X V I I th

INTERNATIONAL

RED

CROSS

C O N FE R E N C E

Stockholm, August 19^8

REPORT
of th e

In tern a tio n a l C o m m ittee o f tlie R e d C r o ss

on its activities
during th e S e c o n d A C o rld A C ar
(S ep tem b er 1, g S g ~ J u n e

3o,

1947)

VOLUME III

RELIEF

ACTIVITIES

G E N E VA
Ma y 1948

N o. 3 A

U .t'/ 2 t
(IE
X V I I th

IN T ER N A T IO N A L RED CROSS
Stockholm, August 1948

CONFERENCE

REPORT
of the

In tern a tio n a l C o m m ittee o f tk e R e d C r o ss

on its activities
during tk e S e c o n d 'W k r ld
(S ep tem k er 1, 19^9 - J u n e

3o,

ar
1947)

VOLUME III

RELIEF

ACTIVITIES

GENEVA
M.a.y 1948

No. 3 A

BIBLIOTHEQUE - CICR
19, AV. OF. LA PAIX

Et-

IN TR O D U C TIO N

The relief work carried out by the ICRC during th e Second

W orld W ar can, quite fairly, be held as w ithout precedent.
A lthough th e enterprise as a whole was a novel one, it never
theless followed certain trad itio n s which should have a t least
brief m ention.
N ot m any years after th e foundation of th e ICRC in 18631864, during the F ranco-Prussian w ar of 1870-1871, an Inform a
tion B ureau for Prisoners of W ar was opened a t Basle, w ith
the object of assem bling inform ation on m en reported missing.
This office, which in a w ay anticip ated th e future Central
Prisoners of W ar Agency a t Geneva was, it is not surprising,
called upon to send on not only news b u t also m edicam ents,
dressings and even a few food parcels an d packages of books
m ade up in Sw itzerland. As th e F ranco-Prussian w ar lasted
only a few m onths and was m oreover fought over a lim ited
area, these early relief schemes set afoot by th e ICRC were
very lim ited in e x te n t.
C ontrary to th e general im pression, relief schemes were still on
a reduced scale in the first W orld W ar. The conflict, it is true,
lasted for m uch longer th a n in 1870 : it also affected m any more
countries and caused far greater slaughter. The num ber of
prisoners taken, however, cannot be com pared w ith th e vast
num ber of m en and women captured or arrested for various
reasons during th e Second W orld W ar. In 1914-1918, too, the
relative stab ility of th e fronts enabled belligerents to m aintain
in ta c t m ost of their railw ay and postal system s. Thus, N ational
Red Cross Societies and other h um anitarian organizations
5

could them selves un d ertak e to aid b o th th e wounded and sick,

an d th e prisoners of war. The help of th e ICRC was not required
in th is field, as relief supplies arrived a t th eir destination direct
by th e norm al channels. In Sw itzerland, too, it was th e shipping
agencies th a t undertook th e despatch by rail of relief
supplies to th e belligerent countries. The ICRC m erely entrusted
to th em th e tra n sp o rt of 1,813 wagons of collective gifts. The
Com m ittee fu rth er organized, b y arrangem ent w ith th e Swiss
Postal Service, th e despatch b y m ail of 1,884,914 individual
parcels. This was a straightforw ard job and did not even require
a separate d ep artm en t to deal w ith it.
D uring th e th ree arm ed conflicts of th e years 1918 to 1939
th e A byssinian W ar, th e early stage of th e Sino-Japanese
W ar, a n d th e Spanish Civil W ar th e belligerents tu rn e d to
the ICRC for relief in kind. This was a new departure which m ay
be welcomed or reg retted ; it m ay be tho u g h t, on th e one hand,
to c arry an im plicit recognition of th e great p a rt in te r
national organizations m ay play in saving lives ; on the
o ther, it m ight be regarded as a foretaste of " to ta l war which,
clearly, m akes necessary a recourse to such organizations.
The ICRC, whose invariable policy is to support all schemes
w ith a hu m an itarian purpose, did not give m uch thought to the
theoretical and legal aspect of the problem p u t before it. Its
sole wish was to respond to these appeals, to th e best of its
ability, either by soliciting a n d collecting gifts in aid, or by
itself purchasing and distributing relief supplies on its own
account. The ICRC th u s sent m edicam ents and medical
equipm ent to the value of some 76,000 Swiss francs during the
A byssinian W ar, a n d during th e Sino-Japanese W ar made use
of 86,525 Swiss francs for a sim ilar purpose. In th e Spanish
Civil W ar, a large num ber of donors m ade th eir gifts for the
benefit of b o th sides, and the ICRC was therefore able to
purchase not only m edicam ents, b u t also food-supplies and
garm ents. The Com m ittee handed over to both G overnm ent
a n d N ationalist forces goods to the value of 337,921 and 332,923
Swiss francs respectively. Im m ediately after the Civil W ar
those districts which had suffered m ost in th e fighting received
17,980 Swiss francs w orth of relief in kind.
6

Some of these consignm ents were not on a large scale, b u t

th ey served th e purposean d therein lay th eir im portance
of draw ing th e a tte n tio n of th e ICRC itself and of other hum ani
ta ria n organizations, in p articu lar th e N ational R ed Cross
Societies, to th e necessity of sim ilar schemes. The Purchase
Section set up during the Spanish w ar was, it should be noted,
not dissolved ; in 1939 it form ed th e nucleus of th e C om m ittees
Relief D epartm ent.
No com parison, however, can be draw n betw een th e opera
tions, lim ited in scope, to which reference has ju st been m ade,
a n d th e v ast work of relief undertaken b y th e ICRC betw een
1939 and 1947 in behalf of unprecedented num bers of prisoners
of w ar an d internees of every category, as well as of th e civil
population in m any countries. This w ork im m ediately took
on alm ost alarm ing proportions for those on whom it devolved.
W hen it reached its peak betw een 1943 and 1944, w ith 2,000
wagons coming and going each m onth, th e ICRC h ad become
th e biggest relief distribution centre on th e continent.
The Com m ittee's relief work during th e Second W orld W ar
m ay be divided into four m ain headings.
(1) R egular bulk consignm ents in E urope, from 1939 to
1945, to some two million Allied PW and civilian internees
placed on the same footing as PW . These consignm ents
am ounted to close on 400 million kilogram s, valued a t about
three thousand million Swiss francs. Sm aller relief consign
m ents were also sent to Allied prisoners and civilian internees
in th e F a r E ast.
(2) Occasional consignm ents, whenever th e need became
urgent, to about one million G erm an an d Ita lia n P W and
civilian internees, out of a to ta l num ber of two a n d a half to
three million. Such consignm ents were m ost frequent in the
period im m ediately a fter th e end of th e w ar in 1945 and 1946.
(3) R elatively sm all consignm ents to some 300,000 civilian
deportees and internees of all kinds, th e exact num ber of whom
is unknow n, b u t estim ated a t well over a million.
7

(4)
Large consignm ents to civilian victim s of the w ar, p a r
ticularly those supplies despatched b y th e ICRC in co-operation
w ith th e League of Red Cross Societies through th e Jo in t
Relief Commission. The recipients were either specified cate
gories of persons (children, women, th e aged, the sick and
disabled), or in h ab ita n ts of areas th a t had p articularly
suffered as a result of m ilitary operations : such were the
Channel Islands, th e F rench A tlantic coast a fter th e Allied
invasion in 1944, and the w estern provinces of H olland a t the
beginning of 1945. Relief was also sent to Pruzskow Camp,
which held a large proportion of th e W arsaw population,
to th e children of Paris in 1940, to those of Berlin and of Vienna
from 1945 to 1947, and to other victim s of th e war. The p rin
cipal relief scheme in behalf of civilians was certainly th a t
carried out in Greece, when all norm al supply routes by the
M editerranean were cut off a fter th e cam paign of 1940-1941.

