of current PPP$
Singapore
78.8
Australia
43.2
New Zealand
34.7
Malaysia
23.3
Palau
15.1
Thailand
14.4
Indonesia
9.6
Fiji
7.8
Philippines
6.5
Samoa
5.8
Tonga
5.3
Viet Nam
5.3
4.8
Marshall Islands
3.9
Tuvalu
3.6
3.4
Cambodia
3.0
Vanuatu
3.0
2.1
Solomon Islands
2.1
1.9
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
693
Chapter 27
Kiribati
Figure 27.2: Trends in GDP growth in Southeast Asia and Oceania, 20052013
68.8
71.0
50
47.2
48.4
52.9
54.3
60
56.0
60.5
12.3
12.9
15.5
17.0
14.6
18.6
25.9
8.3
-16.3
-0.6
-1.6
-1.2
4.1
-0.4
-3.7
-3.8
-10
2.1
0.3
3.6
5.4
3.3
2.4
1.2
5.3
9.8
10.6
6.3
10
11.1
12.8
15.3
20
27.2
30
32.2
35.3
40
0.2
70
71.8
80
Palau
Micronesia
Tonga
Fiji
Kiribati
Tuvalu
New Zealand
Marshall Islands
Samoa
Australia
Thailand
Vanuatu
Malaysia
Philippines
Solomon Islands
Indonesia
Singapore
Viet Nam
Cambodia
Timor-Leste
Lao PDR
-20
Note: For Timor-Leste, the most recent data are for 2012, not 2013.
Source: World Banks World Development Indicators, April 2015
694
Figure 27.3: Internet and mobile phone access in Southeast Asia and Oceania, 2013 (%)
100
83.0
80
Internet users
per 100 inhabitants
82.8
73.0
67.0
60
43.9
37.0
37.1
35.0
29.0
Vanuatu
Tuvalu
Tonga
Solomon Islands
Micronesia
Kiribati
Fiji
New Zealand
Australia
Viet Nam
Thailand
Singapore
11.3
8.0
6.5
1.1
Philippines
Malaysia
Lao PDR
Indonesia
Cambodia
15.3
11.5
1.2
Samoa
12.5
Timor-Leste
15.9
6.0
Myanmar
20
37.0
27.8
40
200
150
133.9
155.9
144.7
140.0
130.9
125.4
104.5
100
68.1
57.4
57.6
50
30.3
12.8
40.0
54.6
50.3
34.4
16.6
0
Source: International Telecommunications Union
695
Chapter 27
Figure
27.4:SCIENCE REPORT
UNESCO
Trends in high-tech
exports from Southeast
Asia and Oceania,
2008 and 2013
MYANMAR
LAOS
VIET NAM
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
P H I L I P P I N E S
MARSHALL ISLANDS
PALAU
MALAYSIA
SINGAPORE
NAURU
I N D O N E S I A
PAPUA
NEW
GUINEA
SOLOMON ISLANDS
TUVALU
VANUATU
FIJI
A U S T R A L I A
NEW CALEDONIA
Malaysia 20.8
Thailand 10.6
NEW ZEALAND
2013
Philippines 6.4
45.9%
Singapore 45.9
Note: The regional shares of Cambodia, Fiji, Kiribati, Myanmar, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
Samoa, the Solomon Isalnds, Timor-Leste, Tonga and Vanuatu are close to zero.
Computers/office
machines 19.3
Electronic
communications 67.1
2013
20.8%
10.6%
1.7%
696
SAMOA
TONGA
Australia 1.7
New Zealand 0.2
Indonesia 2.1
KIRIBATI
TIMOR-LESTE
6.8
2.4
5.0
23.7
20.5
1.8
0.5
2.5
16.5
5.2
1.5 0.2
0.2
2.3
0.4
3.4
8.7
44.4
1.7 3.2
78.5
18.8
21.2
8.8
12.2
11.1
0.3
7.3
0.2
30.4
3.5
3.7
19.5
11.6
0.2
3.6
69.4
0.1
0.1
83.6
3.0
1.0
1.7
73.0
0.6
3.0
46.8
1.0
6.8
0.2
4.9
Aerospace
1.3
4.2
0.3
38.9
41.0
17.8
45.3
0.1
6.3
0.9
3.9
2.9
0.3
92.0
5.4
7.1
69.8
Solomon Islands
Timor-Leste
14.8
0.1
7.6
0.2
12.9
0.2
Thailand
2.1
84.3
12.2
Malaysia 1.0
Singapore
23.4
1.6
4.8
0.8
Kiribati 1.4
Philippines
3.3
90.4
Indonesia 0.6
New Zealand
19.9
0.1
0.8
0.6
Fiji
KIRIBATI
6.7
0.7 4.9
0.1
0.9
79.6
Armaments
Electronic communications
Computer/office machines
Chemical products
Non-electrical machinery
Pharmaceuticals
Electrical machinery
Scientific instruments
Growth in high-tech exports has been fastest in Cambodia and Viet Nam, exports have receded in
the Philippines and Fiji
US$ millions
High-tech exports (US$ millions)
2008
Australia
2013
Change (%)
4 340.3
5 193.2
852.9
19.7
Cambodia
3.8
76.5
72.7
1 913.6
Fiji
5.0
2.7
-2.3
-45.7
Indonesia
5 851.7
6 390.3
538.6
9.2
Malaysia
43 156.7
63 778.6
20 622.0
47.8
624.3
759.2
134.9
21.6
26 910.2
19 711.4
-7 198.8
-26.8
0.3
0.2
-0.1
-40.6
New Zealand
Philippines
Samoa
Singapore
140 790.8
17 719.9
14.4
33 257.9
37 286.4
4 028.5
12.1
Viet Nam
2 960.6
32 489.1
29 528.5
997.4
240 181.9
306 482.5
66 300.7
27.6
Total
Chapter 27
123 070.8
Thailand
697
698
TRENDS IN R&D
Developing research personnel high on the agenda
Across the region, human resources for S&T are primarily
concentrated in Australia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.
The strongest concentration of researchers is to be found
in Singapore, which, with 6438 full-time equivalent (FTE)
researchers per million inhabitants in 2012, is well ahead of
all G7 countries (Table 27.1). Technicians across the region are
most concentrated in Australia and New Zealand, reflecting
a pattern found in other mature economies, but Singapore
has a much lower concentration. One of the driving forces for
the freer flow of skills across ASEAN member States has been
the demand from Malaysia and Singapore for ready access to
technical personnel from elsewhere in the region. Malaysia
and Thailand are both suppliers and recruiters of skilled
personnel, as are the Philippines in some specialist fields. The
freer flow of skilled personnel across ASEAN after 2015 should
benefit both supplier and recruiter nations.
In terms of research training, Malaysia and Singapore stand
out for their significant investment in tertiary education.
Over the past decade, the share of their education budget
devoted to tertiary education has risen from 20% to over
35% in Singapore and 37% in Malaysia (Figure 27.5). These
two countries also happen to have the greatest share of PhD
candidates among university students. In most countries, new
institutions have sprung up to accommodate the growing
demand for higher education.
Table 27.1: Research personnel in Southeast Asia and Oceania, 2012 or closest year
Population (000s)
Australia (2008)
21 645
92 649
4 280
1 120
Indonesia (2009)
237 487
21 349
90
Malaysia (2012)
29 240
52 052
1 780
162
4 414
16 300
3 693
1 020
Philippines (2007)
88 876
6 957
78
11
Singapore (2012)
5 303
34 141
6 438
462
Thailand (2011)
66 576
36 360
546
170
Chapter 27
699
Figure
27.5:SCIENCE
Trends inREPORT
higher education in Southeast Asia and Oceania,
UNESCO
2013 or closest year
Five countries devote more than 1% of GDP to higher education
As a share of GDP, 2013 (%)
Timor-Leste (2011)
1.86
Thailand (2012)
0.71
0.71
9.42
6.30
2.20
5.11
0.76
4.20
0.78
Indonesia (2012)
3.85
0.61
Singapore (2013)
19.9%
4.86
0.54
Japan (2012)
5.94
1.19
Fiji (2011)
0.15%
7.35
Malaysia (2011)
3.57
1.04
2.94
2.77
Philippines (2009)
7.57
1.05
Australia (2011)
2.20%
0.32
All education
2.65
Higher education
Cambodia (2010)
0.38
Myanmar (2011)
0.15 0.79
2.60
3.3%
Australia and New Zealand count the greatest share of tertiary students among the total population
Tertiary enrolment,
all fields
Australia
2012
1 364 203
5.9
122 085
8.9
New Zealand
2012
259 588
5.8
36 960
14.2
Singapore
2013
255 348
4.7
36 069
14.1
Malaysia
2012
1 076 675
3.7
139 064
12.9
Thailand
2013
2 405 109
3.6
205 897
Philippines
2009
2 625 385
2.9
Indonesia
2012
6 233 984
2.5
433 473
Viet Nam
2013
2 250 030
2.5
Lao PDR
2013
137 092
2.0
6 804
Cambodia
2011
223 222
1.5
Myanmar
2012
634 306
1.2
148 461
700
Share of
total pop. (%).
Tertiary enrolment in
Share of science in
scientific disciplines tertiary enrolment (%)
Year
8.2-2
-1
8.1
-1
5.4-1
23.4
Malaysia (2011)
36.97
Singapore (2013)
35.28
25.33
Australia (2011)
23.20
Japan (2011)
20.14
Timor-Leste (2011)
19.79
Myanmar (2011)
19.12
Indonesia (2012)
17.18
16.67
15.61
Cambodia (2010)
14.54
Fiji (2011)
12.96
Philippines (2009)
11.96
Thailand (2012)
9.37
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Singapore and Malaysia have the greatest share of PhD students among university students
University enrolment in Asia by level of study, 2011, selected countries
PhD
Masters programme
Bachelors programme
Singapore (1:4)
Bangladesh (1:4)
Pakistan (1:4)
Nepal (1:4)
Malaysia (1:6)
India (1:6)
Korea, Rep. (1:7)
Thailand (1:7)
Iran (1:8)
Sri Lanka (1:9)
Japan (1:10)
Indonesia (1:12)
Cambodia (1:12)
Philippines* (1:27)
Lao, PDR (1:33)
Myanmar (1:45)
Bhutan
Timor-Leste
20
40
60
80
100
701
Chapter 27
50.0
49.9
52.7
52.3
40.0
30.0
41.7
30.6
29.6
20.0
10.0
Thailand (2011)
Singapore (2012)
Philippines (2007)
Malaysia (2012)
Indonesia (2005)
0.0
Countries around the Pacific Rim are seeking ways to link their
national knowledge base to regional and global advances in
science. One motivation for this greater interconnectedness is
the regions vulnerability to geohazards such as earthquakes
and tsunamis the Pacific Rim is not known as the Ring of
Fire for nothing. The need for greater disaster resilience is
inciting countries to develop collaboration in the geosciences.
Climate change is a parallel concern, as the Pacific Rim is
also one of the most vulnerable regions to rising sea levels
and increasingly capricious weather patterns. In March 2015,
much of Vanuatu was flattened by Cyclone Pam. Partly to
ensure the viability of its agriculture, Cambodia has adopted
a Climate Change Strategic Plan covering 2014 2023, with
financial support from the European Union and others.
The citation rate for papers published across the region is
growing. Between 2008 and 2012, countries from Southeast
Asia and Oceania surpassed the OECD average for the
number of papers among the 10% most-cited. In some cases,
the growth in international co-authorship may be a factor
in this positive outcome, as in Cambodia. All but Viet Nam
and Thailand have increased their share of internationally
co-authored scientific papers over the past decade. For the
smaller or transition economies, international collaboration
even represents more than 90% of the total, as in Papua New
Guinea, Cambodia, Myanmar and some Pacific Island states.
702
n Water resources;
n Biodiversity;
n Science; and
n Innovation for life.
Figure 27.7: Researchers (FTE) in Southeast Asia and Oceania by sector of employment, 2012 or closest year (%)
Australia (2008)
29.9
10.8
35.0
6.8
82.5
11.7
57.1
39.0
Philippines (2007)
28.4
50.6
Singapore (2012)
14.2
31.8
5.1
36.1
Thailand (2011)
3.3
29.5
31.3
57.8
35.5
Indonesia (2009)
Malaysia (2012)
8.9
44.2
9.3
Government
0.1
54.5
34.3
Business enterprise
0.8
50.4
Higher education
1.1
Private non-profit
Table 27.2: GERD in Southeast Asia and Oceania, 2013 or closest year
Share performed
by business (%)
Share funded
by business (%)
Australia (2011)
2.25
921.5
57.9
61.9-3
1.27
400.2
45.4
40.0
Indonesia (2013*)
0.09
6.2
25.7
Malaysia (2011)
1.13
251.4
64.4
60.2
Philippines (2007)
0.11
5.4
56.9
62.0
Singapore (2012)
2.02
1 537.3
60.9
53.4
Thailand (2011)
0.39
49.6
50.6
51.7
0.19
8.8
26.0
28.4
Chapter 27
As % of GDP
* national estimate
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, June 2015
703
Figure
27.8:SCIENCE
ScientificREPORT
publication trends in Southeast Asia and Oceania,
UNESCO
20052014
Scientists from Australia, Singapore and New Zealand are the most prolific
Publications per million inhabitants in 2014
Australia
1 974
Singapore
1 913
New Zealand
1 620
Malaysia
60.1%
331
Fiji
31.2%
120
Thailand
94
Vanuatu
74
Solomon Islands
30
Viet Nam
25
Lao PDR 19
7.8%
500
1 000
1 500
2 000
Australia 46 926
40 000
30 000
24 755
20 000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Singapore 10 553
Malaysia 9 998
10 000
7 500
6 111
5 000
4 942
2 500
2 503
1 559
570
554
486
2014
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Cambodia 206
200
150
Lao, PDR 129
Papua New Guinea 110
Fiji 106
100
50
704
61
54
44
41
41
12
6
4
Myanmar 70
Vanuatu 19
Solomon Islands 17
Micronesia 12
Australia 1 224
8 683
902
Cambodia
2 527 952
7
14
82
Lao PDR
11
6
90
Myanmar
914
New Zealand
64
1 750
Singapore 3
1 482
1 332
299 27
Viet Nam
896
174
Agriculture
100
175
Medical sciences
849
21
278
195
Chemistry
2
97
93
100 302
1 518
167
Computer science
140
73
53
4 10
1 210
46
57
1 174
257
Physics
18
51
654
26
354 251
714
1 661
110
289
Biological sciences
Astronomy
Mathematics
77
149
10
54
13
19
10 62
25
524
1 752
556
324
527
1 247
70 12
2 2
41
164
18
186
12
16
42
79
Thailand
19
31 6
15
180
2 231
18
476
191
391
589
2 342 543
45
1 2
945
19
15
1 006
12 218
16
29
324 7
839
17
295
11
Malaysia
4 215
55
Fiji 1
Indonesia
4 077
36
174
7
34
2
9
306
Engineering
Psychology
377
Geosciences
Social sciences
Singapore
16.4
Cambodia
14.3
Cambodia
Australia
14.1
Australia
Solomon Islands
1.47
1.39
1.31
New Zealand
13.6
1.22
Philippines
12.1
Philippines
New Zealand
12.0
Lao PDR
1.02
Solomon Isalnds
1.00
Indonesia
8.4
Malaysia
8.4
Viet Nam
8.1
Fiji
7.9
6.4
Vanuatu
0.95
0.93
0.88
Viet Nam
0.86
Vanuatu
0.81
Malaysia
0.83
Myanmar
3.3
0
Thailand
10
15
20
0.69
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
705
Chapter 27
Myanmar
0.96
8.2
Indonesia
Fiji
OECD average: 11.1%
Thailand
9.0
10.0
Lao PDR
1.15
Figure
27.8SCIENCE
(continued)
UNESCO
REPORT
Countries collaborate with a wide range of partners
Main foreign partners, 2008 2014 (number of papers)
1st collaborator
2nd collaborator
3rd collaborator
4th collaborator
5th collaborator
Australia
UK (29 324)
Cambodia
USA (307)
Thailand (233)
France (230)
UK (188)
Japan (136)
Cook Islands
USA (17)
Australia/
New Zealand (11)
France (4)
Brazil/Japan (3)
Fiji
Australia (229)
USA (110)
UK (81)
India (66)
Indonesia
Japan (1 848)
USA (1 147)
Australia (1 098)
Malaysia (950)
Netherlands (801)
Kiribati
Australia (7)
USA/Fiji (5)
Lao PDR
Thailand (191)
UK (161)
USA (136)
France (125)
Australia (117)
Malaysia
UK (3 076)
India (2 611)
Australia (2 425)
Iran (2 402)
USA (2 308)
Micronesia
USA (26)
Australia (9)
Fiji (8)
New Zealand/
Palau (5)
Myanmar
Japan (102)
Thailand (91)
USA (75)
Australia (46)
UK (43)
New Zealand
USA (8 853)
Australia (7 861)
UK (6 385)
Germany (3 021)
Canada (2 500)
Papua New
Guinea
Australia (375)
USA (197)
UK (103)
Spain (91)
Switzerland (70)
Philippines
USA (1 298)
Japan (909)
Australia (538)
China (500)
UK (410)
Samoa
USA (5)
Australia (4)
Ecuador/Spain/ New
Zealand/France/
China/Costa Rica/Fiji/
Chile/Japan/Cook
Islands (1)
Singapore
Australia (4 166)
UK (4 055)
Japan (2 098)
Solomon
Islands
Australia (48)
USA (15)
Vanuatu (10)
UK (9)
Fiji (8)
Thailand
USA (6 329)
Japan (4 108)
UK (2 749)
Australia (2 072)
China (1 668)
Tonga
Australia (17)
Fiji (13)
USA (9)
France (3)
Vanuatu
France (49)
Australia (45)
USA (24)
Solomon Islands/
New Zealand/ Japan
(10)
Viet Nam
USA (1 401)
Japan (1 384)
France (1 126)
UK (906)
Small or fledgling science systems have very high rates of foreign collaboration
51.6
49.3
46.4
Thailand
Malaysia
57.1
Singapore
Australia
58.9
New Zealand
69.5
76.5
Viet Nam
82.8
Fiji
77.6
85.8
Indonesia
Micronesia
88.9
Samoa
90.2
93.7
94.1
94.7
95.0
97.2
98.6
100
100
100
100
Note: Data are unavailable for some indicators for the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Micronesia, Niue, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu.
Source: Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded; data treatment by ScienceMetrix
706
Philippines
Myanmar
Timor-Leste
Vanuatu
Cambodia
Lao PDR
Solomon Islands
Tuvalu
Tonga
Kiribati
Cook Islands
The success of the centres will be measured by businessfocused metrics such as increased investment, employment,
productivity and sales, reduction in bureaucratic red-tape,
improved industryresearch linkages and a greater number of
businesses integrated into international value chains, in line
with the new approach established by the Minister of Industry
and Science, Ian Macfarlane, in 2014.
There has been a decisive shift in the present governments
approach away from renewable energy and carbon reduction
strategies. The Australian carbon tax introduced by the
previous Labour government has been abolished and,
in the 20142015 budget, the government announced
plans to abolish the Australian Renewable Energy Agency
(ARENA) and the Clean Energy Finance Corporation. ARENA
was established in July 2012 to promote the development,
commercialization and dissemination of renewable energy
and enabling technologies; it incorporated the Australian
Centre for Renewable Energy, which had opened in 2009.
However, both ARENA and the Clean Energy Finance
Corporation were established by acts of parliament and,
707
Chapter 27
708
CAMBODIA
A growth strategy that is working
Since 2010, Cambodia has pursued its impressive
transformation from a post-conflict state into a market
economy. Growth averaged 6.4%per year between 2007
and 2012 and the poverty rate shrank from 48% to 19% of
the population, according to the Asian Development Banks
Country Partnership Strategy 20142018.
Cambodia exports mainly garments and products from
agriculture and fisheries but is striving to diversify the
economy. There is some evidence of expansion in valueadded exports from a low starting point, largely thanks to the
manufacture of electrical goods and telecommunications by
foreign multinationals implanted in the country.
Higher spending on education, little on R&D
Public expenditure on education accounted for 2.6% of GDP
(2010), compared to 1.6% in 2007. The share going to tertiary
education remains modest, at 0.38% of GDP or 15% of total
expenditure, but it is growing. Despite this, Cambodia still
ranks lowest in the region for the education dimension of the
World Banks Knowledge Economy Index.
709
Chapter 27
AGRICULTURE
Diversification
and
commercialization
Promotion
of livestock farming
and aquaculture
Land reform
and mine
clearance
Sustainable
management
of natural resources
Population
policy and
gender equity
Health
and
nutrition
Development
of social
protection system
FIGHTING
CORRUPTION
LEGAL AND
JUDICIAL REFORM
GOOD GOVERNANCE
PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
REFORM
ARMED FORCES
REFORM AND
DEMOBLIZATION
Education, science
and technology and
S&T training
PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
FAVOURABLE FINANCIAL ENVIRONMENT
Transport
and urban
infrastructure
Information and
communication
technology
development
Water resources
and irrigation
management
Electric
power
PARTNERSHIP IN DEVELOPMENT
Promoting
investment and
business
Banks
and
finance
SMEs
Labour
market
development
710
INDONESIA
Ambitious targets for this emerging
market economy
By far the most populous country in Southeast Asia, Indonesia
is emerging as a middle-income economy with appreciable
levels of growth but it has not developed a technologyintensive industrial structure and lags behind comparable
economies for productivity growth (OECD, 2013). Since
2012, economic growth has slowed (to 5.1% in 2014) and
remains well below the East Asian average. Since taking
office in October 2014, President Joko Widodo has inherited
the ambitious growth targets enshrined in the Master Plan
for Acceleration and Expansion of Indonesias Economic
Development 20112025: 12.7% growth on average from 2010
to 2025, in order to make Indonesia one of the worlds ten
largest economies by 2025.
According to World Bank projections, economic growth will
accelerate somewhat through 2015 2017. In the meantime,
711
Chapter 27
712
MYANMAR
A lack of infrastructure to develop markets
Since 2011, Myanmar has been in transition
towards a market-based economy. The country is rich
in resources such as natural gas (39% of commodity
exports), precious stones (14%) and vegetables (12%).
Market development is hampered, however, by the lack
of infrastructure: telecommunications and internet access
remain a luxury and three out of four citizens lack access to
electricity.
Geosciences represented 11% of scientific articles between
2008 and 2013, reflecting the importance of fossil fuels
for the economy. Two-thirds of Myanmars modest output
nevertheless focused on the biological and medical sciences
(Figure 27.8). Nearly 94% of publications had at least one
foreign co-author.
There have been some interesting international joint ventures
recently involving public and private partners. For example,
infrastructure development for the first international
standard special economic zone (Thilawa) commenced in
2013 on the outskirts of Yangon. This multi-billion dollar joint
venture involves a Japanese consortium (39%), the Japanese
government (10%), the Sumitomo corporation and local
Myanmar firms (41%), as well as the Myanmar government
(10%). Companies in manufacturing, garments, processed
foods and electronics industries are among those which
plan to establish factories there. Thilawa is expected to be
commercially operational by the end of 2015 and should
serve as a focal point for future S&T-based collaboration
between the public and private sectors.
Pressure on a traditionally solid education system
Historically, Myanmar has enjoyed a solid education sector and
comparatively high literacy rates. In recent years, education
appears to have suffered, though, from funding shortages and
the limited access to international collaboration as a corollary
of the sanctions. Overall expenditure on education as a share of
GDP fell by about 30% and spending on tertiary education was
halved between 2001 and 2011.
713
Chapter 27
NEW ZEALAND
An increasingly AsianPacific economy
New Zealands economy relies heavily on
international trade, especially that with Australia, China,
the USA and Japan. Exports are dominated by food and
beverages (38% in 2013), including some knowledgeintensive products. The main destination for dairy products
used to be the UK but, upon integrating the European
Economic Community in 1973, the UK also signed up to
its common agricultural policy, which effectively excluded
external producers from the European market. This forced
New Zealand to shift its focus from northern hemisphere
markets towards supplying the AsiaPacific region, which
was taking 62% of New Zealands exports by 2013.
New Zealand is not only one of the few agrarian economies
among OECD members. It also has a lower GERD/GDP ratio
than many other OECD economies: 1.27% in 2011. Business
sector R&D increased slightly between 2009 and 2011 from
0.53% to 0.58% of GDP and thus now contributes just under
half of national investment in R&D.
714
n Healthier lives;
biosecurity, etc.;
Box 27.1: New Zealand: using science diplomacy to make a small voice heard
Science diplomacy is often viewed as the
domain of great powers and associated
with megascience projects like the
International Space Station. Beneath
these high-visibility projects, however,
science plays a key role in more discrete
and mundane ways in the functioning of
the international system.
Under the leadership of Sir Peter
Gluckman, Chief Science Advisor to the
Prime Minister, New Zealand has been
quietly building a number of networks
since 2009 that combine science and
diplomacy to advance the interests
and presence of smaller powers in the
international arena. In an era where
international economic governance
is increasingly seen as the purview of
groupings of populous countries like the
G8 or the G20, New Zealands approach
acts as a canary in the mine for larger
countries, says Prof. Gluckman, alerting
them to the particularities of smaller
powers which have not always been
reflected in the traditional rules-based
international architecture.
715
Chapter 27
716
PHILIPPINES
A desire to reduce disaster risk
Despite a rash of natural disasters in recent
years, GDP has pursued moderate growth in the Philippines
(Figure 27.2). This growth has been driven largely by
consumption that has itself been fuelled by remittances
from workers abroad and IT-enabled services, shielding
the economy from the lingering weakness of the global
economy (World Bank, 2014). Higher economic growth has
not substantially reduced poverty, however, which still affects
25% of the population.
The Philippines is one of the worlds most vulnerable countries
to natural disasters. Every year, between six and nine tropical
cyclones make landfall, alongside other extreme events such as
floods and landslides. In 2013, the Philippines had the misfortune
to lie in the path of Cyclone Haiyan (known as Yolanda in the
Philippines), possibly the strongest tropical cyclone ever to hit
land, with winds that were clocked at up to 380 kph.
To address disaster risk, the Philippines has been investing
heavily in critical infrastructure and enabling tools such as
Doppler radars, generating 3D disaster-simulation models
from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology and
the wide-scale installation of locally developed sensors for
accurate and timely disaster information nationwide. In
parallel, it has been building local capability to apply, replicate
and produce many of these technologies.
The decision to promote technological self-reliance to
reduce disaster risk is also a feature of the governments
approach to inclusive, sustained growth. The revised
Philippine Development Plan 20112016 enunciates strategies
for using S&T and innovation to boost productivity and
competitiveness in agriculture and small businesses, in
particular, in sectors and geographical areas dominated by
the poor, vulnerable and marginalized.
Building self-reliance in technology
The Department of Science and Technology is the key
government institution for science and technology, with
policy development being co-ordinated by a series of sectorial
councils. Within the framework of the current National Science
and Technology Plan, 20022020 (NSTP), the strategic focus
is on building technological self-reliance. The Harmonized
Agenda for Science and Technology, 20022020 reflects this
focus in its approach to problem-solving related to inclusive
growth and disaster risk reduction. The Harmonized Agenda
was presented to the President in August 2014. Although S&T
are guided by the NSTP, the Harmonized Agenda attempts
to provide more detail of how the country can become
technologically self-reliant to sustain science and technology
beyond the mandate of the current Aquino administration.
717
Chapter 27
SINGAPORE
718
Over the past two decades, Singapore has adopted a clusterbased approach to developing its research ecosystem,
which now combines both innovative foreign multinationals
and endogenous enterprises. Singapores success rests
to a large extent on the alignment of policies designed to
leverage national development from a strong multinational
presence with policies promoting local innovation. Over
the past decade, Singapore has invested heavily in stateof-the-art facilities and equipment and offered attractive
salary packages to world-renowned scientists and engineers,
driving up Singapores researcher intensity to one of the
highest levels in the world: 6 438 per million inhabitants in
2012 (Table 27.1). In parallel, the government has launched
vigorous higher education policies endowed with a generous
budget consistently more than 1% of GDP between 2009
and 2013 to develop intellectual capital and provide
research personnel for both foreign and domestic companies.
Government policies have also focused on developing
endogenous capabilities for innovation. Several national
research institutions have been grouped into hubs and
encouraged to establish ties with renowned knowledge hubs
abroad, in order to create centres of excellence in two niche
areas: Biopolis (for biomedical research) opened in 2003 and
Fusionopolis (for ICTs) in 2008.
It was also in 2008 that Singapores Research, Innovation
and Enterprise Council approved the establishment of a
National Framework for Innovation and Enterprise (NFIE).
NFIE has two core goals: to commercialize cutting-edge
technologies developed by R&D laboratories through the
research to market;
n national intellectual property principles for publicly funded
R&D; and
n the creation of innovation and enterprise institutes.
GERD/GDP (%)
2.34
2.0
2.07
2.03
2.10
2.16
2.16
2.13
2.16
2.01
2.02
1.88
1.56
1.5
1.43
1.27
1.34
1.40
1.34
1.33
1.23
1.23
1.22
Chapter 27
1.0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
719
720
THAILAND
Private sector invests most in value-added
chemical goods
Thailand experienced growth of just 27% between 2005
and 2012. Socio-political unrest through the latter part
of 2013 and a military coup dtat in May 2014 placed the
economy at a crossroads. The World Bank (2014) expects
consumer and investor confidence to recover once the
situation stabilizes. The Thai economy is, nevertheless,
likely to remain one of the slowest-growing in Southeast
Asia until at least 2016, according to the IMF.
Recent governments have considered it a top priority to
promote high-tech manufacturing, in order to stimulate
demand. There is certainly evidence of growth in services.
However, raising R&D capacity in Thailand will depend
very much on private-sector investment, which has
accounted for about 40% of GERD in recent years. Given
the countrys GERD/GDP ratio of 0.39% in 2011, industrial
R&D remains low key but this picture could be changing:
the Minister of Science and Technology issued a
statement in May 2015 claiming a 100% increase in GERD
to 0.47% of GDP in 2013 that had been largely driven by
private-sector investment.7
industrial technology);
n Singburi Vocational College (food technology); and
n Phang-nga Technical College in the south (innovation in
7. see www.thaiembassy.org/permanentmission.geneva/contents/files/news20150508-203416-400557.pdf
tourism).
The number of FTE researchers and technicians per million
inhabitants increased by 7% and 42% respectively between
2005 and 2009. Researcher density nevertheless remains
low, with the great majority of researchers being employed
by public research institutes or universities. The National
Science and Technology Development Agency(NSTDA) alone
employs over 7% of the countrys full-time researchers in
four institutions: the National Centre for Genetic Engineering
and Biotechnology; the National Electronics and Computer
Technology Centre; the National Metal and Materials
Technology Centre; and the National Nanotechnology Centre.
721
Chapter 27
TIMOR-LESTE
Oil-fuelled growth
Since gaining independence in 2002, Timor-Lestes
economy has shown healthy growth which is largely
attributable to the extraction of natural resources: crude
petroleum accounted for 92% of exports in 2014. GDP
expanded by 71% between 2005 and 2013, the secondhighest rate in the region (Figure 27.2). This has made the
young country increasingly independent economically, with
overseas development assistance falling steadily from 22.2%
of gross national income in 2005 to 6.0% in 2012.
722
VIET NAM
723
724
telecommunications; and
n Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental
9. See: http://pacenet.eu/news/pacenet-outcomes-2013
processing;
n infrastructure technology for the economic corridors;
n knowledge-based technology;
n S&T education; and
n the ambitious target of investing 5% of GDP in R&D by
2050.
At its gathering in November 2014, the Research, Science
and Technology Council re-emphasized the need to focus
on sustainable development through science and
technology. Moreover, in its Higher Education Plan III
20142023, Papua New Guinea sets out a strategy for
transforming tertiary education and R&D through the
introduction of a quality assurance system and a
programme to overcome the limited R&D capacity.
