See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at:

http://www.researchgate.net/publication/247498231

Empathy deficits of sexual offenders:

A conceptual model
ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF SEXUAL AGGRESSION MAY 2003
DOI: 10.1080/1355260031000137931

CITATIONS

18
1 AUTHOR:
R.Karl Karl Hanson
Government of Canada
111 PUBLICATIONS 6,691 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE

Available from: R.Karl Karl Hanson

Retrieved on: 02 November 2015

This article was downloaded by: [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)]

On: 21 March 2014, At: 16:40
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Sexual Aggression: An

international, interdisciplinary forum
for research, theory and practice
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjsa20

Empathy deficits of sexual offenders: A

conceptual model
R. Karl Hanson

Department of the Solicitor General of Canada

Published online: 10 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: R. Karl Hanson (2003) Empathy deficits of sexual offenders: A conceptual model,
Journal of Sexual Aggression: An international, interdisciplinary forum for research, theory and
practice, 9:1, 13-23, DOI: 10.1080/1355260031000137931
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1355260031000137931

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
Content) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions

Journal of Sexual Aggression

(May 2003), Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 13
/23

Empathy deficits of sexual offenders: A

conceptual model
R. Karl Hanson*

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

Department of the Solicitor General of Canada

Abstract Most treatment programmes for sexual offenders include some form of victim empathy
training. Although the concept of empathy has acquired diverse meanings, those interested in sexual
offenders empathy deficits are primarily concerned about the offenders lack of compassion or
sympathy for their victims. A model of empathy is presented in which uncompassionate responses are
the product of three initial conditions: a) an adversarial or indifferent relationship; b) perspectivetaking deficits; and c) inappropriate methods for coping with the perceived distress of others. The
model suggests that empathy training should target specific deficits, and that misdirected interventions
would be expected to have no effects, or even detrimental effects, on the offenders ability to generate
sympathetic, compassionate responses to victims.
Keywords Sex offenders; Victim empathy; Treatment programmes

Almost all treatment programmes for sexual offenders include some form of victim-empathy
training (Knopp, Freeman-Longo & Stevenson, 1992; Wormith & Hanson, 1992). When
asked to describe their offences, sexual offenders rarely integrate the victims perspectives into
their own accounts; instead, they typically provide a variety of cognitive distortions, such as
their victims deserved it, they were not harmed by the offence, or even that the victims
enjoyed it (Abel, Becker & Cunningham-Rathner, 1984; Snowdon, 1984). Such accounts
have inspired two basic assumptions underlying victim empathy training for sexual offenders:
1) sexual offenders are profoundly mistaken about their victims experiences; and 2)
increasing offenders appreciation of victim suffering should decrease their motivation to
re-offend (for example, Hildebran & Pithers, 1989).
Neither of these assumptions has received convincing empirical support. Comparisons
between sexual offenders and other groups on various empathy measures have yielded
inconsistent results (see review by Covell & Scalora, 2002). Importantly, the few available
studies have not found any association between empathy deficits and sexual recidivism
(Maletzky, 1993; Reddon, Studer & Estrada, 1995; Schram, Milloy & Rowe, 1991; W. R.
Smith & Monastersky, 1986).
The scant empirical findings with sexual offenders does not negate the well established
association between empathy and general antisocial behaviour found in other groups (Miller
*Corresponding author: Corrections Research, Department of the Solicitor General of Canada, 340 Laurier
Avenue West, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0P8. Email: hansonk@sgc.gc.ca

ISSN 1355-2600 print # 2003 National Organisation for the Treatment of Abusers
DOI: 10.1080/1355260031000137931

14

R. Karl Hanson

& Eisenberg, 1988). These findings, however, are cause for reflection: what, if any, are the
specific deficits of sexual offenders and why should treatment providers be so concerned
about empathy?