PART I

R E L IE F W O R K BY T H E ICRC FO R
P R IS O N E R S OF W AR AND D E T A IN E E S
OF ALL CA TEG O RIES
G E N E R A L PROBLEM S

Chapter i

From the Polish Campaign to the Invasion of Western Europe

The first phase of th e hostilities which opened on Sep
tem ber i , 1939, w ith th e lightning cam paign against Poland,
entailed the capture of over half a million m en in tw enty-tw o
days. A t the end of only a few weeks, th e ICRC a n d the
N ational Red Cross Societies found them selves faced w ith an
unprecedented task. I t im m ediately becam e clear th a t this
mass of Polish prisoners would need relief supplies, despite
th e provisions of A rticle 11 of the 1929 Convention relating
to th e tre a tm e n t of PW 1. In order to give th em practical
help, th eir id en tity , num ber and places of in tern m en t had to
be known. W ithout w aiting for inform ation on these points,
the ICRC sent tria l consignm ents for th e first three or four
m onths.
A t the same tim e, m any other war victim s called for the
a tte n tio n of th e Com m ittee, nam ely (1) some thousands of
B ritish, French and Germ an prisoners tak e n on the W estern
1 See Vol. I, p. 253.

F ro n t, along th e Franco-G erm an boundary line from Basle to

th e Belgian frontier ; (2) civilians of enem y n atio n ality interned
in belligerent countries, whose sta tu s, under bilateral agree
m ents m ade in 1939 and 1940, was equivalent to th a t of PW 1 ;
(3) sick an d w ounded com batants. It was also necessary to
collect, despatch and distrib u te gifts for civil populations, and
to seek and co-ordinate th e support of N ational Red Cross
Societies in neu tral countries. The rapid m arch of events called
for p rom pt m easures. The ICRC was, as a rule, obliged to
im provise relief schemes which could only later be organized on
the juridical basis of th e 1929 Convention, or of common law.

n d iv id u a l

Co n s ig n m

ents

The w ork of relief began w ith th e despatch of individual

parcels addressed b y nam e to PW . As soon as th e y were able
to get in touch once more w ith th e outer world, thousands of
Polish officers and men in c a p tiv ity asked for food, tobacco,
m edicam ents, underw ear, footw ear and uniform s. H ardly
three or four weeks a fter the outbreak of w ar their nam es
becam e known to th eir relatives, to some N ational Red Cross
Societies and to several private relief organizations.
There was no question as yet of averting starv atio n for
masses of people whom the D etaining Power could no longer
feed as required by th e Conventions. The In tern atio n al Com
m ittee was sim ply giving individual help to prisoners who
looked for some alleviation of th eir lot. The first cam p visits
carried out in October 1939 showed, however, th a t a very large
num ber of PW who had lost th eir belongings a t the tim e of
c ap tu re were extrem ely short of underw ear. They also needed
m edicam ents and pharm aceutical supplies. Most of them also
asked for e x tra food and tobacco.
A first achievem ent was m ade when the ICRC, either direct
or th rough N ational Red Cross Societies or Governm ent a u th o r
ities, was able to inform relatives and relief organizations of
1 See Vol. I, p. 573.

10

th e articles th a t could be sent to th e cam ps and the routes by

which th ey should be despatched.
In accordance w ith the Cairo Postal Convention of 1935,
th e Swiss Post Office carried free of charge all parcels originating
in, or in tra n sit through Sw itzerland, which were intended for
P W in G erm any, France and th e B ritish Com m onwealth.
Individual parcels could be sent in tw o ways : (1) th e y could
be forw arded direct b y post. The Swiss Postal ad m in istratio n
states th a t as early as th e year 1939, 388 parcels were posted
in Sw itzerland and 3,478 passed in tra n sit 1. (2) Parcels could
also be sent th rough th e ICRC. The Com m ittee sta te d a t the
outbreak of w ar th a t it was prepared to accept parcels from
prisoners families bearing only th e address " ICRC, Geneva ,
and to forw ard th em a fter checking, com pleting or correcting
the postal addresses of th e recipients.
The Postal T ransit Section set up b y th e ICRC forw arded
47 parcels in October 1939, 377 in Novem ber (an increase due
to Christm as parcels), and 99 in December. These figures
include parcels from Sw itzerland an d abroad. In 1940, th e
work of the Section grew steadily b u t continued to be on a
very small scale (34 parcels despatched in J a n u a ry a n d 1,295
in Decem ber 1940). In succeeding years, figures for m onthly
despatches varied considerably, for reasons which will be
exam ined below 2, b u t betw een 1941 and 1945 an average of
1,000 was m aintained.
The following figures give th e annual to ta ls of postal des
patches, com prising parcels in tra n sit, those sent from Sw itzer
land and those forw arded b y the ICRC :
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945

.
.
.

.
.
.

1,224,614
8,110,756
14,690,625
13,823,295
5,719,956
555.101

1 Figures given in the 1945 P ostal Yearbook.

2 See below p. 181.
II

This shows th a t the num ber of parcels increased considerably

betw een 1940 and 1942, rem ained a t a very high level in 1943
and subsequently declined. D uring 1944, the individual
parcels sent from F rance decreased in n um ber and then stopped
entirely after th e Allied landings in France. Generally speaking,
there was an increase in collective parcels as against those
addressed to individuals, which were exposed to greater risks.
The sharp decrease in 1945 was due to the dislocation of railw ay
tra n sp o rt, and, above all, to th e ending of the war in E urope
in May.
Such m atters as th e m axim um weight of parcels, m ethods
of packing, form of address and prohibited articles were the
subject of negotiations pursued by the ICRC w ith the authorities
and Red Cross Societies of all belligerent and neutral countries
concerned. These negotiations lasted from October 1939 until
April 1940, and on certain disputed points continued until
th e w ar ended. Moreover, the rules adopted had to be revised on
several occasions, when events had brought about a change in the
conditions governing th e despatch and receipt of relief supplied.
Parcels up to five, and, in exceptional cases, tw e n ty kilos in
weight were accepted for tra n sit through Sw itzerland for PW
and civilian internees. In Great B ritain 5 kilos was the m axi
m um weight allowed ; in France it was a t first two kilos and
late r increased to five kilos. The Germ an m ilitary authorities
who wished to fix th e m axim um weight a t 20 kilos, reduced
it to 5 kilos also. This sta n d a rd of 5 kilos established by common
consent, was successfully m aintained throughout the war.
A t th e beginning of 1942, however, it was som ew hat relaxed in
order to enable heavy articles to be sent, such as w inter clothing,
greatcoats, books in several volumes ; parcels of this kind were
thenceforth allowed up to 10 kilos.
A few m onths after relief work had begun, all belligerents
were induced to adopt a stan d ard list of prohibited articles,
likely to facilitate escape or sabotage ; these included :
Coins and bank-notes.
Civilian clothing, and underw ear which could be used a s
civilian clothing (except sw eaters and pullovers).
12

Arms and in strum ents which could be used as weapons

(large knives, scissors, etc.).
D uplicators, carbon paper and tracing paper.
Compasses, m aps, cam eras, field glasses, m agnifying glasses,
electric torches, telephone ap p aratu s.
Wireless tra n sm ittin g and receiving sets, and spare parts.
Alcoholic drinks.
Acids and chemical products.
Books and new spapers of a political or m ilitary character,
or of suspect contents.
Used w rappings ; books w ith m aps ; m atches.
W hilst all th e above articles were forbidden by the common
consent of the belligerents, others were th e subject of contro
versy. The following were the m ain articles in dispute :
(1) Since lemon juice can ap p aren tly be used as invisible
ink, bo ttled liquids and in p articu lar fruit juices were a t first
under the ban, b u t this was later raised in th e case of stan d ard
collective parcels.
(2) Unlike the Allied authorities, who never m ade objec
tions to this sort of article, th e German authorities prohibited
tubes of to o th p aste and cream , as possible receptacles for secret
messages. P rotests against this decision proved fruitless ; th e
Italian authorities, however, were more reasonable.
(3) Tin openers, a t first classified as edged and therefore
banned tools, were finally allowed in collective parcels.
(4) Salt and pepper a t first went through w ithout
b u t were later often confiscated in Germ an cam ps,
escaping PW som etim es used th em to blind th eir
They were subsequently allowed in collective, b u t not
vidual parcels.

trouble,
because
guards.
in indi

(5) M edicaments called for special precautions. A PW in

free possession of drugs runs serious risks, if he takes them
w ithout m edical supervision ; there is also a tem p ta tio n to
traffic in them , or to hoard them for no p articu lar purpose,
whilst some fellow-prisoners m ight be in urgent need of them .
13