Like Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Samoa consider
education to be one of the key policy tools for driving STI
and modernization. Fiji, in particular, has made a supreme
effort to re-visit existing policies, rules and regulations
in this sector. The Fijian government allocates a larger
portion of its national budget to education than any
other Pacific Island country (4% of GDP in 2011), although
this is down from 6% of GDP in 2000. The proportion of
the education budget allocated to higher education has
fallen slightly, from 14% to 13%, but scholarship schemes
like National Toppers, introduced in 2014, and the
availability of student loans have made higher education
attractive and rewarding in Fiji. Many Pacific Island
countries take Fiji as a benchmark: the country draws
education leaders from other Pacific Island countries
for training and, according to the Ministry of Education,
teachers from Fiji are in great demand in these countries.
According to an internal investigation into the choice
of disciplines in school-leaving examinations (year 13),
Fijian students have shown a greater interest in science
since 2011. A similar trend can be observed in enrolment
figures at all three Fijian universities. One important
initiative has been the creation of the Higher Education
Commission (FHEC) in 2010, the regulatory body in
charge of tertiary education in Fiji. FHEC has embarked
on registration and accreditation processes for tertiarylevel education providers to improve the quality of higher
education in Fiji. In 2014, FHEC allocated research grants
to universities with a view to enhancing the research
culture among faculty.
Chapter 27
8. The ten are the: Australian National University, Montroix Pty Ltd (Australia),
University of the South Pacific, Institut Malard in French Caledonia, National Centre
for Technological Research into Nickel and its Environment in New Caledonia,
South Pacific Community, Landcare Research Ltd in New Zealand, University of
Papua New Guinea, Samoa National University and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre.
725
60.0
Percentage (%)
50.0
40.0
Education
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Health
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Fiji is the only Pacific Island country with recent data for GERD.
The national Bureau of Statistics cites a GERD/GDP ratio of
0.15% in 2012. Private-sector R&D is negligible. Between
2007 and 2012, government investment in R&D tended to
favour agriculture (Figure 27.11). Scientists publish much
more in geosciences and medical sciences than in agricultural
sciences, however (Figure 27.8).
According to the Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the
largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island
states10 in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). These publications
concerned mainly life sciences and geosciences. A noticeable
feature of scientific publications from French Polynesia and
New Caledonia is the emphasis on the geosciences: six to eight
times the world average for this field. Conversely, nine out of
ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea concentrate
on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology.
Fijian research collaboration with North American partners
exceeded that with India between 2008 and 2014 a
large proportion of Fijians are of Indian origin and was
concentrated in a handful of scientific disciplines, such as
medical sciences, environmental sciences and biology.
International co-authorship was higher for Papua New Guinea
and Fiji (90% and 83% respectively) than for New Caledonia
and French Polynesia (63% and 56% respectively). Research
partnerships also involved countries in Southeast Asia and
Oceania, as well as the USA and Europe. Surprisingly, there
10. They are not covered in the present chapter but the French territories of New
Caledonia and French Polynesia had 116 and 58 publications catalogued in the
Web of Science in 2013.
726
Table 27.3: National renewable energy targets for selected Pacific Island states, 20132020
Country
Energy Target
Timeframe
Cook Islands
50% of energy demand provided by renewable energy by 2015 and 100% by 2020
Fiji
90% renewable
2015
Nauru
50% renewable
2015
Palau
2020
Samoa
10% renewable
2016
Tonga
2015
Vanuatu
2013
Strategy
n support existing green industries by subsidizing firms that use green technologies throughout the production
value chain;
n increase public research funding for refining and improving existing technologies, such as the Ocean Centre for
Sustainable Transport;
n develop a national framework for promoting innovation and research into environmentally sustainable
n develop a strategy for science and technology, innovation and R&D that is integrated in an overall sustainable
Chapter 27
Develop national
innovative
capabilities
n ensure that at least 50% of secondary school teachers are trained to implement the revised Fiji National
Source: Ministry of Strategic Planning and National Development and Statistics (2014) A Green Growth Framework for Fiji: Restoring the Balance in Development that
is Sustainable for our Future. Suva
727
728
board, moulding, poles and posts and wood chips. Only a few
limited finished products are exported. Lack of automated
machinery, coupled with inadequately trained local technical
personnel, are some of the obstacles to introducing
automated machinery and design. Policy-makers need to
turn their attention to eliminating these barriers, in order for
forestry to make a more efficient and sustainable contribution
to national economic development.
The blueprint for the subregions sustainable development
over the coming decade is the Samoa Pathway, the action
plan adopted by countries at the third United Nations
Conference on Small Island Developing States in Apia (Samoa)
in September 2014. The Samoa Pathway focuses on, inter
alia, sustainable consumption and production; sustainable
energy, tourism and transportation; climate change; disaster
risk reduction; forests; water and sanitation, food security and
nutrition; chemical and waste management; oceans and seas;
biodiversity; desertification, land degradation and drought;
and health and non-communicable diseases.
CONCLUSION
A need to find a balance between local and global
engagement in problem-solving
Leaving aside for the moment the regions four leaders
for R&D intensity Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand and
Singapore most countries covered in the present chapter
are small both economically and in terms of their scientific
production. It is thus not surprising to find an extremely high
proportion of researchers in these countries who collaborate
more or less systematically with the more scientifically prolific
countries in the region and with scientists from knowledge
hubs in North America, Europe and elsewhere in Asia. For
the less developed economies in the Southeast Pacific and
Oceania, co-authorship is in the range of 90100% and such
collaboration appears to be growing. This trend can be of
benefit not only for the low income countries but also for
global science when it comes to tackling regional problems
associated with food production, health, medicine and geotechnical issues. However, the issue for the smaller economies
is whether output dominated by international scientific
collaboration is steering research in the direction envisaged
by national S&T policies or whether research in these less
developed countries is being driven by the particular interests
of foreign scientists.
We have seen that multinational corporations have gravitated
towards Cambodia and Viet Nam in recent years. Despite
this, the number of patents granted for these two countries
is negligible: four and 47 patents respectively over the period
from 20022013. Even though 11% of the regions high-tech
exports came from Viet Nam in 2013, according to the
Chapter 27
729
730
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the following people for their
assistance in compiling information and data on the
Philippines: Bernie S. Justimbaste, Director of the Planning
and Evaluation Service within the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST), and Anita G. Tidon, Senior Science
Research Specialist and Unit Head of the Socio-Economics
Research Division within the DOSTPhilippine Council for
Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and
Development.
Chapter 27
731
732
Perspectives
Annexes
1. Composition of regions and sub-regions
2. Glossary
3. Statistical annex
Annexes
733
AMERICAS
High-income economies
Antigua and Barbuda; Australia; Austria; Bahamas; Bahrain;
Barbados; Belgium; Brunei Darussalam; Canada; Chile;
China, Hong Kong SAR; China, Macao SAR; Croatia; Cyprus;
Czech Rep.; Denmark; Equatorial Guinea; Estonia; Finland;
France; Germany; Greece; Iceland; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan;
Kuwait; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Malta;
Netherlands; New Zealand; Norway; Oman; Poland; Portugal;
Qatar; Korea, Rep. of; Russian Federation; St Kitts and Nevis;
Saudi Arabia; Singapore; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden;
Switzerland; Trinidad and Tobago; United Arab Emirates;
United Kingdom; United States of America; Uruguay
North America
Canada; United States of America
Upper-middle-income economies
Albania; Algeria; Angola; Argentina; Azerbaijan; Belarus;
Belize; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Botswana; Brazil; Bulgaria;
China; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominica; Dominican Rep.;
Ecuador; Fiji; Gabon; Grenada; Hungary; Iran, Islamic Rep. of;
Iraq; Jamaica; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Lebanon; Libya; Malaysia;
Maldives; Marshall Islands; Mauritius; Mexico; Montenegro;
Namibia; Palau; Panama; Peru; Romania; St Lucia; St Vincent
and the Grenadines; Serbia; Seychelles; South Africa;
Suriname; Thailand; Macedonia, FYR; Tonga; Tunisia; Turkey;
Turkmenistan; Tuvalu; Venezuela
Lower-middle-income economies
Armenia; Bhutan; Bolivia; Cabo Verde; Cameroon; Congo;
Cte dIvoire; Djibouti; Egypt; El Salvador; Georgia; Ghana;
Guatemala; Guyana; Honduras; India; Indonesia; Kiribati;
Kyrgyzstan; Lao PDR; Lesotho; Mauritania; Micronesia;
Mongolia; Morocco; Nicaragua; Nigeria; Pakistan; Palestine;
Papua New Guinea; Paraguay; Philippines; Moldova, Rep. of;
Samoa; Sao Tome and Principe; Senegal; Solomon Islands;
South Sudan; Sri Lanka; Sudan; Swaziland; Syrian Arab Rep.;
Timor-Leste; Ukraine; Uzbekistan; Vanuatu; Viet Nam; Yemen;
Zambia
Low-income economies
Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Benin; Burkina Faso; Burundi;
Cambodia; Central African Rep.; Chad; Comoros; Korea,
DPR; Congo, Dem. Rep. of; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Gambia; Guinea;
Guinea-Bissau; Haiti; Kenya; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali;
Mozambique; Myanmar; Nepal; Niger; Rwanda; Sierra Leone;
Somalia; Tajikistan; Togo; Uganda; Tanzania; Zimbabwe
1. Grouping by income level are based on 2013 gross national income (GNI) per
capita, calculated using the World Bank Atlas method, as of 1 May 2015.
734
Latin America
Argentina; Belize; Bolivia; Brazil; Chile; Colombia; Costa Rica;
Ecuador; El Salvador; Guatemala; Guyana; Honduras; Mexico;
Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Peru; Suriname; Uruguay;
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda; Bahamas; Barbados; Cuba; Dominica;
Dominican Rep.; Grenada; Haiti; Jamaica; St Kitts and Nevis;
St Lucia; St Vincent and the Grenadines; Trinidad and Tobago
EUROPE
European Union
Austria; Belgium; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Rep.;
Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Germany; Greece;
Hungary; Ireland; Italy; Latvia; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Malta;
Netherlands; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Slovakia; Slovenia;
Spain; Sweden; United Kingdom
South-East Europe
Albania; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Montenegro; Serbia;
Macedonia, FYR
European Free Trade Association
Iceland; Liechtenstein; Norway; Switzerland
Other Europe
Belarus; Moldova, Rep. of; Russian Federation; Turkey; Ukraine
AFRICA
Sub-Saharan Africa
Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cameroon;
Cabo Verde; Central African Rep.; Chad; Comoros; Congo; Cte
dIvoire; Congo, Dem. Rep. of; Djibouti; Equatorial Guinea;
Eritrea; Ethiopia; Gabon; Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; GuineaBissau; Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali;
Mauritius; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Nigeria; Rwanda;
Sao Tome and Principe; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone;
Somalia; South Africa; South Sudan; Swaziland; Togo; Uganda;
Tanzania; Zambia; Zimbabwe
Arab States in Africa
Algeria; Egypt; Libya; Mauritania; Morocco; Sudan; Tunisia
ASIA
OECD
Central Asia
Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Tajikistan; Turkmenistan;
Uzbekistan
OCEANIA
Australia; New Zealand; Cook Islands; Fiji; Kiribati; Marshall
Islands; Micronesia; Nauru; Niue; Palau; Papua New Guinea;
Samoa; Solomon Islands; Tonga; Tuvalu; Vanuatu
Least developed countries2
Afghanistan; Angola; Bangladesh; Benin; Bhutan; Burkina Faso;
Burundi; Cambodia; Central African Rep.; Chad; Comoros;
Congo, Dem. Rep. of; Djibouti; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea;
Ethiopia; Gambia; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Haiti; Kiribati; Lao
PDR; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali; Mauritania;
Mozambique; Myanmar; Nepal; Niger; Rwanda; Sao Tome and
Principe; Senegal; Sierra Leone; Solomon Islands; Somalia;
South Sudan; Sudan; Timor-Leste; Togo; Tuvalu; Uganda;
Tanzania; Vanuatu; Yemen; Zambia
G20
Argentina; Australia; Brazil; Canada; China; France; Germany;
India; Indonesia; Italy; Japan; Korea, Rep. of; Mexico; Russian
Federation; Saudi Arabia; South Africa; Turkey; United
Kingdom; United States of America; European Union
Arab States
Algeria; Bahrain; Egypt; Iraq; Jordan; Kuwait; Lebanon; Libya;
Mauritania; Morocco; Oman; Palestine; Qatar; Saudi Arabia;
Sudan; Syrian Arab Rep.; Tunisia; United Arab Emirates; Yemen
735
736
737
Annex 2: Glossary
Brownfield investment
Investment in an existing site used for commercial purposes, such
as a factory, airport, power plant or steel mill, in order to expand
the business or upgrade the facilities and thereby improve the
return on investment; see also greenfield investment
Business accelerator
A model which provides start-ups with training, facilities,
mentorship and partners; accelerators invest in their start-ups,
unlike business incubators (see next entry)
Business incubator
A model which provides start-ups with training, facilities,
mentorship and partners; incubators do not invest in their
start-ups, unlike business accelerators (see previous entry)
Business sector (for R&D data)
All public and private firms, organizations and institutions
whose primary activity is the market production of goods or
services (other than higher education) for sale to the general
public at an economically significant price; includes the private
non-profit institutions mainly serving them
Capital expenditure (for R&D data)
Annual gross expenditure on fixed assets used in the R&D
programmes of statistical units, which should be reported in
full for the period when the expenditure occurred and should
not be registered as an element of depreciation
Current costs (for R&D data)
Composed of labour costs and other current costs; labour
costs of R&D personnel consist of annual wages, salaries and
all associated costs or fringe benefits; other current costs
comprise non-capital purchases of materials, supplies and
equipment to support R&D
Disruptive innovation
Dynamic start-ups which may be working on innovation with
potential to create new markets and disrupt the business
model of their more established competitors, including large
corporations; increasingly, corporations are opting to support
these start-ups through business accelerators and business
incubators (see above), as this approach can be more costeffective than the acquisition of the new technology; they
also stand to gain insights into the future of their market
and defuse disruptive innovation; examples of corporations
that have invested in disruptive innovation incubators and
accelerators are Allianz, Google, LinkedIn, Microsoft, Samsung,
Starbucks, Telefonica and Turner
738
Dutch Disease
Economic term describing the cause and effect relationship
between a resource boom and a decline in manufacturing;
the term was coined in 1977 by The Economist to describe
the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands
after the discovery of a large natural gas field in 1959; a
resource boom fuels demand for labour, causing production
to shift towards the booming sector, such as hydrocarbons
or minerals, to the detriment of manufacturing; a secondary
effect is the appreciation of the national currency, which
causes export-oriented manufacturing to suffer
Ex post evaluation
Assesses the relevance, effectiveness, impact and
sustainability of a completed project on the basis of
international criteria
Fields of education
According to the International Standard Classification of
Education 1997: Science: life sciences, physical sciences,
mathematics and statistics; computer sciences; Engineering,
Manufacturing and Construction: engineering and engineering
trades; manufacturing and processing; architecture and
building; Agriculture: agriculture, forestry and fishery;
veterinary science. Health and Welfare: medicine; medical
services; nursing; dental services; social care; social work
Fields of science and technology
According to the OECDs Revised Fields of Science and
Technology Classification (2007), these are: natural sciences;
engineering and technology; medical and health sciences;
agricultural sciences; social sciences and humanities; natural
sciences include: mathematics; computer and information
sciences; physical sciences; chemical sciences; earth and related
environmental sciences; and biological sciences; engineering
and technology include: civil engineering; electrical, electronic,
information engineering; mechanical engineering; chemical
engineering; materials engineering; medical engineering;
environmental engineering; environmental biotechnology;
industrial biotechnology; and nanotechnology; medical and
health sciences include: basic medicine; clinical medicine;
health sciences; health biotechnology; and other medical
sciences; agricultural sciences include: agriculture, forestry
and fisheries; animal and dairy science; veterinary sciences; and
agricultural biotechnology; social sciences include: psychology;
economics and business; educational sciences; sociology; law;
political science; social and economic geography; media and
communications; humanities include: history and archaeology;
languages and literature; philosophy, ethics and religion; and art
Annex 2: Glossary
739
740
Innovative firms
Firms that have implemented an innovation; unless otherwise
specified, the term is used to refer to product or process
innovative firms, which are also known as product or process
innovators
Innovation Union Scoreboard
Tool used by the European Union (EU) to monitor each year
the performance of Member States and European countries
with pre-accession status, via 25 indicators; countries are
classified into four categories: innovation leaders (well above
the EU average); innovation followers (above or close to the
EU average); moderate innovators (below the EU average) and
modest innovators (well below the EU average)
Knowledge Economy Index
A composite set of indicators reflecting: the incentives
offered by the economic and institutional sectors to make
efficient use of existing and new knowledge and nurture
entrepreneurship; the populations level of education and
skills; an efficient innovation ecosystem comprised of firms,
research centres, universities and other organizations;
information and communication technologies
Knowledge Index
A composite of indicators reflecting the populations level
of education and skills; an efficient innovation ecosystem
comprised of firms, research centres, universities and other
organizations; information and communication technologies
Marketing innovation
The implementation of a new marketing method involving
significant changes in product design or packaging, product
placement, product promotion, or pricing
Organizational innovation
The implementation of a new organizational method in the
firms business practices, workplace organization or external
relations
Patent and non-patent citations
The references provided in the search report that are used
to assess an inventions patentability and help to define
the legitimacy of the claims of a new patent application; as
they refer to the prior art, they indicate the knowledge that
preceded the invention and may also be cited to show the
lack of novelty of the citing invention; however, citations also
indicate the legal boundaries of the claims of the patent in
question; they therefore serve an important legal function,
Annex 2: Glossary
Researchers
Professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new
knowledge, products, processes, methods and systems, as
well as in the management of the projects concerned
Rule of law
The legal principle that law should govern a nation, as
opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of
individual government officials
Scientific and technological services
Activities concerned with research and experimental
development (see earlier entry) that contribute to the
generation, dissemination and application of scientific and
technical knowledge
Sources of information for innovation
Sources that provide information for new projects involving
innovation or contribute to the completion of existing
projects; they provide access to knowledge without the
need to pay for the knowledge itself, although there may
be marginal fees for access, such as membership of trade
associations, attendance at conferences, subscriptions to
journals
Triadic patent family
A set of patents registered at the European Patent Office, and
the Japan Patent Office and granted by the US Patent and
Trademark Office which share one or more priorities; triadic
patent families are consolidated to eliminate double counting
of patents filed at different offices by the same inventor for
the same invention
741
742
3: Statistical
annex
Table S1: Socioeconomic indicators, various years
Table S2: R&D expenditure by sector of
performance and source of funds, 2009 and 2013 (%)
Table S3: R&D expenditure as a share of GDP and
in purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars, 2009-2013
Table S4: Public expenditure on tertiary education,
2008 and 2013
Table S5: Tertiary graduates in 2008 and 2013 and
graduates in science, engineering, agriculture and
health in 2013
Table S6: Total researchers and researchers per
million inhabitants, 2009 and 2013
Table S7: Researchers by field of science, 2013 or
closest year (%)
Table S8: Scientific publications by country,
2005-2014
Table S9: Publications by major field of science,
2008 and 2014
Table S10: Scientific publications in international
collaboration, 2008-2014
743
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
744
Population
(000s)
Population
growth
(annual %)
2014
2014
2013
2013
2007
2013
2007
2013
35 525
322 583
0.97
0.79
81.40
78.84
7.10
7.40
1 290 073
14 477 600
1 502 939
16 768 100
39 226
48 061
42 753
53 042
41 803
340
10 848
202 034
17 773
48 930
4 938
15 983
6 384
15 860
804
8 261