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

The history of empathy

Although the concept of sympathy has a long history, the term empathy is new, being in
widespread use for less than 50 years. Originating from the German word Einfuhlung,
meaning to feel himself into, the term was first used in the early part of the twentieth
century to describe the tendency to feel emotions from works of art (Allport, 1985; G.
Murphy, 1949). Understanding how shapes and colours could be perceived as feelings was
part of the early phenomenologists mission to map basic psychological process. The concept
of empathy, however, soon shifted from the aesthetic to the social realms, acquiring new
meanings as it was used to explain the effective ingredients of psychotherapy (Rogers, 1961),
the early socialization of moral behaviour (Kagan, 1984), and the accuracy of interpersonal
perception (Ickes, 1997). In current psychological literature (Eisenberg & Strayer, 1987), the
concept of empathy has become increasingly similar to the traditional concept of sympathy,
that is, compassion in response to the perceived distress of others.
Allport (1985) provides a detailed history of how the concept of sympathy has been used
to explain social and moral behaviour. All the major theorists (Adam Smith, 1759; Herbert
Spencer, 1870; McDougall, 1908) made a distinction between the intellectual understanding
of anothers experience and some form of direct emotional response. Each of these theorists,
however, has included additional nuances to their concepts of sympathy. Perhaps the most
elaborate model was developed by Scheler in the 1920s, who identified no less than eight
different types of sympathy (Allport, 1985; Becker, 1931; see Table 1). For example, he
distinguished between immediate, reflective emotional responses (Einfuhlung), intellectual
Table 1. Max Schelers eight forms of sympathy.
The lower (basic) forms
Einfuhlung
/ the quick, almost reflex mimicry of anothers feelings, for example, cringing when we see someone
hit with a stick.
Miteinanderfuhlung
/ two or more people reacting in a similar way to the same stimulus, for example, the
audience at a movie.
Gefuhlsansteckung
/ the infectious spread of sentiment throughout a crowd by the mechanisms of social
induction and facilitation.
The higher forms
Einsfuhlung
/ complete emotional identification of one person to another, as when a boy playing with a cape
becomes a professional wrestler, or when ecstatic worshippers lose themselves in a charismatic religious
leader.
Nachfuhlung
/ the conscious appreciation of anothers feelings without sharing their experience, for example,
I know how you feel, but I see it differently.
Mitgefuhl
/ or fellow-feeling, describes the recognition of anothers experience as the basis for a similar
emotional experience in us, for example, my friends account of being a victim of crime invokes my own
feelings of fear and vulnerability.
Menschenliebe
/ the experience of others is understood, respected and valued. Such an attitude is the basis for
altruism and philanthropy.
Akosmistische Person
/ und Gottesliebe (unworldly sympathy)
/ a mystical, religious orientation to life in
which the welfare of each individual is seen as connected to the welfare of the whole.
Based on Allport (1985) and Becker (1931)

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

Assessing Empathy

15

understanding (Nachfuhlung), and reacting with similar emotions to the emotions observed
in another person (Mitgefuhl or fellow-feeling).
At the end of Beckers (1931) article in which he introduced Schelers analysis of
sympathy to English readers, he chastised psychologists for their failure to discriminate
between the various forms of sympathy: the social psychologist of the future will regard, with
mingled amusement and amazement, that quaint historical epoch when sympathy was talked
about as if it were a homogeneous entity (p. 67). Despite Beckers best efforts, we still seem
to be part of that quaint historical epoch; sympathy has yet to acquire conceptual precision
within contemporary psychology.
Contemporary psychologists who are concerned about sensitivity to others are more
likely to talk about empathy than sympathy. As with the traditional definitions of sympathy,
contemporary researchers consider empathy to have both cognitive and emotional components (Davis, 1983; Eisenberg & Strayer, 1987). The cognitive component, perspectivetaking, refers to the ability to identify intellectually the emotions and experiences of another
person. Perspective-taking is part of almost all definitions of empathy, and for some theorists
(for example, Hogan, 1969) it is the central, defining feature. There is less agreement,
however, on the nature of the empathic emotional responses. Most researchers recognize that
perceiving other emotions can lead to various types of responses, such as sadness, concern,
anger and anxiety (Eisenberg & Miller, 1987; Fultz, Schaller & Cialdini, 1988; Strayer, 1993).
Some research (for example, Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972) is based on the definition that
empathic emotional responses are those that directly mirror the perceived responses of others
(Schelers Einfuhlung2). Other researchers (for example, Eisenberg & Miller, 1987)
consider empathic emotional responses to be those that are compassionate, concerned or
caring (Schelers Menschenliebe). For Eisenberg and Miller (1987), such compassionate
emotional responses are referred to as sympathy.