The ICRC observed th a t these objections were often wellfounded. A fter consultation w ith th e D etaining Powers, th e
donors and certain n eu tral experts, th e Com m ittee proposed
to belligerents th a t th e y should forbid th e direct despatch of
m edicam ents in individual parcels and, above all, in those
sent b y next of kin. This was, in a sense, a restriction of the
rig h t given to PW under A rt. 37 of the Geneva Convention,
b u t th e m en were not in fact th e losers thereby. Though
parcels of th is kind had to be addressed to the senior m edical
officer, th e cam p leader or th e representative of a R ed Cross
Society, th e y could also bear the nam e of th e real addressee.
F urtherm ore, this rule did not prevent m any PW from
receiving th roughout th eir ca p tiv ity boxes labelled, for exam ple,
Cough Lozenges , or bottles of supposed Anti-flu which
actu ally contained some kind of alcohol. These articles were
distrib u ted or confiscated according to th e strictness of the cam p
censorship.
While consignm ents from Red Cross Societies and other
relief organizations were in general carefully packed, the sam e
could not be said of fam ily parcels. Dam age and loss due solely
to defective packing were therefore heavy. Foodstuffs and
clothing were too often m ixed up together, and the sta te in
which these parcels arrived a fter a long journey, which included
several trans-shipm ents, can easily be im agined. Thus losses
were as m uch as 20 per cent for th e parcels containing uniforms,
honey and salam i sausage, sent b y Ita lia n families to their
men in India, an d carried in th e hold through tropical waters.
Such m isfortunes were n ot wholly due to negligence or in
experience on th e p a rt of the senders ; a fter 1942, th ey had
increasing difficulty in obtaining packing m aterials, especially
in th e countries occupied by G erm any and Italy .
Several N ational Red Cross Societies a tte m p te d some
im provem ent and undertook the onerous task of forw arding
all fam ily parcels them selves, after checking th e contents and
re-packing. This m ethod, which h ad excellent results, was used
th roughout the w ar by th e A m erican, B ritish and German
R ed Cross Societies. I t could not be adopted, however, b y the
Ita lia n Red Cross, nor in Poland, Yugoslavia or occupied
14

Greece. The French Red Cross preferred an interm ediary

system described in C hapter 2.
While all belligerents vouchsafed th e postal address, i.e.
th e exact place of detention, of civilian internees, th e location
of PW cam ps was kept secret. In G erm any and G reat B ritain,
collective and individual parcels for P W had therefore to be
addressed to cam ps described m erely by num bers. Thus, th e
first Germ an cam ps heard of outside th a t country, an d to which
parcels were sent, were Oflags (Offizierslager) X A and
X I A, an d Stalags (Mannschafts-Stammlager) I I I a n d IV A,
where on O ctober 19, 1939, there were 4,545 Polish PW in
all l. This relatively small num ber was due to th e fact th a t,
a t this period, very large num bers of men were still tem porarily
held in th e te rrito ry a t th a t tim e called th e General-Governm ent of Poland .
In G reat B ritain, there were a t this tim e two G erm an PW
cam ps, described as No. 1 and No. 2. In France, all parcels
had to be addressed to a postal centre in Paris which forw arded
th em to th eir destination.
I t can legitim ately be argued th a t PW are entitled to receive
an unlim ited num ber of individual parcels, since A rt. 37 of the
C onvention says nothing to the contrary. There were, however,
such v ast num bers of Polish prisoners a fter the capitulation of
th eir a rm y th a t th e G erm an H igh Com m and, in order to avoid
congestion in th e post offices and censorship, as it sta te d , placed
an a rb itra ry lim it on th e num ber of individual parcels sent from
occupied Poland to P W transferred to Germ any. All parcels
therefore had to bear labels previously issued to each P W and
sent b y him to his relatives. This system was soon known
outside Poland, b u t when th e ICRC questioned th e German

1 In its letter to the German H igh Command, of October 19, 1939,

the ICRC gave these facts and asked for full lists of cam p strengths
and for confirm ation of the fact th a t cam p numbers represented an
adequate address to w hich relief supplies could be sent. In their reply
of October 25, th e German Command gave precise details on the follow
ing points : (a) acceptance in principle of the despatch of books ; (b) form
of address for parcels ; (c) free carriage for consignm ents ; (d) extension
where applicable of these facilities to consignm ents for civilian internees.
The place of detention of the internees would be com m unicated later.

15

A uthorities the la tte r answ ered th a t th e m easure applied

exclusively to senders residing in the G eneral-G overnm ent *.
C o l l e c t iv e

C o n s ig n m

ents

D uring the first weeks of the war individual consignm ents

from priv ate donors greatly exceeded other types. It soon becam e
obvious to th e ICRC, to N ational R ed Cross Societies and
several other organizations, th a t it was essential to supplem ent
these b y collective relief. Of th e Polish PW in G erm any at
th e beginning of D ecem ber 1939, some 250,000 could expect
no help w hatever from th eir relatives, since these either had
lost th eir lives or were them selves d estitu te. I t also seemed
likely th a t a high proportion of the 150,000 Poles captured by
the Soviet forces were no b e tte r off.
D uring the tria l period of consignm ents, no clear distinction
was m ade betw een individual and collective relief. The ICRC
realized a t the outset, however, th a t the despatch of thousands
of individual parcels in lots, and of tens of thousands of collective
parcels, besides goods in bulk, required the m ost careful p rep ara
tion and involved not only technical, b u t also economic and
political considerations. Before even studying m eans of tra n s
p o rt, th e ICRC had to know to w hat ex ten t the countries con
cerned would find it com patible w ith their w ar economy to
export large q u a n titites of foodstuffs and clothing, for hum ani
ta ria n purposes.
The first collective relief consignm ents were despatched
from Sw itzerland. For these, the Polish PW were indebted to
the Polish Consulate in Geneva, th e Ukraino-Swiss Com m ittee
and W orking Centre, and th e Pro Polonia Association in
Geneva, as well as to m any individuals who gave funds to the
ICRC for th is purpose. The first gift for French PW was pro
vided by th e Swiss Cham ber of Commerce in France, and a
second b y th e Swiss Chocolate Convention. I t was due in the

th e

1 For further details of labels, see pp. 281-283. For com plaints which
ICRC had to transm it on the non-arrival of parcels, see

p p . 177-179.

16

first place to the B ritish W om ens W artim e W ork in Geneva

th a t th e ICRC was able to assist B ritish prisoners, and the
same applied to G erm an prisoners, th an k s to the German
Consulate-General in Geneva. The Brazilian Red Cross was
the first overseas donor. In F ebruary 1940, this Society sent
the ICRC th irty tons of sugar, of which fifteen were for Polish
prisoners and fifteen for hospitals in Poland. In M arch 1940,
eighteen tons of coffee followed, half for sick and wounded
PW still in Poland and half for the civilian population of th a t
country.
These first donors requested the ICRC to send either lots
of individual parcels, or collective shipm ents addressed to cam p
leaders. T hus, a t the request of th e G erm an Consulate-General,
on D ecem ber 21, 1939, 40 Christm as parcels of a to ta l weight
of 47 kilos and 160 parcels weighing 187 kilos were sent to
Camps No. 1 and No. 2 in G reat B ritain, whilst 100 parcels of
a to ta l weight of 117 kilos were sent to the Postal Centre for
Prisoners of W ar in Paris, which had charge of th eir distribution
in France. The next day, Decem ber 22, 100 parcels, of a to ta l
weight of 249 kilos, were despatched ; th ey were sent b y the
Polish Consulate-General to th e cam p leader of the Polish PW
in Stalag X V IIB in Germ any. Finally on D ecem ber 23, 4,000
parcels provided b y th e Ukraino-Swiss Com m ittee and W orking
Centre were sent to the cam p leader of th e Polish PW in Oflag
X B in Germany.
All these shipm ents were m ade by tra n sp o rt firms and arrived
safely. In O ctober and N ovem ber, th e ICRC satisfied itself
th a t a cam p leader had been appointed in each cam p and th a t
he was authorized to receive and distribute collective consign
m ents, under A rt. 43 of the 1929 PW Convention. The ICRC
Delegation in London forw arded th e receipts from G erm an PW
to Geneva a t th e beginning of 1940 ; the Poles acknowledged
receipt direct on Ja n u a ry 8 and 16. These consignm ents are
quoted as an instance and were followed up b y others no less
successful.
The first difficulties arose over the despatch, on April 15,
1940, of 300 parcels bought w ith funds en trusted to th e ICRC
for Polish PW in Oflag II C. The cam p leader inform ed the
m. 2