123 799
6 169
3 926
6 918
30 769
544
3 419
30 851
0.86
2.34
1.64
0.83
0.87
1.25
1.34
1.54
0.68
2.50
0.51
1.99
1.19
1.45
1.59
1.68
1.29
0.86
0.34
1.46
76.19
73.90
67.22
73.89
79.84
73.98
79.92
76.47
72.34
71.99
66.21
73.80
77.35
74.79
77.58
72.27
74.81
71.03
77.05
74.64
7.50
14.60
2.60
5.90
6.00
10.50
7.60
4.20
6.30
2.80
11.10
4.20
4.90
7.20
4.10
5.20
3.90
7.80
6.60
7.50
2 222
44 218
2 291 377
277 331
430 916
50 798
118 844
42 637
86 653
3 733
29 065
1 551 985
21 474
43 045
36 921
228 549
6 280
44 067
450 739
2 817
65 426
3 012 934
386 614
600 341
67 605
171 385
49 228
112 865
5 234
37 189
2 002 543
28 230
75 028
55 049
357 648
8 667
66 759
553 325
7 763
4 570
12 060
16 638
9 684
11 382
8 329
6 963
6 506
4 845
4 049
13 670
3 838
12 330
6 028
8 068
12 304
13 200
16 298
8 487
6 131
15 037
21 942
12 424
13 876
10 890
7 764
7 297
6 546
4 593
16 370
4 643
19 416
8 093
11 774
16 071
19 594
18 198
91
383
286
11 259
72
10 529
106
10 461
2 799
55
184
109
1 344
1.02
1.37
0.50
0.06
0.47
1.20
0.38
1.39
0.54
1.10
0.72
0.00
0.23
75.83
75.07
75.30
79.24
76.60-11
73.45
72.74
63.06
73.47
71.34-11
74.79
72.50
69.93
13.60
12.20
3.20
14.90
7.00
15.00
5.80
2 068
8 196
4 201
179 772
648
92 793
1 175
14 405
22 696
1 062
1 705
1 063
37 038
24 504
23 960
15 206
15 907
9 151
9 651
11 347
1 514
8 524
21 036
10 021
9 749
28 272
21 028
23 264
15 574-1
18 796-2
10 343
12 186
11 645
1 703
8 893
21 396
10 488
10 491
30 446
8 526
11 144
7 168
4 272
1 153
10 740
5 640
1 284
5 443
64 641
82 652
11 128
9 933
4 677
61 070
2 041
3 008
537
430
16 802
38 221
10 610
21 640
5 454
2 076
47 066
9 631
63 489
0.37
0.36
0.76
0.41
1.04
0.36
0.37
0.27
0.32
0.54
0.09
0.00
0.22
1.08
0.13
0.45
0.29
1.20
0.27
0.26
0.01
0.02
0.27
0.07
0.17
0.30
0.63
0.56
80.89
80.39
74.47
77.13
79.80
78.28
80.30
76.42
80.83
81.97
81.04
80.63
75.27
81.04
82.29
73.98
74.16
81.80
80.75
81.10
76.85
80.37
74.46
76.26
80.28
82.43
81.70
80.96
4.90
8.40
12.90
17.70
15.80
6.90
7.00
8.80
8.20
10.40
5.30
27.30
10.20
13.10
12.20
11.10
11.80
5.90
6.50
6.70
10.40
16.50
7.30
14.20
10.20
26.60
8.10
7.50
325 501
389 125
97 975
83 945
22 334
274 806
211 218
29 269
198 374
2 178 975
3 022 124
324 007
193 771
205 290
1 971 193
39 032
61 649
38 890
9 607
709 976
643 934
265 937
275 071
115 184
55 863
1 483 742
371 092
2 294 882
382 263
464 923
114 292
90 861
24 494
305 101
245 834
34 035
216 146
2 474 881
3 539 320
283 041
230 867
210 037
2 125 098
45 422
75 284
49 472
12 332
775 728
912 404
290 756
379 134
143 437
59 448
1 542 768
428 736
2 452 672
39 238
36 621
12 985
18 924
28 488
26 683
38 674
21 831
37 509
34 040
36 736
29 025
19 270
46 668
33 731
17 739
19 079
81 023
23 621
43 340
16 892
25 224
13 172
21 431
27 681
32 807
40 565
37 423
45 079
41 575
15 732
21 351
28 224
29 018
43 782
25 823
39 740
37 532
43 884
25 667
23 334
45 684
35 281
22 569
25 454
91 048
29 127
46 162
23 690
27 804
18 974
26 497
28 859
33 094
44 658
38 259
3 185
3 825
2 108
622
9 468
0.38
0.12
0.06
0.03
0.44
77.54
76.28
75.19
74.76
75.14
16.00
28.40
29.00
19.80
22.20
22 748
30 167
19 422
7 689
77 164
28 774
36 515
24 468
8 781
93 276
7 659
7 798
9 264
12 446
10 454
9 931
9 536
11 612
14 132
13 020
1 892
8 779
4 411-1
211 947-2
745
126 784
1 233
17 571
24 141
1 159
1 912
1 147
40 833
Mobile phone
subscriptions per
100 inhabitants
Human
Development Index
(rank)
Global Innovation
Index (rank)
Inflation, consumer
prices (annual %)
2014
2013
2013
2013
2015
10.68-3
12.96-1
1.91
1.62
85.80
84.20
80.61
95.53
8
5
16
5
28.46
19.11
38.12
24.98
35.29
37.21
25.20
38.66
26.95
29.01
32.78
27.29
34.81
30.87
22.11-1
28.41
41.11-6
48.62
25.40
52.16-3
15.27
11.47
13.27
13.13
11.48
12.31
16.06
13.05
20.17
20.24
3.71
18.81
17.76
19.33
5.75-1
11.63
18.01-6
16.41
12.61
13.92-3
0.65-1
5.78
6.33
4.40
2.88
4.53
3.57
1.11
3.42
1.83-1
6.13
4.02
6.02
2.64
5.03
3.23
3.35
8.88
40.64-1
59.90
31.70
39.50
51.60
66.50
51.70
45.96
40.35
23.11
19.70
33.00
17.80
43.46
15.50
42.90
36.90
39.20
37.40
58.10
54.90
162.53
52.61
97.70
135.31
134.29
104.08
145.97
111.46
136.19
140.39
69.41
95.92
85.84
111.98
162.97
103.69
98.08
161.07
154.62
101.61
49
84
113
79
41
98
68
98
115
125
121
129
71
132
65
111
82
100
50
67
72
104
70
42
67
51
119
99
101
86
113
57
130
62
88
71
68
132
79.66
79.74
82.86-1
74.48-2
68.78
66.75
79.19
72.46-1
72.78
82.56
75.15
42.86
18.05
18.28
15.67-1
20.53-2
14.04
26.93
15.20
20.82-1
25.54
14.38
17.73
56.53
2.95
4.32
6.94-1
10.72-2
3.47
15.92
3.65
9.22-1
11.01
3.07
4.72
6.38
1.06-1
1.18
1.80-1
0.05-1
3.00
0.04-1
4.57
8.29
0.72-1
1.47-1
0.81-1
5.20-1
63.40
72.00
75.00
25.71
59.00
45.90
35.00
10.60
37.80
80.00
35.20
52.00
63.80
127.09
76.05
108.10
17.71
129.96
88.43
125.59
69.40
102.24
142.09
116.31
114.63
144.94
61
51
59
44
93
102
79
168
96
73
97
91
64
37
89
96
80
1.44
0.83
5.47
4.25
2.08-5
2.61
1.36
3.59
2.68
1.69
0.86
3.80
4.37
1.56
2.31
4.14-3
3.46-3
0.34
1.92-3
1.97
3.30
2.29
6.35
4.04
2.14
2.77
1.44
0.65
70.34
76.67
66.60
68.57
78.33-5
60.70
75.78
67.46
70.45
78.49
68.43
82.41
65.41
74.34
74.42
74.05-3
68.72-3
87.47
65.38-3
75.88
63.45
76.65
50.40
62.73
65.85
73.89
72.71
79.16
28.22
22.50
27.94
27.18
19.59-5
36.69
22.85
28.95
26.87
19.82
30.71
13.79
30.22
24.10
23.27
21.81-3
27.81-3
12.19
32.70-3
22.16
33.25
21.05
43.25
33.23
32.02
23.34
25.85
20.19
18.50
14.22
13.97
7.56-5
24.89
13.73
15.86
16.62
11.34
22.22
8.48
22.76
19.44
14.86
12.18-3
5.18
13.41-3
12.11
18.84
12.67
20.24
22.32
16.47
9.70
1.61
0.34
-1.42
0.21
-1.35
0.34
0.56
0.14
1.04
0.51
0.91
-1.31
0.24
0.20
0.24
0.63
0.08
0.63
0.31
0.99
0.11
0.28
1.07
0.08
0.20
0.15
0.18
1.46
80.62
82.17
53.06
66.75
65.45
74.11
94.63
80.00
91.51
81.92
83.96
59.87
72.64
78.25
58.46
75.23
68.45
93.78
68.91
93.96
62.85
62.10
49.76
77.88
72.68
71.57
94.78
89.84
156.23
110.90
145.19
114.51
96.36
127.73
127.12
159.66
171.57
98.50
120.92
116.82
116.43
102.76
158.82
228.40
151.34
148.64
129.75
113.73
149.08
113.04
105.58
113.91
110.21
106.89
124.40
124.61
21
21
58
47
32
28
10
33
24
20
6
29
43
11
26
48
35
21
39
4
35
41
54
37
25
27
12
14
18
25
39
40
34
24
10
23
6
21
12
45
35
8
31
33
38
9
26
4
46
30
54
36
28
27
3
2
22.24
8.46
10.45
9.80
8.99-1
62.49
64.43
63.38
71.36
60.72-1
15.27
27.10
26.17
18.84
30.29-1
8.94
13.24
11.63
5.03
18.07-1
1.63
0.93
0.28
0.71
2.08
60.10
67.90
61.20
56.80
51.50
116.16
91.10
106.17
159.95
119.39
95
86
84
51
77
87
79
56
41
63
Agriculture
Services
Industry
2007
2009
2011
2013
2.01
1.77
-2.71
-2.80
2.53
1.60
2.02
2.22
1.52-3
1.31-1
70.79-3
77.71-1
27.69-3
20.98-1
8.00
1.11
4.56
6.10
5.16
6.90
7.94
2.19
3.84
6.30
7.02
6.19
3.15
5.29
12.11
5.42
8.52
5.11
6.54
8.75
0.05
0.71
3.36
0.33
-1.04
1.65
-1.02
0.57
-3.13
0.53
3.32
-2.43
-4.70
-2.76
3.97
-3.97
1.05
3.01
2.35
-3.20
8.55
2.10
5.17
2.73
5.84
6.59
4.51
7.87
2.22
4.16
5.44
3.84
4.04
5.69
10.77
4.34
6.45
5.27
7.34
4.18
2.93
1.53
6.78
2.49
4.07
4.68
3.50
4.64
1.68
3.69
5.22
2.56
1.07
4.61
8.35
14.22
5.79
2.88
4.40
1.34
6.98
15.34
13.32
5.71
3.44
6.12
5.64
9.37
10.84
11.31
21.92
13.39
3.48
16.92
3.47-1
21.59
7.31-6
7.01
9.96
5.79-3
64.56
65.55
48.56
69.32
61.28
56.67
69.16
51.97
62.20
59.68
45.30
59.32
61.71
52.21
74.41-1
50.00
51.58-6
44.37
64.65
42.05-3
9.50
1.45
1.67
7.26
6.05
8.47
6.12
3.34
1.40
2.83
0.47
3.31
4.75
-12.04
-4.18
-4.14
1.45
-1.14
0.94
-6.61
3.08
-4.41
-5.60
0.65
-2.10
-4.39
-1.79
1.06
0.76
2.71
0.08
2.93
0.76
5.52
1.70
1.70
1.24
0.48
-1.60
0.07
0.67
0.01-1
0.91
4.58
2.42
4.30
1.27
4.21
0.43
1.66
1.60
2.28
1.98
1.47-1
5.00-2
17.17
6.32
5.61
6.72-1
1.68
3.06
7.12
0.62
3.62
3.00
6.91
5.15
5.13
5.53
0.82
7.90
5.18
2.36
3.27
3.54
0.51
4.93
1.47
9.98
9.84
6.46
4.28
4.20
7.20
2.49
6.26
10.68
6.94
3.77
3.40
2.56
-3.80
-2.62
-5.01
-7.38
-1.67
-4.84
-5.09
-14.74
-8.27
-2.94
-5.64
-4.39
-6.55
-6.37
-5.48
-17.95
-14.74
-5.33
-2.80
-3.30
2.63
-2.98
-6.80
-5.29
-7.80
-3.57
-5.18
-4.31
3.07
1.64
1.98
0.28
0.40
1.96
1.15
8.28
2.57
2.08
3.59
-8.86
1.81
2.77
0.59
5.30
6.00
2.61
1.40
1.66
4.76
-1.83
2.31
2.70
0.61
0.62
2.66
1.65
0.23
0.27
1.07
0.94
-5.40
0.70
0.49
1.63
-1.21
0.29
0.11
-3.32
1.53
0.17
-1.93
4.11
3.25
1.99
2.90
0.73
1.67
-1.36
3.50
1.42
-1.00
-1.23
1.50
1.73
5.90
6.84
6.15
10.66
5.89
3.35
-2.91
0.92
-5.66
-3.12
2.55
0.96
2.80
3.23
1.40
1.42
2.48
3.10
3.34
2.60
Manufact
uring
(subset of
industry)
2013
745
746
Population
(000s)
Population
growth
(annual %)
2014
2014
2013
2013
2007
2013
2007
2013
74.54
70.69
72.47
74.08
74.07
82.06
68.81
71.07
75.18
71.16
16.20
5.50
5.80
14.30
13.20
6.30
5.10
5.60
10.00
7.90
19 373
107 072
118 019
23 816
995 290
195 303
12 094
2 377 503
975 733
373 877
23 147
161 433
166 789
32 128
1 207 413
261 858
16 622
3 623 076
1 407 448
399 853
6 480
12 477
12 345
5 427
13 860
27 201
3 381
16 729
14 040
8 039
7 776
17 143
17 620
7 160
15 590
32 491
4 671
25 248
18 783
8 790
1.09
0.99-2
0.97
0.99
83.12
82.38
81.45
82.75
5.60
3.50
4.40
12 147
262 828
357 994
13 552
327 192
460 605
38 986
55 812
47 409
41 859
64 406
56 950
22 137
10 600
2 039
17 420
10 483
504
22 819
4 709
13 211
752
4 559
69 360
20 805
886
778
6 536
96 506
1 711
1 909
26 442
12 044
1 746
45 546
2 098
4 397
23 572
16 829
15 768
1 249
26 473
2 348
18 535
178 517
12 100
198
14 548
93
6 205
10 806
53 140
11 739
1 268
50 757
6 993
38 845
15 021
14 599
3.05
2.64
0.86
2.82
3.10
0.95
2.51
1.99
2.96
2.36
2.46
2.70
2.38
1.52
2.74
3.16
2.52
2.34
3.18
2.05
2.51
2.41
2.65
1.10
2.37
2.78
2.81
3.00
0.38
2.44
1.92
3.87
2.78
2.71
2.50
2.89
0.50
1.84
2.91
0.69
3.84
1.45
3.01
2.55
3.31
3.26
3.13
51.87
59.29
47.41
56.28
54.10
74.87
55.04
50.14
51.16
60.86
58.77
49.94
50.76
61.79
53.11
62.75
63.62
63.44
58.83
61.10
56.09
54.27
61.68
49.33
60.53
64.69
55.23
55.01
74.46
50.17
64.34
58.44
52.50
63.99
66.26
63.35
74.23
45.55
55.02
56.74
55.24
48.94
61.49
56.49
59.19
58.09
59.77
6.80
1.00
18.40
3.10
6.90
7.00
4.00
7.60
7.00
6.50
6.50
8.00
4.00
8.00
7.20
5.70
19.60
7.00
4.60
1.80
7.10
9.20
24.70
3.70
3.60
7.60
8.20
8.30
8.30
16.90
5.10
7.50
0.60
10.30
3.20
6.90
24.90
22.50
3.50
6.90
3.80
13.30
5.40
107 683
13 255
23 820
17 783
5 593
2 582
46 126
3 061
17 680
847
17 372
34 290
47 874
1 805
22 192
6 118
65 402
23 436
2 202
57 529
11 388
1 836
85 923
3 604
1 841
26 784
8 287
18 892
16 243
17 459
15 868
10 683
627 891
10 164
388
24 042
1 670
6 376
552 487
6 933
73 946
6 727
39 569
33 098
18 817
166 108
18 487
31 837
28 526
7 843
3 201
62 982
2 787
26 787
1 063
26 101
54 633
65 224
2 618
25 563
7 572
129 859
32 204
3 072
103 413
14 718
2 398
123 968
5 344
3 770
32 416
12 763
25 123
22 296
28 548
22 073
16 337
972 664
17 354
573
31 687
2 193
9 407
683 974
22 928
8 353
116 832
9 479
62 918
57 071
25 923
6 079
1 522
12 437
1 249
672
5 338
2 415
745
1 653
1 339
4 622
600
2 667
2 260
34 696
1 174
813
16 192
1 440
2 554
1 133
1 237
2 276
1 843
523
1 383
604
1 485
13 103
787
7 626
752
4 266
1 024
2 378
2 019
19 636
1 177
11 355
6 108
1 852
1 153
1 288
2 733
1 477
7 736
1 791
15 752
1 684
772
6 416
2 830
604
2 089
1 446
5 868
809
3 210
2 999
33 768
1 196
1 380
19 264
1 661
3 992
1 253
1 407
2 795
2 576
878
1 414
780
1 642
17 714
1 105
9 583
916
5 602
1 474
2 971
2 242
24 587
1 544
12 867
2 030
6 685
2 443
1 391
1 674
3 925
1 832
39 929
1 344
83 387
34 769
7 505
3 479
4 966
6 253
1.82
0.89
1.61
2.93
3.13
3.24
2.94
0.83
71.01
76.67
71.13
69.47
73.90
74.46
80.13
75.36
9.80
7.40
12.70
16.00
12.60
3.10
6.50
19.60
406 365
42 068
662 430
302 127
55 395
227 278
51 183
154 764
522 262
58 417
909 941
499 627
76 116
272 521-1
76 722
130 519
11 578
40 750
8 924
10 512
9 785
88 957
12 364
26 766
13 320
43 851
11 089
14 951
11 783
83 840-1
17 174
21 046
2 984
9 515
9 308
4 323
78 470
7 822
3 461
142 468
75 837
44 941
333
37-2
5 092
8 158
0.25
1.07
0.53
0.42
1.31
1.14
0.74
0.26
1.20
0.66
Mobile phone
subscriptions per
100 inhabitants
Human
Development Index
(rank)
Global Innovation
Index (rank)
Agriculture
Inflation, consumer
prices (annual %)
2014
2013
2013
2013
2015
11.41
4.52
26.84
13.40
10.55-6
13.64
14.82
17.63
13.71
2.98
2.42-1
18.12
3.07
17.24
0.48
5.09
7.83
8.85
12.21
46.30
58.70
54.17
43.10
31.40
70.80
48.80
61.40
46.25
41.80
112.42
107.61
118.79
115.03
84.25
122.85
106.01
152.84
92.96
138.06
87
76
53
79
75
19
114
57
69
83
61
93
53
73
106
22
44
48
58
64
24.47-1
40.79
25.73
13.48-1
7.29
18.69
2.03
2.03
0.01
96.55
93.80
95.05
86.70
108.11
104.07
116.27
136.78
13
18
1
3
13
20
1
32.14
49.46
60.54
47.76
42.44
74.87-1
47.24
31.95-1
33.09
50.40
23.62
40.97
55.45
79.26-6
6.44
63.03-4
43.02
31.96-1
49.61
42.09
42.65
50.67
59.88-1
44.75-1
57.48
54.25
35.01-1
72.49
50.22
60.49
43.36
57.01
51.73
64.29-2
58.44
86.28
32.57
67.79
44.83-2
42.97
53.70-2
53.98
56.50
56.90
57.80
14.01
36.92
29.38
17.73
17.03-1
29.87
13.73-1
15.41
12.52
72.02
38.24
22.27
16.89-6
22.44-4
11.95
64.02-1
28.53
37.67
13.67
19.81
31.82-1
16.41-1
16.15
18.79
22.73-1
24.29
20.79
33.36
19.44
21.99
14.88
15.93-2
24.03
11.34
7.96
29.90
47.69-2
23.18
15.54-2
20.76
33.85
31.10
7.21
8.17
5.68
6.42
9.46
14.39
6.48-1
2.70
7.02
4.30
16.55
12.75
2.45-6
5.65-4
4.04
5.78
6.48
11.72
11.65-1
3.32-1
10.74
17.04
10.86
13.16
6.11
9.03
5.20
6.41-2
13.56
6.27
2.04
13.23
43.83-2
7.36
8.09-2
10.01
8.18
12.82
7.28
-1.10
4.40
0.26
4.38
0.24
1.95-1
1.50-1
0.15-1
2.30-1
5.97-1
1.63-1
0.46
2.42-1
6.35-1
7.39
0.48-1
5.95
15.49
11.89-1
-1.02
6.88
5.34
7.57-1
6.08
24.43
0.89
3.22
4.26-1
5.35
0.92
8.06
1.27
6.43
-1.08
1.39
7.33
5.56
47.28-3
5.62-1
6.13
0.01
4.29
7.81
1.63-1
19.10
4.90
15.00
4.40
1.30
37.50
6.40
3.50
2.30
6.50
6.60
2.20
2.60
9.50
16.40
0.90
1.90
9.20
14.00
12.30
1.60
3.10
39.00
5.00
4.60
2.20
5.40
2.30
39.00
5.40
13.90
1.70
38.00
8.70
23.00
20.90
50.40
1.70
1.50
48.90
24.70
4.40
4.50
16.20
15.40
18.50
61.87
93.26
160.64
66.38
24.96
100.11
70.39
29.47
35.56
47.28
104.77
41.82
95.45
27.97
67.47
5.60
27.25
214.75
99.98
108.19
63.32
74.09
71.76
86.30
59.40
36.91
32.33
129.07
123.24
48.00
118.43
39.29
73.29
56.80
64.94
92.93
147.34
65.66
49.38
145.64
25.26
71.47
55.72
62.53
44.09
71.50
96.35
149
165
109
181
180
123
152
185
184
159
140
186
171
170
144
182
173
112
172
138
179
177
147
162
175
155
174
176
63
178
127
187
152
151
142
163
71
183
118
148
159
166
164
141
156
120
90
102
136
103
110
116
127
112
108
139
92
118
125
98
105
49
95
107
134
128
94
84
65
60
123
117
140
111
124
133
41.85
46.32
66.91
26.34
73.07
19.94-5
47.61
39.17
29.69
73.31
19.76
78.20-5
15.65
19.42
6.77
8.63
4.49-5
2.92
2.77
10.20
1.88-1
2.81
2.53
3.99-4
2.61-1
16.50
90.00
49.56
9.20
44.20
75.46
70.50
16.50
100.79
165.91
121.51
96.10
141.80
190.29
80.56
165.04
93
44
110
120
77
46
65
55
126
59
100
75
77
74
Services
Industry
2007
2009
2011
2013
13.75
25.05
8.60
12.34
7.82
6.27
3.00
8.54
4.67
7.90
-14.15
9.41
0.20
-3.78
3.94
1.90
-6.00
-7.82
-4.83
-14.80
4.70
0.07
5.54
7.20
3.00
4.19
6.80
4.26
8.77
5.20
3.50
5.80
0.89
3.32
-5.80
3.25
8.90
1.32
4.12
1.88
21.94
5.66
9.11
9.41
10.22-6
15.04
3.95
8.49
10.43
46.58
32.27
48.65
66.57
45.31-6
68.39
59.78
64.44
62.64
31.48
62.07
42.24
24.02
44.47-6
16.57
36.27
27.07
26.94
9.72
3.33
2.65
4.14
-5.15
-1.16
-1.63
-2.13
2.13
1.34
1.80
3.46
0.65
1.92
7.73-1
1.55
0.71
67.81-1
57.66
73.56
22.59
4.63
8.68
4.11
4.79
15.17
3.26
8.12
3.27
0.80
-1.58
6.26
1.77
5.10
13.14
1.43
11.46
5.55
3.63
6.46
1.76
3.20
6.99
4.73
15.69
6.24
9.49
4.30
5.90
7.28
6.62
3.15
6.83
7.61
2.00
4.94
10.06
8.04
5.36
3.50
7.15
2.29
8.41
8.35
-3.65
2.41
2.66
-7.84
2.87
3.47
-1.27
1.93
8.91
4.22
1.95
7.47
2.86
3.25
5.00
-8.07
3.88
8.80
-2.90
6.45
3.99
0.28
3.31
3.31
3.36
13.76
-4.01
9.04
4.46
3.00
6.48
0.30
0.71
6.93
6.27
4.02
2.42
-1.11
3.15
-1.54
5.04
1.25
5.40
3.51
7.25
9.22
5.98
3.92
3.26
6.18
6.63
4.19
3.97
4.14
3.30
0.08
2.60
3.42
6.87
-4.39
5.39
5.00
8.68
11.18
7.10
-4.33
15.01
3.91
9.03
6.12
2.84
9.13
1.45
4.35
2.73
3.90
7.44
5.12
2.31
4.89
7.85
4.94
2.07
7.92
5.77
3.21
-4.64
0.66
7.92
4.88
9.67
6.34
11.91
6.80
5.64
5.83
6.65
4.59
0.54
5.56
-36.00
3.97
3.50
3.44
8.48
8.70
5.00
-4.84
1.33
10.49
5.89
4.80
7.59
2.30
0.33
5.74
5.49
11.31
2.41
4.97
2.15
3.20
7.44
5.12
4.10
5.39
4.68
4.00
2.80
5.28
5.52
2.21
13.13
2.78
7.28
5.12
3.27
6.71
4.48
10.06
36.52
2.54
22.87
39.83
8.10-1
22.89
54.32-1
51.50
37.08
4.36
20.79
22.28
3.86-6
14.53-4
45.03
4.02-1
21.86
20.24
43.68
29.51
8.30-1
38.84-1
26.37
26.96
42.26-1
3.22
28.99
6.14
37.20
21.00
33.39
19.78-2
17.52
2.37
59.47
2.32
7.48-2
33.85
30.76-2
25.26
9.64
12.00
3.40
8.29
7.09
1.38
8.18
5.99
9.40
6.00
1.60
2.54
4.67
5.81
5.48
-7.08
10.30
2.10
2.80
2.10
1.76
10.21
2.56
10.21
2.00
-62.08
2.80
5.34
2.10
4.21
2.83
8.31-1
0.90
-10.88
10.54
14.51
3.40
0.35
7.18
1.87-5
Manufact
uring
(subset of
industry)
2013
747
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Population
(000s)
Population
growth
(annual %)
2014
2014
2013
2013
2007
2013
2007
2013
3 984
33 493
3 926
4 436
2 268
29 369
38 764
21 987
11 117
9 446
24 969
2.40
1.46
7.78
2.51
4.47
1.86
2.08
0.40
1.09
1.06
2.27
61.51
70.87
76.85
73.20
78.61
75.70
62.04
74.72
73.65
77.13
63.09
31.00
9.20
7.90
23.40
0.50
5.70
15.20
10.80
13.30
3.80
17.40
8 523
170 875
108 310
13 218
138 537
999 859
129 873
92 335
453 316
86 896
11 836
241 682
150 236-1
19 916-1
296 517
1 546 500
128 053
121 107
550 915-1
96 636
2 560
5 489
42 148
3 782
120 210
38 581
3 096
9 030
78 194
4 102
3 043
7 198
45 334-1
4 921-1
136 727
53 644
3 373
11 124
59 845-1
3 959
16 607
5 625
2 881
8 409
5 307
29 325
1.01
1.39
1.48
2.42
1.27
1.34
70.45
70.20
67.55
67.37
65.46
68.23
5.20
8.00
4.90
10.70
10.60
10.70
268 714
12 902
14 472
12 714
35 860
88 095
395 463
18 376
26 787
20 620
73 383
156 295
17 354
2 449
5 577
1 788
7 381
3 279
23 214
3 213
9 435
2 512
14 004
5 168
31 281
158 513
766
1 267 402
352
28 121
185 133
21 446
2.36
1.22
1.53
1.21
1.88
1.16
1.63
0.81
60.93
70.69
68.30
66.46
77.94
68.40
66.59
74.24
8.00
4.30
2.10
3.60
11.60
2.70
5.10
4.20
32 219
297 842
3 525
4 156 058
2 832
43 493
647 797
124 345
59 459
461 644
5 583
6 783 778
4 022
62 400
838 164
199 466
1 223
2 034
5 189
3 586
9 186
1 676
3 952
6 205
1 946
2 948
7 405
5 418
11 657
2 245
4 602
9 738
423
15 408
1 393 784
7 260
575
252 812
127 000
25 027
49 512
6 894
30 188
53 719
100 096
5 517
67 223
1 152
92 548
1.29
1.79
0.59
0.77
1.59
1.17
0.11
0.53
0.50
1.82
1.57
0.86
1.72
1.93
0.32
1.71
0.94
78.57
71.75
75.35
83.83
80.34
70.82
83.33
69.81
81.46
68.25
75.02
65.10
68.71
82.35
74.37
67.52
75.76
3.80
0.30
4.60
3.30
1.80
6.30
4.00
4.60
3.10
1.40
3.20
3.40
7.10
2.80
0.70
4.40
2.00
26 973
30 059
8 796 899
299 425
37 088
1 544 770
4 264 207
1 354 518
18 685
489 960
435 875
294 619
743 320
1 266
310 033
29 987
46 027
16 161 655
382 490
80 765
2 388 997
4 612 630
1 660 385
32 644
693 535
643 088
425 259
964 518
2 386-1
474 958
70 714
2 187
6 675
43 293
75 197
6 688
33 314
27 872
3 107
18 273
4 904
64 207
11 249
1 246
3 681
71 777
3 041
11 907
53 216
142 599
9 561
36 223
33 062
4 822
23 338
6 536
78 763
14 394
2 076-1
5 294
23 630
4 551
16
887
104
53
104
11
1
21
7 476
192
573
106
11
258
1.22
1.01
0.27
0.67
1.54
0.26
0.34
1.91
-2.12
0.63
2.09
0.76
2.05
0.43
0.53
2.17
82.20
81.41
69.92
68.85
65.24-13
68.96
69.13-8
62.43
73.26
67.72
72.64
71.69
5.70
6.20
8.10
2.10
3.80
761 369
121 926
5 610
157
170
323
298
11 472
983
805
454
30
587
36 556
28 866
6 716
1 679
3 255
3 073
14 811
1 793
5 393
1 637
4 438
3 044
2 670
43 202
34 732
7 750
1 856
3 901
3 395
15 096
2 643
5 769
2 069
5 304
3 645
2 991
999 241
154 281
6 829
190
205
352
316
19 349
1 098
1 161
559
36
756
Source:
Population: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2013; World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision
Human Development Index (rank): Human Development Report 2014: Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience,
Human Development Report Office (HDRO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
Global Innovation Index (rank): Cornell University, INSEAD, and WIPO (2015): The Global Innovation Index 2015: Effective Innovation Policies for
Development, Fontainebleau, Ithaca, and Geneva. GDP related data and all the other data not specified under above sources: World Bank; World
Development Indicators, as of April 2015
748
Inflation, consumer
prices (annual %)
Mobile phone
subscriptions per
100 inhabitants
Human
Development Index
(rank)
Global Innovation
Index (rank)
2014
2013
2013
2013
2015
6.72
4.38
5.76-1
-4.43
6.32
3.95
-6.00
2.52
5.20
4.16
15.46
16.57
1.27
5.33-1
0.09
1.84
28.15
17.94-6
8.61
0.66
10.15-7
43.02
54.90
31.39
69.60-1
30.28
37.59
50.17
49.09-6
61.41
40.33
40.61-7
41.53
28.53
67.34
25.07-1
69.62
60.57
21.68
32.97-6
29.98
59.02
49.25-7
4.14
15.44
10.67
16.24-1
9.94
10.09
8.19
16.97
8.53
7.76-7
4.13-1
0.44
1.01
2.75-5
2.99
2.67
29.96-1
36.70-2
4.94
2.34
10.97-1
6.20
56.00
66.45
46.60
85.30
60.50
22.70
26.20
43.80
88.00
20.00
102.53
128.53
154.65
73.74
152.64
184.20
72.85
56.13
115.60
171.87
69.01
161
129
56
107
31
34
166
118
90
40
154
78
69
50
43
141
76
47
137
7.50
5.96
17.51
7.40
14.70
8.30
6.00
10.53
11.74
7.40
10.20
8.00
4.93
17.73
16.47
27.41
14.55-1
19.14
58.18
55.59
50.26
50.84
37.01-1
54.59
36.89
26.67
33.27
21.75
48.44-1
26.27
11.64
15.59
7.17
11.19
10.51
6.72
7.53
13.02
6.10
54.00
23.40
17.70
16.00
9.60
38.20
184.69
121.45
124.18
91.83
116.89
74.31
70
125
103
133
103
116
82
109
66
114
122
21.02
5.05
6.66
8.48
-3.64
4.53
2.83
3.54
6.11
6.46
7.89
6.64
6.48
3.42
2.75
8.25
1.93
6.01
2.04
6.90
3.71
3.78
4.41
7.25
23.97
16.28
17.08
17.95
4.20-1
35.10
25.11
10.76
54.84
56.09
38.27
51.31
73.28-1
49.19
53.81
56.78
21.19
27.64
44.65
30.73
22.52-1
15.71
21.08
32.46
12.10
17.27
8.98
17.26
7.08-1
6.59
14.01
17.71
4.62
6.99
8.21
6.35
2.12
8.37
7.19
3.28
5.90
6.50
29.90
15.10
44.10
13.30
10.90
21.90
70.66
74.43
72.20
70.78
181.19
76.85
70.13
95.50
169
142
136
135
103
145
146
73
129
121
81
135
131
85
0.15
10.21
14.16
6.46
14.33
6.35
2.19
5.46
7.60
6.30
13.64-3
6.62
9.11
5.04
11.45
7.13
-1.76
0.09
9.21
-2.46
1.71
4.63
-5.53
0.71
7.50
-1.51
1.15
0.60
-2.33
12.96
5.40
3.43
7.07
9.30
4.79
21.29
6.49
0.45
3.68
8.04
5.19
3.66
6.06
0.08
14.67
6.24
-1.75
7.41
7.67
2.93
11.89
5.78
1.61
2.97
8.52
4.73
7.18
3.85
1.77
7.84-1
5.42
0.73
33.52
10.01
0.06
0.00-1
14.43
1.22-1
2.34
26.51
9.31
48.35-9
11.23
0.03
11.98
18.42-1
18.38
31.03
40.83
46.09
92.74
93.76-1
39.87
73.18-1
59.11
40.43
50.18
35.44-9
57.65
74.86
45.47
61.83-1
43.31
68.24
25.65
43.89
7.20
6.24-1
45.69
25.60-1
38.55
33.06
40.51
16.21-9
31.12
25.11
42.55
19.75-1
38.31
12.35
16.44
31.83
1.46
0.71-1
23.70
18.17-1
31.10
8.25
23.92
11.57-9
20.40
18.76
32.94
0.86-1
17.49
0.19
3.86
1.99
4.43
6.04
6.39
2.74
1.27
6.36-1
3.14
5.52-1
4.13
1.04
1.90
0.44
4.09
64.50
6.00
45.80
74.20
65.80
15.82
86.25
0.00-1
84.77
12.50
66.97
1.20
37.00
73.00
28.94
1.10
43.90
112.21
133.89
88.71
237.35
304.08
125.36
117.63
9.72
111.00
68.14
144.69
12.83
104.50
155.92
140.05
57.38
130.89
30
136
91
15
108
17
15
139
62
150
117
9
89
128
121
91
29
11
97
19
14
32
138
83
7
55
52
3.76
3.54
0.85
7.52
3.77
-2.06
1.85
7.15
6.32
7.32
-4.14
6.35
5.18
1.73
2.21
-1.39
0.67
-1.66
0.96
-10.75
6.14
-4.81
-4.73
3.24
-4.43
3.31
2.32
2.33
2.71
2.74
0.02
2.05
5.33
10.67
5.15
10.70
2.88
8.45
1.21
2.51
2.50
3.47
2.97
2.99
-4.00
0.33
5.54
-1.14
2.95
0.50
1.30
1.97
2.45
7.18-3
12.22
25.28-3
28.21-2
5.33
37.80-9
35.65-7
19.17-1
22.16
27.98
70.73
69.07-3
67.63
66.51-3
62.65-2
86.42
23.33-9
57.59-7
59.34-1
69.11
63.22
26.82
23.75-3
20.15
8.21-3
9.22-2
8.25
38.87-9
6.75-7
21.49-1
8.73
8.80
7.13
12.18-3
14.50
5.55-3
0.49-2
1.11
7.05-9
4.85-7
6.43-1
3.61
2.49
0.84
0.54
4.96-1
0.41
5.39-1
2.51
0.80
83.00
82.78
37.10
11.50
11.70
27.80
26.97-9
6.50
15.30
8.00
35.00
37.00
11.30
106.84
105.78
105.60
16.61
1.27-8
30.32
85.79
40.98
47.19-6
57.57
54.59
34.43
50.34
2
7
88
133
124
60
157
106
157
100
131
17
15
115
2009
2011
1.02
2.71
4.45
-1.77
17.99
5.99
11.52
5.70
6.23
3.18
3.34
-1.22
4.76
6.11
20.94
11.96
1.83
3.23
3.61
-5.24
4.13
3.99
4.99
0.88
7.89
13.02
8.57
-3.29
0.51
4.89
-15.09
8.90
8.54
10.25
7.80
11.06
9.50
1.20
2.89
-1.27
3.80
6.10
8.10
13.74
7.06
17.93
9.80
10.56
3.41
4.83
6.80
Agriculture
Services
2013
Industry
Manufact
uring
(subset of
industry)
2013
Abbreviations:
GDP: gross domestic product
PPP$: purchasing power parity dollars
NB: See Key To All Tables at the end of Table S10.