Victim empathy among sexual offenders

The implicit goal of victim-empathy training for sexual offenders is to increase offenders
sympathy for their victims. Rather than increasing the extent to which offenders absorb and
reflect the emotions of others (emotional contagion), most clinicians want offenders to
develop feelings of compassion or caring, that is, genuine sympathy. The goal of victimempathy training is to develop appropriate behavioural responses (Marshall, Hudson, Jones &
Fernandez, 1995; Pithers, 1994, 1999). It is not enough that the offenders feel frightened
when their victims are frightened, or angry when their victims are angry; the perception of
suffering in others should arouse caring.
Although compassionate, sympathetic responses are the goal of victim-empathy training,
there has been little discussion of the factors that contribute to such responses. Simply
increasing the salience of victim suffering is not sufficient. Many violent offenders appear to
have adequate perspective-taking skills (Hanson & Scott, 1995; Hudson et al., 1993), and
increasing the salience of victim suffering increases (not decreases) the sexual arousal of some
rapists (Rice, Chaplin, Harris & Coutts, 1994). These seemingly paradoxical effects can be
understood, however, by considering two often-neglected factors, namely: a) the relationship
between the people involved; and b) the offenders ability to cope with perceived distress in
others.

16

R. Karl Hanson

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

Caring relationships
When we interact with people, we adopt a certain attitude or stance towards others, such as
being friendly, cautious, hostile, or indifferent. We adopt different stances with different
people (for example, bosses, lovers, children) and with different people at different times.
These stances or attitudes define the nature of our relationships.
The most serious threat to sympathetic responding is an indifferent or adversarial
relationship. We tend to think that only highly deviant individuals take pleasure in witnessing
anothers suffering. Almost all of us, however, react positively to anothers suffering when the
target is an enemy or adversary. Theatre crowds cheer when the bad guys are killed. Political
partisans delight in the humiliation of their opponents.
It is easy to imagine case histories in which an adversarial relationship contributes to
sexual offending. A man with a history of feeling humiliated by women, for example, may be
predisposed to imagining women as his enemy. When teased by a particular woman about his
sexual performance, this man may become acutely angry and perceive the woman as a
legitimate target of sexual aggression. During the assault, he would not be inhibited by the
womans accurately perceived distress because he wants her to suffer. His emotional response
to her suffering would be non-empathic because his relationship goals are hostile. Such hostile
relationship goals help explain why increasing the salience of victim suffering can increase the
sexual arousal of some rapists (Rice et al., 1994).

Perspective-taking
Perspective-taking deficits, in contrast, are likely to be an important contributing factor in less
aggressive sexual assaults. In a date-rape situation, for example, the man may sincerely believe
that the womans resistance to his sexual advances is a weak disguise for her sexual interest in
him. In the context of a dating relationship, her verbal and physical objections may be
considered less important than the wide range of other cues that the man interprets as
indicating her sexual availability (dress, friendliness, and so on). Perspective-taking deficits
could also be relevant in adversarial interactions. The inability to recognize victim damage and
submissions cues may extend the aggression beyond intended limits.
One of the most basic requirements for successful social interactions is the ability to
identify facial emotions (Marshall et al., 1995). There is some evidence that sexual offenders
are poorer than average at interpreting facial emotions, although the evidence is not strong
(Hudson et al., 1993; Lisak & Ivan, 1995). An interesting finding from the Hudson et al.
study was that the non-sexual, violent offenders showed the greatest accuracy for emotional
identification. Overt violence may be motivated by an uncaring, adversarial relationship more
than by a sincere failure to appreciate the harm caused to the victims.
Several studies have found that sexual offenders made errors when interpreting complex
heterosocial interactions (Lipton, McDonel & McFall, 1987; Malamuth & Brown, 1994).
Lipton et al. asked convicted rapists and non-sexual criminals to rate the womens reactions in
videotaped vignettes of dating situations. They found that the rapists had difficulty
recognizing the womens negative signals. Similarly, difficulties identifying womens distress
in videotaped vignettes have been found to correlate with self-reported sexually coercive
behaviour (W. D. Murphy, Coleman & Haynes, 1986) and with self-reported likelihood of
raping (McDonel & McFall, 1991). Malamuth and Brown suggest that the perspective-taking
deficits are more related to a general distrust of women than a specific inability to recognize
distress cues.

