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CEWB222
OPEN DRAINS
MSMA
CHAPTER 6
Separate
Drainage
System (after
O'Loughlin,
1998)
property drainage
system,
street drainage
system,
trunk drainage
system, and
receiving waters
(a)Minor Drains
Berm
Drain:
Toe Drain:
Cascade
Drain:
Perimeter
Drain
Perimeter Drains
Perimeter swale
Perimeter swale
Perimeter swale
Roadside and
Secondary Drain
These drains are provided to collect and convey runoff from the paved road surfaces and perimeter drains.
These drains are classified into two categories. The drain Type-B is SPIROLITE SERIES 2000 HDPE nonperforated pipe. These pipes are light-weight, easy to construct, last long and hydraulically efficient. The pipe
sizes shall vary between 300 to 900 mm in diameter. The drain Type-C are open channels and do not provide
facilities for significant water quality improvement option for the proposed perimeter drains
Swale
Vegetated swales are proposed at the areas with mild slopes where enough space is available. The small
size of swale was designed to collect the runoff water from the nearby area before its flow into the inlet
manholes, which are usually proposed at 12 and 50 m interval of the pipe and open drains, respectively.
Perforated HDPE pipes are proposed below the swales to allow infiltration of the stormwater, as shown in the
drawing. The swales will be shallow but wide enough to cater for the design floods. The swales have the
capabilities to improve runoff quality through filtration. They are expected to trap sediment, heavy metals,
hydrocarbons and nutrients from the storm runoff.
Subsoil Drain
These are special types of drains required for the sport fields and mini stadium. The subsoil drainage system
for the sport facilities and football field are provided to drain the surface water efficiently and ensure that the
facilities are ready to use shortly after rainfall events. The subsoil drainage consists of RIBLOC UPVC pipes
sizing from 160 mm to 200 mm. The subsoil drain pipes is designed at 6 m and 10 m intervals for stadium
and other field respectively. An adequate gradient is provided from the middle of the field into the nearest
outlet drainage system. In general the subsoil drain is surrounded with selected geotextile to avoid the
penetration of granular material into the opening of the drain material. RIBLOC pipe system having a very
uniform opening at minimum interval along the length of the pipe.
Swales
Swales
Community
Ponds
The major drains are provided at the areas downstream from the roadside and secondary
drains. According to the conventional practices these are used to be called as Monsoon drains.
These drains are proposed to convey larger floods safely to the downstream areas. Open
drains with natural sides and precast channel for dry weather flow are provided for monsoon
drains. In order to maintain the ecological balance in the drainage system the major drains are
proposed to be unlined but protected with reinforced mattress. If the side slopes are not
protected with the proposed facilities, erosion will occur due to the high velocities during the
floods. The channel sides are proposed to have slopes of 1:3 and to be protected with TRM
(Turf Reinforcement Matting) or equivalent, as shown the drawings. At the slope areas energy
dissipaters or drop structures will be provided to reduce the velocity of waters.
Not all the drainage outlets could be connected to the proposed regional facilities (lakes), which
were large enough to cater room for the excess runoff due to the proposed development. As
such, four wet ponds are proposed as community facilities for the control of stormwater at
community level. About four percent (4%) of the drainage catchment was allocated for the
ponds to cater room for the excess runoff from the respective sub-catchments. Multi level
risers and outlet structures are proposed to control discharge from the ponds.