17

ICRC on April 23, th a t this cam p would in fu tu re bear the

num ber X I B ; th e receipt which reached Geneva on M ay 24
showed th a t a certain Oflag IX B had been transferred to
Oflag X I A. As th e receipt was signed by the same leader,
it a t least proved th a t th e consignm ent had reached its destin a
tion, despite these changes in num bering.
Sim ilar incidents occurred frequently, and showed a t the
outset th e im portance of accurate a n d up-to-date inform ation
ab o u t th e stren g th and location of PW cam ps. The D etaining
Pow er was bound to supply such particulars, b u t when,
as in G erm any, it had to deal w ith some hundreds of
thousands of m en cap tu red w ithin a few weeks, th e ta sk proved
indeed form idable.
The relief supplies referred to above were bought in Sw itzer
land and exported w ith th e consent of th e Swiss G overnm ent.
I t was, however, fu rth er necessary to obtain certain exem ptions
from th e m easures of economic w arfare introduced b y the
belligerents. The m easures tak en by th e B ritish and Am erican
blockade au thorities subsequently had such far-reaching effects
on food supplies for Allied PW in E urope th a t it has been
held preferable to review them as a whole in the following
chapter.
The first collective parcels contained m ainly foodstuffs and
toilet articles. The ICRC also tran sm itted , from 1939 on
w ards, books and gam es supplied b y the W orld Alliance of
YMCA. Consignments of clothing soon followed. One of the
first requests for relief came from th e German com m andant of
Oflag I I D, who reported on Septem ber 18, 1939, th a t a thousand
French officers in th a t cam p needed uniform s a n d expected
them either in individual parcels from their relatives or in
collective parcels from th e French G overnm ent. I t should be
rem em bered in this connection th a t although A rt. 12 of th e 1929
P W Convention lays on D etaining Powers th e obligation to
supply P W w ith clothing, it m akes no m ention of spare under
clothing, nor of regulation uniforms. However, G erm any on
th e one hand, and France an d G reat B ritain on the other,
alw ays agreed tac itly th a t prisonei s could receive these articles
individually or collectively from th eir home country.
18

In 1939 and in th e early m onths of 1940, there were b u t

few B ritish PW , and th e num ber of B ritish civilian internees
in G erm any did not exceed 120. N evertheless, in N ovem ber
1939, th e B ritish R ed Cross su bm itted to th e G erm an High
Com m and, th rough th e ICRC, a list of various types of stan d ard
collective parcels, on th e model of those adopted during the
years 1914-1918. B oth th e B ritish and th e Am erican Red
Cross m ade the widest use of these subsequently. T hey were
as follows :
Large-sized case of m edicam ents for camps.
Medium-sized case of m edicam ents for camps.
S tan d ard food parcel of seven kilos, m ade up according
to four ty p es A, B, C, D.
Medical parcel, ty p e E.
S tan d ard clothing parcel.
W ithout expressing a n y opinion on these proposals, the
G erm an m ilitary authorities confined them selves to supplying
a list, on N ovem ber 20, 1939, of prohibited articles. In 1940,
when postal consignm ents were lim ited to a weight of 5 kilos,
th e types of parcel on th e 1918 model had to be som ew hat
modified.
Thus it m ay be said th a t, four m onths a fter th e outbreak
of hostilities, the steps tak en and th e initial practical experience
gained by th e ICRC had already determ ined th e general shape
of future relief schemes. The individual and collective relief
consignm ents provided for in th e 1929 PW Convention had the
consent of all belligerents. The French, B ritish and Germ an
A uthorities and Red Cross Societies were aw are th a t it was their
responsibility to send uniform s, underw ear, foodstuffs, tobacco,
m edicam ents, toilet articles, books and games to th eir own
nationals in PW or internm ent camps. T hey also knew th a t
th e ICRC was able to forw ard all these item s, either by individual
postal packages or b y collective parcels, and in all cases post
free.
Moreover, relief organizations, and especially th e N ational
Red Cross Societies, were fully aw are of the aid v itally required
19

by th e hundreds of thousands of Poles who were in the hands

of th e enem y. A note d a te d Decem ber 19, 1939, specified the
following needs in th is connection per m an :
1
2
i
I
i
i

shirt
pairs of socks
pullover
face towel
cake of soap
pair of heavy boots for every ten men (high boots
were preferable for officers).

The m en fu rth er needed supplem entary food, such as p re

served m eat and fish, chocolate and condensed milk. Finally,
books and games were required, especially for th e officers.
The note in question contained the following recom m enda
tions to donors : rem ove all m an u factu rers labels or other
indications from clothing ; prepare collective shipm ents accord
ing to cam ps ; send linen according to kind in cases or bales
showing th e num ber of articles ; lim it th e weight of parcels to
50 kilos. Those who did not wish to send parcels through the
ICRC were asked to inform the Com m ittee of the num ber, natu re
and date of th eir consignm ents, so th a t gifts from different
sources m ight be shared out as fairly as possible. The note
finally sta te d th a t, under A rt. 43 of the Convention, the cam p
leaders appointed had the right to receive and distribute collec
tive relief consignm ents and th a t, in particular, the clothing
issued by them becam e the absolute p roperty of th e recipients.
The latest list of cam p strengths tra n sm itte d by the German
m ilitary authorities was atta ch e d ; th is recorded th a t 19,102
Polish officers and 370,164 NCOs and men were detained in
Germ any.
The success of this relief scheme was, however, m ainly
dependent on th e help to be expected from th e Polish Red Cross,
re-organized on Allied territo ry , from th e Red Cross Societies
of countries allied to Poland, and from other relief organizations.
A fter th e tria l consignm ents which, as sta te d above, were most
encouraging, it becam e unhappily evident to the ICRC th a t
20

donations for the benefit of Polish prisoners were far below

th eir needs. They did not reach a relatively satisfactory figure
until after 1941, when the Polish R ed Cross in London was set
up, and relief societies in th e U nited S tates had collected large
quantities of m oney and goods.
I t should be rem em bered th a t reciprocity alw ays carried
great weight in negotiations on assistance to PW and civilian
internees. I t was effective in th e case of G erm an prisoners
and civilian internees in France and the B ritish Com m onw ealth,
and vice-versa. I t was, however, absent from th e outset as
regards Polish prisoners, and th e ta sk of aiding th em was, in
consequence, far more difficult. However, this disadvantage
only becam e ap p aren t after some tim e, and especially after
1941 .

1 This subject is further discussed in the n ext chapter, where the

case of sim ilarly placed PW and civilian internees of other nationalities
is reviewed.

Chapter 2

The Influx of Prisoners of War after

the Campaigns in the West
D uring th e first w inter of th e W ar, the ICRC had already
launched its relief schemes. Those chiefly benefited a t th a t
tim e were th e Poles cap tu red in Septem ber 1939. The events
of 1940 a n d 1941, such as the invasion of N orw ay, Belgium, the
N etherlands an d F rance b y th e Germ an forces, I ta ly s en try
into th e W ar, and the cam paigns in th e B alkans and Africa,
soon m ade th e C om m ittees w ork far m ore com plex and onerous.
The num ber of prisoners tak en rose to about 1,700,000 French,
30,000 B ritish and several hundred thousand Belgians, D utch,
Norwegians an d Jugoslavs.
V ery early, even before th e need becam e urgent, it had
been decided in all p a rts of th e world to supply PW from
outside, since it was to be presum ed th a t neither Ita ly nor
G erm any would c a rry out in full th e obligations laid upon
D etaining Powers by A rticle 12 of the Geneva Convention.
B y th e sum m er of 1940, however, it was m anifest th a t th e
governm ents of these countries could not supply adequate food
an d clothing over an indefinite period to the two million men
who h ad fallen into th eir hands, and whose pressing needs were
a p p a re n t b o th from th e reports by th e C om m ittees delegates,
and from countless appeals for help.
In response to th e public concern, th e Allied G overnm ents,
including those who had been forced to tak e refuge abroad, did
all th a t was possible, w ith th e help of th e N ational Red Cross
Societies, to protect th eir captive nationals from the hardships
22