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

Assessing Empathy

17

Responses to written vignettes have been used by Stermac and Segal (1989) to identify
perspective-taking deficits in sexual offenders. In comparison to rapists and non-offenders,
the child molesters underestimated the child distress in written descriptions of adult
/child
sexual interactions. The child molesters only underestimated the distress in those vignettes in
which the child showed few overt signs of resistance.
Beckett, Beech, Fisher and Fordham (1994; Beckett & Fisher, 1994), similarly used
written vignettes to asses perspective-taking deficits in sexual offenders. They found that the
sexual offenders in their study tended to underestimate the harmfulness of some types of
sexual offences. In particular, the differences between the sexual offenders and the other
groups were most noticeable for the least serious sexual offences. All the respondents agreed
that forcible rape was distressing to the victims, but the sexual offenders were more likely than
others to minimize the harmfulness of sexual assaults that did not involve the overt use of
force.
Hanson and Scott (1995) also found some deficits in the interpretation of social
situations, although the deficits appears to be greater for rapists than child molesters. Like
Hudson et al. (1993), Hanson and Scott found that the use of overt force was associated with
a reduction in the number of perspective-taking errors. A replication study using revised
perspective-taking measures found a strong association between perspective-taking deficits
and self-reported sexual aggression in a community sample of unemployed men. The study,
however, failed to find differences between incarcerated rapists and non-sexual inmates, nor
did it find any differences based on the use of overt force in the incarcerated samples (Dickie,
1998).
Accurate perspective-taking is clearly important for meaningful social interactions, but
the importance of perspective-taking deficits for the initiation and maintenance of sexual
aggression is debatable. Some sexual offending may be based on misunderstandings, but it is
unlikely that such serious misunderstandings would persist if the offender had benign
intentions.

Coping with distress

Even when the relationship is non-hostile and the suffering is accurately perceived, people do
not necessarily react with sympathy and compassion. Witnessing anothers suffering is
stressful and people cope in different ways with this stress. Not uncommonly, children
respond with anger or anxiety when exposed to the suffering of other children (Eisenberg &
Miller, 1987). There has also been an active body of research aimed at delineating the
conditions under which adults blame various types of victims for their own misfortune
(Janoff-Bulman, 1979; Shaver, 1970). B. Thornton (1984), for example, has presented
careful experimental evidence suggesting that such defensive attributions are an attempt to
deal with the negative emotions aroused by considering anothers distress.
The research on victim-blaming has direct relevance to the justifications, rationalizations
and cognitive distortions provided by sexual offenders. The high correlation (r /0.85;
Marshall, Hamilton & Fernadez, 2001) between cognitive distortions and lack of victim
empathy can be the result of both insensitivity and defensiveness. Some sexual offenders may
have benign intentions towards their victims, and, at some level, recognize the harm inflicted
upon them. These offenders may defend themselves against the guilt associated with their
actions by denying the offence and by developing elaborate cognitive distortions. The fixed,
irrational quality of these defensive justifications would distinguish them from honest errors in
perspective-taking. For example, a father
/daughter incest offender may claim that his

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

18

R. Karl Hanson

daughter initiated and enjoyed the sexual activity. To the extent to which these beliefs are
defensive, they are likely to persist despite her unequivocal statements that she dreaded his
actions.
Teaching offenders to cope effectively with their own transgressions can be a valuable
goal of treatment. Tangney (1991; Tangney & Dearing, 2002) makes a useful distinction
between guilt and shame. When we recognize that we have done something wrong, we can
either feel badly about the specific act but generally okay about ourselves (guilt), or we can feel
like a generally bad person (shame). Tangneys research suggests that guilt is a healthy
emotional reaction characterized by attempts at restitution and little disruption in
psychosocial functioning. In contrast, shame reactions are characterized by subjective distress,
withdrawal, and, paradoxically, increases in anger, hostility and externalizing behaviour
(Tangney, Wagner, Fletcher & Gramzow, 1992).
Tangneys research is consistent with Baruks (1945) much earlier clinical observations of
psychiatric patients in occupied France. He concluded that many of the most persistent and
serious acts of cruelty were not perpetrated by those who were the most victimized, but by
those who experienced an inner sense of guilt (culpabilite ). These hostile psychiatric patients
would react to their own transgression by blaming and victimizing others, which would
perpetuate a cycle of further guilt and hostility.
The clinical presentation of sexual offenders as demeaning towards their victims is
consistent with the psychological processes described by Tangney and Baruk. It seems
reasonable to expect many sexual offenders to react with shame rather than guilt when
confronted with the harm they caused their victims. Experiencing shame, unfortunately, is
likely to increase, rather than decrease, victim blaming and defensive cognitive distortions.
Beckett et al. (1994) found that a significant proportion of offenders in short-term treatment
programs increased their cognitive distortion; Beckett et al. considered such iaterogenic
effects to be most likely when offenders lacking in self-esteem were combined with highly
confrontational therapists. Restated in terms of the current model of empathy, such defensive
reactions would be evidence that the offenders lack the necessary skills to cope with the
experiences of others suffering. It is difficult enough to recognize that somebody else is
suffering intensely. It is even harder when that persons suffering is the results of our own
actions.
Many sexual offenders are sexually preoccupied (Kafka, 1997) and it is not unusual for
sexual offenders to cope with distress through sexual thoughts and behaviours (Cortoni &
Marshall, 2001). An offender with a tendency to cope through sexuality need not be inhibited
by the victims suffering. Instead, experiencing the victims distress would lead to dysfunctional, sexualized coping responses. For such offenders, victim distress becomes sexually
exciting.
An appreciation that offenders must cope with their negative self-appraisals suggests an
important distinction between the cognitive distortions of sexual offenders. Selective selfpresentation is a normal process. Complete honesty is not expected in social interactions, nor
is it perceived as desirable. Even in the intimate context of psychotherapy, those clients who
withhold information do better (not worse) than clients who are more frank about their
failings (Kelly, 2000). Offenders who deny and minimize their sexual misbehaviour are
attempting to distance themselves from their transgressions, but at least they are acknowledging that sexual offending is wrong. More problematic are the offenders who genuinely
believe that their behaviour was acceptable.
Contrary to the expectations of many, research has found that denial and minimization
have no relationship with sexual recidivism (Hood, Shute, Feilzer & Wilcox, 2002; and see
Hanson & Bussie`re, 1998, and Lund, 2000, for reviews of earlier studies). In contrast, there is