The ponds and outlet structures are sized such that post-development flood peak values are
less than those of pre-development conditions. The drainage system is expected to discharge
better quality of storm runoff compared to the pre-development condition when there was no
such facility to improve the storm runoff quality
Monsoon Drain
Monsoon Drain
Detention Pond
Sumps are provided mainly for the perimeter drains where the gutter from the roofs will meet the drains. It is also provided for the
open drains to reduce velocities, trap coarser particles and at the junctions of the drains. The sumps proposed in the open drains
are designed different from the conventional practices. The sumps have drop (about 300mm) below the pipes invert which will act
as catch basin and trap the coarser particles from the runoff. This is how the proposed facilities will help improve the runoff
quality. The sumps are proposed to be concrete structures with gravel pack ( 12 50 mm diameter crushed washed stone) at the
bottom, as shown in drawing. There is possibility that sumps may be filled with sand during the storms. As such frequent
inspections are recommended after the large storms
Culvert
Culverts are provided to connect the drains across the roads. In order to provide efficient hydraulic performance, reinforced
concrete pipe (RCP) culverts of Class Z are proposed for the drainage system. Precast box structures are proposed for the
culverts larger than 750 mm. Piles are proposed for the stability of the culvert structure. Energy dissipaters are provided at the
downstream of the culvert outlets where the slopes are steep and high velocity is expected. Apron walls should be provided
around the culvert to protect slopes from the erosion and failure.
Sump
Sump
Culvert
Design Criteria
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for the design of open
drainage system, such as lined drains and grassed swales.
These facilities, along with stormwater inlets are components
of the minor drainage system designed to collect minor flood
flows from roads, properties and open space, and convey them
to the major drainage system.
Design Storm
Drains and swales should have the capacity to
convey the flow up to and including the minor
system design ARI.
Note 1 : Higher of applicable storm ARIs shall be adopted if development falls under two categories
Note 2: Size of trunk drains within major drainage system expected to vary, Current practices trunk drains are provided for areas larger than 40 ha,
Downstream size of trunk drain should increase to limit the magnitude of gap flows
Note 3 : Selection of design storm ARI based on the level of protection in practice, For cases where higher ARI design storm is impractical selection of
appropriate ARI should be based on assessment of cost to benefit or social factors, Lowert ARI for major system are to be made with consultation and approval
from Local Authority, Consequences of the higher ARI shall be investigated and made known, Land should still be reserved for the higher ARI for future
system upgrading
Note 4: Habitable floor levels of buildings shall be above the 100 year ARI flood level
Note 5: Reduction in discharge due to quantity control (detention or retention) measures to be included
Drainage Reserves
Most open drains will be located within road
reserve and therefore do not require a separate
reserve to allow access for maintenance.
However, open drains and swales located outside of
road reserves, such as in public walkways and open
space areas, should be provided with a drainage
reserve
In new development areas, the edge of a swale
should generally be located 0.5 m from the road
reserve or property boundary
Lining Materials
Lined drains shall be constructed from materials proven
to be structurally sound and durable and have satisfactory
jointing systems
Lined open drains may be constructed with any of the
following materials:
plain concrete;
reinforced concrete;
stone pitching;
plastered brickwork; and
precast masonry blocks.
Design Criteria
Geometry
The dimensions of lined open drains have
been limited in the interests of public safety
and to facilitate ease of maintenance. The
minimum and maximum permissible crosssectional dimensions
Varies
0.6 m
maximum
Varies
0.5 m minimum
1.2 m maximum
0.6 m minimum
1.2 m maximum
Varies
0.5 m minimum
1.2 m maximum
Grate or
solid cover
Depth
The maximum depth for lined open drains
shall be in accordance with Table 14.1. A
reinforced concrete drain shall be provided for
lined open drains that exceed 0.9 m in depth.
Cover/Handrail Fence Condition
Maximum Depth
(m)
0.6
1.2
Width
The width of lined open drains may vary
between a minimum width of 0.5 m and a
maximum of 1.2 m
Side slope
Drain Lining
Concrete, brickwork and blockwork
Stone pitching
1.5(H):1(V)
2(H):1(V)
Design Procedure
The preliminary sizing estimation procedure for minor drain is given
below:
Step 1:
Estimate the design discharge, Qminor based on the
design minor ARI using suitable methods from those outlined in
Chapter 2 (Section 2.3).
Step 2:
Step 3:
Select the design cross-section. Determine the depth
and the minimum base width for the proposed system.
Determine the proposed drain capacity using Mannings Equation.