749
750
31.32
41.00-7
39.81
49.83
48.99
12.97
100.00
84.67q
29.21
2.44
59.86-1
38.11-5
34.60
1.69
13.00-7
27.53
25.79
1.82
4.14
2.17q
2.91
44.08
11.82-1
7.08-5
2.73
-7
0.01
0.00-1
0.00-5
1.11
86.67-7
2.18
13.33-7
61.27
-7
36.54
-7
-7
68.09
66.26
29.96
40.42
19.80
56.50
69.78
44.69
71.42
61.69
67.56
28.59-2
57.24t
68.30
53.30
36.39
24.39
75.89
63.36
47.08
28.50
47.30
40.18
41.05
64.61
51.90
70.64
60.41
5.34
8.94
55.24
27.16
20.42
23.26
2.07
10.99
9.10
16.31
14.82c
20.92-2,r
20.06t
5.05
13.14
24.71
23.41
16.10
4.73
12.75c
34.31
7.31
34.91
33.89p
20.76
20.07
4.42
9.16
26.10
23.79
14.04
32.31
46.12
19.70
27.72
42.16
18.90
20.80
17.62
49.23-2,r
20.94t
26.65r
30.26
38.90
52.20
8.01
31.91
40.17
37.07
36.58
24.74
25.01
14.56
27.83
24.87
27.95
0.48
1.00
0.76
0.12
13.66
0.54
0.42
2.17
0.58
1.20
g
1.26-2,r
3.30
g
0.13
8.81
0.17
0.05
0.07
0.20
0.07q
2.48r
0.00-1
-2
21.14
5.15-2
14.32
52.10-1,q
12.60-2,q
46.41
14.87-2
30.87
47.90-1,q
68.75-2,q
32.45
79.98-2
54.78
0.00-1
1.06-2,q
0.00-2
0.03
-2
-1
17.59-2,q
-2
9.15v
12.31-1,v
39.80v
13.83-1,o,v
21.47-1
34.43-1
23.12
15.85-2
58.12-2
-1
0.17-1,q
37.97
2.00-2
-1
17.99-1
45.59-1
4.08-1
7.57
36.59-2
24.52-2
-1
16.54-1,q
31.39
64.30-2
31.62-1
34.01-1
31.17-1
34.27-1
42.32
45.23-2
14.19-2
100.00-1
82.32-1,q
29.10
2.46-2
59.92-1
43.44-1
63.29-1
36.69-1
68.78r,v
69.10v
61.08
50.10
15.45v
54.12
65.43r,v
47.72
68.86
64.75v
66.91r,v
33.34s
69.43t
72.03-1,r
53.98v
28.24
25.46
61.38s,v
54.26
57.54s,v
43.62
47.57v
30.66s
46.26
76.53s
53.08
68.95
64.51r,v
5.14r,v
8.80v
29.67
25.53
14.40v
18.31
2.39r,v
8.93
8.92
13.15s,v
15.09c,r,v
27.98s
14.89t
4.85-1
14.92v
28.89
19.83
23.30r,v
10.18v
10.68c,v
26.83
5.79v
49.23s
20.48p
13.01s
18.72
3.68q
7.31r,v
58.42s
11.50-3
49.31s
13.27
5.81s
43.78-3
16.00s
33.36
-1
Not elsewhere
classified
44.73
21.00-7
3.34
4.62
23.49
42.04
11.16q
26.81
51.71
28.32-1
25.63-5
27.12
50.52
69.83-1,o,v
Private nonprofit
22.26
25.00-7
29.32
19.77
25.71
40.85
2.00q
41.07
1.75
-1
29.17-5
34.44
Higher education
0.41
4.48o,r
Government
35.91
14.03o
Business enterprise
10.45
11.93
Not elsewhere
classified
53.23
69.55o
Government
Private nonprofit
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
2013
Higher education
Business enterprise
2009
0.52
4.03-1,o,r
-1
1.76-1
27.23-1
26.99
2.32-2
3.17-2
-1
0.96-1,q
1.55
31.30-2
8.46-1
4.56-1
-1
-1
0.02-2
-2
-1
-1
-2
-1
-1
-1
0.01-1
25.59r,v
21.68v
8.65
24.36
57.26v
27.23
31.77r,v
42.30
21.52
20.75v
18.00r,v
37.43s
14.39t
23.12-1,r
28.21v
42.87
54.71
15.32r,v
35.56v
31.78v
29.26
37.84v
19.72s
33.10
10.42s
28.03
27.14
26.30r,v
0.49r,v
0.43v
0.60
12.89v
0.34
0.40r,v
1.06
0.71
1.35v
g
1.25
-1
2.88v
g
0.29
8.80v
0.40s
0.15
0.04s
0.17
0.22s
1.88r,v
-1
35.64s
44.72-3
32.02s
53.34
0.12s
-3
2.68s
0.03
-3
s
0.87
2.05
1.70
5.10
2.82
0.51h
0.12
0.27
16.43
2.10-1
0.59
0.67
1.86
19.05
3.40
1.66
9.80h
11.25
47.74q
1.75
24.95
12.25-1
1.83
15.01
75.01
47.06
58.62
30.23
39.79
15.73
39.76
62.14
38.49
68.10
52.27
66.13
33.48r
46.43
52.09r
44.16
36.90
30.81
70.27
51.57
45.15
27.10
43.87
34.75
35.11
57.98
43.36
59.14
44.54r
34.91
25.31
60.47
51.19
69.00
47.77
26.14
48.82
24.00
38.71
29.77
54.75r
41.98
29.80r
42.15
44.74
52.68
24.26
30.01
40.89
60.44
45.46
54.92
50.56q
35.66
47.10
27.26
32.55
3.26-1,q
7.79-7,r
8.33
80.80-1,q
76.31-7,r
62.87
0.67
3.21
0.74
1.95
2.76
1.18
g
0.69
0.14
1.20
2.12r
1.11r
1.26
3.00
3.21
0.04
0.00
0.29
6.70
2.85
1.91
0.59
0.29
3.45
0.63
1.28r
8.57-1,q
7.33-7,r
20.86
0.00
13.15
13.74
40.84h
0.30
0.01
-1
1.11
21.34-1
43.07-1
34.95-1
29.02
18.85-2
0.42-2,h
2.75-1
-1
31.65
18.86-2
0.85-1
15.03-1
74.01-1
54.93-1
35.96-1
45.77
61.98-2
28.45-2,h
11.73-1
23.51-1,q
65.50
46.73-2
82.55-1
32.97-1
9.98
19.99
69.99
0.56
0.75
0.18
0.12
0.45
0.02
3.12
0.68
1.15
0.79
0.26
0.94r
0.69
0.50r
3.01
0.29
0.07
0.05
2.82
0.26
3.73
0.08
0.96
0.03
0.63
2.58
4.99r
16.79
12.11
8.38
6.96
12.06
11.28
8.61
11.33
6.61
7.03
3.85
8.71r
10.90
16.51r
9.42
15.36
13.01
5.37
18.37
10.85
5.50
4.09
8.34
12.78
6.04
5.46
10.39
16.64r
44.12r,v
60.15-2
19.51
42.79
10.86-1
37.60
59.78r,v
42.05
60.84
55.38-1,s
66.07-1
30.28
46.80
50.34-1,r
44.29-1
21.79
27.47
47.81-2
44.35v
47.10s,v
37.33
46.04-1
31.02s
40.19
63.85s
46.30
60.95q
46.55r,v
39.07c,r,v
23.42-2
31.62
39.74
66.38-1
34.74
29.27r,v
47.22
26.03s
34.97-1,s
29.21-1
52.27
35.88
27.26-1,r
42.55-1
23.94
34.54
30.52-2
33.86v
34.33s,v
47.24
43.13-1
52.29s
38.90q
26.87s
41.63
28.20q
26.99r,v
-1
-7
1.83
42.32
7.53
25.35
31.66
59.51
0.00-1
0.02-7,r
0.76
7.37-1,q
8.55-7,r
7.18
3.11-1
2.00-1
9.42-1
14.83
-2
8.09-2,h
74.33-1
27.48-1,q
1.52
5.00-2
3.71-1
43.43-1
3.88v
3.30-1,o,v
5.95v
3.80-1,g
0.96-1
-1
2.13-1
8.00
0.74-2
0.47-2,h
2.63-1
-1
0.67
8.66-2
2.86-1
0.92-1
0.58-1
-1
17.54-1
2.38
6.54-2
4.46-2,h
9.15-1
49.01-1,q
0.66
20.73-2
7.71-1
7.65-1
g
2.87-2
0.13
1.68
4.59-1
0.45
g
0.27
0.23
1.22-1,s
-1
2.60
0.64-1,r
0.94-1
2.65
0.13
0.06-2
1.29v
0.39s,v
2.13
3.58-1
1.15s
2.74
0.35s
4.08
0.99q
1.09r,v
0.00
3.50
25.12
Not elsewhere
classified
3.84
26.55
2.16
13.96
16.70
7.45h
0.63
29.48q
5.75
4.99
9.20-1
24.62
8.85r,v
2.98-1,o,v
Abroad
73.18
51.19
52.29
38.32
56.12
53.04
41.21h
64.58
22.78q
53.17
50.00
76.20-1
32.99
46.45v
34.86r,v
59.13-1,o,s,v 30.79-1,o,v
Private nonprofit
21.44
5.20
45.54
26.96
18.68
28.73
0.19h
23.13
39.06
3.61
0.25-1
38.86
Higher education
7.07
g
Government
3.13
3.51o
Business enterprise
6.73r
2.94o
Not elsewhere
classified
34.56r
32.65o
Higher education
48.52
60.90o
Government
Abroad
2013
Private nonprofit
Business enterprise
2009
-1
-1
-1
-1
11.89-2
58.12-2,h
-1
-1
0.02-2
2.32-1
-1
10.02
0.46r,v
0.60-2
0.46
0.31
0.69-1
0.06
3.78r,v
0.11
1.36
0.82-1,s
0.39-1
0.86
0.75
0.41-1,r
2.78-1
0.75
1.20-2
0.18v
3.91s,v
0.18
2.08-1
0.05s
0.20
0.02s
0.63
3.05q
4.73r,v
16.36r,v
12.96-2
48.27
15.50
17.48-1
27.15
7.18r,v
10.34
11.54
7.62-1,s
4.32-1
13.98
16.57
21.36-1,r
9.45-1
51.61
37.11
20.41-2
20.33v
14.27s,v
13.12
5.17-1
15.50s
17.97
8.91s
7.36
6.80q
20.65r,v
-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-2
-1
0.00
0.02
0.03
53.90
22.52
7.81
18.92
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
751
Table S2: R&D expenditure by sector of performance and source of funds, 2009 and 2013 (%)
752
Private nonprofit
Business enterprise
Government
Higher education
Private nonprofit
89.65q
71.73
29.96
73.18-4
56.07-1
1.85p
77.08
30.26
12.57
38.68
10.35q
6.27
13.62
26.82-4
33.32-1
13.32p
11.62
7.13
47.43
6.54
0.00
0.03
-4
-1
1.30p
0.23
0.00
-4
-1
10.33
65.32
82.74p
19.86
60.60
47.49
55.26
88.63q
85.49
23.82
72.31s,u
2.13p
69.78
30.26
10.42
38.58
11.37q
4.02
10.84
27.69s,u
14.07p
10.37
9.01
42.09
6.17
0.16
0.02
1.05p
0.13
50.32
51.57
73.50-1
22.09
16.38
0.74-1
25.13
32.04
24.17-1
2.46
1.60-1
-1
53.14-2
52.54
69.26-1
17.74-2,s
15.97
0.76-1
26.37-2
31.50
28.15-1
2.75-2,s
1.84-1
-2
-1
15.57-4
-2
-1
-2
4.94-2
11.68-2
2.97-2,q
-1
-2
0.86-1
-4
53.16
-2
8.23
2.02-1
79.40-4
72.22-2
92.83-1,q
100.00
84.41-2
92.76-2
35.36-2
7.67q
34.50
-2
95.45-1
35.19-2
33.48-1
97.05-4
21.60
42.10-2
64.35
19.32-1
1.21-4
-2
6.96-1,q
14.60-2
2.30-2
29.84-2
92.33q
65.50
97.03-2,q
-1
64.81-2
40.66-1
-4
24.34
54.12-2
17.56
78.17-1
3.83-4
21.12-2
0.21-1,q
0.99-2
-2
23.12-2
-2
4.55-1
-2
25.00-1
2.95-4
0.90
3.79-2
9.85
0.48-1
10.71-1,s
-3
-2
1.17
-2
0.15-3,s
8.66-3,s
-2
-2
-3
-1
-3
12.82-3
0.34-3
44.28-1
-3
-1
34.77-3,s
41.63-1,s
87.15-3,q
-2
24.49
54.44-2,b
96.05-3,s
40.64-3,s
-2
56.39-2,s
82.58-3
73.36-1
54.88-3
-3
52.05-3
22.89-1
13.75-3
39.83-1
38.58-3
22.95-1,s
4.81-3,q
100.00-2
74.10
-2
3.80-3
39.05-3,s
100.00-2,q
43.61-2,s
17.42-3
24.76-1
35.99-3
87.18-3
31.43-3
30.72-1
86.25-3
60.17-1
25.41-3
24.71-1,s
8.04-3,q
-2
0.23
45.56-2,b
0.01-3
11.65-3,s
-2
-2
-3
1.86-1
9.13-3
-3
16.18-3
2.11-1
-3
-1
1.25-3
-1
-3
-2
-2
-3
-3
-2
-2
-3
-1
-3
-3
-3
-1
-3
-1
-3
45.41
93.84
100.00
54.72
6.16
44.54
91.96-2
38.91
100.00q
55.46
8.04-2
60.85
-4
6.67-2
-1
-2
-2
-2
-2
-1
-2
-1
-4
-2
-1
-2
-2
Not elsewhere
classified
Higher education
22.00
56.39
-4
10.61-1
83.53p
11.30
62.38
40.00
54.77
Not elsewhere
classified
Government
2013
Business enterprise
2009
-2
0.25
Abroad
Business enterprise
Government
Higher education
Abroad
Not elsewhere
classified
0.00
0.00g
0.00
7.45-1
1.29p
g
0.39
20.29
0.31
0.82
0.13
-1
1.65p
g
0.10
3.66
0.08
3.91q
0.07
8.49
-1
46.70p
6.49
6.46
1.13
22.29
40.51q
-1
93.51
1.65
30.49s
43.79
35.60-1,p
g
28.16
48.87
28.99
66.31q
68.20s
48.26
12.13-1,p
g
67.64
26.55
47.73
0.82s
1.75-1,p
g
1.04
20.44
0.18
0.33
1.74-1,p
g
0.12
3.30
0.14
2.79q
0.16
7.95
48.77-1,p
11.80
3.03
0.83
21.61
30.90q
-1
88.20
1.34
47.81
43.61
68.19-1
40.24
46.77
22.84-1
0.00
0.43
2.33-1
0.58
0.99
0.69-1
11.38
8.20
5.95-1
-1
49.85-2,s
43.15
60.78-1
39.99-2,s
45.79
25.42-1
1.36-2,s
0.53
1.16-1
0.58-2,s
1.02
0.57-1
8.22-2,s
9.51
12.07-1
-2
-1
11.93
-1
-2
29.26
50.86-2
16.83-2
3.38q
10.10-2,q
-4
-1
0.16-2
4.04-1
42.51
-2
8.23
3.23-1
9.05
59.87-1,q
100.00
71.74-2
58.09
36.55-2
26.15-2
14.96q
89.42e
40.86-2,q
100.00-4,b,u
31.13-1
96.36-2
57.06-1
44.44
60.58-2
48.07
94.83-1
12.22
0.21-1,q
0.00-2,g
9.55
0.65-2
26.16-2
2.80q
-2
-4
-1
0.08-2
0.30-1
0.05
0.00-2
17.56
-1
1.27
-1
0.73-2
-2
13.24-2
-2
-4
4.55-1
1.73-2
0.27-1
0.88
1.06-2
0.08
0.32-1
59.61
39.92-1,q
27.00-2
3.09
11.95-2
17.62-2
10.58
49.04-2,q
-4
64.32-1
1.04-2
38.27-1
12.11
38.36-2
26.06
1.62-1
5.92
-1
0.53-2
0.01
-2
-2
78.86q
-2
-4
-1
0.64-2
0.05-1
-2
-1
5.81-1
-2
0.75
-2
0.10-3,s
4.34-3,s
-2
-2
-3
0.27-1,h
-3
19.83-3
4.10-3
38.34-1
0.08-3
-1
13.67-3
73.88-1
100.00-2,l,q
79.07
38.54-2,b
68.30-3,s
25.96-3,s
-2
100.00-2,e,s
91.19-3,s
72.43-1,h
18.84-3,e
78.64-3
47.62-3
45.38-1
57.53-3
84.87-1
21.94-3
12.56-1
-2
1.80
-2
0.27-3
19.03-3,s
44.66-2,c,q
-2,n
-3
20.73-1,h
-3,n
-3
0.03-3
0.77-1
0.33-3
-1
1.04-3
0.74-1
-2
0.23
45.56-2,b
0.11-3
3.53-3,s
-2
-2
-3
0.11-1,h
3.02-3
-3
3.23-3
2.46-1
0.05-3
3.08-1
6.05-3
6.81-1
-2
2.15
15.90-2,b
31.22-3
47.14-3,s
3.45-2,q
-2
8.81-3
6.43-1,h
78.14-3
1.53-3
40.53-3
13.06-1
42.00-3
12.06-1
57.30-3
0.00l,q
0.00-2
1.41h
68.40l,q
100.00-2,e
92.95h
0.00l,q
-2,n
0.17h
1.16l,q
0.00-2
5.47h
30.44l,q
0.00-2
0.00h
2.33k
100.00e
96.49k
1.18k
Private nonprofit
Private nonprofit
55.57q
74.35
62.56
61.64-1
12.84p
g
66.46
33.96
49.77
Not elsewhere
classified
Higher education
2013
24.76
28.82
30.92-1
37.53p
g
26.59
40.97
25.90
Government
Business enterprise
2009
0.20-1
-2
16.01
-2
-3
-3
51.89-2,q
-2
-3
-1
-3
-3
4.49-3
-1
-3
-1
-3
l,q
-2
753
Table S2: R&D expenditure by sector of performance and source of funds, 2009 and 2013 (%)
34.16f
18.32-1,f
61.69
100.00u
74.99
56.91-1
4.15
25.01
24.78-1
-5
12.08-7,q,r
73.23
42.65f
0.00-1
18.85r
75.76
74.26
36.89-7,q
69.86
56.95-2
61.63
41.21
14.55-7
91.59-5
25.33-7,q,r
18.71
4.08
0.00-1
43.22r
9.21
13.02
50.91-7,q
6.38
17.65-2
11.30
32.75
66.43-7
8.41-5
11.80-7,q,r
8.07
53.26
98.63-1
37.93r
13.41
11.08
12.20-7,q
23.77
23.25-2
27.06
24.94
17.91-7
61.10-1
41.76
12.09-1
25.28
24.18-1
32.96
13.55
0.00
0.00q
20.41q
29.94-3
24.08
25.84-1
28.62-2,r
23.07-3
41.58
32.28-1
39.65-2,r
47.00-3
34.33
41.88-1
29.33-2,r
-3
0.01
-1
2.40-2,r
29.43
23.33-2
5.45q
29.68
62.04-2
84.30q
88.26
30.69
14.63-2
10.25q
11.74
10.20
0.00-2
-3
-1
-2,r
-2
0.00m
0.00-1,m
-1
35.46-2,f
-3
43.75-3,s
60.48-2
100.00-3,u
67.06
44.75-3
4.06-2
-3
32.94
11.49-3
0.00-2,m
-3
0.02-3,q,s
-2
-3
-3
0.00-5
50.79-7,q,r
0.00m
1.37-1
1.61
1.64
0.00-7
0.00
2.15-2
1.11
1.12-7
-5
-7,r
-1
-7
-2
-7
76.61
44.87-1,f
0.37
25.68r
76.09
78.51
64.45-1
60.94-1
50.61-2
26.01-2
16.16
4.00-1
39.39r
9.17
10.91
6.88-1
10.01-1
18.87-2
58.32-2
7.23
51.14-1
96.24
34.93r
13.47
9.24
28.67-1
29.05-1
30.14-2
14.37-2
-1,m
2.87
1.28
1.33
0.01-1
-1
0.38-2
1.29-2
-1
0.51
r
-1
-1
-2
-2
2.63-1
-1
57.86-2
45.45-2
11.21-2,r
22.70-2
28.06-2,r
31.85-2
2.98-2,r
-2
754
Not elsewhere
classified
15.19
11.46
9.69q
13.78
Private nonprofit
38.51
65.18
64.37
86.22
-3
-4
Higher education
32.75
23.36
5.52q
-3
-4
Government
52.35-3
27.09-4,r
Business enterprise
25.60-3
39.20-4,r
Not elsewhere
classified
Higher education
22.05-3
33.71-4,r
2013
Private nonprofit
Government
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Business enterprise
2009
-2
-2
Government
Higher education
Private nonprofit
Abroad
Not elsewhere
classified
23.07-3
48.60
31.18-1
76.90-1,e
45.28-3
24.44
36.56-1
-1,n
-3
0.07
5.60-1
0.00-1
1.71-3
0.00
2.42-1
4.40-1
-3
2.34r
0.05-1
-1
-1
-4
32.17q
16.14t
28.92
38.58-2,s
8.31q
63.68
57.66-2,s
73.95q
92.45
1.43-2,s
1.83q
0.21
0.00-2
0.76
0.87-2,s
4.90q
0.21
6.64
1.45-2,s
11.02q
7.13
0.92
4.27-1
1.28
4.04-1
40.93-3,s
75.26h
55.90-3
20.00h
0.19-3
1.71h
0.00-3
1.31h
2.72-3
1.71h
0.26-3
0.00-5
43.00-7,q,r
0.00m
1.37-1
0.00-8,m
0.74
0.41
0.00-7,g
0.00
0.91-2
0.32
0.00-7,g
0.00-5
28.44-7,q,r
1.35t
6.09
0.00-1
-8
0.42
0.21
53.99-7,q
0.23
4.12-2
5.95
1.00
6.33-7
-5
10.62-7,q,r
0.28-1
0.65-8
-7
0.05
0.55-2
1.57
0.84-7
74.60t
49.73-1,f
75.48
75.68
60.20-1
53.37-1
51.74-2
28.40-2
21.11t
45.60-1
90.55
17.30r
22.83
29.68-1
38.54-1
30.48-2
64.47-2
0.02-1
8.13
5.86r
0.73
2.50-1
2.18-1
13.48-2
3.13-2
-1,m
1.32
0.83
0.46
0.00-1
-1
0.46-2
0.00-2
0.89t
4.65-1
0.00
0.52
0.30
4.59-1
5.91-1
2.50-2
3.99-2
-1
3.03-1
-1
1.34-2
-2
1.77-1
2.84
1.61-1
5.22
39.96-2
41.41-2
9.45-2
2.78-2
6.32-2
-2
26.12-3
79.00e
48.56-3
-3
0.00
2.61-3
5.10
-3
50.74-1
36.38-4
2.90q
1.08t
31.37-1
63.62-4
61.52q
82.07t
14.74-1
0.00-4
1.96q
0.64t
2.20-1
0.00-4
0.00
0.96-1
0.01-4
1.44q
19.89-1,f
84.03
71.80-1,e
12.11
0.00-1,n
1.66
0.00-1,m
1.58-5
-7
71.74t
45.83f
0.18-1
14.69-8,f,q
75.27
71.08
36.01-7,q
68.52
61.96-2
52.14
41.43
18.06-7
91.01-5
17.93-7,q,r
23.41t
47.96
91.74-1
84.51-8
17.67r
27.40
8.00-7,q
27.12
26.08-2
40.38
37.89
74.11-7
7.41-5
-7
0.12
6.42-1
0.15-8
5.91r
0.90
2.00-7,q
4.08
6.38-2
1.54
17.80
0.66-7,f
61.91-1
39.01
34.60-1
44.72
0.12-1
8.30
Not elsewhere
classified
22.70-3
16.00
Government
Abroad
29.94-3
24.55
24.18-1
18.70-1
Private nonprofit
Business enterprise
2013
Higher education
Business enterprise
2009
-1
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
755
756
2013
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2009
1.92
2.82o
1.84
2.74o
1.79
2.77o
1.72
2.81o,v
1.63v
25 027 663
406 000 000o
0.48
0.16
1.15
0.35
0.21
0.54
0.39
0.08
0.06q
0.04-5
0.43
0.03-7
0.14
0.05-1
0.16-5
0.44
0.49
1.20
0.33
0.21
0.48
0.40
0.07
0.04q
0.45
0.15
0.41
0.52
1.20
0.35
0.22
0.47
0.34
0.03
0.05q
0.42
0.18
0.06
0.42
0.58
1.24
0.36
0.22
0.03
0.04q
0.43
0.09
0.24
0.23
0.50
3 418 556
78 248
28 401 334
963 991
973 270
287 185
515 346
33 277
51 110q
9 214-5
7 008 035
5 307-7
69 339
21 903-1
263 109-5
218 160
5 159 124-1
35 780 779-1
1 343 656-1
1 365 135
285 072-2
512 117-2
14 554-1
47 958-1,q
9 984 730
109 671-2
41 865-1
151 748-1
85.4
7.8
146.8
56.7
21.2
62.4
34.9
5.4
3.7q
1.4-5
60.2
1.0-7
19.2
3.5-1
9.6-5
64.9
125.6-1
180.1-1
76.9-1
28.3
60.2-2
33.6-2
2.3-1
3.2-1,q
81.6
29.3-2
6.3-1
44.7-1
0.61
0.06-7
0.12-7
0.06
0.61
0.05
0.27s
0.04
0.41s
0.05
0.47
1 199 443
8 586-8
874-7
21 309
582 720-2,s
19 232-1
106.3
3.3-8
8.1-7
16.1
51.7-2,s
14.4-1
2.61
1.97
0.51
0.84
0.49
1.30
3.07
1.40
3.75
2.21
2.73
0.63r
1.14
1.63r
1.22
0.46
0.84
1.72
0.54
1.69
0.67
1.58
0.47
0.47
1.82
1.35
3.42
1.75r
2.74r
2.05
0.59
0.74
0.49
1.34
2.94
1.58
3.73
2.18s
2.72
0.60r
1.15
1.62r
1.22
0.60
0.79
1.50
0.68
1.72
0.72
1.53
0.46
0.62
2.06
1.35
3.22r
1.69r
2.68
2.15
0.55
0.75
0.50
1.56
2.97
2.34
3.64
2.19
2.80
0.67
1.20
1.53r
1.21
0.70
0.91
1.41
0.72
1.89s
0.75
1.46
0.50s
0.67
2.43s
1.32
3.22
1.69
2.81r
2.24r
0.62
0.75
0.47
1.79
3.02
2.16
3.43
2.23
2.88
0.69
1.27
1.58r
1.26
0.66
0.91
1.16s
0.90
1.97
0.89
1.37
0.49
0.81
2.58
1.27
3.28r
1.63r
2.81r,v
2.28v
0.65
0.81
0.52v
1.91
3.06r,v
1.74
3.32
2.23v
2.85r,v
0.80
1.41
1.25v
0.60
0.96
1.16v
0.89v
1.98v
0.87
1.36v
0.39
0.83
2.59
1.24
3.30q
1.63r,v
8 860 472
8 044 797
548 901
725 389
124 114
3 660 339
6 717 152
376 400
7 514 757
49 757 013
82 822 155
2 130 452r
2 382 736
3 066 688r
24 648 791
165 357
479 801
683 894
58 056
12 370 154
4 864 696
4 376 952
1 487 584
592 782
1 019 332
20 554 768
12 599 701
39 432 832r
10 752 629r,v
10 603 427v
742 690
739 806
127 783v
5 812 939
7 513 404r,v
592 193
7 175 592
55 218 177s,v
100 991 319r,v
2 273 861
3 249 569
3 271 465-1,r
26 520 408v
271 937
723 289
571 469s,v
109 275v
15 376 725s,v
7 918 126
3 942 649v
1 480 720s
1 190 627
1 537 841s
19 133 196
14 151 281q
39 858 849r,v
1 058.4
740.6
73.7
166.8
113.8
349.1
1 215.9
288.9
1 406.2
791.2
995.7
192.0r
237.5
695.3r
409.3
78.3
154.7
1 373.0
137.3
746.9
127.4
413.7
67.9
109.3
498.6
449.2
1 353.3
639.1r
1 265.7r,v
954.9v
102.8
172.5
112.0v
543.2
1 337.1r,v
460.0
1 322.4r,v
858.9s,v
1 220.8r,v
204.3
326.4
714.9-1,r
434.8v
132.6
239.7
1 077.5s,v
254.7v
917.5s,v
207.2
371.7v
68.2s
218.5
742.2s
407.7
1 478.5q
631.3r,v
0.15-1,q
0.02q
0.20
1.15-2
0.87
0.22
0.74
0.22
0.41s
0.72
0.27s
0.33
0.91
0.33
0.47
0.38s
0.73
39 832-1,q
7 027q
45 820
88 338-2
748 598
119 480s
113 957
33 218s
677 967
12.6-1,q
1.8q
21.8
143.0-2
77.2
31.2s
54.1
53.5s
71.3
0.29q
0.25
0.64
0.18-4
0.24q
0.22
0.69
0.27q
0.21
0.70
0.25q
0.22
0.67
0.24q
0.21
0.69
0.13s,u
53 140q
332 970
860 424
32 338-4
54 826q
341 284
1 145 209
42 214s,u
17.9q
37.1
90.3
7.2-4
18.4q
36.3
122.4
9.7s,u
24 565 364v
453 544 000-1,o,v
2009
741.5
1 311.8o
2013
698.2v
1 428.5-1,o,v
R&D expenditure in
current PPP$ (000s)
2013
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2009
0.31i
4.15p
0.53
1.25
0.85
0.86
0.31i
3.96p
0.44
1.13
0.84
0.83
4.10p
0.40
1.09
0.86
0.74
4.25p
0.42
1.12
0.92
0.75
4.21p
0.35
1.12
0.95
0.77
3 345 394i
8 506 846p
66 168
34 654 585
8 867 131
2 867 129
3 521 024-3,i
11 032 853p
58 989
40 694 501
13 315 099
3 067 360
2009
45.5i
1 169.5p
18.4
241.2
124.5
62.0
2013
47.3-3,i
1 426.7p
16.9
284.9
177.7
67.8
2.66
1.76
2.73-1
1.68
2.49s
1.65
1.65
2.96
1.69
337 939
4 676 887
10 525 201-1
314 837-2,s
5 519 606
13 251 396-1
1 076.9
967.2
1 375.3-1
977.6-2,s
1 094.6
1 657.0-1
0.53-4
0.20
0.14q
0.08k,u
0.17-2,q
0.58
0.02q
0.23-2
0.36-2,q
0.03q
0.15q
0.25-2,i,q
0.37-4,b,u
0.16-1,h,j,q
0.22-2,h
0.37-1
0.30-4
0.84
0.34-2,h,q
0.36
0.28-1
0.14q
0.24s
0.38s
0.79s
0.11q,s
0.66h
0.42h,s
0.14i,q
0.54
0.74
0.38h,q
0.25h
0.48
0.12q
0.07l,q
0.13b
0.01l,q
0.11q
0.73
0.26s
0.18h,s
0.73
0.22h
0.61
102 226-4
39 877
9 014q
30 743k,u
111 769-2,q
137 154
445q
133 220-2
305 213-2,q
1 200q
41 544q
47 068-2,i,q
51 912-4,b,u
30 012-1,h,j,q
1 374 841-2,h
93 586-1
3 955-4
4 818 930
251 377-2,h,q
170 176
101 149-1
76 096-1,s
8 460-2,q
2 211-2,l,q
787 350s
3 544-2,b
274 351-3,s
788 126-3,s
599-2,l,q
31 484-2,q,s
150 785-3,h
38 584-1,h,s
92 445-3,h,s
25 516-3,i,q
149 726-3
4 824 364-1
348 185-3,h,q
19 622-1,h
240 005-3
54.5-4
2.6
1.0q
0.5k,u
1.4-2,q
90.3
0.3q
5.9-2
8.1-2,q
0.6q
2.0q
3.7-2,i,q
42.8-4,b,u
1.3-1,h,j,q
9.3-2,h
7.6-1
45.4-4
94.7
6.1-2,h,q
5.2
8.1-1
38.0-1,s
0.9-2,q
4.5-2,l,q
8.4s
2.0-2,b
11.3-3,s
19.3-3,s
0.3-2,l,q
1.5-2,q,s
10.8-3,h
31.1-1,h,s
3.9-3,h,s
11.7-3,i,q
11.6-3
92.1-1
7.7-3,h,q
3.0-1,h
7.1-3
0.07-4,q
0.04l,q
0.43h
0.05h,u
0.43-1
0.11k,q
0.64-3
0.07q
0.30-4,b,r
0.71
0.04l,q
0.43h
0.04h,u
0.10k,q
0.73
0.68
0.04l,q
0.53h
0.03h,u
0.10k,q
0.13r
0.71
0.49r
0.04l,q
0.54h
0.10k,q
0.21
0.47
0.68
0.04l,q
0.68h
0.30h,s
0.17
241 164-4,q
18 124l,q
3 306 085h
159 710h,u
263 201-1
249 477k,q
1 030 143-3
832 203q
298 413-4,b,r
728 030
24 516l,q
6 169 203h
146 269-2,h,u
264 911-1,k,q
1 494 848-3
309 780-1
1 296 303-1
790 712-1
2 461 027-2,r
7.1-4,q
15.2l,q
43.1h
5.3h,u
44.5-1
87.5k,q
33.9-3
31.1q
9.4-4,b,r
69.3
18.4l,q
75.2h
4.6-2,h,u
81.5-1,k,q
47.2-3
93.5-1
632.2-1
72.7-1
275.7-2,r
757
R&D expenditure in
current PPP$ (000s)
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2009
2013
2009
0.23
0.16
0.30q
0.09h
0.15
0.16
0.28q
0.09h
0.16
0.16
0.27q
0.12h
0.17
0.28q
0.11h
0.17
0.25q
0.12h
661 567
23 648
48 720q
12 546h
691 400
25 179-2
68 029q
24 269h
42.0
4.5
18.2q
1.7h
42.1
4.7-2
24.0q
3.0h
0.82
0.26q,u
0.45h
0.11-1
0.80r
0.30q,u
0.16
0.82r
0.33h
48 062 976-2,r
158 906-3,q,u
2 443 292h
240 005-3
33.1
4.8q,u
18.3h
7.5-1
39.4-2,r
5.9-3,q,u
13.4h
11.6-3
0.04-5,q
0.05-7,q,r
1.70
0.77
0.05q
0.08q,r
3.36
3.29
0.04-7,q
1.01
0.16-7,q
0.11-2
2.16
0.25
0.18-7
1.76
0.75
0.05q
3.25
3.47
1.07
2.01
1.84
0.72
0.04q
3.38
3.74
1.06
2.16
0.39
0.19
2.40-1
1.28
2.39r
2.25r
1.27
1.98
0.73
0.05q
3.34
4.03
1.13
2.02
0.29h
39 400 485
128 477q,u
3 118 457h
153 681-1
2.08
0.05q
0.09r
3.47
4.15
8 708-5,q
7 901-7,q,r
184 170 641
2 369 983
21 945q
1 466 763q,r
136 953 957
45 987 242
4 289-7,q
5 248 826
477 841-2
6 612 088
1 915 168
340 429-7
19 132 997-1
1 655 439
68 937 037
7 351 372-1
8 152 867-1
3 303 858-2
789 059-2
20 955 599-2,r
1 766 588-2
24.1-5,q
0.6-7,q,r
136.3
338.2
42.1q
6.2q,r
1 075.4
954.8
0.8-7,q
188.9
5.4-2
1 331.9
28.9
4.1-7
883.9-1
382.9
758
2013
242.9
372.5-1
72.7q
8.5r
1 260.4
1 399.4
251.4-1
1 537.3-1
49.6-2
8.8-2
921.5-2,r
400.2-2
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
Other Europe and West Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
2008
2013
2008
2013
2008
2013
1.61
1.24
1.88-2
1.36-2
20.43
20.08-2
34.44
23.33
35.60-2
26.11-2
0.77
0.52
2.05
0.86
0.55
0.86
1.08+2
0.42+1
0.34
0.25+1
0.89+2
0.92
1.14+2
0.70+2
0.45
1.55+1
1.02-1
0.59-1
1.61-1
1.04-1
0.96-1
0.87
1.43
1.11-1
0.29-2
0.35
0.16-1
1.08
0.93-2
1.14-3
0.74-1
1.11-1
0.55
1.19-2
13.29
25.90
27.67
11.51
26.17
17.85+1
27.06+1
39.92+2
40.16
20.03+2
20.92+1
15.44-1
22.66-1
28.49-1
15.01-1
20.01
33.83
11.18-2
18.43
14.52-1
47.74
37.34-2
20.13-1
17.66
9.19
29.09
15.91
14.51
22.05
26.58+2
10.46+1
10.80
7.34+1
18.86
26.05+2
18.54+2
15.71
22.60+1
19.94-1
25.00-1
16.37-1
21.12-1
17.73
20.75
26.66-1
8.39-2
12.30
5.06-1
18.49
18.13-2
26.05-3
22.40-1
16.82
26.83-2
0.19+1
1.53
5.34
0.97
0.24+1
0.31+1
2.08
4.47-3
-1
1.10
0.21-2
0.36-3
15.63+1
61.10
42.38
14.66+1
62.99-3
-1
40.09
14.54-2
7.35+1
30.09
37.98
15.71
6.30+1
5.42+1
34.83-3
-1
17.61
5.01-2
7.01-3
1.44
1.34
0.84
0.94
1.85
0.89
2.12
1.10
1.81
1.21
1.18
1.01
1.27
0.81
0.99
1.03
1.03
1.42
1.04
0.91
1.20+1
0.76
1.19
1.04
1.73
0.80
1.51-2
1.43-1
0.62-2
0.92-2
1.48-2
1.11-2
2.39-2
1.28-2
2.06-1
1.23-1
1.35-2
0.80-1
1.27-2
0.80-2
0.95-1
1.47-2
1.50-1
1.59-1
1.11-2
1.01-2
0.78-1
0.94-1
1.35-2
0.97-1
1.89-2
1.27-2
42.09
35.66
23.70
28.99
57.03
23.54
50.50
21.51
31.11
35.94
24.39
32.00
23.56
16.88
16.15
44.71
38.82
18.35
25.47
22.24+1
17.89
20.83
26.80
39.11
21.18
35.00-2
33.33-1
16.04-2
25.61-2
39.23-2
26.00-2
51.31-2
24.56-2
36.14-1
35.28-1
20.93-1
29.64-2
24.19-2
19.93-1
23.82-2
51.52-1
33.51-1
20.55-2
26.88-2
23.08-1
25.83-2
23.18-1
38.47-2
32.01-2
27.19
21.32
19.40
21.96
24.99
23.71
28.30
19.87
31.00
22.20
26.65
20.01
23.26
18.33
17.33
21.20
17.69
27.77
20.54
19.34
28.28+1
21.53
23.30
23.08
27.01
15.71
26.86-2
22.00-2
16.98-2
22.16-2
20.45-2
25.79-2
27.90-2
25.09-2
28.56-1
22.34-1
28.13-2
23.39-2
21.73-2
19.36-2
20.72-1
28.45-2
22.17-1
28.79-1
22.82-2
19.70-2
26.16-1
23.98-1
24.20-2
22.31-1
29.08-2
22.10-2
1.29
1.29-1
39.75
40.06-1
27.30
29.12-1
0.36
0.28
0.91+1
0.34
0.20
0.36-2
0.93
0.38-1
7.54
13.45
15.56+1
11.40
5.07
18.05-2
15.62
17.18-1
11.29
11.34
20.07+1
11.58
8.72
14.63-2
17.58
19.17-1
759
760
2008
2013
2008
2013