Assessing Empathy

19

some evidence that attitudes tolerant of sexual assault are related to sexual recidivism
(Hanson & Harris, 2000; Hudson, Wales, Bakker & Ward, 2002; Schram et al., 1991; D.
Thornton, 2002). Excusing ones own behaviour appears less problematic than believing that
it is okay for others to do the same thing. Many offenders accounts often contain both
elements: for example, I did not do it and, besides, anybody would do it in the same
situation.

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

The necessary conditions for sympathy

The points outlined above suggest four related factors need to be considered when assessing
empathy: the relationship between the people involved, perspective-taking ability, mechanisms for coping with perceived distress, and the resulting emotional reactions. As outlined in
Figure 1, the emotional reactions can be viewed as a product of the initial three components.
Sympathetic, helpful responses are most likely given a caring relationship, accurate
perspective-taking and the ability to cope with the distress perceived. If the relationship is
benign, but the person is unable to cope with the perceived distress, the reactions are likely to
be unhelpful (for example, distress, fear, withdrawal). In detached relationships, perspectivetaking and coping skills are irrelevant because such offenders are unconcerned about their
effects on their victims. Antisocial reactions, such as feelings of superiority, are most likely
associated with conflicted, adversarial relationships in which offenders intend to hurt their
victims.
The routes shown in Figure 1 are suggested as the most probable; they are not meant to
be exhaustive. It is possible, for example, that a person with a caring or detached stance could
end up providing antisocial responses based on faulty perspective-taking or coping. The

FIGURE 1. Factors influencing sympathetic responses.

20

R. Karl Hanson

model does suggest, however, that sympathetic responses are improbable if the initial
relationship is detached or adversarial. The most violent offenders would be expected to have
deficits in all areas. Even in highly adversarial relationships (for example, wars), there is a limit
to the amount of harm to the enemy that can be justified.