and perils of cold and starvation. Their work, supported by

donor groups in every continent, was of course n ot everyw here
pursued along identical lines. One very im p o rtan t feature,
however, was com m on to all schemes ; th e fact th a t th e ICRC
and its delegates in belligerent countries were alm ost invariably
en tru sted w ith th e ta sk of tak in g delivery of relief supplies in
Europe, of warehousing th em on neu tral soil, a n d of th eir
distribution. This distribution, one should add, really involved
only tw o channels of supply, since all Allied prisoners were in
th e hands either of G erm any or of Italy .
F rom th e outset of th e w ar, reciprocity had been assured
by the fact th a t there were G erm an PW and civilian internees
in th e hands of th e enemy. This circum stance benefited,
however, only a sm all proportion of the m ilitary personnel who
fell into the hands of the Axis forces in 1940. In fact, u n til the
Allied landing in N orth Africa and th e to ta l occupation of
F rance in Novem ber 1942, com plete reciprocity only existed
for Germ an and Ita lia n PW , on th e one hand, and for th e
B ritish and later, th e Am ericans, on th e other.
The French (after th e Franco-G erm an arm istice), the
Belgians, D utch, Norwegians, Jugoslavs and Greeks, and in
fact all those P W whose countries had been wholly or p artially
occupied b y th e enem y, found them selves in the sam e un
favourable conditions as th e Poles had already experienced.
This situation led to difficulties which will be described
below. In the first place, w ithout com prom ising in a n y w ay
its work for PW recognized as such, th e ICRC claim ed the right
to give sim ilar assistance to those who did not enjoy PW statu s,
or who had been deprived of it b y various expedients, such as
so-called " release , followed b y internm ent as civilians, or
conversion into civilian workers.
Moreover, although th e G erm an authorities did not wholly
prevent th e despatch of relief to prisoners of th is category,
th ey could impose stricter regulations and hinder it to a great
extent. Thus, as was rem arked in the case of the Poles, the
G erm ans introduced th e unilateral label system which lim ited
th e num ber of individual parcels for an y one m an. U nau th o r
ized consignm ents, too, had little chance of escaping con
23

fiscation. Finally, cam p leaders were refused m any facilities

which, although not stipulated in th e Conventions, were never
theless accorded to B ritish and A m erican spokesm en. These
included the right to witness the arriv al of consignm ents a t
railw ay stations, to check stocks, to be in touch w ith their
colleagues in labour detachm ents and hospitals a tta c h e d to
their own cam p, and to confer direct w ith th e ICRC an d the
donors. Conditions varied greatly from one cam p to another,
according to the strictness of the com m andants and censorship
officials. B ut it m ay be said th a t, on the whole, Allied prisoners,
who should all have received equal tre a tm e n t, were in fact
divided into the following categories :
(1)

B ritish and Am erican PW , who were privileged ;

(2)

French PW , who, in default of an y reciprocity, had

the benefit of special agreem ents deriving from the
arm istice (right of supervision b y th e Vichy Govern
m ent, supervision and supply of relief b y the Scapini
Mission, etc.) ;

(3) Norwegian PW , w ithout the benefits of reciprocity,

b u t tre a te d w ith a certain am ount of consideration,
since th ey were classified as m em bers of the Teutonic race ;
(4)

Belgian and
D utch PW , whose sta tu s
th e same as th a t of the French ;

was practicall

(5)

Greeks, Jugoslavs, Poles, and Jew ish prisoners not

of B ritish or Am erican nationality. These could not
count on an y reciprocity, and were m oreover exposed
to every kind of victim ization, on grounds of racial
policy.

In principle, every PW had the right to receive parcels, to

sign receipts and to present com plaints to th e ICRC or its
delegates, when the la tte r visited th e cam ps. The cam p leaders,
however, in carrying out th e distrib u tio n and supervision
required by the ICRC and the donors, m et w ith difficulties th a t
varied according to their nationality.
24

The Allied au thorities m ade no discrim ination as between

G erm an and Ita lia n PW , or betw een civilian internees of
different nationalities, b u t th e y also on occasion resorted to
vexatious m easures. T hey held prisoners, for exam ple, for an
indefinite period in tra n sit cam ps, th u s preventing them from
giving a perm anent cam p address to th eir next of kin ; th ey
also sent PW to isolated regions, such as Morocco or E ast
Africa, where th ey were cut off from an y postal or other m eans
of com m unication w ith th e ICRC and its representatives, so
th a t the cam p leaders were unable to c arry out their duties
and th e norm al distribution of relief supplies was stopped.
In general, a distinction should be draw n betw een individual
and collective relief consignm ents. The first encountered
difficulties which were alm ost entirely technical, and arising
chiefly from postal failures and the problem of verifying the
addresses of some two million men. This question will be referred
to again later 1.
Collective consignm ents, on the other hand, raised m any
questions of principle, th e m ost im p o rtan t of which will be
broadly considered here, whilst technical details are dealt with
in relation to th e individual cases noted below 2.
These questions were the following :
(1)

O rganization of collective relief by the donors.

(2) Effects of economic w arfare upon the work of relief.

(3)

Role of th e ICRC as a tru stee and neu tral interm ediary

for th e forw arding and d istributing of funds and relief
supplies. This role involved :
(a) The right of ownership
and distrib u te goods ;
(b) The
receipt of
(c) The storing of supplies
(d) The
storing of

and the right to allocate

consignm ents ;
in S w itzerland;
supplies in
belligerent countries.

1 See pp. 281 et seq.

2 See pp. 207 et seq .

25

(4)

The arrival of relief supplies in cam ps, unloading,

stocking and allocation.

(5)

Supervision of distribution.
1. O rganization o f Collective R elief by th e Donors

W hen consulted on th e subject b y the donors, the ICRC,

w ithout entirely barring the n on-standard parcel, advised
them in th eir own as well as th e prisoners interest, and also to
facilitate its own work, to standardize packing m ethods as far
as possible.
The Vichy G overnm ent a n d th e French Red Cross a t first
sent relief to th eir prisoners, num bering over a million, in very
large bulk consignm ents. The C om m ittee th u s received entire
wagonloads of foodstuffs in cases, some w ith hom ogeneous,
others w ith assorted contents, and consignm ents of clothing
which was sim ply stacked in th e wagons. G radually, the local
branches of th e French R ed Cross organized the packing of
sta n d a rd or sem i-standard parcels 1. A lthough th e contents of
these parcels varied according to the sta te of the m arket, th ey
nearly all included w artim e bread, cigarettes, tinned m eat and
fish an d a few o ther articles such as sugar, concentrated fruit
juice, dried fruit and vegetables.
M edicam ents were sent in th e form of first-aid kits, m ade
up according to instructions received from a rm y m edical officers
in cap tiv ity , and from m edical advisers to th e G overnm ent and
to th e French Red Cross. Toilet articles were supplied as and
when available.
The problem of clothing French P W was p articularly in tra c t
able. The Germ an au th o rities certainly d istributed p a rt of
th e stocks of F rench A rm y uniform s which th ey had seized as
w ar booty, b u t on th e several occasions when th ey were ques
1 The term " sem i-standard applies to parcels for which the packing
m aterial and the greater part of the con ten ts were supplied to local
branches of th e Red Cross by the Government, and which could be
supplem ented by the fam ilies, up to a tota l w eight of 4.6 kilos (roughly
10 lb).

26

tioned b y th e ICRC, th e y refused to give exact inform ation,

only statin g th a t th e y had provided for the needs of 46 per cent
of th e prisoners. This figure was in a n y case inadequate. The
French G overnm ent did th eir best to m ake good th e shortage
of w hich th ey were fully aw are, b u t stocks were alm ost exhausted
and th e q u antities purchased overseas were too small to balance
th e steadily dim inishing production a t home.
Thus, as early as 1942, a critical situation h ad arisen, as
th e clothing worn out b y th e prisoners during tw o years of
c a p tiv ity could not be replaced.
I t will have been seen from th e previous ch ap ter th a t the
B ritish R ed Cross h ad, in 1939, begun th e distribution of collec
tive or com m unal sta n d a rd parcels. In 1940 and 1941, it
decided th a t all B ritish Com m onwealth prisoners should receive
one sta n d a rd parcel a week, and th a t com plete outfits of clothing
should be sent regularly to th e cam ps, according to recom m enda
tions m ade b y th e cam p leaders. I t also in stitu ted a whole
series of special sta n d a rd parcels, such as Invalid Comfort
Parcels and Medical Parcels , of tw o different types, one
for cam ps an d one for hospitals, th e needs and sick roll of which
were known ; parcels for Indian PW , for airm en and seam en ;
and parcels for civilian internees, the contents of which varied
according to the sex and age of th e recipients.
The system adopted by th e A m erican R ed Cross differed
only in detail from th e B ritish. The A rgentine Red Cross
preferred stan d ard bulk consignm ents and shipped foodstuffs
according to kind in cases of 35 kilos, and clothing packed
according to garm ent. Sm aller donors used m ethods identical
or sim ilar to those described. F or instance, th e Brazilian Red
Cross, a n d welfare organizations in Africa, th e N ear a n d Middle
E ast long continued to send consignm ents on French lines,
whilst th e B ritish Dom inions and Colonies used precisely th e
sam e m ethods as th e B ritish and Am erican R ed Cross 1.
Relief supplies were purchased w ith funds from public or
private sources, or b y financial arrangem ents betw een States,
chief of which was th e A m erican Lend-Lease . The ICRC
1 For fuller details see pp. 211 e t seq.