Step 4:
Compare the estimated drain capacity with the
calculated design discharge, Qminor. If the drain capacity is found
to be inadequate, then the drain cross section should be modified
to increase the capacity. Likewise a reduction in the cross section
may also be required if the drain is not to be overdesigned. In the
case of any modifications to drain cross section, repeat Step 3.
Step 5:
Calculate the average flow velocity from
V = Q/A and check that it is within the maximum and
minimum velocity criteria for the open drain. If not,
adjust the drain dimensions and return to Step 3.
Step 6:
Determine the flow depth, y and check if y is
within required limits for the open drain type. If not,
adjust the drain dimensions and return to Step 3.
Step 7:
Add the required freeboard. If required,
calculate the top width of drain for drains with sloping
sides.
Step 8:
Swales
Advantages
easy to incorporate into landscaping;
good removal of urban pollutants;
reduces runoff rates and volumes;
low capital cost;
maintenance can be incorporated into general
landscape management; and
good option for small area retrofits.
Disadvantages
not suitable for steep areas;
limited to small areas;
risks of blockages in connecting
pipework/culverts;
sufficient land may not be available for
suitable swale designs to be incorporated; and
standing water in vegetated swales can result
in potential safety, odour, and mosquito
problems.
Site Slope
Grassed swales are usually restricted to sites with significant
slopes, though careful planning should enable their use in
steeper areas by considering the contours of the site (CIRIA,
2007). The longitudinal terrain slope should not exceed 2% as
low runoff velocities are required for pollutant removal and to
prevent erosion. Longitudinal slopes can be maintained at the
desired gradient and water can flow into swales laterally from
impermeable areas.
Subsurface Soils and Groundwater
Where grassed swales are designed to encourage infiltration,
the seasonally high groundwater table must be more than 1 m
below the base of the swale. Where infiltration is not
required, the seasonally high groundwater level should be
below any underdrain provided with the swales (CIRIA, 2007).
Geometry
The preferred shapes for swales are shown in
Figure below. The depth shall not exceed 1.2 m. A
vee or triangular shaped section will generally
be sufficient for most applications; however, a
trapezoidal or parabolic swale shape may be used
for additional capacity or to limit the depth of the
swale. Swales with trapezoidal cross sections shall
be recommended for ease of construction. A
parabolic shape is best for erosion control, but is
hard to construct.
Longitudinal Slope
Slope of swales should normally be between 0.1% (1 in 1000) and
no greater than 0.5% (1 in 200). Underdrains may be required for
slopes below 0.2% (1 in 500), while drop structures such as rock
check dams in the channel may be required for slopes greater than
0.2% to reduce the drainage longitudinal slope such that the design
flow velocities do not exceed the permissible limits.
Freeboard
The depth of a swale shall include a minimum freeboard of 50 mm
above the design stormwater level (based on maximum design
flows) in the swale to allow for blockages.
Velocities
Maximum acceptable flow rate velocities for conveyance of peak
design flow (maximum flood flow design) along the swale shall not
exceed the recommended maximum scour velocity for various
ground covers and values of soil erodibility, or ideally be less than 2
m/s, unless additional erosion protection is provided.
Underdrain
A swale should have the capacity to convey the peak flows from the
design minor ARI without exceeding the maximum permissible
velocities. If this is not practical or there is insufficient space for a
swale, designer should consider dividing the flow into surface and
subsurface conduits Underdrains can also be placed beneath the
channel to prevent ponding.
It is important for biofiltration swales to maximise water contact
with vegetation and the soil surface. Gravely and coarse sandy soils
will not provide water quality treatment unless the bottom of the
swale is lined to prevent infiltration. (Note: sites that have
relatively coarse soils may be more appropriate for stormwater
quantity infiltration purposes after runoff treatment has been
accomplished). Therefore, the bed of a biofiltration swale shall
consist of a permeable soil layer above the underdrain material.
EXERCISE
REFER TO CHAPTER 14 MSMA 2nd EDITION