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

Assessing empathy deficits

A thorough assessment of sexual offenders empathy would involve examining each of the four
components discussed above.
The offenders capacity to form caring relationships is best assessed through some form
of social and criminal history. For assessing general relationship deficits, Factor 1 of the
Psychopathy Checklist
/ Revised (Hare et al., 1990) appears to be a useful measure. It has
acceptable psychometric properties, correlates with deviant sexual preferences (Serin,
Malcolm, Khanna & Barbaree, 1994) and predicts recidivism among sexual offenders
(Gretton, McBride, Hare, OShaughnessy, & Kumba, 2001; Quinsey, Rice & Harris, 1995;
Wormith & Ruhl, 1987). A history of overtly violent offences would also indicate at least
temporary impairment in the capacity to care for others.
Skill measures seem the most useful method of assessing perspective-taking deficits (for
example, Hanson & Scott, 1995; Lipton et al., 1987; Lisak & Ivan, 1995). Such measures are
difficult to fake, and can be tailored to the unique deficits of individual offenders. Offenders,
for example, can be asked to identify the experience of victims similar to their own. Their
responses can be compared to the responses of normative samples or to the opinions of
victimization experts. Although the skill approach is useful, further work is required to raise
the reliability of the existing measures. For those interested in offenders self-assessments of
the frequency that they consider the perspective of others, the Perspective-Taking scale for the
IRI (Davis, 1980, 1983) is probably the best of the available questionnaire measures.
There have been few attempts at developing measures for assessing how people cope with
the perceived distress of others. The ideal measure would distinguish between constructive
and non-constructive coping. The Emotional Distress scale for the IRI (Davis, 1980, 1983) is
partially relevant in that it assesses the extent to which individuals become upset during
crises */a form of non-constructive coping. The most promising coping measure is the Test of
Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA; see Tangney & Dearing, 2002), which identifies different
reactions to minor social transgressions, such as guilt, shame, detachment, and externalization. The TOSCA has acceptable psychometric properties, and there is some evidence that
shame reactions are associated with increased anger and hostility in general populations
(Tangney & Dearing). A version of the TOSCA has been developed for use with offender
populations (TOSCA-SD; Hanson & Tangney, 1996). Results from unpublished data suggest
acceptable levels of internal consistency of the TOSCA-SD, but its utility with offender
populations has yet to be explored.
The final component of empathy is sympathetic, compassionate responses. Problems
with the other components (adversarial relationships, perspective-taking and coping deficits)
are primarily important because they influence how offenders respond to other people. The
best of the self-report measures of this component is the Empathic Concern subscale from the
IRI (Davis, 1980, 1983). It is short, internally consistent (alphas about .70) and targeted
towards a relevant construct. As for all self-report measures, however, offenders self-reported
sympathetic tendencies need not correlate highly with other measures of sympathy, and are
unlikely to be useful in adversarial situations (Hennessy, Walter & Vess, 2002). Consequently,

Assessing Empathy

21

it would be useful to supplement any self-report measure with direct observations of

offenders responses in critical situations.

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

Implications for treating empathy deficits

The proposed framework has implications for the treatment of empathy deficits in sexual
offenders. The most obvious implication is that different offenders should benefit from
different treatments. Increasing the salience of victim suffering is unlikely to be helpful to
those offenders who are aroused by such accounts (Rice et al., 1994), or who are unable to
cope with their own guilt. The present model also suggests that efforts to increase offenders
sympathetic responses (the ultimate goal) should start by addressing the three preliminary
components.
Of the three primary components, the easiest to address is perspective-taking. Like any
cognitive skill, perspective-taking could be taught through a combination of education,
practice and repeated evaluation. Programmes could also help offenders cope with the
perceived distress of others (for example, teaching offenders to respond to their own
transgressions with guilt rather than shame or victim blaming). As coping methods improve,
there should be corresponding reductions in cognitive distortions and justifications.
Conversely, increasing the salience of victim suffering may have the unwanted effect of
increasing cognitive distortions for those offenders who lack more appropriate methods for
coping with their own culpability.
The development of caring relationships, the third component of empathy, presents a
more serious therapeutic challenge. Given that many psychologists feel that the very existence
of genuine caring requires justification (Bateson, 1990), it is not surprising that little is known
about how to develop it in offender populations. Rather than the typical emphasis on
compassion for victims, an easier approach would start by enhancing offenders feelings of
caring for those whom they already care about (for example, friends, family, animals). Once
the value of caring relationships is firmly established, then attention could be directed to
softening attitudes to increasingly difficult relationships, such as perceived adversaries, police
and victims. For those offenders who adopt adversarial relationships only towards specific
groups, one possible intervention would be to address the offenders perception that these
groups are psychologically threatening (for example, women are temptresses).
Sympathetic, compassionate responses to victims are most likely when all the preliminary
components are addressed. Like good health, the capacity for empathy requires a wellfunctioning system. It is hoped that this article will encourage those working with offenders to
adopt a broad, balanced approach to the assessment and treatment of empathy deficits.

References
Abel, G. G., Becker, J. V. & Cunningham-Rathner, J. (1984). Complications, consent, and cognitions in sex between
children and adults. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 7 , 89
/103.
Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook
of social psychology. New York: Random House.
Baruk, H. (1945). Psychiatrie morale experimentale, individuelle et sociale: Haines et reactions de culpabilite [Experimental,
individual and social moral psychiatry: Hatred and guilt reactions]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Bateson, C. D. (1990). How social an animal? The human capacity for caring. American Psychologist , 45 , 336
/346.
Becker, H. (1931). Some forms of sympathy: A phenomenological analysis. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
26 , 58
/68.
Beckett, R., Beech, A., Fisher, D. & Fordham, A. S. (1994). Community-based treatment for sex offenders: An evaluation of
seven treatment programmes (Home Office Occasional Paper). London: Home Office.