2008
2013
0.99
0.89
1.54
0.95
2.03
0.84
0.91-2
1.47-1
2.16-1
20.95
20.10
38.18
14.25
32.93
14.77
19.41-2
41.83-1
41.17-1
20.67
16.00
18.65
23.11
31.53
22.94
16.22-2
17.56-1
32.41-1
1.42
2.05
1.27+1
1.37-2
1.96-2
1.33-1
27.17
45.91
42.19+1
23.17-2
42.23-2
39.40-1
19.70
31.99
25.14+1
19.42-2
29.89-2
26.31-1
0.72
3.94+1
0.74+2
1.10
0.62
0.26
0.23
0.29+1
1.14
0.68+2
0.37+2
0.74+2
0.16+2
0.32
1.49
0.84
4.72
0.45
1.30+2
0.61
0.33
0.64
0.34
0.96
1.24
0.50
0.63
1.62
1.27
0.69
0.37+1
0.27+1
1.05
0.93
1.31
0.78
0.23-1
0.34-2
0.37-2
0.71
0.37-3
0.74-3
0.16-3
0.30-1
1.07-2
1.23
0.10-1
0.29
2.18
0.85-1
0.29
0.91
1.93-3
0.80-1
0.71
1.38-3
1.18-2
0.73
0.74
0.20-2
1.01-2
0.76+1
0.98
0.30
0.45-3
102.67
159.02+1
225.08+2
434.66
45.28
34.74
99.63
159.53+1
191.60+2
24.21+2
180.80
107.93
143.53
118.71
15.85
396.20
217.70
166.00
108.51+1
210.92
297.08
29.76
111.93-2
182.41-2
84.71
191.60-3
24.21-3
92.78-2
131.61
9.34-1
67.49
130.04-1
8.92
183.43
631.00-1
104.75
193.48-3
545.71-2
38.73
102.75
62.00-3
17.64
41.51+1
18.84+2
21.21
11.27
8.85
17.48
12.38+1
14.61
10.87+2
24.00+2
16.50+2
3.54+2
9.03
25.85
34.42
36.38
15.36
29.80+2
16.06
10.21
9.91
9.41
25.41
24.55
20.83
13.01
21.55
29.85
20.10
11.30+1
21.04
21.72
24.23
15.82
7.77-1
27.29-2
16.28-2
24.00-3
16.50-3
3.54-3
7.36-1
13.13-2
34.64
3.56-1
13.74
28.36
20.34-1
8.02
13.69
23.09-3
17.61-1
14.02
24.57-3
32.51-2
25.93
12.41
25.34-2
12.84-2
21.40+1
22.21
13.76
22.82-3
1.17
0.59
0.67
0.90
1.13+1
1.15
1.57
0.60
0.74
0.46
1.11
1.24-4
1.75
12.55
190.41
70.73
39.60+1
44.77
15.55
93.30
49.00-4
56.59
26.97
28.98
16.72
16.23
26.88+1
24.94
25.00
28.74
11.58
17.70
24.22-4
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
2008
2013
2008
2013
2008
2013
0.36
0.97
0.36+2
0.49
0.40-4
0.89-1
0.21-2
0.46
0.28-1
19.04
5.89+2
18.93
3.37-2
19.33
13.90
16.44
6.68+2
14.25
13.13-4
12.03-1
3.83-2
9.23-1
0.27
0.93
1.17+1
0.51
0.37+1
0.23-2
1.02
1.28-1
0.58-1
0.50-3
0.80
0.32-1
30.83
150.89
74.31+1
46.63
17.44-2
102.12
54.88-1
35.39-3
75.18
24.19-1
13.26
19.40
36.45+1
13.46
18.19+1
18.23
33.19-1
9.35-1
10.65-3
32.23
18.73-1
0.50+2
0.38+2
1.02
0.82
0.32
0.65
0.62
2.15+1
0.28
0.91
0.79
0.93+1
1.08
1.20+1
0.38-3
1.16-1
2.28-1
0.61-1
0.76
0.86
2.19-2
0.32-4
1.04
0.71-1
1.87-2
1.05-1
32.22+2
27.83+2
27.81
16.30
16.89
21.09
9.49
59.63+1
9.66
21.63
58.52+1
55.71
57.09+1
27.83-3
30.37-1
49.03-1
24.27-1
60.88-2
10.51-4
22.59
19.52-1
41.24-1
24.38+2
14.54+2
31.16
36.64
10.98
18.86
13.92
35.94+1
10.42
32.59
21.18
8.14+1
22.16
31.92+1
14.54-3
33.02-1
68.14-1
17.18-1
20.00
36.97-2
11.96-4
35.28
14.42-1
19.79-2
16.67-1
1.04
1.62
0.34
1.18-2
1.86-1
a
0.56-2
19.78
27.94
19.99-2
31.46-1
a
22.46
28.92
5.86
23.20-2
25.33-1
a
12.96-2
761
2013
Tertiary graduates
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
762
Tertiary graduates
Science
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
235.23-1
16.67-1
40.94-1
9.07-2
0.30
18.30-1
4.29-1
9.06
0.28
1.54-1
0
0-1
0.01
0.50-1
0.27-1
0.18-1
14.00-1
0.02-3
5.65-2
40.10-1
2.82-1
5.36
2.34
0.24
0.11-1
0.52
28.29-1
0.55-3
0.73-2
a
0.24-1
0.08
0.01
0-1
0
a-1
a
0.79-1
0-1
0.03-3
40.00-1
35.44
42.86
a-1
a
a-1
a
46.56-1
a-1
66.67-3
87.8-1
68.4-2
62.6
64.1-1
0.01-1
0.13-2
a
0.00-1
0.00-1
0.18-2
3.57
0-1
0.00-2
0.08
a-1
a-1
100.00-2
39.74
a-1
85.28
110.42-1
64.09-1
39.82-1
6.17-1
107.77-1
66.47
11.44-1
52.73
726.54
66.33-1
69.92-1
60.02-1
374.99-1
21.61
39.27
1.57
3.46-1
152.05-1
638.96-1
94.87
259.63-2
70.03
20.60-1
391.96-1
69.14-1
791.95
56.0
59.3-1
60.8-1
59.3-1
60.3-1
62.2-1
57.5
67.5-1
60.1
56.1
59.1-1
64.0-1
54.5-1
62.3-1
69.0
63.3
53.6
57.4-1
56.5-1
66.0-1
59.8
61.6-2
63.6
60.3-1
56.2-1
61.6-1
57.1
1.12
1.55-1
0.06-1
0.73-1
0.09-1
0.30-1
0.46
0.19-1
0
6.22
1.64-1
0.60-1
1.40-1
0-1
0.18
a
0.00
0.15-1
0.01-1
a
a
a-2
0.01
0.23-1
4.10-1
0.66-1
14.70
5.97
3.82-1
2.91-1
2.38-1
0.41-1
9.07-1
4.70
0.90-1
3.42
55.64
6.24-1
3.47-1
5.23-1
24.97-1
1.04
2.05
0.13
0.22-1
8.64-1
38.20
6.57
12.56-2
4.81
1.29-1
23.27-1
4.24-1
105.01
0.60
0.52-1
0.16-1
0.24-1
0.02-1
0.72-1
0.34
0.08-1
0.34
6.50
0.29-1
0.29-1
0.51-1
2.69-1
0.07
0.08
0.03
0.00-1
0.83-1
0.93
0.52-2
0.34
0.15-1
3.48-1
0.87-1
8.49
35.93
34.87-1
52.90-1
60.25-1
52.63-1
39.97-1
35.22
52.63-1
39.35
40.01
33.33-1
37.54-1
45.12-1
52.58-1
54.41
49.35
32.00
0-1
33.41-1
54.03
53.74-2
53.35
38.96-1
47.42-1
41.64-1
45.59
30.37
21.21
11.36
47.80
65.0
60.0
56.3
58.4
2.13
1.41
1.15
4.73
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.12
44.19
25.00
56.25
58.33
MF (000s)
Females (%)
MF (000s)
Females (%)
2 782.27
58.5
3 308.49-1
58.4-1
41.14-1
235.86
917.11
92.23
134.92
38.16+2
70.19
15.80
1.75
15.41+2
420.48
21.06
9.47
65.7
60.3
54.0
42.6
63.3+2
58.8
58.2
70.0
54.3
66.0
65.1
123.24-1
1 111.46-1
147.55-1
344.07
44.58
79.19-1
23.62
20.83
1.84-1
18.67
533.87-1
22.79-1
60.8-1
60.8-1
56.0-1
55.3
63.2
58.5-1
56.6
58.3
74.9-1
63.1
53.5-1
65.4-1
0.15+1
2.26+2
103.76
77.0+1
47.9
0.25-1
2.39-2
133.29
41.11-1
0.58
43.65
97.25
54.91
26.94
4.23
88.98
49.75
11.35
43.01+1
628.09
66.96
63.33
60.07
398.19
24.17
42.55
0.34
2.79
124.23
558.02
84.01
311.48
65.03
17.22
291.04
60.43
676.20
51.6
58.7
61.4
58.4
61.6
58.1
57.8
69.3
62.8+1
54.9
59.3
66.8
56.3
59.5
71.5
66.7
49.4
59.4
56.7
65.8
59.6
63.7
64.2
62.8
58.4
63.5
57.9
15.65
15.77
11.20
36.33
64.4
58.7
59.7
60.4
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
a
a
a
2013
Engineering, manufacturing and construction
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
Agriculture
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
66.85-1
161.86-1
9.11-1
23.33-1
8.52-1
25.05-1
0.99-1
44.31-1
227.17-1
330.11-1
16.09-1
72.64-1
5.72-2
0
13.60-1
11.99-1
21.16
0.14
1.53-1
2.70
0.14-1
0.04
18.11-1
0.60-1
0.01-1
10.58-1
0.02-3
8.68-2
60.94-1
9.22-1
38.50
2.78
2.31
0-1
2.11
95.23-1
0.57-3
0.09-2
a
0.08-1
0.07
0
0-1
0
a-1
a
0.60-1
0.00-1
0.00-3
45.45-2
a
37.18-1
17.57
a
a-1
a
a-1
a
39.53-1
75.00-1
33.33-3
1.50-2
0.02
2.09-1
1.28-1
3.84
0.10
0.32-1
0.14
0.03-1
0.05
0.08-1
0.04-1
0.02-1
3.71-1
0.06-3
3.27-2
16.75-1
2.31-1
2.48
0.60
0.19
0-1
0.59
8.70-1
0.33-3
0.08-2
a
0.04-1
0.02
0.00
0-1
0
a-1
a
0.22-1
0-1
0-3
34.09-1
47.06
0
a-1
a
a-1
a
46.33-1
a-1
a-3
20.66-2
0
2.76-1
17.22-1
6.23
0.07
1.17-1
1.66
0.25-1
0.08
1.72-1
0.47-1
0.21-1
20.90-1
0.10-3
18.68-2
158.82-1
14.34-1
19.35
6.32
2.36
0-1
1.29
46.32-1
1.99-3
0.12-2
a
0.03-1
0.03
0
0-1
0
a-1
a
0.09-1
0-1
0.00-3
55.65-2
a
34.38-1
67.65
a
a-1
a
a-1
a
61.29-1
a-1
50.00-3
0-1
0.04-2
a
0.13-1
0-1
0-2
1.87
0-1
a-2
0.06
a-1
a-1
a-2
40.35
a-1
0-1
0.00-2
a
0.04-1
0.03
0-1
0-2
2.70
0-1
a-2
0.05
a-1
a-1
a-2
40.38
a-1
0.02-1
0.17-2
a
0.06-1
0.05
0-1
0.03-2
43.21
0-1
0.00-2
0.07
a-1
a-1
100.00-2
39.44
a-1
8.59
3.05-1
0.64-1
1.42-1
0.04-1
0.44-1
1.93
0.39-1
0
46.05
5.24-1
0.19-1
2.90-1
0-1
0.36
a
0.01
0.10-1
0.08-1
a
a
0.01-2
0.02
1.55-1
13.92-1
2.39-1
10.32
7.05
8.67-1
8.98-1
4.56-1
0.76-1
12.21-1
5.63
0.94-1
10.48
61.59
5.32-1
7.18-1
4.02-1
45.82-1
2.16
6.47
79.00
0.19-1
11.50-1
65.99
16.40
37.12-2
8.65
1.77-1
41.54-1
10.88-1
57.31
0.43
0.56-1
0.15-1
0.16-1
0.01-1
0.55-1
0.48
0.03-1
0.45
1.80
0.28-1
0.10-1
0.20-1
2.04-1
0.06
0.12
0.01
0.00-1
1.02-1
0.86
2.18-2
0.52
0.10-1
0.80-1
0.83-1
3.59
26.30
30.59-1
32.41-1
34.16-1
37.50-1
22.57-1
28.84
27.27-1
30.38
31.81
27.14-1
22.22-1
23.53-1
35.46-1
32.76
38.84
22.22
0-1
25.71-1
39.09
38.63-2
33.40
28.28-1
30.30-1
25.93-1
24.41
0.68
0.76-1
0.01-1
0.32-1
0.01-1
0.08-1
0.20
0.01-1
0
4.31
1.30-1
0.16-1
0.45-1
0-1
0.03
a
0
0.01-1
0.02-1
a
a
a-2
0
0.17-1
0.83-1
0.35-1
2.10
0.53
1.57-1
1.00-1
1.11-1
0.03-1
3.70-1
0.49
0.25-1
1.03
4.59
1.49-1
1.17-1
0.34-1
6.60-1
0.20
0.68
0.00
0-1
1.53-1
8.16
1.37
3.99-2
1.18
0.35-1
4.47-1
0.40-1
5.00
0.07
0.12-1
0.03-1
0.10-1
0-1
0.18-1
0.21
0.01-1
0.06
0
0.08-1
0.10-1
0.02-1
0.69-1
0.01
0.02
0
0-1
0.21-1
0.05
0.30-2
0.06
0.06-1
0.30-1
0.06-1
0.31
59.15
46.96-1
40.63-1
36.89-1
a-1
51.37-1
53.81
88.89-1
61.82
a
41.77-1
58.76-1
46.67-1
53.78-1
30.00
61.90
a
a-1
58.69-1
59.18
52.96-2
53.57
67.86-1
56.38-1
53.45-1
54.89
0.52
12.28-1
0.55-1
1.46-1
0.07-1
3.02-1
0.36
0.97-1
0
31.78
3.85-1
1.07-1
2.44-1
0-1
1.51
a
0.04
0.01-1
0.22-1
0.37
a
0.14-2
0.22
0.31-1
16.32-1
0.91-1
35.96
4.92
10.16-1
3.62-1
1.44-1
0.17-1
7.21-1
13.09
0.38-1
10.41
81.81
3.27-1
4.69-1
7.13-1
59.25-1
2.40
4.40
0.66-1
25.54-1
71.17
15.93
27.37-2
12.79
0.99-1
40.43-1
15.38-1
84.04
0.22
0.51-1
0.09-1
0.24-1
0-1
0.20-1
0.50
0.01-1
0.33
0.38
0.57-1
0.20-1
0.21-1
1.24-1
0.03
0.05
0
0.00-1
0.73-1
0.39
0.77-2
0.22
0.05-1
1.51-1
0.97-1
4.30
59.00
59.49-1
50.55-1
53.36-1
a-1
48.04-1
60.92
50.00-1
66.36
55.97
50.62-1
51.78-1
54.93-1
100.00-1
80.00
80.77
a
50.00-1
66.62-1
66.33
62.84-2
65.02
60.87-1
56.42-1
62.37-1
57.03
2.24
1.75
1.21
7.31
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.16
20.00
14.71
36.36
37.50
0.97
0.82
0.29
1.08
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.06
31.25
50.00
80.00
32.20
4.40
2.37
0.93
4.40
0.01
0.06
0.03
0.23
91.67
63.33
54.84
59.05
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
763
Table S5: Tertiary graduates in 2008 and 2013 and graduates in science,
engineering, agriculture and health in 2013
2008
2013
Tertiary graduates
764
MF (000s)
Females (%)
35.00+2
49.20
112.88
17.73+2
457.57+1
27.06
2 064.47+1
444.76
610.23
61.5+2
53.5
60.4+2
52.0+1
58.4
46.0
Tertiary graduates
MF (000s)
Females (%)
Science
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
47.04-1
137.46
17.68
716.10
34.81
607.98-1
621.79
52.1-1
60.8
56.8
45.6
59.6
47.1-1
55.0
0-3
0.19-1
0
0.43
1.19
0.48
30.32-2
17.01-1
7.54
2.52-3
4.27-1
2.43
1.64
53.83
1.28
97.20-2
34.19-1
30.83
0.11-3
0.10-1
0.21
0.06
0.77
0.05
1.16-1
1.27
22.52-3
27.00-1
50.48
55.56
40.08
55.56
50.73-1
50.90
4.10-1
0.31-1
44.75
81.91
64.5-1
30.2-1
58.7
48.3
0.01-1
a-1
0.11
0.02
0.31-1
0-1
2.74
5.56
0.01-1
0-1
0.49
1.07
35.71-1
a-1
39.84
35.21
3.63
0.18
35.21
67.33
66.2
30.1
60.6
48.6
14.64+1
9.48+2
2.79+2
33.99
0.64+1
3.02+2
65.37
3.16+2
16.40
7.05
5.53
1.87
30.51+2
31.2+1
28.4+2
24.1
30.0+2
47.5
44.6
58.4
45.2+2
13.55
16.71-2
6.55
16.15
7.31-1
36.31-2
2.71+1
79.74
4.75
4.39-1
25.26
10.26
16.05-1
0.08
183.86-1
2.53
13.64
48.0
29.7-2
31.8
30.7-1
26.3+1
40.7
65.2
38.2-1
47.9
44.9
42.7-1
85.9
59.8-1
38.8
47.6
0.26
0-1
a-2
0.03+1
0-3
1.12
0.04
0.36
a-1
6.44-1
0.85
0.52
0.12
0.09
10.62-3
6.46
1.03
0.07
2.24
0.21
0.28
0.46
0-1
0
a-2
a+1
0.01-3
0.01
0.02
a-1
0.57-1
0.01
a-1
a
a-2
a+1
0-3
12.50
34.78
a-1
40.53-1
37.50
154.84+1
32.30
62.73
62.5+1
55.3
32.0
255.44
5.28+1
510.36
60.69-2
12.72
54.21
62.1
60.5+1
52.1
48.4-2
58.3
55.8
0.17+1
0
0.44-2
a
0-2
23.47
0.23+1
20.85
2.79-2
0.23
3.74-2
0.00+1
0.60
0.03-2
a
0.00-2
50.00+1
45.13
52.00-2
a
100.00-2
2013
Engineering, manufacturing and construction
Agriculture
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
0.20-3
0.90-1
17.02
0.23
102.68
2.61
179.08-2
43.18-1
40.49
2.68-3
2.11-1
15.98
1.03
155.87
4.50
246.39-2
30.96-1
84.38
0.06-3
0.05-1
0.22
0.07
0.62
0.04
0.63-1
1.58
10.17-3
13.33-1
37.05
40.00
17.10
45.95
34.39-1
35.47
0.17-3
0.03-1
5.98
0.08
4.77
0.14
8.43-2
11.39-1
5.67
1.09-3
0.08-1
4.73
0.44
20.98
0.47
20.49-2
7.82-1
14.52
0.02-3
0.02-1
0.09
0.01
0.29
0.01
0.25-1
0.41
43.75-3
31.58-1
50.00
36.36
27.59
30.77
38.15-1
51.09
3.74-3
2.03-1
3.17
0.17
2.98
1.23
64.30-2
12.85-1
22.45
0.89-3
1.57-1
3.56
2.09
18.05
48.11-2
21.43-1
15.27
0.03-3
0.02-1
0.18
0.03
2.31
0.06
4.61-1
0.46
17.24-3
39.13-1
51.67
63.64
42.73
43.86
46.33-1
59.35
0-1
a-1
1.71
0.04
0.41-1
0.04-1
3.74
10.90
0.00-1
0.00-1
0.15
0.47
33.33-1
0-1
22.88
25.75
0.00-1
a-1
0.02
0
0.03-1
0-1
0.29
1.32
0-1
0-1
0.02
0.11
a-1
a-1
42.86
81.13
0-1
a-1
0.05
0.27
0.58-1
0-1
9.04
9.61
0.01-1
0.01-1
0.47
0.85
76.92-1
100.00-1
58.51
53.72
0.26
0-1
a-2
0.51+1
0-3
2.47
0.13
0.40
a-1
5.73-1
2.70
0.20
0-2
5.01-3
3.09
2.18
2.08
0.38
0.13
0.00
0-1
0
a-2
a+1
0-3
0.00
0.02
0.01
a-1
0.15-1
a-1
a
a-2
a+1
a-3
a-1
17.57-1
0.03
0-1
a-2
0.07+1
0-3
0.91
0.10
0.01
a-1
1.37-1
0.02
0.14
0-2
7.87-3
1.59
0.90
0.05
0.29
0.47
0.15
0.26
0-1
0
a-2
a+1
0.01-3
0.02
0.00
a-1
0.09-1
0.01
a-1
a
a-2
a+1
0-3
25.00
50.00
a-1
39.78-1
42.86
0.57
0-1
a-2
0.11+1
0-3
1.55
0.51
0.27
a-1
2.07-1
0.18
0.11
0-2
5.40-3
2.68
2.89
0.10
0.61
0.56
0.33
0.15-1
0
a-2
a+1
0.10-3
0.01
0.24
a-1
0.17-1
20.95-1
a
a-2
a+1
17.71-3
16.67
57.87
a-1
62.72-1
0.21+1
0
0.20-2
2.41
0.88-2
30.68
0.42+1
38.42
1.95-2
0.77
3.31-2
0+1
0.31
0.00-2
a
0.00-2
a+1
27.01
0-2
a
25.00-2
0+1
0
0.01-2
a
0-2
3.65
0.00+1
10.86
1.80-2
0.17-2
0+1
0.72
0.01-2
a
0-2
a+1
42.82
37.50-2
a
a-2
0.04+1
0
0-2
0.66
0.97-2
5.96
0.27+1
65.58
1.00-2
0.39
2.84-2
0+1
1.29
0-2
a
0-2
a+1
50.54
a-2
a
a-2
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
PhDs
MF (000s)
Female PhDs
(%)
765
Table S5: Tertiary graduates in 2008 and 2013 and graduates in science,
engineering, agriculture and health in 2013
2008
2013
Tertiary graduates
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
0.53
0.48
0.04
6.52
3.46
a
0.59
Female PhDs
(%)
100.00
a
a
32.00
31.25
60.33
a
4.38
1.63
2.00
0.39+1
5.71-2
0.07
0.11
0.01
0.07
0.15-2
60.27
56.36
55.56
29.61-2
0-1
0
0.24-1
35.02-1
2.36
2.66-1
0.13-1
a
0.00
0.05-1
43.75-1
a
25.00
54.17-1
64.1
50.7
59.9
48.3-1
50.5
45.4
56.6-1
64.6-1
56.8
43.0
0.09
0.00
13.41-4
0-1
5.21
0.78
12.98-1
5.13-1
18.83
0.10
0.20
30.81-4
28.07-1
37.36
0.68
11.44-1
122.78-1
63.86
0.00
0.02
2.42-1
1.63
0
0.55-1
0.20-1
0.21
21.05
23.65-1
29.53
a
40.44-1
89.00-1
62.15
57.3-2
59.4-1
a-1
57.4
4.65-2
2.80-1
a-1
26.36-2
6.36-1
0-1
0.00
1.74-2
0.36-1
a-1
44.83-2
47.21-1
a-1
35.58
29.60
73.73
60.8
65.6
38.7
238.22
50.23
37.75
46.80
77.22-2
56.3
60.1
64.5
37.9
44.3-2
0.63
0.15
0.02
0.28
0+1
a-2
9.27
184.91
44.46
27.91+2
16.7
58.5+2
316.02-1
1.63
61.52
34.92
41.8-1
34.2
48.3
57.6
1.54
16.71
7 071.05
6.79
799.37+1
1 033.77
605.28
18.99+1
206.59
481.33+2
541.89
243.52
66.5
27.5
47.9
48.6
48.5
49.0
42.3+1
58.6
56.0+2
55.0
43.1
1.91
9 366.20
6.07
980.90-1
618.28
37.38
261.82-1
295.94-1
564.77
406.07
386.63-2
71.93-1
a-1
0.09
55.9
60.9
a
a
a
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
1.56
2.35
0.08
19.13
8.76
16.92
1.50
PhDs
MF (000s)
0.00
0
a
0.03
0.13
0.31
0
Females (%)
58.7+1
57.7
66.7
57.4
51.5
60.8
306.90
54.45
a
a
a
MF (000s)
16.68
35.28
2.28
141.20
124.49
58.69
65.42
25.68
Science
MF (000s)
11.54+1
25.28
1.79
112.13
51.32
14.32
766
Tertiary graduates
Females (%)
56.1
59.5
60.8
51.1
51.2
56.2
65.9
55.6
2013
Engineering, manufacturing and construction
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
0.64
0.48
0.27
7.87
2.91
a
0.22
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
2.52
2.09
0.29
5.30
4.96
11.02
3.52
PhDs
MF (000s)
0.00
0
a
0.02
0.03
0.12
0
Female PhDs
(%)
0
a
a
5.88
21.43
49.18
a
Agriculture
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
0.45
0
a
0.02
0.02
a
0
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
0.05
0.17
0.43
3.00
0.90
PhDs
MF (000s)
0.00
0
a
0.00
0.03
0.01
0
Female PhDs
(%)
0
a
a
0
34.48
50.00
a
Post
secondary
diploma
MF (000s)
2.42
1.30
0.03
2.45
0.97
a
0.07
Bachelors
and masters
degrees
MF (000s)
0.47
1.77
0.22
7.38
13.75
5.81
1.71
PhDs
MF (000s)
0
0
a
0.14
0.06
0
0
Female PhDs
(%)
a
a
a
25.17
37.70
a
a
14.66
1.05
0.07
0.97
1.16+1
a-2
31.80
6.17
4.22
0.93+1
10.34-2
0.04
0.08
0.01
0.02
0.12-2
37.84
40.74
36.36
22.88-2
3.55
0.15
0.01
0.23
0.30+1
a-2
0.81
0.13+1
2.70-2
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.06-2
18.18
10.00
91.67
29.31-2
4.18
1.94
0.62
5.90
0.30+1
a-2
2.34
0.30+1
3.53-2
0
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.13-2
a
66.00
78.95
55.30-2
0-1
0.17
0.48-1
14.12-1
0.14
1.07-1
0.09-1
a
0.00
0.01-1
14.94-1
a
60.00-1
0-1
0.07
0.34-1
3.87-1
0.75-1
0.07-1
a
0.03-1
43.24-1
a
64.52-1
0-1
0.06
0.26-1
5.00-1
1.30
1.19-1
0.27-1
a
0.23-1
39.26-1
a
44.21-1
0.18
0
41.29-4
41.67-1
54.09
1.59
32.23-1
5.73-1
15.24
61.27
0.04
0.11
87.82-4
122.98-1
90.63
23.09-1
5.61-1
47.10
36.72
0.00
3.56-1
3.14
0
0.63-1
0.06-1
0.06
0.09
33.33
14.35-1
14.37
a
26.34-1
72.41-1
48.28
13.98
0
14.39-4
3.04-1
1.78
1.25
2.42-1
0-1
4.07
8.17
0.00
33.06-4
21.83-1
5.36
2.43-1
1.54-1
9.65
13.27
1.00-1
0.32
0
0.07-1
0-1
0.07
0.01
31.27-1
25.55
a
32.86-1
a-1
55.41
0.04
0.01
13.94-4
69.74-1
46.58
0.47
12.23-1
2.14-1
4.39
7.46
0.04
0.36
32.05-4
52.26-1
39.77
18.02-1
1.71-1
53.11
7.33
0.01
5.26-1
2.52
0
0.20-1
0.06-1
0.16
0.01
14.29
31.23-1
46.79
a
46.80-1
83.33-1
69.14
41.67
8.10-2
1.41-1
a-1
21.07-2
3.60-1
0-1
0.01
0.88-2
0.13-1
a-1
25.51-2
29.77-1
a-1
1.96-2
0.57-1
a-1
1.79-2
0.38-1
0-1
0.01
0.28-2
0.02-1
a-1
49.64-2
73.33-1
a-1
19.15-2
2.01-1
a-1
45.82-2
9.19-1
0-1
0.01
0.99-2
0.15-1
a-1
63.44-2
58.39-1
a-1
767
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
768
150 220
1 250 984r
43 717
1 422
129 102
4 859q
7 500
4 479b
1 739
554q
42 973
394
466-1
1 617
5 209q
34 664
38 225
11 968
6 931
873
28 759
36 789
4 314
40 849
234 366p
317 307
21 014-2,r
20 064
14 189r
101 840
3 621
8 490
2 396
494
46 958
61 105
39 834
19 271
13 290
7 446
133 803
47 160q
256 124r
467-1,q
745-2,q
893
10 444
50.52
31.41q
36.54
51.33-1
39.81
35.20q
53.41q
4 451
4 042r
156 550-1
1 265 064-1,r
1 092
142
667
286q
164
973b
118
40q
369
109
75-1
481
182q
51 598-1
1 646-3
138 653-3
6 798-1,q
7 702-1
6 107-2,b
2 736-2
411-1,q
46 125-2
438-2
1 081-1
1 803
8 686-1,q
51.61-1
31.66-1,q
37.15-1
45.04-2,h
39.30-2
41.85-1,q
30.59-2
47.48
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Female
researchers (%) *
Total researchers
2013
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Total researchers
Female
researchers (%) *
2009
4 494-1
3 984-1,r
1 256-1
162-3
710-3
389-1,q
161-1
1 289-2,b
179-2
27-1,q
386-2
117-2
162-1
529
290-1,q
22.40
31.56
48.43
48.82
37.57
26.04
29.77
41.63
20.57
31.71-4
30.42
32.79r
34.19
50.35
50.45
22.30
29.15
38.15
44.66
44.85
42.19
33.75
38.51
29.70q
4 141
3 519
1 607
1 593
801
2 743
6 659
3 311
7 644
3 727p
3 815
1 899-2,r
2 000
3 217r
1 691
1 714
2 737
4 811
1 168
2 835
1 600
3 765
879
2 450
3 642
2 924
5 065q
4 151r
39 923r,v
44 649v
12 275
6 529
885v
34 271
40 858r,v
4 407
39 196s
265 177s,v
360 310r,v
29 055s
25 038
15 732-1,r
117 973v
3 625
8 557
2 615s,v
878v
72 325s,v
71 472
43 321v
18 704s
14 727
8 707s
123 225
62 294q,s
259 347r,v
22.80-2
31.73-2
49.61-1
49.82-1
37.51-1
24.72-1
31.59-2
42.84-1
26.05-1,q
22.08-2
38.92-2,s
28.41-1
30.27-2,r
35.75-1
50.85-1
50.18-1
24.18-2
28.18-1
26.56-1
36.73-1
44.49-1
44.78-1,s
41.79
33.99-1,s
38.47-1
30.19-2,q,s
4 699r,v
4 021v
1 699
1 522
776v
3 202
7 271r,v
3 424
7 223s
4 125s,v
4 355r,v
2 611s
2 515
3 438-1,r
1 934v
1 768
2 836
4 931s,v
2 047v
4 316s,v
1 870
4 084v
862s
2 702
4 202s
2 626
6 509q,s
4 108r,v
44.33-1,q
53.86
47.72
148-1,q
193-2,q
425
1 076
829s
1 402
404
12 342
36.50
51.04
48.68-2,r
50.00-1
216s
665
650
1 298
67 245
1 947
216 672
8 770q
16 201
7 223b
2 413
455
756q
539-6
42 973
326-5
482
850-1
4 965-5
2 596
6 829q
5 448
21-7
787
59 341
55 858
14 699
12 108
1 696
43 092
54 049
7 453
55 797
296 093
487 242
33 396-4
35 267
20 901r
149 314
6 324
13 882
2 951
945
54 505
98 165
75 206
30 645
21 832
10 444
221 314
72 864
385 489r
1 721-1,q
2 953-2,q
1 795
671-2
12 006
51.91
63.23
32.30q
37.19
43.26h
38.96
35.16
35.19q
26.53-6
31.57-6,r
42.48-7,q
41.12-5
51.76-1
51.58
54.52q
46.64
52.86
28.44
32.71
47.62
46.42
35.55
28.86
31.75
42.48
31.42
26.92p
24.96
36.37-4
32.11
34.23r
33.84
52.37
51.01
21.21
29.42
25.88
39.52
44.33
44.73
42.47
35.66
38.11
35.68
37.93r
44.33-1,q
51.25
41.28-2
47.44
1 680
195
1 120
516q
354
1 570b
164
74
54q
81-6
369
61-5
133
136-1
181-5
773
239q
483
194-7
595
7 088
5 142
1 974
2 783
1 555
4 109
9 784
5 720
10 441
4 708
5 857
3 025-4
3 516
4 739r
2 479
2 994
4 475
5 924
2 235
3 291
2 570
7 108
1 398
4 024
5 109
4 837
7 826
6 248r
545-1,q
763-2,q
855
1 086-2
1 237
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Total researchers
Female
researchers (%) *
2013
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Total researchers
Female
researchers (%) *
2009
81 748-1
2 153-3
234 797-3
10 447-1,q
16 127-1
8 848-2,b
4 027-2
662
666-1,q
46 125-2
552-2,s
1 704-1
2 403
10 256-1,q
52.66-1
62.75-3
30.97-1,q
37.75-1
42.65-2,h
37.37-2
38.82
44.74-1,q
51.68-1
49.11
56.29-1,q
1 990-1
212-3
1 203-3
598-1,q
338-1
1 868-2,b
264-2
104
44-1,q
386-2
148-2,s
255-1
705
342-1,q
4 477
914-1
46.59
43.76-1
397
683-1
65 609-2
63 207-2
15 219-1
11 402-1
1 914-1
47 651-1
58 568-1
7 634-1
56 704-1
356 469-1,s
522 010-2
45 239-2,s
37 019-1
22 131-2
157 960-1
7 995-1
17 677-1
3 267-2
1 451-1
104 265-1,s
103 627-1
81 750-1
27 838-1,s
24 441
12 362-1,s
215 544-1
80 039-2
442 385-1,r
1 245s
2 867
1 546-2,s
13 249-1
28.99-2
33.47-2
48.61-1
47.71-1
37.30-1
27.50-1
34.78-1,r
43.99-1
32.25-1
25.59-1,q,s
26.80-2
36.71-2,s
30.94-1
32.43-2
35.50-1
52.81-1
52.36-1
24.00-2
29.50-1
26.31-1,s
38.29-1
45.02-1
45.14-1,s
42.70
35.80-1,s
38.81-1
37.22-2
37.83-1,r
38.88
49.15
49.87-2
49.64-1
7 780-2
5 743-2
2 091-1
2 647-1
1 695-1
4 470-1
10 463-1
5 914-1
10 484-1
5 575-1,s
6 297-2
4 069-2,s
3 711-1
4 893-2
2 594-1
3 880-1
5 839-1
6 327-2
3 392-1
6 238-1,s
2 712-1
7 709-1
1 280-1,s
4 484
5 979-1,s
4 610-1
8 471-2
7 046-1,r
325s
1 361
2 491-2,s
1 387-1
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
769
Table S6: Total researchers and researchers per million inhabitants, 2009 and 2013
770
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Total researchers
711i
794
3 078
811
1 337q
54 813-3,i
63 728-1,p,r
2 623
440 581
89 075
52 626q
26.96-3,i
21.19-2,p
47.85
32.96
736-3,i
8 337-1,p,r
752
3 085
1 189
1 163q
2 505
26 273
25 142-1
39.93
7 983
5 433
3 285-1
2 258-2,s
28 343
35 950-1
35.96-2,s
7 012-2,s
5 621
4 495-1
60-7,q
102-9,q
1 269-4,q
1 615-2
179
392-2
2 105-2,q
46q
930q
406-2
513-3,q
273h,i,q
101-4,q
5 677-2,h,q
123l,q
4 527-1
13-4,q
19 793
216-2,h
536-1
12.78-9
16.55-4,q
7.74-2
20.00-1
17.59-2
17.84-2,r
41.03q
31.72
21.86-2
13.26-3,q
33.72q
23.35-2,q
34.17l
23.81-1
30.77-4,q
39.02
12.21-2,q
34.33-1
131-7,q
33-9,q
73-4,q
20-2
110
17-2
56-2,q
23q
45q
30-2
42-3,q
12h,i,q
8-4,q
39-2,h,q
12l,q
370-1
149-4,q
389
37-2,h
43-1
1 150-2
352-1
742-3
25-2,l,q,s
4 267s
59-2,q,s
941-3,s
9 305-3,s
12-2,l,q
1 106-2,q,s
732-3,h
443-3
228-1,h
912-3,h,s
4 679-3
21 383-1
1 600-3,h,q
242-1,h,s
1 263-3
1 305-1,h
27.83-2
26.64-1
21.61-3
36.00-2,l,q
13.04
20.48-2
17.30-3
20.00-3
32.77-2,q
34.18-2
18.55-3
14.06-3
41.44-1,h
32.24-3
24.83-3
43.42-1
24.59-3
9.45-1
26.26-3
25.45-1
57-2
176-1
48-3
51-2,l,q,s
45s
34-2,q,s
39-3,s
227-3,s
6-2,l,q
51-2,q,s
49-3,h
32-3
184-1,h
38-3,h,s
361-3
408-1
36-3,h,q
36-1,h,s
37-3
95-1,h
5 593-4,q
39l,q
35 158q
12 048b,h
402k,q
36.53-4,q
41.03l,q
36.00
34.06h
37.06k,q
165-4,q
33l,q
458q
399b,h
141k,q
67l,q
47 652h
13 559-2,b,h
439-1,k,q
50.75l,q
43.69h
33.94-2,h
36.22-1,k,q
50l,q
581h
426-2,b,h
135-1,k,q
52 256i
2 861
442 263
57 759
61 858q
Female
researchers (%) *
Researchers per
million inhabitants
24.21i
48.03
33.37
43.89-2
Total researchers
Other Europe and West Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
Iran, Islamic Rep. of
Israel
Moldova, Rep. of
Russian Federation
Turkey
Ukraine
European Free Trade Assoc.