27

had in general no knowledge of the financial agreem ents m ade

b y national organizations. This simplified its duties as trustee,
and created difficulties only when goods were lost or dam aged,
or when contradictory instructions were received from donors
hearing on the blockade, on export perm its, or on priority of
transport.
2. Effects o f Econom ic W arfare on R elief Consignm ents for
Prisoners o f W ar and Civilian Internees

The term economic w arfare describes all m easures taken

by a belligerent to prevent the enem y from acquiring supplies
from abroad which m ay contribute directly or indirectly to its
m ilitary resources. Accordingly, from 1939 onwards, G reat B ritain
and France on th e one hand and G erm any on the other reduced
and supervised th e intern atio n al m ovem ent of goods. Unless
accom panied by a navicert or landcert issued by the
M inistry of Econom ic W arfare, in London, acting for the Allied
G overnm ents, no goods could pass from Allied to enem y te rri
tory, or even into neu tral countries, the im ports of which were
th u s fixed by quota.
Relief supplies, w hether sent from Allied or n eutral territo ry ,
were of course subject to th e sam e regulations ; these need not,
however, be described in detail here 1, since consignm ents for
PW and civilian internees, with which this chapter alone deals,
were alw ays looked on w ith favour and even held to be necessary
by th e Allied G overnm ents. It will therefore suffice to record
the difficulties th a t arose betw een the blockade authorities and
th e ICRC, in applying a principle which in itself was not dis
p u ted : th e Allies claim ed th a t shipm ents should be lim ited to
categories of prisoners and goods likely to give rise to least
abuse, whilst the Com m ittee refused to take these restrictions
as final.
From th e outset, th e ICRC m ade application to the British
authorities for navicerts and landcerts for supplies
sent from Allied territo ry , especially from overseas, and for
1 See p p . 366 e t seq.
28

export perm its off the quota for goods to be re-exported from
Sw itzerland for PW . The Com m ittee had no difficulty in
obtaining perm its for individual parcels addressed b y nam e.
In a lette r dated A ugust 29, 1940, the M inistry of Econom ic
W arfare also authorized collective consignm ents of stan d ard
parcels or bulk supplies addressed to cam p leaders of specific
cam ps, on condition th a t the ICRC should supervise their
distribution. The lette r referred to cam p visits b y the delegates
of the ICRC, w ithout however a t this stage m aking such visits
an indispensable condition. In this way, th e ICRC had little
difficulty in forw arding the first gift supplies from the Brazilian
Red Cross and the relief consignm ents from the B ritish Com m on
w ealth as a whole, directed during the w inter of 1940-41 to
B ritish PW and civilian internees, of whom there were about
40,000 in G erm any and some thousands in Italy . The ICRC
also sent some sm aller consignm ents from Sw itzerland itself.
At th e same tim e, supplies had to be sent to about one
million F rench PW in Germ any. These goods were dispatched
m ainly from unoccupied France, through the care of the Vichy
G overnm ent and Red Cross, and the French Red Cross Society
and other benevolent organizations in N orth Africa. In view
of the inadequacy of resources available in France, th e Vichy
G overnm ent tried to obtain e x tra supplies by purchases overseas
and in Portugal.
The M inistry of Econom ic W arfare, however, were opposed
to th e unrestricted dispatch of such large quantities of goods
to G erm any, especially in view of th e unstable political situation
in F rance a fter th e arm istice. They also objected in principle
to bulk shipm ents, the supervision of which th ey considered
more difficult th a n th a t of stan d ard parcels, and th ey authorized
the distribution of goods from overseas only to cam ps visited
by th e C om m ittees delegates. They had, m oreover, already
shown an inclination to prohibit all consignm ents not exclusively
intended for base camps. The ICRC was th u s in each case
obliged to re-open long and troublesom e negotiations in order
to secure navicerts or landcerts for specified purchases
by the French Red Cross or b y some French G overnm ent
agency, and for goods which it bought itself w ith th e funds
29

placed a t its disposal. One instance of the results achieved

was an increase in th e m onthly m eat ratio n for French PW ,
which, th an k s to th e efforts of th e Com m ittee, was raised from
300 to 500 tons.
W hilst the ICRC was obliged to conform to these regulations,
it alw ays disputed th e principle th a t th e issue of " navicerts "
should be dependent on cam p visits as an indispensable condi
tion, in th e first place because it wished to help war victim s in
th e cam ps and prisons which it had not yet been authorized
to en ter 1, and secondly, because it feared th a t its relief work as
a whole would be com prom ised, should m ilitary operations
bring ab o u t th e tem p o rary suspension of visits to PW camps.
Discussions on th is point led to no positive result, b u t the
ICRC was m ore successful concerning bulk consignm ents.
I t was able to prove to th e blockade authorities, by several
exam ples, th a t it was neither practical nor even possible to
convey in parcel form th e large q u antities of goods intended
for hundreds of thousands of French PW , and th a t, m oreover,
foodstuffs packed in cases of 30 to 60 kilos could be inspected
ju st as efficiently as sta n d a rd parcels. W ith certain provisos,
th e M inistry of Econom ic W arfare th en authorized shipm ents
in bulk and, in 1941 and 1942, gran ted n a v ic e rts and landcerts for which, however, th e ICRC had to m ake application
as and when th e y were required.
B ritish P W and civilian internees in G erm any received
m onthly from 20 to 30 kilos of foodstuffs per head, th a t is,
three tim es th e q u a n tity allo tted to a French prisoner, even
tak in g into account th e parcels sent to him direct b y relatives,
which averaged 7 to 10 kilos per m an. The n u tritio n value of
sta n d a rd parcels for English-speaking PW was also higher
th a n th a t of bulk consignm ents and fam ily parcels sent to
Allied PW of other nationalities.
Consignm ents intended for B ritish PW had of course to
pass th rough French te r r ito ry ; th ey were therefore dependent
upon th e goodwill of th e Port A u th o rity of Marseilles and the
1 This applied to detainees in concentration cam ps and also to
S oviet PW . See pp. 77 et seq. ; pp. 55 et seq.
30

railw ay personnel, and upon th e vigilance exercised b y the

police against thefts. The ICRC, voicing public opinion in
France in th is regard, used th e above facts as argum ents in
negotiating w ith th e blockade au th o rities in London a n d Lisbon,
when th e la tte r proposed to place still fu rth er restrictions on
shipm ents from overseas for French prisoners.
F rom 1942 onw ards, shipm ents of m eat were supplem ented
by tin n ed fish and other foodstuffs purchased in P ortugal and
th e Portuguese colonies in Africa.
The ICRC had also to procure the necessary perm its for
sending supplies to Belgian prisoners, whom th e Belgian Congo
was m aking increasing efforts to assist. D utch, Greek, N or
wegian, Polish an d Jugoslav prisoners were assisted b y th eir
own G overnm ents and R ed Cross Societies set up in London ;
these sent sta n d a rd parcels under th e term s of arrangem ents
m ade direct w ith th e B ritish and U nited S tates authorities.
These m easures simplified th e form alities, b u t the donors had
some difficulty in finding goods in adequate q u antities w ithin
th e B ritish Com m onwealth and th e Am erican hem isphere.
D uring 1942, th e U nited S tates also in stitu ted a strict control
over th eir exports 1, and, generally speaking, economic w arfare
was intensified. The Germ an authorities continued the regular
recruiting of additional civilian workers in occupied countries,
and ever greater num bers of PW were converted into civilian
workers. The B ritish and Am erican blockade authorities, who
were aware th a t a large proportion of th e relief supplies entrusted
to the ICRC passed on from PW base cam ps to labour d etach
m ents, feared th a t these groups m ight not be clearly dis
tinguished from the groups of civilian w orkers ; th ey were also
afraid th a t supervision by th e cam p leaders an d th e ICRC
delegates m ight not be sufficiently strict, a n d finally, th a t the
enem y m ight not rigidly conform to A rt. 31 of th e 1929 Conven
tion, which stipulates th a t the work of P W shall in no way
be directly connected w ith th e w ar effort. To provide against
1 The U nited States controlling authority was the Board of E co
nomic Warfare. All form alities had, however, as hitherto, to go
through the M inistry of Econom ic Warfare in London, w hich carried
ou t th e instructions of the Inter-A llied Blockade Commission.
31