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

22

R. Karl Hanson

Beckett, R. & Fisher, D. (1994, November). Assessing victim empathy: A new measure . Presentation at the 13th Annual
Conference of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers, San Francisco.
Cortoni, F. & Marshall, W. L. (2001). Sex as a coping strategy and its relationship to juvenile sexual history and
intimacy in sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment , 13 , 27
/43.
Covell, C. N. & Scalora, M. J. (2002). Empathic deficits in sexual offenders: An integration of affective, social, and
cognitive constructs. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 7 , 251
/270.
Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected
Documents in Psychology, 10 , 85.
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 44 , 113
/126.
Dickie, I. (1998). An information processing approach to understanding sympathy deficits in sexual offenders . Unpublished
M.A. thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Eisenberg, N. & Miller, P. A. (1987). Empathy, sympathy, and altruism: Empirical and conceptual links. In N.
Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eisenberg, N. & Strayer, J. (Eds.) (1987). Empathy and its development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fultz, J., Schaller, M. & Cialdini, R. B. (1988). Empathy, sadness, and distress: Three related by distinct vicarious
affective responses to anothers suffering. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 14 , 312
/325.
Gretton, H. M., McBride, M., Hare, R. D., OShaughnessy, R. & Kumka, G. (2001). Psychopathy and recidivism in
adolescent sex offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 28 , 427
/499.
Hanson, R. K. & Bussie`re, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66 , 348
/362.
Hanson, R. K. & Harris, A. J. R. (2000). Where should we intervene? Dynamic predictors of sex offense recidivism.
Criminal Justice and Behavior , 27 , 6
/35.
Hanson, R. K. & Scott, H. (1995). Assessing perspective taking among sexual offenders, nonsexual criminals and
nonoffenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment , 7 , 259
/277.
Hanson, R. K. & Tangney, J. P. (1996). Test of Self-Conscious Affect
/ Social Deviance version . Unpublished
questionnaire. Available from R.K. Hanson, Corrections Research, Department of the Solicitor General of Canada,
340 Laurier Ave., West, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0P8.
Hare, R. D., Harpur, T. J., Hakstian, A. R., Forth, A. E., Hart, S. D. & Newman, J. P. (1990). The Revised
Psychopathy Checklist: Reliability and factor structure. Psychological Assessment , 2 , 338
/341.
Hennessy, M., Walter, J. S. & Vess, J. (2002). An evaluation of the Empat as a measure of victim empathy with civilly
committed sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment , 14 , 241
/251.
Hildebran, D. & Pithers, W. D. (1989). Enhancing offender empathy for sexual abuse victims. In R. D. Laws (Ed.),
Relapse prevention with sex offenders. New York: Guilford.
Hogan, R. (1969). Development of an empathy scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33 , 307
/316.
Hood, R., Shute, S., Feilzer, M. & Wilcox, A. (2002). Sex Offenders emerging from long-term imprisonment. British
Journal of Criminology, 42 , 371
/394.
Hudson, S. M., Marshall, W. L., Wales, D., McDonald, E., Bakker, L. W. & McLean, A. (1993). Emotional
recognition skills of sex offenders. Annals of Sex Research , 6 , 199
/211.
Hudson, S. M., Wales, D. S., Bakker, L. & Ward, T. (2002). Dynamic risk factors: The Kia Marama evaluation. Sexual
Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment , 14 , 103
/119.
Ickes, W. (Ed.) (1997). Empathic accuracy. New York: Guilford.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979). Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 37 , 1798
/1809.
Kafka, M. (1997). Hypersexual desire in males: An operational definition and clinical implications for males with
paraphilias and paraphilia-related disorders. Archives of Sexual Behavior , 26 , 505
/526.
Kagan, J. (1984). The nature of the child . New York: Basic Books.
Kelly, A.E. (2000). Helping construct desirable identities: A self-presentational view of psychotherapy. Psychological
Bulletin , 126 , 475
/494.
Knopp, F. H., Freeman-Longo, R. E. & Stevenson, W. (1992). Nationwide survey of juvenile and adult sex-offender
treatment programs . Orwell, VT: Safer Society Press.
Lipton, D. N., McDonel, E. C. & McFall, R.M. (1987). Heterosocial perception in rapists. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 55 , 17
/21.
Lisak, D. & Ivan, C. (1995). Deficits in intimacy and empathy in sexually aggressive men. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence , 10 , 296
/308.
Lund, C. A. (2000). Predictors of sexual recidivism: Did meta-analysis clarify the role and relevance of denial? Sexual
Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment , 12 , 275
/287.