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
SubSaharan Africa
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Rep.
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Congo, Dem. Rep. of
Cte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
GuineaBissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Arab states
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
2013
Female
researchers (%) *
2009
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Female
researchers (%) *
45.69q
52.35
42.72
52.70-4
23.69i
47.32
41.90q
36.29
44.82
1 867q
1 229
2 157
1 813-4
1 375i
988
2 570q
1 606
1 646
3 870q
15 784
18 353
115 762-3,i
3 250
369 015q
166 097
65 641
48.14q
53.34
41.06
25.86-3,i
47.97
40.88q
36.23
45.82
1 300q
1 677
1 961
1 555-3,i
932
2 584q
2 217
1 451
3 754
44 762
45 874-1
42.59
35.23
30.18-1
11 963
9 257
5 994-1
3 270-2,s
46 747-1
60 278-1
37.34-2,s
36.20-1
32.41-1
10 154-2,s
9 361-1
7 537-1
1 000-2,q,r
1 732-4,q
187-2,q
362q
107-7,q
4 562-1
134q
12 470b
2 397-4,q
2 377-2
531q
179
636-2
2 117-9,q
3 509-2,q
229q
1 817q
733-2
877-2,i,q
771h,i,q
129-4,q
17 624-2,h,q
564l,q
7 859-1
14-4,q
40 797
2 755-2,h,q
834-2,h
1 703
612-1
30.77-4,q
13.37-2
13.81
52.34-7
21.79-1
41.46-2,l
16.48-4,q
7.40-2
22.39q
20.00-1
17.92-2
5.76-9,q
17.84-2
41.03q
33.90
23.19-2
10.60-2,q
33.72q
23.30-2,q
21.81l
24.05-1
35.71-4,q
40.76
20.25-2
12.02-2,q
40.40
30.72-1
1 482-2
690-1,s
1 144-3,s
379-2,q
128-2,l,q,s
8 221s
60-2,q,s
2 542-3,s
13 012-3,s
42-2,l,q
2 364-2,q,s
1 843-3,h
898-3
353-1,h
1 588-3,h,s
748-3
8 170-3
42 828-1
3 102-3,h,q
639-1,h,s
2 823-3,s
2 739-1,h
27.06-2
27.25-1,s
23.08-3,s
14.51-2
39.84-2,l,q
13.30
20.00-2
18.29-3
25.65-3
30.95-2,q
35.36-2
19.53-3
16.04-3
41.93-1,h
32.24-3
43.72-3
24.86-3
43.72-1
25.44-3
10.17-1
24.34-3
25.26-1
73-2
344-1,s
74-3,s
40-2,q
261-2,l,q,s
87s
35-2,q,s
105-3,s
318-3,s
21-2,l,q
109-2,q,s
123-3,h
64-3
285-1,h
66-3,h,s
343-3
631-3
818-1
69-3,h,q
96-1,h,s
83-3,s
200-1,h
13 805-4,q
397l,q
89 114q
36 470b,h
11 310-1,q
402k,q
34.83-4,q
33.75l,q
37.34
34.16h
22.54-1
37.06k,q
510l,q
110 772h
40 521-2,b,h
4 025h,s
41.18l,q
42.77h
34.17-2,h
37.34h,s
383l,q
1 350h
1 273-2,b,h
1 195h,s
406-4,q
333l,q
1 161q
1 209b,h
1 913-1,q
141k,q
Total researchers
Total researchers
5 542q
11 041
20 543
8 112-4
101 144i
3 561
369 237q
114 436
76 147
115-2,q,r
923-4,q
13-2,q
41q
233-7,q
233-1
31q
206b
138-4,q
30-2
350q
110
28-2
242-9,q
93-2,q
115q
89q
53-2
69-2,i,q
33h,i,q
10-4,q
120-2,h,q
54l,q
642-1
161-4,q
802
67-2,h,q
143-2,h
52
49-1
Female
researchers (%) *
2013
Researchers per
million inhabitants
2009
771
Table S6: Total researchers and researchers per million inhabitants, 2009 and 2013
Total researchers
29.49-1
33.57-2
669-1,q
145
1 265
27 714-2,q
497h
2 492h
1 203-1
15 159-1
5 593
31.79-2
23.54h
20.23-1
864-2,q
137h
576h
587-1
1 394-1
355
12 552s
15 029-2,b
39.14-2
763s
534-2,b
192 819-3
30 244h
2 140-3
14.28-3
31.27h
39.35-3
160-3
166h
103-3
1 484 040
21 236-1
527q
660 489
321 842
52 052-1
34 141-1
36 360-2
32.18q
47.01-1
53.10-2
1 071
2 971-1
931q
5 195
6 533
1 780-1
6 438-1
546-2
154 827-4
1 500-7,r
27 602h
1 972-1
14.85-4,q
23.67
38.89-1
137-4
62-7,r
162h
96-1
102-5,q
223-7,q,r
1 152 311
19 283
300q
21 349q,r
655 530
244 077
87-7,q
29 608
837-7,q
6 957-2
30 530
22 000
9 328-7
22.60-7,q,r
29.68q
47.69
50.81-2
50.29
282-5,q
18-7,q,r
853
2 752
575q
90q,r
5 147
5 068
16-7,q
1 065
17-7,q
78-2
6 150
332
113-7
92 649-1
16 100
4 280-1
3 724
16 300-2
Source:
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), August, 2015
Sources for background data:
Population: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2013; World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision
772
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Researchers per
million inhabitants
20 703-1,q
567
13 300
Female
researchers (%) *
Female
researchers (%) *
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
2013
Total researchers
2009
3 693-2
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Female
researchers (%) *
Total researchers
2013
Researchers per
million inhabitants
Female
researchers (%) *
Total researchers
2009
460q
29 276-1,q
1 550
1 271k,q
11 208-4,b,r
28 274
24.75
27.60-1
18.77
1.42
40.00-4,r
77q
946-1,q
396
47k,q
355-4,b,r
2 690
36 732-2,q
1 235h
4 533h
1 725-1
30 127-1
30.19-2
21.13h
22.59h
21.86-1
1 146-2,q
340h
1 048h
841-1
2 770-1
10 095
2 290
1 748q
1 722
30 273
48.46
43.45
48.11q
38.79-3
42.99
641
435
654q
231
1 105
17 195s
2 224-2
1 912q
2 152h
30 890-2
51.46s
43.21-2
48.90q
33.83
40.92-2
1 046s
412-2
673q
262h
1 097-2
3 000-7,r
54 689h
4 037-1
15.00-7,r
26.97
39.86-1
124-7,r
322h
197-1
5 123-3,q,s
60 699h
5 162-3
7.79-3
29.78h
36.92-3
244-5,q
744-7,q,r
23 014
658q
41 143r
889 341
323 175
209-7,q
53 304
4 725-7,q
11 490-2
34 387
38 506
41 117-7
40.57-5
20.70-7,q,r
32.37q
30.58-4
13.62
15.80
22.97-7,r
50.91
85.46-7,b
52.25-2
28.49
51.08
42.77-7
676-5,q
59-7,q,r
3 284
1 261q
173q,r
6 983
6 710
38-7,q
1 918
96-7,q
129-2
6 927
581
498-7
27 000
19-6,q
51.99-8
15.79-6,q
6 246
1 925-6,q,r
2 069 650-1
24 934-1
1 110q
892 406
410 333
75 257-1
38 432-1
51 178-2
105 230-2,s
28 100-2
34.50q
14.63
18.18
49.92-1
29.57-1
52.66-2
41.67-2,s
191-3,q,s
333h
249-3
1 503-1
3 488-1
1 960q
7 019
8 329
2 574-1
7 247-1
769-2
1 170-2,s
6 366-2
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Note:
* The year for the share of female researchers may not be the same as the year for total researchers for some countries.
N.B.: See Key To All Tables at the end of Table S10.
773
774
2012
Not elsewhere
classified
2013
2009
18.65
21.32
25.91
11.38
8.36h
20.14
19.64
16.22q
35.43
8.21
15.06
10.45
13.11q
13.42
15.84
16.94
15.67
7.59h
11.27
15.56
19.82q
12.34
14.69
12.24
12.78
22.16q
10.96
15.23
12.31
6.42
7.29h
11.37
4.68
18.32q
9.58
5.62
20.94
15.36
16.75q
69.76
77.80
76.52
52.19
31.32h
57.41
79.15
74.77q
74.07
48.16
61.41
67.37
63.77q
21.18
16.54
18.20
36.83
8.91h
35.09
17.52
18.77q
17.40
17.93
23.29
23.26
36.23q
2012
24.73
29.54
14.44
10.50
79.21
20.79
24.59
15.54
28.32
27.08
24.88h,r
14.98
26.87
21.56h,r
17.31h,r
23.57
17.02
18.35
21.92
17.20
16.55
24.82
27.33
30.74
24.45
39.52
10.87h,r
34.49
33.35
19.01h,r
14.73h,r
27.98
42.92
32.15
29.62
46.93
32.74
39.39
13.48
20.93
4.96
11.88
6.75h,r
21.23
10.85
9.14h,r
11.92h,r
14.40
14.58
14.66
16.51
9.24
12.33
13.82
73.31
74.26
60.71
83.04
46.63h,r
75.91
76.24
55.62h,r
46.70h,r
68.85
82.26
71.05
70.77
77.86
65.73
83.87
15.99
15.69
25.34
9.36
13.57h,r
12.12
13.23
19.34h,r
26.77h,r
16.47
14.35
16.45
18.13
15.91
20.29
9.58
10.70
10.05
13.95
7.61
13.09h,r
11.97
10.54
10.81h,r
15.00h,r
9.44
3.39
12.50
11.10
6.23
13.98
6.56
26.69
25.74
39.29
16.96
26.66h,r
24.09
23.76
30.14h,r
41.77h,r
25.91
17.74
28.95
29.23
22.14
34.27
16.14
26.71d,r
14.23d,r
11.53d,r
5.24
8.66q
16.55
4.89
6.73
20.58
13.83q
40.48
16.67
21.67
23.95
9.06q
2.49
30.93
28.53
9.37
50.73q
73.82
61.36
61.19
67.27
13.71q
19.68
18.47
18.82
19.02
35.56q
5.46
20.17
19.99
13.71
49.27q
25.14
38.64
38.81
32.73
1.04
2008
2012
2011
2011
2013
2012
2003
2008
2008
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2011
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2012
2013
2012
2008
2013
2012
2011
2012
7.91
7.04
2.98
4.55
4.14h,r
5.22
5.18
5.90h,r
2.74h,r
2.89
7.74
5.89
2.72
4.50
4.11
5.82
19.17q
14.30
8.87
4.27
13.37
30.24
22.20
23.48
44.49
10.73h
42.59
20.85
25.23q
25.93
17.93q
33.18
32.54
36.23q
26.73
25.41
21.36
18.72
8.07h
14.63
39.27
20.42q
16.71
19.65
13.18
28.80
11.76q
2010
9.06
5.67
5.26
7.66
1.82h
7.50
3.32
6.46q
8.53
9.88
9.28
Humanities
Social sciences
Agricultural sciences
Engineering and
technology
Year
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
Natural sciences
20.79q
3.32
57.96d
33.91
5.41
0.08
2011
2012
2010
2011
2011
2009
2013
2009
2011
2010
2010
2011
2011
2010
2006
2012
2010
2010
2010
2005
2012
2010
2012
2005
2013
2013
2011
2008
2013
81.89q
66.63
90.12
65.52
78.37i
76.12
91.84q
72.55
81.61
76.06
5.61q
13.36
7.52
9.38
21.63c,i
12.65
4.98q
18.39
7.07
Not elsewhere
classified
1.16q
6.65
5.76
11.33
18.78i
12.34
3.22q
4.50
8.06
9.92q
11.11
4.77
9.90
20.79i
14.06
4.43q
22.13
6.40
Social sciences
14.11q
16.09
61.00
14.95
25.14i
13.78
61.00q
35.86
42.00
56.69q
32.78
18.59
29.34
13.67i
35.94
23.19q
10.06
25.16
Humanities
2012
Agricultural sciences
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2013
2005
2010
Engineering and
technology
Year
Other Europe and West Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
Iran, Islamic Rep. of
Israel
Moldova, Rep. of
Russian Federation
Turkey
Ukraine
European Free Trade Assoc.
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
SubSaharan Africa
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Rep.
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Congo, Dem. Rep. of
Cte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
GuineaBissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Arab states
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Libya
Natural sciences
12.51q
20.01
2.36
19.08
g,i
11.23
3.18q
9.06
3.17
18.11q
33.37
9.88
28.46
21.63i
23.88
8.16q
27.45
10.24
6.02
i
8.15
23.70
0.24
23.14
37.54
13.90
15.63l,q
36.57q
15.29
13.18q
17.19
3.67
23.81l,q
37.18
15.63h
46.04q
21.81r
19.27
10.96
18.00
78.57
15.65h
17.43
30.05h
18.62
11.01
16.52
35.94l,q
2.99q
9.48
4.71q
11.41
13.73
19.05l,q
10.62
20.18h
8.58q
10.20r
22.04
2.41
1.98
6.10h
12.15
13.33h
9.24
22.61
42.05
3.91l,q
13.43q
18.48
4.52q
40.00
17.98
25.45
9.52
18.61h
13.59q
10.20r
13.16
6.82
19.60
18.78h
10.06
0.18h
12.96
20.00
10.58
19.79j
1.56l,q
9.70q
30.26
8.10q
60.00
14.20
40.51
54.76l,q
7.15
16.93h
11.89q
33.71r
8.94
42.91
1.60
14.29
14.71h
11.52
13.91h
63.97
91.16
83.04
19.79q
57.03l,q
62.69q
73.51
30.51q
100.00q
60.78
83.37
97.62l,q
64.47
71.35h
80.10
75.92r
63.41
63.10
41.19
92.86q
55.24h
51.17
57.47h
30.97
2.17
9.18
1.06j
22.66l,q
8.96q
16.81
22.41q
21.01
9.45
2.38l,q
19.37
18.45h
13.03q
16.43r
34.13
15.91
50.67
2.35h
37.38
22.16h
5.06
0.14
4.46
20.31l,q
24.63q
7.21
12.99q
15.11
7.19
9.73
10.20h
6.88q
5.95r
2.46
5.75
6.40
41.94h
11.45
15.48h
36.03
2.32
13.64
1.06q
42.97l,q
33.58q
24.02
35.40q
36.11
16.63
2.38l,q
29.10
28.65h
19.90
22.38r
36.59
21.66
57.07
44.29h
48.83
37.64h
6.52
3.32
79.16e
3.73q
2.47
34.09q
3.11
6.43
1.70r
15.24
1.74
7.14
0.47h
4.89h
24.27l,q
8.24l,q
8.08l
17.75b,h
8.20
14.34h
37.63q
15.88l,q
7.20l
18.86b,h
18.80
13.37h
8.15l,q
43.53l,q
31.76l
12.39b,h
12.61
11.85h
8.40q
0.39l,q
4.12l
9.36b,h
2.93
5.17h
78.44q
68.04l,q
51.16l
58.35b,h
42.53
44.72h
9.40l,q
15.29l,q
16.83l
32.33b,h
3.99
8.77h
12.16q
5.69l,q
11.41l
9.30b,h
18.13
13.34h
21.56q
20.98l,q
28.24l
41.63b,h
22.12
22.11h
10.98l,q
20.61k
0.02h
35.35
33.17h
775
Agricultural sciences
Humanities
Not elsewhere
classified
7.56
13.04h
10.90h
42.67
43.04k
27.18r
10.40
6.48h
5.85h
26.03
0.71k
22.29r
1.80
25.26h
4.83h
1.62
2.60k
6.00r
53.46
60.32h
38.12h
79.65
63.10k
73.32r
26.10
24.29h
27.69h
14.26
k
16.06r
20.44
13.20h
34.19h
4.81
0.47k
8.10r
46.54
37.49h
61.88h
19.07
0.47k
24.16r
2.19h
h
1.28
36.43k
2.52r
2011
29.61
26.66
37.45q
23.65
22.37
29.05
25.49
12.76q
9.57
16.13
6.21
17.67
9.94q
17.38
11.85
12.50
9.53
15.90q
21.93
6.06
77.38
79.36
76.05q
72.54
56.40
10.33
6.92
23.95c,q
15.57
22.07
12.29
11.65
11.90
21.53
22.62
18.57
23.95q
27.46
43.60
2.07r
2013
2010
23.37h
28.30
17.45h
22.22
15.66h
16.35
13.03h
20.34
69.52h
87.21
17.12h
7.81c
9.89h
g
27.01h
7.81
3.47h
4.98
10.45
11.07i
18.27
12.55
27.61
14.12
15.63
16.31
8.97h
14.23
11.12i
47.92
68.09
42.78
34.41
34.87
61.04
12.31h
13.87
7.28i
14.57
5.68
3.89
4.68
8.18
16.63
12.57h
13.39i
4.33
2.46
6.61
1.82
22.42
2.05
8.86h
38.56q
42.86i
85.08
88.78
80.89
55.03
81.11
96.02
42.72h
41.80q
18.16i
5.90
6.15
16.09
42.46
15.22
26.81h
18.56q
7.34i
3.37
5.08
3.02
2.52
2.32
2.62h
60.36q
25.50i
11.52
11.22
19.11
44.97
17.55
29.43h
1.08q
31.64
3.40
1.35
3.98
27.86
2011
2013
2013
2012
2009
2005
2013
2011
2013
2013
2013
2005
2013
2013
2012
2002
2007
2012
2011
Social sciences
Engineering and
technology
33.71
15.55h
16.55h
9.33
16.76k
17.86r
Year
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Natural sciences
776
Publications per
million
inhabitants
Number of publications
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia,FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
Other Europe and West Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
Iran,Islamic Rep. of
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2008
2014
39 879
267 521
42 648
275 884
43 917
280 806
46 829
289 769
48 713
294 630
49 728
301 826
51 508
312 374
51 459
306 688
54 632
324 047
54 631
321 846
1 403
945
1 538
998
5 056
12
120
17 106
2 912
871
302
203
20
63
18
25
6 899
39
156
28
334
13
425
1 097
5 429
12
131
19 102
3 090
1 040
304
200
17
52
8
30
6 992
55
191
29
387
6
441
1 125
5 767
6
179
23 621
3 429
1 333
316
263
15
65
17
23
7 891
37
226
39
452
6
463
1 128
6 406
8
192
28 244
3 737
1 967
389
281
18
63
17
30
8 559
55
250
34
499
7
582
1 325
6 779
5
184
30 248
4 254
2 155
381
349
23
87
10
34
8 738
50
244
37
539
6
605
1 200
7 234
13
173
31 449
4 477
2 503
394
295
34
94
23
39
9 047
62
294
54
551
6
603
1 174
7 664
12
186
34 006
5 008
2 790
413
299
42
85
14
46
9 842
57
292
65
621
7
733
1 040
7 657
13
155
34 165
5 320
2 957
379
369
41
105
16
49
10 093
70
325
58
633
22
653
913
8 060
19
212
37 041
5 604
3 189
391
425
32
115
18
56
10 957
52
343
67
713
22
728
1 010
7 885
16
207
37 228
6 224
2 997
474
511
42
101
23
35
11 147
54
326
57
783
11
824
788
161
27
20
147
222
44
86
19
3
5
22
4
74
10
70
5
17
14
174
47
189
47
19
184
350
61
96
32
7
6
29
4
90
9
83
8
25
20
241
26
5
8
44
662
5
20
17
14
136
1
2
0
136
4
9
42
713
2
19
30
23
126
3
2
2
110
5
17
39
733
6
26
57
16
143
1
2
1
137
7
12
50
804
2
34
72
20
157
3
1
0
142
2
12
41
772
4
26
83
18
159
9
0
1
154
4
12
52
717
12
39
81
24
169
10
9
3
152
1
20
67
818
10
45
95
48
177
6
2
2
169
2
17
63
804
9
52
112
39
178
14
1
3
161
4
26
55
817
10
63
106
48
151
20
2
1
149
1
33
52
749
10
49
152
60
117
40
0
2
146
82
34
180
71
28
3
693
2
58
59
6
0
108
11
86
182
67
138
5
1 430
6
42
730
0
18
109
8 644
12 572
1 756
1 624
258
5 799
8 747
745
7 987
52 476
73 573
7 597
4 864
3 941
40 111
319
885
175
61
22 225
13 843
5 245
2 543
1 931
2 025
29 667
16 445
70 201
8 865
12 798
1 743
1 705
302
6 535
9 116
783
8 475
54 516
75 191
8 729
5 007
4 375
42 396
298
1 127
208
60
22 971
15 129
6 455
2 934
2 264
2 081
32 130
16 895
73 377
9 502
13 611
2 241
2 037
346
7 157
9 411
943
8 542
55 254
76 754
9 294
5 053
4 613
44 810
369
1 666
223
76
23 505
16 032
6 238
3 983
2 473
2 396
34 558
17 184
75 763
10 049
14 467
2 266
2 391
408
7 783
9 817
952
8 814
59 304
79 402
9 706
5 541
5 161
47 139
420
1 714
327
109
24 646
18 210
7 448
5 165
2 709
2 795
37 078
17 270
77 116
10 407
15 071
2 310
2 739
508
8 206
10 257
1 055
8 928
60 893
82 452
10 028
5 330
5 519
49 302
406
1 668
398
96
26 500
18 506
8 196
6 100
2 635
2 840
39 735
17 981
78 867
11 127
15 962
2 172
2 897
610
8 835
11 285
1 189
9 274
61 626
85 095
9 987
5 023
6 173
50 069
395
1 660
472
111
28 148
19 172
8 903
6 628
2 758
2 912
41 828
18 586
81 553
11 939
16 807
2 153
3 182
638
9 222
12 387
1 286
9 666
63 418
88 836
10 141
5 619
6 552
52 290
555
1 899
594
122
29 396
20 396
9 992
6 485
2 856
3 265
45 318
19 403
84 360
11 746
16 719
2 244
3 103
707
9 324
12 763
1 290
9 571
62 371
88 322
9 929
5 739
6 244
52 679
528
1 793
613
151
30 018
21 486
10 679
6 657
2 883
3 265
46 435
19 898
83 405
12 798
18 119
2 266
3 004
855
9 998
13 982
1 513
10 206
66 057
92 975
9 871
5 931
6 691
57 943
592
1 768
755
207
32 172
22 822
11 953
7 550
2 989
3 458
49 435
21 611
89 429
13 108
18 208
2 065
2 932
814
10 781
14 820
1 567
10 758
65 086
91 631
9 427
6 059
6 576
57 472
586
1 827
854
207
31 823
23 498
11 855
6 651
3 144
3 301
49 247
21 854
87 948
1 205
1 343
302
548
379
748
1 786
728
1 657
948
952
876
552
1 186
787
196
545
671
259
1 493
477
705
235
500
1 375
820
1 870
1 257
1 537
1 634
288
686
706
1 004
2 628
1 221
1 976
1 007
1 109
847
610
1 406
941
287
607
1 591
481
1 894
615
1 117
307
576
1 590
1 046
2 269
1 385
37
91
106
42
1 600
30
91
134
59
1 741
39
252
179
64
2 303
58
278
201
94
2 783
65
286
211
102
3 327
88
360
235
130
3 659
146
398
263
155
4 244
127
347
273
152
5 064
144
312
282
171
4 941
154
323
330
191
4 764
18
72
96
152
285
48
84
157
307
503
381
237
978
305
4 676
404
238
945
363
6 148
418
227
914
327
9 020
560
299
1 033
338
11 244
497
389
998
358
14 460
574
457
964
381
16 951
670
522
1 067
485
21 509
775
497
1 133
570
23 092
705
424
1 046
515
24 713
691
425
1 077
527
25 588
188
34
108
77
155
232
45
116
122
326
777
Publications per
million
inhabitants
Number of publications
Israel
Moldova,Rep. of
Russian Federation
Turkey
Ukraine
European Free Trade Assoc.