these risks, th ey were prepared henceforth to allow relief only

on a lim ited scale to base cam ps. The effect would have been
disastrous, as a t th a t tim e go per cent of Allied PW were in
labour detachm ents. M oreover, the question of abolishing bulk
consignm ents was again raised.
W ith regard to th e first point, a representative of th e ICRC
was sent to London to discuss th e position. He pointed out
th a t th e v ery great num ber of B ritish and Am erican PW
scattered am ongst th e labour detachm ents would also suffer
severely under th e proposed restrictions. He m ade it clear
to th e blockade authorities th a t th e distribution and super
vision procedure provided all guarantees th a t could be desired,
since PW who had been converted into civilian workers
were stru ck off the lists by the cam p leaders, so th a t no confusion
was possible. As a result, navicerts were gran ted in A ugust
1943 for 600 tons of t n n y fish and 300 tons of jam , w ith the
option of d istributing these foodstuffs also am ong th e labour
detachm ents. This success was, unfo rtu n ately , b u t short-lived.
The ICRC also finally gained its point on the question of
bulk shipm ents ; the B ritish and Am erican authorities had to
recognize th a t relief work could not adm it of an y discrim ination
in natio n ality , and th a t by im peding this m utual aid, th ey
would inevitably harm their own men. Since B ritish and
Am erican PW received relief supplies in bulk from L atin America
and the N ear E ast, other Allied PW ought to have th e same
facilities, especially as their supplies were not in any case equal
in q u a n tity to those of th e PW from the B ritish Com m onwealth
and th e U nited States. Polish and Jugoslav prisoners, for
instance, received aid only in proportion to th e funds and
foodstuffs available ; the num ber of F rench prisoners was so
great th a t available tra n sp o rt did not allow more th a n a m onthly
average of 10 kilos per m an to be sent. For these reasons, the
M inistry of Econom ic W arfare agreed, providing certain
additional m easures of supervision were taken, to allow navi
certs for goods from N orth Africa in particu lar, which were
u rgently required for some 40,000 French Colonial prisoners
held in F ro n t Stalags in occupied France. The same applied
to cocoa-beans and sugar sent in bulk from South America
32

to Sw itzerland, for export in the form of chocolate to countries

holding prisoners.
In 1943, th e blockade au th o rities decided to w ithdraw the
right the ICRC had frequently used, to purchase goods on
behalf of the donors or to m ake application for navicerts
and landcerts
This decision u n fo rtu n ately caused great
loss of tim e, for when donors failed in g etting th e a u th o rity
required, th eir final resort was to request th e ICRC to intervene
in London or W ashington. The Com m ittee was th u s apprised
of some urgent m atte rs th a t had been held up for three or four
m onths, and still fu rth e r tim e was required before any settle
m ent could be reached.
The financial agreem ent for th e release of frozen funds,
which the provisional Free French G overnm ent in Algiers had
m ade w ith th e U nited S tates and th e Am erican R ed Cross at
the end of 1943, caused a fu rth er change in the conditions
governing th e feeding of French prisoners. T henceforth, French
PW who were in labour detachm ents had the right to receive
Am erican sta n d a rd parcels in the sam e w ay as th eir com rades
in the base cam ps, and like the Greeks, Poles, Jugoslavs and
others, provided there was no infringem ent in this respect of
A rt. 31 of the Convention. At th e same tim e, the ICRC had
a t last obtained a u th o rity to increase the num ber of its delegates
in G erm any, and since these m en were able to visit not only
base cam ps, b u t several of th e labour detachm ents a ttach ed
to them , effective supervision was ensured.
The regulations concerning PW also applied to civilian
internees. Alm ost insuperable difficulties arose, however, in
applying th e m easures' of inspection required by th e blockade
authorities not only to internees in fenced cam ps, b u t also to
those who were interned alone (isolati), or sim ply confined
to their homes (confinati). This applied in particu lar to
the Allied isolati, m ainly B ritish, who were to be found
scattered all over Ita ly . These persons had been given the
statu s of civilian internee b y th e Italians, who allowed them ,
although dispersed, to receive aid by th e same procedure as
th a t applying to PW . The B ritish Red Cross were also anxious
to help these people as it did the civilian internees of the big
h i.

33

cam ps in G erm any and occupied France. The ICRC, how ever,
when asked w hether it could g u arantee th e m eticulous super
vision of d istribution, had to reply th a t this was out of the
question, if only because its delegates in Rom e were too few
in num ber, and because m ilitary operations m ade trav el in
creasingly difficult. H ow ever, a fter discussions which lasted
for several m onths, th e B ritish Red Cross persuaded th e M inistry
of Econom ic W arfare to m ake an exception to th e blockade
regulations, and regular consignm ents of provisions a n d clothing
were th u s sent to B ritish and A m erican isolati through
the care of th e Com m ittee. In respect of th e isolati of other
nationalities, prom ising replies had been received, b u t before
th e ICRC could be duly authorized to distrib u te relief from
overseas, th e events of th e sum m er of 1943 and th e Ita lia n
arm istice p u t a stop for th e cime being to all relief work
in Ita ly .
The G erm ans had set up a counter-blockade in opposition
to th e Allied blockade, w hereby all exports from Sw itzerland
required a Geleitschein issued by th e G erm an Legation in Berne.
This was, however, a m ere form ality, as it was to th e interest both
of th e G erm an G overnm ent and of th e M ilitary H igh Command
to prom ote th e despatch of relief consignm ents to P W and
civilian internees. Supplies sent by th e G erm an Red Cross to
G erm an P W n a tu ra lly obtained Geleitscheine w ithout any
difficulty.
The ICRC was authorized on several occasions to im port
raw m aterials into Sw itzerland, off th e quota, for export after
conversion by m anufacture. This was so for th e cocoa beans
already m entioned, and for various shipm ents of textiles, from
which underw ear was m ade in Allied working centres.
Finally, it is only ju st to m ention th a t, th an k s to special
facilities gran ted by the Allied blockade authorities, m edica
m ents and m edical stores were not subject to the regulations
in force for foodstuffs a n d clothing.

34

3. R ole o f th e ICRC as a tru stee and n eu tral in term ediary in th e

forw arding and distribution o f funds and goods for relief.

The ICRC accepted all funds a n d supplies en tru ste d to it

for transm ission to th ird parties, a n d in so doing assum ed by
im plication th e role of a trustee. A t th e end of th e w ar in
E urope, th e value of th e goods it h ad handled am ounted
to some three th o u san d million Swiss francs. The above function
was n o t, how ever, a n d could never be m ade subject to a co n tract
in law. The C om m ittee confined its action to inform ing those
concerned of th e regulations in force, b o th in th e belligerent
countries an d in Sw itzerland. The donors who en tru ste d the
funds or th e goods to its care accepted, b y so doing, th e risks
of th e operation involved. T hey were free to provide against
these risks, and especially against w ar risks, b y insurance of
all kinds. This precaution was only tak e n as a rule in respect
of gifts from p riv ate sources, for when relief goods were supplied
by G overnm ents, com pensation was only nom inal, since it
consisted m erely of an a d ju stm en t of book entries as between
tw o M inistries. M oreover, it was not w ithin th e power of th e
ICRC to avoid losses incidental to th e w ar, or confiscations and
misuses of all kinds. I t did, however, require a protective
guarantee th a t all goods forw arded th rough it would be accepted
b y th e D etaining Powers. As shown in th e preceding chapter,
agreem ents in th is respect had been concluded a t th e outbreak
of hostilities, an d others were m ade, as and when required by
new relief schemes.
The C om m ittee also had to tak e into account th e laws and
regulations in force in Sw itzerland. The Swiss authorities
allowed th e warehousing of goods, an d th an k s to th eir goodwill,
a n y difficulties which arose were quickly resolved.
(a)
Rights of ownership; right to allocate and distribute
supplies. The ICRC claim ed p ro p rietary rights only in regard
to relief supplies purchased b y it w ith funds given, b u t not
earm arked for a n y purpose. These funds were too sm all to
ju stify statistical records ; th ey were chiefly derived from sm all
gifts of tw o to five Swiss francs, or th e equivalent in foreign
35