Downloaded by [INASP - Pakistan (PERI)] at 16:40 21 March 2014

Assessing Empathy

23

Malamuth, N. M. & Brown, L. M. (1994). Sexually aggressive mens perceptions of womens communications:
Testing three explanations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67 , 699
/712.
Maletzky, B. M. (1993). Factors associated with success and failure in the behavioral and cognitive treatment of sexual
offenders. Annals of Sex Research , 6 , 241
/258.
Marshall, W. L., Hamilton, K. & Fernandez, Y. (2001). Empathy deficits and cognitive distortions in child molesters.
Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment , 13 , 123
/130.
Marshall, W. L., Hudson, S. M., Jones, R. & Fernandez, Y. M. (1995). Empathy in sex offenders. Clinical Psychology
Review, 15 , 99
/113.
McDonel, E. C. & McFall, R. M. (1991). Construct validity of two heterosocial perception skill measures for assessing
rape proclivity. Violence and Victims , 6 , 17
/30.
McDougall, W. (1908). Introduction to social psychology. London: Methuen.
Mehrabian, A. & Epstein, N. A. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality , 40 , 525
/543.
Miller, P. A. & Eisenberg, N. (1988). The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior.
Psychological Bulletin , 103 , 324
/344.
Murphy, G. (1949). Historical introduction to modern psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Murphy, W. D., Coleman, E. M. & Haynes, M. R. (1986). Factors related to coercive sexual behavior in a nonclinical
sample of males. Violence & Victims , 1 , 255
/278.
Pithers, W. D. (1994). Process evaluation of a group therapy component designed to enhance sex offenders empathy
for sexual abuse survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32 , 565
/570.
Pithers, W. D. (1999). Empathy: Definition, enhancement, and relevance to the treatment of sexual abusers. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence , 14 , 257
/284.
Quinsey, V. L., Rice, M. E. & Harris, G. T. (1995). Actuarial prediction of sexual recidivism. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence , 10 , 85
/105.
Reddon, J. R., Studer, L. & Estrada, L. (1995). [Recidivism data from the Pheonix Program for sex offender
treatment.] Unpublished raw data.
Rice, M. E., Chaplin, T. C., Harris, G. T. & Coutts, J. (1994). Empathy for the victim and sexual arousal among
rapists and nonrapists. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 9 , 435
/449.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapists view of psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Schram, D. D., Milloy, C. D. & Rowe, W. E. (1991). Juvenile sex offenders: A follow-up study of reoffense behavior .
Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.
Serin, R. C., Malcolm, P. B., Khanna, A. & Barbaree, H. E. (1994). Psychopathy and deviant sexual arousal in
incarcerated sexual offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 9 , 3
/11.
Shaver, K. G. (1970). Defensive attribution: Effects of severity and relevance on the responsibility assigned for an
accident. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14 , 101
/113.
Smith, A. (1759). The theory of moral sentiments. London: A. Miller.
Smith, W. R. & Monastersky, C. (1986). Assessing juvenile sexual offenders risk for reoffending. Criminal Justice and
Behavior , 13 , 115
/140.
Snowdon, R. (1984). Working with incest offenders: Excuses, excuses, excuses. Aegis , 35 , 56
/63.
Spencer, H. (1870). The principles of psychology (Vol. 1, 2nd ed.). London: Williams and Norgate.
Strayer, J. (1993). Childrens concordant emotions and cognitions in response to observed emotions. Child
Development , 64 , 188
/201.
Stermac, L. E. & Segal, Z. V. (1989). Adult sexual contact with children: An examination of cognitive factors. Behavior
Therapy, 20 , 573
/584.
Tangney, J. P. (1991). Moral affect: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 ,
598
/607.
Tangney, J. P. & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., Fletcher, C. & Gramzow, R. (1992). Shamed into anger? The relation of shame and guilt to
anger and self-reported aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62 , 669
/675.
Thornton, B. (1984). Defensive attribution of responsibility: Evidence for an arousal-based motivational bias. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 46 , 721
/734.
Thornton, D. (2002). Constructing and testing a framework for dynamic risk assessment. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of
Research and Treatment , 14 , 139
/153.
Wormith, J. S. & Hanson, R. K. (1992). The treatment of sexual offenders in Canada: An update. Canadian Psychology/
Psychologie canadienne , 33 , 180
/198.
Wormith, J. S. & Ruhl, M. (1987). Preventive detention in Canada. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 1 , 399
/430.