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
SubSaharan Africa
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Rep.
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Congo,Dem. Rep. of
Cte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
GuineaBissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Arab states
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
778
2005
9 884
213
24 694
13 830
4 029
2006
10 395
222
24 068
14 734
3 935
2007
10 351
180
25 606
17 281
4 205
2008
10 576
228
27 418
18 493
5 020
2009
10 371
258
27 861
20 657
4 450
2010
10 541
227
26 869
21 374
4 445
2011
10 853
258
28 285
22 065
4 909
2012
10 665
230
26 183
22 251
4 601
2013
11 066
242
28 649
23 897
4 834
2014
11 196
248
29 099
23 596
4 895
2008
1 488
63
191
263
108
2014
1 431
72
204
311
109
427
33
6 090
16 397
458
36
6 700
17 809
490
37
7 057
18 341
575
46
7 543
19 131
623
41
8 110
20 336
753
50
8 499
21 361
716
41
9 327
22 894
810
55
9 451
23 205
866
48
9 947
25 051
864
52
10 070
25 308
1 858
1 293
1 579
2 500
2 594
1 398
1 978
3 102
17
86
112
116
8
1
303
20
21
3
56
21
110
2
1
26
281
70
68
208
12
19
571
5
4
114
116
71
49
55
80
68
1 001
13
0
210
12
5
0
4 235
1
22
323
34
244
96
173
13
121
152
159
5
6
395
20
25
0
81
14
128
2
2
29
293
78
97
227
30
17
690
14
4
140
129
97
51
60
76
66
1 150
25
2
188
21
4
2
4 711
5
10
396
36
294
116
178
15
132
148
149
14
1
431
21
12
6
86
26
155
3
2
29
382
79
71
276
22
27
763
11
0
158
183
82
42
79
65
68
1 608
36
1
229
25
7
0
5 152
3
18
428
38
406
130
219
15
166
162
193
8
3
482
17
14
3
69
38
183
2
2
15
402
82
95
293
16
20
855
12
6
152
218
93
44
84
64
81
1 977
34
1
228
21
12
1
5 611
5
21
426
44
403
134
217
32
174
133
214
9
10
497
24
18
1
77
69
201
6
5
19
484
88
87
333
23
19
892
21
1
156
199
112
49
95
77
75
2 076
58
1
258
18
18
3
6 212
15
26
506
38
485
130
188
29
194
114
220
20
15
561
22
11
3
89
82
205
6
4
11
514
86
97
427
27
21
1 035
18
8
166
244
126
70
100
57
78
2 258
66
3
279
19
23
2
6 628
8
52
541
50
577
170
199
28
221
175
268
19
2
579
23
20
6
86
109
216
9
5
13
630
117
73
421
23
24
1 196
23
8
182
280
149
61
157
92
94
2 098
90
1
343
31
25
2
7 682
8
41
552
68
644
203
227
36
228
156
296
16
11
553
29
13
3
92
119
238
7
5
3
638
94
100
477
25
22
1 131
26
9
181
296
170
85
134
96
81
1 756
85
1
349
31
26
2
7 934
9
33
557
47
625
204
240
40
253
171
241
17
19
652
29
14
2
84
144
194
6
2
17
790
113
111
546
35
29
1 244
19
13
209
296
142
90
137
121
81
1 654
114
1
340
44
29
3
8 790
8
40
666
55
702
230
257
45
270
210
272
18
25
706
32
26
0
111
114
208
15
4
22
865
137
124
579
49
37
1 374
16
11
188
322
141
89
158
139
108
1 961
143
3
338
34
45
7
9 309
0
25
770
61
757
245
310
1
18
84
13
1
6
25
4
1
5
18
1
10
2
3
3
5
55
60
13
2
13
22
6
2
8
15
7
36
4
30
5
13
3
6
19
234
2
0
112
1
18
10
7
13
11
17
2
25
103
16
2
50
31
7
2
0
24
2
10
17
5
3
9
80
65
22
4
21
30
8
3
8
19
9
71
6
59
6
11
12
15
23
364
7
1
175
0
20
15
9
19
16
21
795
93
2 919
89
641
526
462
70
27
990
283
72
109
1 362
120
168
1 214
530
41
977
117
3 202
124
673
541
555
90
20
1 009
277
68
128
1 450
110
153
1 503
601
52
1 190
121
3 608
180
835
571
549
107
20
1 088
323
75
168
1 574
147
192
1 749
621
57
1 339
114
4 147
195
989
659
621
126
14
1 214
327
65
217
1 910
150
218
2 068
713
64
1 597
135
4 905
253
1 022
631
640
125
19
1 236
365
62
238
2 273
215
211
2 439
842
106
1 658
129
5 529
279
1 038
635
690
159
15
1 355
383
52
339
3 551
282
318
2 607
888
114
1 758
130
6 657
352
1 009
637
701
123
21
1 474
447
66
407
5 773
283
340
2 900
1 057
164
1 842
122
6 960
482
976
546
810
141
23
1 496
444
70
517
7 226
244
304
2 739
1 096
162
2 081
166
7 613
735
1 099
618
938
162
23
1 579
505
85
817
8 903
274
304
2 866
1 277
175
2 302
155
8 428
841
1 093
604
1 009
181
23
1 574
591
14
1 242
10 898
309
229
3 068
1 450
202
37
102
55
7
167
244
148
21
4
39
126
17
160
72
4
11
199
105
3
58
115
101
24
146
174
203
29
6
47
151
3
548
371
8
10
276
154
8
Publications per
million
inhabitants
Number of publications
2005
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China,Hong Kong SAR
China,Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea,DPR
Korea,Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2008
2014
200
46
67
32
5
296
210
47
71
32
6
289
255
51
99
45
8
335
221
54
126
49
3
306
269
51
166
39
6
350
247
57
173
51
9
328
276
65
145
53
12
363
330
67
167
61
19
284
499
95
209
67
13
313
600
82
203
46
24
323
14
10
48
7
1
11
36
15
70
5
5
11
7
511
8
24 703
1
158
1 142
283
10
584
23
27 785
2
212
1 553
279
8
669
5
32 610
5
218
2 534
322
23
797
8
37 228
4
253
3 089
430
19
881
16
38 967
5
295
3 614
432
36
995
27
41 983
5
349
4 522
419
31
1 079
28
45 961
5
336
5 629
461
39
1 216
23
46 106
8
365
5 522
475
34
1 302
35
50 691
5
457
6 392
489
44
1 394
36
53 733
16
455
6 778
599
1
5
12
32
13
10
18
21
1
9
47
42
46
16
37
28
29
54
66 151
7 220
63
554
76 950
11
25 944
36
1 559
41
486
6 111
2 503
2
570
31
70
79 740
7 592
96
612
77 083
10
28 202
55
1 813
41
494
6 493
3 089
8
656
37
92
89 068
7 440
79
629
75 801
11
28 750
47
2 225
42
578
6 457
3 710
3
750
43
86
102 368
7 660
121
709
76 244
36
33 431
58
2 852
39
663
7 075
4 335
0
943
48
126
118 749
8 141
143
893
75 606
29
36 659
60
4 266
43
706
7 669
4 812
3
963
49
139
131 028
8 527
201
992
74 203
34
40 156
95
5 777
47
730
8 459
5 214
3
1 207
46
136
153 446
9 258
226
1 103
75 924
19
43 836
114
7 607
56
873
9 032
5 790
0
1 387
64
168
170 189
9 133
368
1 222
72 769
37
45 765
133
7 738
52
779
9 430
5 755
4
1 669
79
191
205 268
9 725
488
1 426
75 870
21
48 663
126
8 925
59
894
10 280
6 378
6
2 105
106
206
256 834
852
46
1 476
73 128
23
50 258
129
9 998
70
913
10 553
6 343
1
2 298
111
6
76
1 099
238
3
599
1
698
9
104
1
7
1 459
65
0
11
250
13
184
117
80
6
576
1
1 015
19
331
1
9
1 913
94
1
25
24 755
4 942
1
61
0
1
4
0
0
7
44
3
6
0
0
12
27 049
5 119
1
67
2
5
7
0
0
9
51
9
7
4
1
9
28 649
5 373
3
67
2
0
7
0
1
11
84
1
8
5
0
7
30 922
5 681
0
65
0
1
3
0
0
4
78
1
4
4
0
9
33 284
5 854
0
62
0
6
9
0
0
6
76
0
6
2
0
16
35 228
6 453
2
59
0
1
9
0
0
4
81
0
11
3
0
12
38 505
6 811
3
74
1
1
3
1
0
7
100
0
17
6
0
21
39 899
6 917
4
83
0
5
7
0
0
5
112
3
8
2
1
18
44 926
7 303
6
98
3
1
6
0
0
8
89
1
11
1
1
19
46 639
7 375
7
106
5
5
12
1
3
12
110
4
17
6
3
19
1 429
1 328
0
77
0
19
29
0
0
197
12
5
8
39
0
40
1 974
1 620
446
120
48
95
115
93
2 214
571
15
21
30
57
264
74
Source: data from Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, compiled for UNESCO by ScienceMetrix, May 2015
Sources for background data:
Population: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2013; World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision
779
Total
2008
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
St Lucia
St Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
European Union
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
Other Europe and West Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
780
Astronomy
Biological sciences
Chemistry
Computer sciences
Engineering
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
46 829 54 631
289 769 321 846
1 192
5 165
1 347
5 121
614
4 405
833
5 068
10 136
71 105
9 723
65 773
3 144
20 000
3 269
21 500
1 109
5 460
1 274
5 909
4 527
21 155
5 346
23 863
6 406
8
192
28 244
3 737
1 967
389
281
18
63
17
30
8 559
55
250
34
499
7
582
1 325
7 885
16
207
37 228
6 224
2 997
474
511
42
101
23
35
11 147
54
326
57
783
11
824
788
331
1
11
2 508
148
128
15
10
0
3
0
2
365
1
2
1
19
0
43
65
407
0
9
3 150
204
120
28
28
1
4
0
2
561
2
13
2
32
0
92
74
132
0
6
207
370
4
1
1
0
0
0
0
214
0
2
0
1
0
3
12
155
0
0
340
807
12
2
1
0
0
0
0
289
0
1
1
0
0
1
22
1 788
1
77
6 024
728
341
157
90
9
23
4
6
1 984
11
151
15
150
3
157
300
1 906
3
75
7 113
918
485
171
147
9
25
5
10
2 320
14
143
19
215
1
232
175
696
0
8
2 088
298
160
10
3
0
0
1
0
718
1
3
0
9
0
57
135
663
0
2
2 695
350
221
19
23
0
1
2
0
828
0
1
1
13
0
58
62
49
0
0
244
68
16
2
0
0
0
1
1
85
0
0
0
3
0
8
13
103
0
0
510
148
38
3
7
0
0
0
0
243
0
1
2
3
0
22
9
388
0
4
1 689
265
112
10
4
0
1
0
0
756
0
0
0
14
0
23
107
540
0
6
2 478
396
297
12
36
0
2
0
0
1 051
0
2
2
26
2
26
61
7
12
50
804
2
34
72
20
157
3
1
0
142
1
33
52
749
10
49
152
60
117
40
0
2
146
0
0
1
84
0
2
1
0
6
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
31
0
2
4
1
8
1
0
0
12
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
5
15
195
0
12
25
3
19
0
1
0
27
0
11
5
179
5
15
51
15
38
10
0
0
21
0
0
3
99
0
1
1
2
8
0
0
0
5
0
0
7
46
0
1
1
0
10
0
0
0
12
0
0
3
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
31
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
62
0
1
0
1
7
0
0
0
9
0
0
1
61
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
12
10 049
14 467
2 266
2 391
408
7 783
9 817
952
8 814
59 304
79 402
9 706
5 541
5 161
47 139
420
1 714
327
109
24 646
18 210
7 448
5 165
2 709
2 795
37 078
17 270
77 116
13 108
18 208
2 065
2 932
814
10 781
14 820
1 567
10 758
65 086
91 631
9 427
6 059
6 576
57 472
586
1 827
854
207
31 823
23 498
11 855
6 651
3 144
3 301
49 247
21 854
87 948
139
413
84
77
4
253
344
31
207
1 093
1 450
299
95
293
1 095
9
70
3
0
528
606
256
37
96
64
1 703
264
1 048
206
492
36
117
19
342
454
57
201
1 151
1 505
257
116
363
1 455
29
65
15
4
656
823
358
72
90
85
2 021
295
917
171
213
50
15
3
123
103
20
131
1 251
1 757
82
58
95
1 044
5
23
0
0
493
254
89
20
49
19
712
183
1 708
248
418
46
51
4
159
380
27
224
1 690
2 466
146
112
119
1 414
4
33
1
3
812
368
166
65
81
28
1 185
333
2 360
2 009
3 032
334
367
48
1 691
2 445
242
2 018
10 855
15 133
1 361
1 143
1 023
8 347
52
140
85
17
5 255
2 707
1 358
194
475
427
7 142
4 056
16 883
2 246
3 214
274
436
85
2 054
2 923
355
1 981
10 456
15 314
1 161
1 119
1 114
8 635
82
157
160
29
5 634
3 569
2 013
510
496
431
8 203
4 071
16 360
771
1 225
379
241
40
1 142
577
73
622
6 242
8 698
726
716
404
3 850
49
99
19
0
1 468
2 793
1 073
688
341
305
4 609
1 206
5 556
915
1 417
281
232
57
1 422
905
126
739
6 144
9 119
637
587
476
3 991
91
143
51
8
1 554
3 244
1 243
703
353
309
4 971
1 441
5 629
216
272
25
16
26
163
102
15
186
1 181
1 035
362
79
115
950
8
63
11
2
416
197
145
143
49
67
952
205
1 335
329
338
28
42
27
249
186
24
285
1 622
1 404
402
110
132
1 171
11
41
55
4
461
381
312
142
78
101
1 712
320
1 732
786
1 103
152
237
68
650
604
92
683
5 245
5 812
1 131
279
380
3 825
90
362
42
9
1 550
2 152
918
517
280
402
3 335
1 314
5 601
1 015
1 440
137
265
103
923
968
122
1 074
5 804
6 982
956
330
528
5 280
92
288
76
19
1 882
2 281
1 476
736
314
445
4 751
2 046
6 704
58
278
201
94
2 783
154
323
330
191
4 764
3
4
3
2
44
7
11
16
5
186
1
0
0
1
24
0
1
1
2
49
6
18
38
7
324
19
43
59
18
456
0
1
27
0
223
6
7
18
4
346
0
1
2
2
52
1
8
9
1
121
3
21
11
20
314
5
34
35
27
613
560
299
1 033
691
425
1 077
0
1
0
3
1
6
30
5
1
23
4
0
37
4
69
35
16
70
66
75
178
64
59
143
2
2
1
3
4
8
59
25
161
34
28
105
Mathematics
Medical sciences
Other life
sciences
Physics
Psychology
Social sciences
Unclassified articles
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
4 095
17 704
4 579
20 386
1 583
8 533
1 471
8 498
12 819
86 244
15 207
92 957
548
3 858
623
4 043
3 675
25 916
3 248
22 591
642
3 258
660
3 583
404
2 414
522
2 681
2 341
14 552
6 529
39 873
613
3
25
1 215
417
77
32
50
4
4
0
1
788
17
36
0
72
1
60
61
801
2
33
1 977
616
153
43
65
4
2
8
3
892
9
40
4
90
1
60
38
203
0
0
646
192
49
5
2
0
0
0
0
261
0
0
0
3
0
17
63
198
0
0
908
259
97
5
5
0
0
0
0
321
0
0
1
11
0
30
44
927
0
31
6 393
638
268
57
45
3
24
5
11
1 160
13
16
12
152
2
122
167
1 120
5
26
7 683
966
436
64
67
19
36
3
11
1 383
13
35
11
177
4
139
106
9
1
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294
21
18
1
1
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20
3
1
0
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3
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1
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320
26
9
1
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1
0
13
0
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0
2
1
720
0
5
2 428
302
225
9
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1
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1
1 166
1
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13
0
42
106
658
0
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2 542
546
438
19
30
0
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1 177
0
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35
0
1
119
16
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0
0
0
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0
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0
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172
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15
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0
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0
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2
23
0
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97
8
12
4
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0
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1
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150
46
19
3
0
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0
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3
492
2
18
4 292
266
552
86
21
0
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4
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8
34
6
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1
44
289
1 231
4
47
7 190
908
657
95
101
9
30
2
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1 954
16
76
14
163
2
108
140
0
3
4
36
0
3
2
1
12
0
0
0
22
1
11
11
51
1
4
12
5
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1
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1
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1
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0
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0
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137
2
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1
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3
79
1
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0
0
0
0
0
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0
0
0
2
77
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
4
0
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
6
0
1
0
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
2
93
1
6
3
1
14
0
0
0
20
0
5
10
112
2
11
29
14
17
11
0
1
28
646
873
96
183
21
495
805
122
630
4 129
4 473
659
214
296
2 824
15
72
22
18
1 407
963
775
191
148
103
2 609
1 195
5 095
865
1 011
87
207
87
744
1 083
163
816
5 195
5 738
808
305
402
3 654
18
123
64
16
1 916
1 538
1 131
349
153
183
3 717
1 516
6 099
383
475
89
110
42
375
168
26
202
2 817
2 417
316
355
156
1 767
12
86
18
5
429
770
310
485
123
139
1 491
374
1 941
476
429
89
123
43
480
199
22
275
2 970
2 689
315
315
131
1 946
10
65
58
9
399
950
414
595
113
164
1 673
407
2 132
3 040
4 213
209
432
48
1 191
3 177
124
2 445
13 035
21 459
2 935
1 130
1 387
13 661
49
127
76
32
8 989
2 593
984
374
284
420
8 026
5 319
22 842
3 553
5 065
186
547
122
1 390
4 487
182
2 376
12 800
22 170
2 543
1 199
1 668
15 724
69
200
137
63
11 266
3 528
1 696
663
340
460
9 557
6 059
24 213
18
76
3
12
5
5
44
6
88
81
150
42
12
91
128
0
3
1
5
238
13
17
24
1
8
99
296
953
28
93
4
28
16
14
100
6
122
89
188
37
18
99
176
2
5
2
3
290
26
52
32
15
18
219
300
1 002
1 154
1 585
326
213
67
1 079
859
127
972
8 888
11 867
953
753
567
6 058
93
248
26
8
1 992
3 171
921
806
472
396
4 046
1 724
7 806
1 251
1 607
293
332
128
1 435
908
222
1 018
7 997
10 439
948
840
597
5 559
77
298
74
8
1 908
3 119
1 133
981
607
458
3 927
1 755
7 074
77
124
3
2
2
26
68
3
84
393
600
30
38
33
247
4
1
2
0
420
25
42
3
8
4
215
136
1 088
104
168
2
6
7
24
107
16
95
372
682
38
42
48
264
4
3
6
1
465
46
75
8
3
20
381
150
1 066
70
109
2
6
5
64
69
1
62
298
422
74
17
36
254
0
2
3
0
253
29
43
36
16
11
242
138
1 008
108
161
1
10
8
62
122
9
112
403
667
71
30
48
405
4
16
6
0
398
77
117
60
9
20
421
178
1 154
569
754
514
480
29
526
452
70
484
3 796
4 129
736
652
285
3 089
34
418
19
13
1 208
1 937
517
1 647
367
430
1 897
860
4 252
1 764
2 355
601
536
108
1 483
1 998
236
1 440
8 393
12 268
1 108
936
851
7 798
93
390
149
40
4 182
3 548
1 669
1 735
492
579
6 509
2 983
11 506
18
5
13
3
85
18
12
15
18
188
1
9
8
2
190
8
23
13
11
230
12
45
27
6
426
33
52
61
14
637
0
0
0
0
3
1
1
0
0
10
1
17
26
16
326
0
21
21
9
515
0
1
0
0
3
0
0
2
1
11
0
0
0
0
2
4
0
1
1
13
13
156
46
35
767
52
110
79
80
1 389
6
12
21
8
18
21
44
36
52
44
47
43
41
12
54
28
9
46
0
0
1
1
0
3
250
99
317
406
176
442
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
0
1
2
3
1
24
27
177
38
60
188
781
Total
Georgia
Iran, Islamic Rep. of
Israel
Moldova, Rep. of
Russian Federation
Turkey
Ukraine
European Free Trade Assoc.
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
SubSaharan Africa
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Rep.
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Congo, Dem. Rep. of
Cte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
GuineaBissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Arab States
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
782
Astronomy
Biological sciences
Chemistry
Computer sciences
Engineering
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
338
11 244
10 576
228
27 418
18 493
5 020
527
25 588
11 196
248
29 099
23 596
4 895
0
544
165
3
190
837
11
6
839
154
5
186
718
32
15
23
152
0
636
42
145
27
106
240
0
747
104
158
32
1 154
2 162
8
2 341
1 805
190
38
2 142
1 974
15
2 440
2 035
233
30
1 965
751
89
5 671
1 359
823
19
3 603
765
55
5 159
1 704
781
3
266
442
0
143
299
9
1
855
413
4
154
501
12
12
1 740
639
15
2 171
2 301
707
20
5 474
646
18
2 755
2 835
490
575
46
7 543
19 131
864
52
10 070
25 308
14
0
184
325
20
0
210
299
0
0
32
285
16
0
80
493
114
2
1 451
4 190
139
3
1 676
4 884
18
8
374
1 676
23
10
407
1 951
14
0
127
350
20
0
178
508
19
12
501
1 326
51
7
757
1 658
15
166
162
193
8
3
482
17
14
3
69
38
183
2
2
15
402
82
95
293
16
20
855
12
6
152
218
93
44
84
64
81
1 977
34
1
228
21
12
1
5 611
5
21
426
44
403
134
217
45
270
210
272
18
25
706
32
26
0
111
114
208
15
4
22
865
137
124
579
49
37
1 374
16
11
188
322
141
89
158
139
108
1 961
143
3
338
34
45
7
9 309
0
25
770
61
757
245
310
0
19
12
14
0
0
47
0
0
0
4
0
6
0
0
2
56
0
1
31
0
0
91
1
1
6
8
6
0
3
0
9
265
1
0
14
0
0
0
187
0
3
26
4
16
4
27
0
36
4
15
0
0
31
0
0
0
3
2
10
0
0
2
63
2
0
45
2
0
85
3
0
9
9
15
4
4
0
16
144
7
0
18
1
0
0
302
0
1
28
5
21
10
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
110
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
41
0
0
0
0
0
0
328
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
2
65
37
57
2
1
132
9
3
1
27
15
55
1
0
3
77
45
42
92
5
9
351
1
2
69
54
37
9
20
21
17
271
10
1
59
5
6
1
1 745
0
6
131
10
148
46
64
9
71
55
64
2
3
180
7
5
0
31
29
60
1
1
5
147
49
46
91
12
14
403
2
5
56
91
36
30
29
35
22
305
30
2
76
11
5
1
2 187
0
10
172
19
216
72
98
0
0
16
3
1
0
30
0
0
0
2
0
12
1
0
0
3
0
0
6
1
0
6
1
0
3
0
1
4
1
0
1
45
0
0
11
0
0
0
394
0
2
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
8
2
1
1
20
0
0
0
2
2
9
2
0
2
20
0
0
15
0
0
9
0
0
3
0
2
7
3
3
4
102
1
0
11
0
0
0
748
0
2
12
2
3
1
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
48
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
6
1
0
3
0
0
0
47
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
7
4
0
1
20
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
4
1
1
7
0
0
8
0
1
2
0
0
5
0
1
1
87
0
0
7
0
0
0
362
0
0
11
4
4
1
3
3
1
4
12
0
1
37
0
0
0
1
2
3
0
0
1
19
3
0
20
2
0
22
3
1
3
3
4
2
1
5
0
146
2
0
5
0
0
0
641
0
0
22
4
11
3
2
1 339
114
4 147
195
989
659
621
126
14
1 214
327
65
217
1 910
150
218
2 302
155
8 428
841
1 093
604
1 009
181
23
1 574
591
14
1 242
10 898
309
229
23
2
121
8
66
7
9
0
0
37
10
1
0
25
20
39
50
0
254
19
53
6
24
5
0
55
15
0
6
152
18
18
4
0
12
0
2
1
2
0
0
6
2
0
1
2
1
0
28
1
49
4
5
2
3
0
0
3
5
0
14
79
1
0
104
16
579
12
101
84
94
15
3
123
38
9
34
208
40
52
168
16
1 351
57
117
77
136
21
4
147
84
0
185
1 364
55
36
189
3
874
22
116
54
37
19
6
158
23
13
11
176
4
12
250
5
1 246
85
82
40
63
20
0
158
59
1
91
1 573
28
15
42
2
75
0
36
19
20
1
0
16
9
2
4
39
2
0
85
6
120
22
50
35
35
2
0
28
6
0
54
356
3
0
332
16
545
19
165
110
62
22
0
114
53
6
32
235
6
20
596
28
1 107
171
129
99
118
28
1
166
99
5
227
1 469
13
18
Mathematics
Medical sciences
Other life
sciences
2008
Physics
2014
Psychology
2008
Social sciences
2014
2008
2014
Unclassified articles
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
20
451
405
3
2 612
1 229
172
26
1 245
473
6
3 015
1 341
205
65
491
635
8
1 524
508
379
69
1 004
630
9
1 573
933
334
17
1 596
2 697
8
1 773
6 248
144
38
2 355
2 918
25
1 352
6 852
205
1
34
47
0
9
107
0
3
90
52
1
8
134
4
105
1 106
1 540
73
7 977
1 028
1 476
222
2 336
1 280
63
7 941
1 648
1 510
1
12
122
0
14
17
1
0
36
106
0
31
32
1
3
21
91
0
21
79
2
2
59
76
1
34
103
8
34
1 841
728
21
2 336
2 634
961
56
5 444
1 469
46
3 704
4 656
922
140
1
1 267
1 345
173
0
1 576
1 830
18
0
198
391
6
0
270
527
134
15
2 198
5 444
191
13
2 593
6 603
14
0
128
87
21
0
162
123
38
5
497
2 498
54
9
579
2 736
5
0
82
156
9
0
102
188
4
0
90
120
5
0
129
163
43
3
414
938
136
10
1 351
3 345
1
11
29
5
2
0
40
2
3
0
3
2
17
0
0
1
53
4
0
34
0
0
42
2
0
9
9
4
6
16
20
16
112
5
0
26
8
2
0
576
0
1
40
1
18
6
27
9
24
23
14
7
13
54
2
1
0
9
10
20
5
2
4
98
11
1
56
1
1
101
1
0
26
9
7
14
22
26
12
160
8
0
28
8
0
0
872
0
0
62
3
32
12
26
0
3
5
1
0
0
11
0
0
0
3
0
11
0
0
1
8
1
0
3
0
0
1
0
0
7
0
0
6
1
0
2
29
0
0
11
0
0
0
202
0
0
0
2
2
0
2
0
2
19
4
0
3
26
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
3
1
0
3
1
0
3
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
3
2
34
1
0
17
0
0
0
355
0
2
0
1
3
0
2
6
25
15
63
2
0
60
4
5
2
22
18
38
0
1
3
105
21
29
64
4
9
183
2
1
34
61
19
4
33
3
18
380
12
0
56
3
2
0
1 073
2
3
140
16
127
54
48
9
47
42
67
1
1
98
8
6
0
36
35
45
3
0
3
198
30
39
157
18
12
306
2
4
25
118
43
7
48
26
18
377
49
0
78
3
23
4
1 475
0
2
237
6
234
83
57
1
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
6
0
0
0
4
0
2
0
1
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
0
1
6
0
8
1
1
0
0
4
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
7
0
0
10
0
0
0
4
2
1
1
1
1
12
3
0
2
0
1
1
58
0
0
4
0
5
6
1
0
11
7
3
0
0
58
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
1
15
1
0
2
0
0
5
1
1
3
1
1
2
0
3
1
26
0
0
8
0
0
0
332
0
0
2
1
1
2
3
0
23
5
6
0
0
56
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
15
1
0
7
0
0
11
0
0
0
2
0
4
1
3
1
52
2
0
10
0
0
0
625
0
1
6
1
2
1
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
39
0
0
3
0
3
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
3
1
0
1
0
0
9
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
1
0
2
0
0
0
51
0
0
5
1
4
2
1
0
1
3
1
1
0
4
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
1
2
8
1
0
27
0
0
1
6
0
0
4
0
0
11
0
0
3
0
0
0
87
0
0
12
0
9
5
6
1
0
4
4
0
1
10
0
1
0
4
2
0
0
0
1
23
0
3
20
1
0
39
0
0
1
6
0
1
2
0
1
25
1
0
6
0
3
0
126
0
0
19
2
19
9
5
5
31
22
42
0
1
75
1
2
0
7
2
38
0
1
4
67
6
20
44
5
2
129
3
0
15
74
25
6
6
3
16
731
6
0
32
5
1
0
396
3
5
55
5
65
15
36
13
66
41
84
6
2
188
15
11
0
23
32
53
3
1
4
270
39
35
154
12
10
372
4
1
60
79
32
16
46
27
30
551
37
1
82
11
13
1
1 494
0
7
202
17
203
46
79
79
7
212
15
75
30
37
11
3
133
39
2
3
65
4
15
184
7
443
68
71
33
62
16
7
148
67
1
26
484
14
24
120
5
138
5
57
28
17
1
1
120
18
3
9
149
1
5
162
4
222
17
55
34
29
4
1
121
17
0
30
792
2
3
41
22
721
50
145
130
247
13
0
240
50
9
59
463
46
31
71
36
1 453
73
202
124
322
34
5
227
95
2
222
1 229
67
48
1
1
5
0
19
4
6
0
0
1
0
0
0
8
0
0
1
1
11
1
56
3
13
0
0
1
7
0
13
22
2
1
262
14
456
17
82
22
38
8
0
143
38
9
33
147
5
13
374
19
680
78
77
29
59
14
1
287
37
3
167
942
9
26
0
0
2
0
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
1
1
2
3
0
0
5
1
0
0
9
0
0
2
1
5
0
9
2
6
0
0
3
3
0
0
4
0
3
8
3
9
3
7
5
8
0
0
5
0
0
12
26
3
1
140
25
402
47
115
167
46
36
1
118
44
9
31
389
21
28
325
26
1 480
242
188
115
134
37
4
223
99
2
195
2 401
94
39
783
Total
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
Niue
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Astronomy
Biological sciences
Chemistry
Computer sciences
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2008
2014
2 068
713
64
3 068
1 450
202
91
15
0
167
13
2
3
1
0
10
15
2
429
125
7
514
173
19
194
35
7
302
120
25
39
35
0
95
87
3
281
126
5
455
367
17
221
54
126
49
3
306
600
82
203
46
24
323
5
0
1
0
0
8
7
3
4
1
0
8
4
0
0
4
0
11
10
0
1
2
0
10
20
7
34
5
0
28
44
13
51
4
1
27
66
2
7
13
0
60
80
4
6
6
0
49
1
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
1
22
5
3
3
0
22
78
1
9
3
2
30
23
797
8
37 228
4
253
3 089
430
44
1 394
36
53 733
16
455
6 778
599
0
40
1
1 711
0
6
143
39
0
82
1
1 604
0
19
253
44
0
1
0
327
0
3
4
0
0
19
0
590
0
0
74
3
5
196
3
5 891
0
55
632
70
4
255
10
7 529
5
86
1 120
90
0
65
0
6 628
0
2
511
20
4
84
1
9 437
0
15
438
29
0
16
0
492
0
0
32
2
0
27
0
1 041
0
0
202
2
0
70
1
4 875
0
5
240
26
0
143
0
7 827
0
19
645
29
43
106
86
206
102 368 256 834
7 660
852
121
46
709
1 476
76 244 73 128
36
23
33 431 50 258
58
129
2 852
9 998
39
70
663
913
7 075 10 553
4 335
6 343
0
1
943
2 298
0
4
1 795
51
2
37
1 853
1
905
6
120
3
99
33
299
0
48
0
7
4 510
9
0
82
1 438
0
1 289
11
324
1
79
62
299
0
70
0
0
581
21
1
2
783
1
188
0
1
0
0
1
10
0
2
0
0
1 298
5
1
2
919
0
339
0
7
0
0
3
27
0
12
8
25
12 870
867
20
194
14 884
5
4 896
14
316
13
169
981
1 023
0
170
18
55
30 991
75
5
295
11 792
2
6 519
29
914
18
186
1 482
1 247
0
324
1
3
21 536
631
5
56
9 949
3
4 137
1
582
1
24
859
499
0
41
10
1
34 956
67
4
90
8 762
1
5 242
1
945
0
41
1 332
556
0
174
1
0
1 997
524
14
9
787
2
812
0
71
0
1
344
44
0
5
2
0
7 759
74
7
15
882
1
1 580
0
391
0
3
527
77
0
100
1
1
15 109
1 360
25
63
8 104
10
6 663
1
484
0
14
1 541
529
0
71
13
1
41 835
185
12
191
6 766
0
9 624
2
2 231
3
54
1 752
714
0
289
1 054
400
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
3
1 224
476
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
500
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
902
64
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7 070
1 547
0
16
0
0
3
0
0
0
46
0
1
0
0
3
8 683
1 750
1
14
0
0
4
0
0
3
43
1
2
1
0
3
1 859
299
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 527
308
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
514
86
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
952
101
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 209
318
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4 077
449
0
17
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
30 922
5 681
0
65
0
1
3
0
0
4
78
1
4
4
0
9
46 639
7 375
7
106
5
5
12
1
3
12
110
4
17
6
3
19
Source: data from Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, compiled for UNESCO by ScienceMetrix, May 2015
784
Engineering
Mathematics
2014
2008
2014
Medical sciences
2008
2014
Other life
sciences
2008
Physics
2014
2008
Psychology
2014
2008
Social sciences
2014
2008
Unclassified articles
2014
2008
2014
137
50
5
296
74
14
131
28
3
184
50
6
381
165
9
292
239
29
0
0
0
1
9
0
175
43
8
311
90
25
3
0
0
4
4
0
5
4
0
22
9
1
199
86
20
415
200
59
21
17
33
1
1
6
39
23
37
5
3
11
16
1
1
4
1
19
54
3
9
8
14
41
8
8
14
3
0
15
41
6
21
2
1
12
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
30
9
17
9
1
110
122
11
25
7
0
105
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
4
0
4
0
0
0
27
5
14
7
0
26
110
18
35
8
3
28
1
87
1
1 759
3
28
107
43
1
82
7
2 777
6
55
282
56
0
8
0
886
0
1
103
2
0
20
0
1 040
0
1
248
2
11
115
1
4 805
0
65
322
100
20
201
8
5 442
4
106
496
109
3
3
0
32
0
0
4
4
1
0
0
40
0
4
8
3
0
77
0
4 910
1
2
361
13
0
107
2
6 338
0
12
660
86
0
1
0
22
0
0
1
1
0
3
0
52
0
0
2
2
1
13
1
77
0
5
5
4
1
12
0
107
0
8
37
8
2
105
0
4 813
0
81
624
106
13
359
7
9 909
1
130
2 313
136
4
16
5 378
506
8
114
3 644
2
1 065
2
156
4
82
158
215
0
82
12
19
14 266
37
1
180
3 514
1
1 659
19
524
9
110
354
278
0
195
2
0
4 649
396
6
14
1 560
0
863
0
52
0
10
203
53
0
131
5
0
9 188
49
2
16
1 565
2
1 145
1
149
0
6
251
167
0
257
9
27
8 700
1 548
11
102
17 478
3
5 702
22
326
13
120
1 032
853
0
120
18
45
29 295
161
7
164
17 360
3
9 359
25
849
18
140
1 518
1 174
0
174
0
0
70
88
6
1
122
0
196
0
8
0
3
18
42
0
1
0
3
426
9
0
10
120
0
297
0
21
0
0
73
36
0
5
2
0
18 011
1 081
11
39
12 553
4
5 360
2
181
0
30
1 272
243
0
184
3
1
27 681
79
1
62
9 287
5
5 231
0
654
2
53
1 210
377
1
306
0
0
75
44
1
3
226
0
43
0
5
0
1
21
10
0
1
0
0
394
6
0
13
208
0
90
0
18
0
4
46
7
0
2
0
1
185
46
2
10
158
0
60
0
12
1
8
33
24
0
11
1
6
616
9
1
19
165
0
155
3
51
2
19
57
34
0
9
15
9
11 412
497
9
65
4 143
5
2 541
10
538
4
102
579
491
0
76
24
68
53 619
87
5
337
10 350
8
7 729
38
2 920
17
218
1 886
1 350
0
381
2 928
704
0
8
0
1
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
1
4 215
896
6
16
4
2
3
1
2
7
10
1
3
2
3
4
722
148
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
839
175
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8 859
1 396
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
16
1
3
3
0
2
12 218
1 661
0
15
0
0
1
0
0
0
26
0
8
0
0
6
674
82
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 006
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 127
268
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 342
302
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
383
88
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
589
97
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
335
81
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
543
93
0
12
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1 688
243
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
1
11
0
0
1
0
0
6 522
903
0
18
1
2
2
0
0
1
25
1
4
2
0
4
785
North America
Canada
United States of America
Latin America
Argentina
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Total number of
publications
Number of publications
with international
co-authors
Publications
with international
co-authors (%)
Percentage of papers in
10% most-cited papers
20082014
20082014
20082014
20082012
20082012
357 500
2 151 180
180 314
749 287
50.4
34.8
1.25
1.32
13.1
14.7
51 685
86
1 309
232 381
34 624
18 558
2 821
2 529
232
650
121
289
68 383
400
2 074
372
4 339
23 847
77
1 230
65 925
21 220
11 308
2 300
2 280
219
598
89
282
30 721
386
1 932
338
3 916
46.1
89.5
94.0
28.4
61.3
60.9
81.5
90.2
94.4
92.0
73.6
97.6
44.9
96.5
93.2
90.9
90.3
0.93
1.20
1.40
0.74
0.96
0.99
1.15
1.15
1.19
0.95
0.90
0.97
0.82
1.04
1.56
0.99
1.29
7.1
14.6
11.6
5.8
9.0
9.0
13.2
12.1
14.4
8.8
3.1
6.1
6.4
12.2
16.6
8.7
12.5
81
68
84.0
0.77
7.5
4 728
7 450
3 330
4 183
70.4
56.1
1.09
0.69
9.8
5.6
21
20
95.2
Bahamas
Barbados
Cuba
132
380
5 481
119
297
3 964
90.2
78.2
72.3
1.01
0.93
0.67
6.6
9.8
5.5
Dominica
57
53
93.0
308
701
257
1 108
102
292
654
251
557
92
94.8
93.3
97.7
50.3
90.2
0.97
0.64
1.62
0.48
1.05
9.6
4.4
14.8
4.0
11.3
St Lucia
15
14
93.3
12
11
91.7
Uruguay
Venezuela
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda
Dominican Rep.
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
St Kitts and Nevis
786
1 073
661
61.6
0.61
5.6
81 174
115 353
15 476
20 248
4 540
64 149
85 311
8 852
67 217
438 755
608 713
69 089
39 242
42 916
366 894
3 482
12 329
4 013
1 003
202 703
144 090
69 026
45 236
19 974
21 836
309 076
136 603
582 678
53 248
74 806
8 480
8 861
3 453
32 788
52 635
5 381
38 945
238 170
320 067
31 843
22 322
25 368
168 632
1 942
4 676
3 330
665
118 246
49 019
37 997
17 192
11 493
10 979
147 698
84 276
325 807
65.6
64.8
54.8
43.8
76.1
51.1
61.7
60.8
57.9
54.3
52.6
46.1
56.9
59.1
46.0
55.8
37.9
83.0
66.3
58.3
34.0
55.0
38.0
57.5
50.3
47.8
61.7
55.9
1.30
1.39
0.91
0.83
1.28
0.97
1.50
1.26
1.27
1.20
1.24
1.06
1.01
1.34
1.17
0.74
0.75
1.24
1.00
1.48
0.72
1.12
0.81
0.83
1.04
1.16
1.34
1.36
14.0
15.3
7.1
7.0
13.5
8.8
16.6
13.0
12.7
12.7
13.5
10.3
9.4
14.3
12.0
6.7
5.8
13.3
11.8
16.8
5.7
11.2
7.5
7.0
9.4
11.8
14.1
15.1
Second collaborator
Third collaborator
Fourth collaborator
Fifth collaborator
Spain (5 246)
United Kingdom (20)
Brazil (193)
France (8 938)
Spain (4 475)
Spain (3 220)
Spain (365)
Spain (492)
Mexico (45)
Mexico (116)
Canada (20)
Mexico (58)
Spain (6 793)
Sweden (86)
Germany (311)
Brazil (113)
Brazil (719)
Brazil (4 237)
Canada (9)
France (192)
United Kingdom (8 784)
Germany (3 879)
Brazil (2 555)
Brazil (295)
Brazil (490)
Spain (38)
Brazil (74)
United Kingdom (13)
Brazil (42)
France (3 818)
Mexico (52)
United Kingdom (241)
Argentina (88)
United Kingdom (646)
Germany (3 285)
Mexico (8)
Spain (187)
Germany (8 054)
France (3 562)
United Kingdom (1 943)
Mexico (272)
United Kingdom (475)
Guatemala (34); Honduras (34)
United Kingdom (63)
France (12)
Argentina (41)
United Kingdom (3 525)
Costa Rica (51)
Canada (195)
Spain (62)
Spain (593)
France (3 093)
Australia (7); France (7)
United Kingdom (144)
Spain (7 268)
United Kingdom (3 443)
France (1 854)
France (260)
France (468)
Netherlands (38)
Canada (8)
Brazil (6)
Brazil (740)
Spain (1093)
Argentina (722)
France (525)
Spain (630)
Mexico (519)
France (365)
Brazil (506)
Canada (37)
United Kingdom (118)
Mexico (806)
Canada (7)
Mexico (49)
United Kingdom (77)
United Kingdom (18)
Canada (77)
South Africa (12)
St Kitts and Nevis (2);
Costa Rica (2); Antigua and
Barbuda (2); Barbados (2);
United Kingdom (2); Canada (2)
Germany (8)
Germany (48)
United States of America (412)
Australia (6)
Belgium (43); Japan (43)
Germany (392)
Spain (45)
Poland (63)
South Africa (14)
Trinidad and Tobago (43)
United Kingdom (10)
Brazil (38)
Turkey (46)
Canada (13)
South Africa (28)
China (8)
Jamaica (43)
France (7 425)
Netherlands (14 307)
United Kingdom (1 396)
France (1 573)
Italy (776)
Italy (4 456)
France (6 978)
Sweden (1 065)
France (5 109)
Spain (25 977)
Italy (33 279)
France (5 861)
Italy (3 588)
Italy (2 751)
Spain (24 571)
United Kingdom (289)
Poland (927)
United States of America (470)
United States of America (109)
Italy (15 190)
Italy (6 944)
Germany (5 798)
United Kingdom (2 530)
France (1 744)
France (1 666)
Italy (24 571)
Italy (9 371)
Netherlands (29 606)
Canada (95)
Italy (7 678)
Germany (14 718)
France (1 505)
United Kingdom (1 771)
Germany (829)
United Kingdom (5 775)
Sweden (8 906)
United States of America (1 336)
Sweden (7 244)
Italy (32 099)
Switzerland (34 164)
Italy (6 184)
France (3 740)
France (3 541)
France (32 099)
Russian Federation (292)
France (950)
United Kingdom (488)
Germany (120)
France (17 549)
France (8 795)
France (6 054)
Italy (3 268)
United Kingdom (1 750)
United Kingdom (1 889)
France (25 977)
France (10 561)
Italy (34 639)
787
SouthEast Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Macedonia, FYR
Montenegro
Serbia
Other Europe and West Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
Iran, Islamic Rep. of
Israel
Moldova, Rep. of
Russian Federation
Turkey
Ukraine
European Free Trade Assoc.
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
SubSaharan Africa
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cameroon
Central African Rep.
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Congo, Dem. Rep. of
Cte d'Ivoire
Djibouti
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
GuineaBissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
788
Total number of
publications
Number of publications
with international
co-authors
Publications
with international
co-authors (%)
Percentage of papers in
10% most-cited papers
20082014
20082014
20082014
20082012
20082012
782
2 304
1 795
995
28 782
471
1 397
1 198
731
10 635
60.2
60.6
66.7
73.5
37.0
0.56
0.73
0.80
0.71
0.89
4.0
6.4
6.7
5.8
7.5
4 472
2 688
60.1
1.03
9.2
3 013
7 318
3 174
137 557
75 268
1 691
194 364
152 333
33 154
1 598
4 274
2 283
29 366
37 142
1 204
64 190
28 643
15 761
53.0
58.4
71.9
21.3
49.3
71.2
33.0
18.8
47.5
0.73
0.79
1.29
0.81
1.19
0.77
0.52
0.71
0.59
5.6
6.6
10.7
7.4
11.9
7.9
3.8
5.8
4.4
5 207
333
62 947
157 286
4 029
302
38 581
108 371
77.4
90.7
61.3
68.9
1.71
1.12
1.29
1.56
18.3
12.3
13.4
18.0
225
1 506
1 121
1 704
107
85
4 030
176
217
1 320
894
1 557
103
85
3 257
166
96.4
87.6
79.8
91.4
96.3
100.0
80.8
94.3
0.67
0.82
1.14
0.96
0.70
1.45
0.71
0.84
6.3
6.8
7.6
8.0
10.2
18.4
4.9
8.7
116
110
94.8
0.72
5.1
18
18
100.0
608
675
1 445
555
628
1 056
91.3
93.0
73.1
0.90
1.00
0.71
8.2
10.3
7.2
51
45
88.2
27
100
4 323
717
687
3 076
198
172
7 727
135
56
1 234
1 855
933
488
865
646
598
13 780
590
11
2 135
198
178
20
52 166
53
238
4 018
363
4 193
1 316
1 638
27
92
3 069
679
655
2 401
193
172
6 705
123
56
1 136
1 672
891
337
834
583
560
5 109
562
11
1 841
190
171
20
29 473
52
205
3 588
302
3 686
1 263
1 356
100.0
92.0
71.0
94.7
95.3
78.1
97.5
100.0
86.8
91.1
100.0
92.1
90.1
95.5
69.1
96.4
90.2
93.6
37.1
95.3
100.0
86.2
96.0
96.1
100.0
56.5
98.1
86.1
89.3
83.2
87.9
96.0
82.8
0.71
0.82
0.98
1.24
1.08
0.96
1.09
1.19
0.72
0.89
1.38
1.17
0.73
1.86
0.93
0.93
0.60
1.05
0.85
0.99
0.85
1.04
0.91
1.17
0.52
1.33
1.25
1.21
10.6
6.3
9.0
15.4
8.8
7.6
14.9
11.3
6.7
8.8
13.1
12.0
5.9
12.6
10.0
9.3
4.1
9.0
8.1
8.1
9.1
9.8
9.7
13.0
2.8
12.9
12.6
11.9
Second collaborator
Third collaborator
Fourth collaborator
Italy (144)
Serbia (555)
Serbia (243)
Serbia (411)
Germany (2 240)
Germany (68)
Croatia (383)
Germany (215)
Italy (92)
United States of America (2 149)
Greece (61)
Slovenia (182)
United States of America (204)
Germany (91)
Italy (1 892)
Germany (1 333)
France (1 247);
Russian Federation (1 247)
Turkey (866)
Russian Federation (2 059)
United States of America (1 153)
United States of America (6 377)
United States of America (19 506)
Germany (276)
Germany (17 797)
United States of America (10 591)
Russian Federation (3 943)
Germany (459)
United States of America (1 064)
United Kingdom (924)
Germany (2 761)
France (4 422)
Romania (197)
United Kingdom (8 575)
Italy (3 314)
Poland (3 072)
Sweden (1 078)
Switzerland (100)
Sweden (7 540)
United Kingdom (20 732)
Denmark (750)
United States of America (68)
Germany (7 034)
France (19 832)
Germany (703)
France (19)
France (5 418)
Italy (15 618)
Portugal (73)
France (529)
United States of America (367)
France (676)
Belgium (38)
Portugal (42)
France (1153)
France (103)
Brazil (32)
United States of America (155)
United Kingdom (139)
United Kingdom (254)
United States of America (18)
United Kingdom (15)
Germany (429)
Cameroon (30)
France (66)
Switzerland (28)
Cameroon (20)
France (7)
France (191)
Belgium (286)
France (610)
Belgium (132)
France (125)
Switzerland (162)
France (31)
Spain (11)
India (20)
United Kingdom (538)
Germany (231)
United States of America (216)
United Kingdom (636)
United Kingdom (38)
Sweden (50)
United Kingdom (1 821)
United States of America (34)
United Kingdom (12)
United States of America (401)
United Kingdom (731)
France (281)
United States of America (80)
Spain (193)
United States of America (184)
United States of America (145)
South Africa (953)
Belgium (107)
United States of America (403)
United States of America (64)
United Kingdom (41)
Egypt (8)
United Kingdom (7 160)
United Kingdom (22)
United States of America (59)
United Kingdom (1 129)
Benin (57)
United Kingdom (1031)
United Kingdom (326)
United States of America (395)
France (52)
Germany (165)
Bulgaria (178)
France (86)
United Kingdom (1 825)
Fifth collaborator
Serbia (46)
United States of America (141)
Italy (151)
Russian Federation (81)
France (1 518)
Italy (1 191)
Switzerland (68)
Switzerland (65)
Burkina Faso (93)
Canada (5)
Spain (4)
Germany (665)
Switzerland (10)
Ghana (6)
Germany (143)
Netherlands (129); Kenya (129)
Burkina Faso (120)
India (43)
United Kingdom (138)
United Kingdom (161)
United Kingdom (77)
Germany (434)
Kenya (83)
Denmark (2); Angola (2)
Burkina Faso (154)
France (41)
China (16); Germany (16)
United States of America (5)
Australia (3 448)
Kenya (8); Sudan (8)
Tanzania (12); Switzerland (12)
Switzerland (359)
Burkina Faso (47)
South Africa (409)
Switzerland (101)
Netherlands (132)
789
Arab States
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syrian Arab Rep.
Tunisia
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mongolia
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Total number of
publications
Number of publications
with international
co-authors
Publications
with international
co-authors (%)
Percentage of papers in
10% most-cited papers
20082014
20082014
20082014
20082012
20082012
12 577
951
44 239
3 137
7 226
4 330
5 409
1 017
138
9 928
3 062
414
3 777
40 534
1 757
1 924
18 687
7 323
987
7 432
648
22 568
1 915
3 747
2 115
3 583
810
133
6 235
2 137
232
3 279
29 271
1 325
1 193
9 813
5 272
841
59.1
68.1
51.0
61.0
51.9
48.8
66.2
79.6
96.4
62.8
69.8
56.0
86.8
72.2
75.4
62.0
52.5
72.0
85.2
0.68
0.53
0.77
0.55
0.80
0.73
0.85
0.65
0.87
0.69
0.76
0.54
1.07
1.09
0.97
0.81
0.66
0.85
0.78
5.2
3.8
6.5
3.7
5.9
6.1
7.9
4.7
7.5
5.9
6.3
3.8
11.5
10.8
5.9
6.2
4.5
7.7
7.7
2 442
471
1 189
366
1 496
373
1 134
250
61.3
79.2
95.4
68.3
0.51
0.67
0.73
0.39
4.5
6.2
6.2
2.9
86
76
88.4
0.77
7.4
2 267
1 373
60.6
0.48
3.0
226
7 664
173
314 669
218
5 445
157
67 146
96.5
71.0
90.8
21.3
0.74
0.79
0.76
0.76
9.7
6.8
7.6
6.4
48
47
97.9
2 510
35 546
3 305
1 919
15 034
2 175
76.5
42.3
65.8
1.02
0.81
0.96
8.3
7.2
6.0
435
1 052
1 137 882
53 296
1 593
7 821
523 744
199
298 768
715
47 163
366
5 558
62 498
38 627
315
999
277 145
34 611
1 264
6 712
142 163
175
82 513
695
21 895
343
3 864
35 697
19 058
72.4
95.0
24.4
64.9
79.3
85.8
27.1
87.9
27.6
97.2
46.4
93.7
69.5
57.1
49.3
0.85
1.39
0.98
1.34
1.24
0.96
0.88
0.65
0.89
1.02
0.83
0.69
1.15
1.47
0.95
6.6
14.3
10.0
14.9
12.4
8.4
7.8
3.1
7.9
10.0
8.4
6.4
12.1
16.4
8.2
17
16
94.1
10 572
8 089
76.5
0.86
8.1
269 403
46 394
22
547
138 976
27 305
22
453
51.6
58.9
100.0
82.8
1.31
1.22
0.93
14.1
12.0
7.9
100.0
Marshall Islands
20
17
85.0
Micronesia
49
38
77.6
Uzbekistan
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
SouthEast Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
China, Hong Kong SAR
China, Macao SAR
Indonesia
Japan
Korea, DPR
Korea, Rep. of
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
TimorLeste
Viet Nam
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Cook Islands
Fiji
Kiribati
790
Second collaborator
Third collaborator
Fourth collaborator
Fifth collaborator
France (4 883)
Saudi Arabia (137)
Saudi Arabia (7 803)
Malaysia (595)
United States of America (1 153)
United States of America (566)
United States of America (1 307)
United Kingdom (184)
France (62)
France (3 465)
United States of America (333)
Egypt (50)
United States of America (1 168)
Egypt (7 803)
Saudi Arabia (213)
France (193)
France (5 951)
United States of America (1505)
Malaysia (255)
Spain (440)
United Kingdom (93)
Germany (2 762)
United States of America (279)
Saudi Arabia (490)
United Kingdom (271)
Italy (412)
India (99)
United States of America (18)
United States of America (833)
India (309)
United States of America (35)
China (457)
United Kingdom (2 568)
United Kingdom (191)
Germany (175)
Italy (727)
Canada (641)
Saudi Arabia (158)
Italy (347)
Tunisia (75)
Japan (1 755)
Germany (128)
Canada (259)
Saudi Arabia (185)
Canada (336)
France (78)
Tunisia (15)
Germany (752)
Malaysia (200)
United Kingdom (23)
Germany (373)
India (2 455)
Malaysia (146)
Italy (92)
United States of America (544)
Egypt (370)
Germany (72)
Germany (240)
Japan (150)
Kazakhstan (43)
Korea, Rep. of (142)
United Kingdom (20)
Turkey (50)
Germany (258)
Italy (131)
Spain (101)
Pakistan (29)
United Kingdom (676)
Thailand (37)
United Kingdom (7 847)
India (14)
Italy (11)
Australia (6)
India (411)
China (2 463)
United States of America (516)
Japan (256)
Saudi Arabia (1 887)
India (332)
Malaysia (68)
United States of America (307)
United States of America (119 594)
China (22 561)
China (809)
Japan (1 848)
United States of America (50 506)
China (85)
United States of America (42 004)
Thailand (191)
United Kingdom (3 076)
Japan (102)
United States of America (1 298)
China (11 179)
United States of America (6 329)
Australia (44)
United Kingdom (188)
China, Hong Kong SAR (22 561)
United Kingdom (2 675)
United Kingdom (51)
Malaysia (950)
United Kingdom (14 796)
United States of America (12)
India (6 477)
France (125)
Iran, Islamic Rep. of (2 402)
Australia (46)
China (500)
United Kingdom (4 055)
Australia (2 072)
Singapore (42)
Japan (136)
Australia (21 058)
Canada (1 679)
Portugal (40)
Netherlands (801)
Korea, Rep. of (12 108)
Australia (9)
Germany (6 341)
Australia (117)
United States of America (2 308)
United Kingdom (43)
United Kingdom (410)
Japan (2 098)
China (1 668)
Australia (8)
Japan (1 384)
France (1126)
Australia (7)
Micronesia (6)
Australia (9)
Fiji (8)
China (2);
United States of America (2)
791
Total number of
publications
Number of publications
with international
co-authors
Publications
with international
co-authors (%)
Percentage of papers in
10% most-cited papers
20082014
20082014
20082014
20082012
20082012
Nauru
100.0
Niue
100.0
Palau
46
40
87.0
646
583
90.2
0.88
9.0
88.9
74
24
73
24
98.6
100.0
1.00
13.6
100.0
114
108
94.7
0.81
3.3
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Source: data from Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, compiled for UNESCO by ScienceMetrix, May 2015
792
METHODOLOGICAL NOTE
Bibliographic data
Publication data have been compiled for UNESCO by Science
Metrix from Thomson Reuters Web of Science, Science
Citation Index Expanded, as of May 2015.
Economic data
Data on economic indicators, such as gross domestic product
(GDP) and purchasing power parity (PPP), are based on the
World Banks economic data release of April 2015:
http://data.worldbank.org/products/wdi.
(See the note on the cutoff date.)
It should be noted that, since 2014, the UNESCO Institute
for Statistics has used data on total general government
expenditure (all sectors) from the International Monetary
Funds World Economic Outlook database as the denominator
for its indicator entitled Expenditure on education as a
percentage of total government expenditure. For more
information about the change in methodology, please visit:
www.uis.unesco.org/education
Australia (2)
Second collaborator
Third collaborator
Fifth collaborator
Australia (20)
Australia (375)
Australia (4)
Australia (48)
Australia (17)
Spain (91)
Switzerland (70)
Fiji (8)
France (3)
France (49)
Fourth collaborator
Australia (45)
Education data
The UNESCO Institute for Statistics compiles education
statistics in aggregate form from official administrative
sources at the national level. These include data on
educational programmes, access, participation, progression,
completion, internal efficiency and human and financial
resources. These data are collected annually by the UNESCO
Institute for Statistics and its partner agencies through the
following two major surveys: the education questionnaires
by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and the joint Education
Data Collection involving UNESCO, the Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and
Eurostat. These questionnaires can be downloaded from:
www.uis.unesco.org/UISQuestionnaires
Innovation data
The UNESCO Institute for Statistics collects data on innovation
within the manufacturing industry every two years through
its innovation data collection. In addition, the institute
obtains innovation data directly from Eurostat and the
African Science, Technology and Innovation Indicators
(ASTII) Initiative of the African Union/NEPAD Planning and
793
TECHNICAL NOTE
Bibliographic data
Number of papers: this is the number of peerreviewed
scientific publications (i.e. articles, reviews and notes only)
indexed in the Web of Science database from Thomson
Reuters. Publications are assigned to countries according
to the field address on the publications. Double counting is
avoided at both the national and regional levels. For instance,
a paper coauthored by two researchers from Italy and one
author from France is counted only once for France and once
for Italy but also once for Europe and once for the world.
Number of international collaborations: this is the number
of publications involving authors from at least two different
countries. For the computation of international collaboration,
territories were considered to be part of their respective
mainland countries. Thus, collaboration between Guadeloupe
and France would not be considered as international co
authorship.
Average of relative citations: this is an indicator of the
scientific impact of papers produced by a given entity (e.g.
the world, a country, an institution) relative to the world
average (i.e. the expected number of citations).
Field classification of publications: a classification from the US
National Science Foundation encompassing the 14 following
fields of science was used to prepare statistics at the level
of scientific disciplines: Agricultural sciences, Astronomy,
Biological sciences, Chemistry, Computer sciences, Engineering,
Geosciences, Mathematics, Medical sciences, Other life sciences,
Physics, Psychology, Social sciences and Unclassified fields.
794
Education data
Data on internationally mobile students that are collected
by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, OECD and Eurostat
encompass students who are pursuing a tertiary degree and
thus exclude students on exchange programmes. Data on
internationally mobile students reported by host countries
are used by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics to estimate
the number of outbound students from a given country.
Not all host countries specify the country of origin of the
internationally mobile students that they host and, thus, the
number of outbound students from a given country may be
underestimated.
Innovation data
The definitions and classifications used to collect innovation
data and produce innovation indicators are based on the
third edition of the Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and
Interpreting Innovation Data, published by the OECD and
Eurostat in 2005. The key definitions related to innovation
data are presented in the glossary of the present report.
R&D data
The definitions and classifications used to collect R&D data
are based on the Frascati Manual: Proposed Standard Practice
for Surveys on Research and Experimental Development (OECD).
Some of the key definitions related to R&D data are presented
in the glossary of the present report.
Two types of R&D indicator are usually compiled: data on R&D
personnel measure researchers, technicians & equivalent staff
directly involved in R&D, as well as other support staff; data
on R&D expenditure measure the total cost of carrying out the
R&D activity concerned, including indirect support.
Regional averages for R&D expenditure and researchers
presented in Chapter 1 are derived from imputing numbers
for missing data on the basis of calculations done by the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
Patent data
Number of granted patents: this is the number of granted
patents indexed in the PATSTAT database for the US Patent
and Trademark Office. Patents are assigned to countries
according to the country of the inventors on the applications.
Double counting is avoided at both the national and regional
levels. For instance, a patent application submitted by two
inventors from Italy and one inventor from France is counted
only once for France and once for Italy but also once for
Europe and once for the world.
UNESCO
SCIENCE
REPORT
Towards 2030
There are fewer grounds today than in the past to deplore a NorthSouth
divide in research and innovation. This is one of the key findings of
theUNESCO Science Report: towards 2030. A large number of countries
arenow incorporating science, technology and innovation in their national
development agenda, in order to make their economies less reliant on raw
materials and more rooted in knowledge. Most research and development
(R&D) is taking place in high-income countries, but innovation of some kind
isnow occurring across the full spectrum of income levels according to
thefirst survey of manufacturing companies in 65 countries conducted by
theUNESCO Institute for Statistics and summarized in this report.
For many lower-income countries, sustainable development has become an
integral part of their national development plans for the next 1020years.
Among higher-income countries, a firm commitment to sustainable
development is often coupled with the desire to maintain competitiveness
in global markets that are increasingly leaning towards green technologies.
Thequest for clean energy and greater energy efficiency now figures among
theresearch priorities of numerous countries.
Another trend is the growing policy interest in local and indigenous
knowledge systems in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, in particular.
Gender equality remains a challenge for the future. Despite having achieved
parity in higher education in many countries, women are still a minority in
research positions worldwide.
Written by more than 50 experts who are each covering the country or region
from which they hail, the UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 provides more
country-level information than ever before. The trends and developments
inscience, technology and innovation policy and governance between
2009and mid-2015 described here provide essential baseline information on
theconcerns and priorities of countries that will orient the implementation
and drive the assessment of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
inthe years to come.
UNESCO
Publishing
United Nations
Educational, Scientic and
Cultural Organization
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