currency, received in letters, or w ith sum s due for invoices,

w ith rem arks such as For PW relief , For the children of
E urope , For the victim s of th e w ar , " F or c h a rity , and
so on. Only very rarely did the Com m ittee itself m ake any
decision on th e allocation of these monies : in general, th ey
served to m ake up th e balance required to m eet th e cost of a
purchase which slightly exceeded the am ount available.
B y far the greater p a rt of th e relief en tru sted to the ICRC
was intended for a certain nationality' or category of war
victim s, som etim es even for one p articu lar cam p. In such
cases, th e donors retained full ownership rights in respect of
these goods or funds, and the Com m ittee had to follow their
instructions. If these could not be carried out, it had to ask
for others. Since th is right held good from first to last, the
function of tru stee passed from th e ICRC to one of its delegates
in belligerent countries, or to a cam p leader. In point of fact,
only th e final recipient (that is, the prisoner for whom th e joint
relief action was undertaken) could become owner of the gift.
In consequence, the cam p leader himself was bound strictly to
observe th e instructions given by the donors, which he usually
received from the ICRC, or in exceptional cases, direct.
This procedure entailed no difficulties in th e case of food
stuffs, which were in general for im m ediate consum ption.
Otherwise, however, collective reserves were accum ulated, under
the cam p leaders, as all personal hoarding of provisions was
prohibited b y the D etaining Powers.
M edicam ents were, of course, en tru sted to the sole charge of
the m edical officers who alone were qualified to adm inister
them , ra th e r th a n to th e cam p leaders or the patients. In any
case, controversy on this question was rare a n d u nim portant.
On the other hand, ownership rights to clothing gave rise
th roughout th e w ar to negotiations w ith th e G erm an authorities,
w ith th e legal representatives of the prisoners, and w ith the
donors. Since these rights had no foundation in law, those
concerned had usually to be satisfied w ith a compromise. The
facts m ay be given in a few words.
All articles of clothing which could not be d istrib u ted
im m ediately on arrival and all w inter clothing recovered during

36

the warm w eather were placed in cam p stocks. B y a wide

in te rp re ta tio n of A rt. 43 of th e Geneva Convention, cam p
leaders should have had th e sole right to dispose of these stocks,
in accordance w ith th e donors instructions. Since th e rights
of tru steesh ip in th is m a tte r were, however, from the outset
claim ed b y th e Germ an authorities, cam p leaders retained mere
supervisory rights, which depended for th eir effective use upon
the perspicacity of the cam p leader and th e goodwill of the
com m andant. As a m u tu al guarantee, th e storehouses were
in principle provided w ith two separate locks. In addition, the
m arking of clothing either b y the donors, or a t least a t their
expense, or b y th e D etaining Power, prevented a n y later claims
th a t stocks given by the ICRC had been supplied b y the D etain
ing Power, or belonged to it as booty.
The continual transfers of prisoners caused fu rth er com pli
cations and very often m ade th e supervision by cam p leaders
meaningless. Since only p a rt of th e men in a cam p were m oved
elsewhere, p a rt of the clothing stocks should have been m oved
w ith them . It was obviously easy for th e D etaining Pow er to
m ake these circum stances an excuse for controversy, and for
pleading shortage of rolling stock, lack of warehousing space
or the events of the war, to evade th eir obligations.
Various special m easures were tak en which also im paired
ownership rights : for instance, th e m ilitary authorities only
issued new clothing to the men in exchange for used garm ents,
w ithout troubling to enquire if the used clothing had been
draw n from th eir own stocks or from collective consignm ents
sent by the ICRC. In order to provide against escapes, the
men were not allowed to have tw o garm ents of the sam e kind
(for instance, two pairs of trousers, tw o pairs of shoes, etc.).
Here too, surplus garm ents were w ithdraw n from use, w hatever
their origin. Finally, the principle generally enforced in Ger
m any, to d istribute clothes where m ost u rgently required,
was not easily reconcilable w ith the instructions from donors,
who wished their gifts to be reserved for men of th eir own
nationality.
The ICRC approached th e Germ an G overnm ent on several
occasions, either direct or through its delegation, in the hope
37

of ad justing these questions. A t th e beginning of 1944, in

p a rticu lar, th e y sent a M em orandum to th e G overnm ent
sum m arizing th e whole subject, b u t th is a tte m p t, like others,
led to no result.
No negotiations of this kind were necessary w ith th e o ther
side. The Ita lia n R ed Cross did not send clothing to Italian
PW , while th e issue of uniform s supplied b y th e G erm an Red
Cross to th e G erm an officers a n d m en held thro u g h o u t the
B ritish Com m onw ealth was satisfactory. These P W also had
th e benefit of supplies from th e D etaining Pow er, who as a rule
were b o th willing a n d able to observe th e stipulations of A rt. 12
of th e Convention, alth o u g h u n fo rtu n a te ly this tre a tm e n t was,
as we have seen, not reciprocated.
The ICRC never refused its good offices when a dispute
arose betw een th e D etaining Pow er an d cam p leaders. The
cam p leaders did, however, som etim es have differences w ith
th e prisoners them selves, over proposed steps for reducing
w aste, th e fixing of dates for th e distribution of w inter clothing
or th e recovery of reserve clothing th a t had already been
issued, for redistribution to newcomers. In such cases, the
C om m ittee refrained from tak in g action, even when asked to
do so b y those concerned or by the D etaining Pow er : it sim ply
passed on com plaints to th e donors, who took w hatever steps
th e y wished.
A m ost delicate question was th a t of com m unal cam p
furnishings. This covers all articles used in the equipm ent of
a cam p or hospital, such as bedding, crockery, kitchen utensils,
an d stoves ; lorries and petrol for taking supplies to labour
d etachm ents ; tools an d gear used b y gardeners, cobblers,
tailors and barbers, as well as m usical instrum ents, books,
gam es, sports gear a n d so on. The cam p leaders, as trustees,
h ad th e custody of all th is m aterial, which rem ained in theory
th e p ro p erty of th e donors. For several reasons, however, and
especially because of frequent transfers of cam ps, no effective
check was possible. W hen cam p m aterial had passed th rough
several hands, neither th e ICRC nor th e cam p leaders knew
exactly where it was to be found, a n d th e y could then rely only
upon the willingness and good faith of the G erm an authorities.
38

L astly, blankets were th e cause of frequent controversy

in cam ps in G erm any. W hen received in fam ily parcels or in
individual consignm ents from G overnm ents or R ed Cross
Societies, th e y were th e m ens own property. W hen sent in
collective consignm ents, however, blankets rem ained in charge
of the cam p leaders as com m unal stores, an d when supplied
by the D etaining Pow er th e y were considered to be its pro
perty . In th e absence of a n y general system of distinctive
m arkings, it was alm ost inevitable th a t blankets from different
sources should be confused ; prisoners were m oreover unwilling
to give up th eir own blankets when changing cam p. From
this sprang a host of claims which it would be tedious to describe
in detail. I t is enough to say th a t th e ICRC did its best to
settle these differences, and th a t some of th e donors so far lost
patience th a t th e y gave up sending blankets, even when asked
to do so by th e m en them selves.
(b)
Receipt of Supplies. I t should first be recalled th a t
large q u antities of supplies reached th e prisoners direct
th rough th e post, w ithout th e ICRC acting as interm e
diary x. As far as individual parcels were concerned, th e exact
num ber sent was never known to th e Com m ittee. I t did,
however, usually receive from th e donors lists of th e collective
postal consignm ents for checking b y th eir delegates on arrival.
Shipm ents of this kind did n ot as a rule cause a n y difficulties.
Three different m ethods, according to th e origin and des
tin atio n of th e goods, were used for taking delivery of supplies
sent th rough th e ICRC for PW and civilian internees.
(i)
Overseas shipm ents arrived in Lisbon, th e only n eutral
p ort th rough which goods coming from th e W estern hem isphere,
A ustralia and Africa could en ter E urope. Delivery was taken
b y th e perm anent delegation of th e ICRC, which had been
set u p in this p o rt in Ju n e 1940.
The goods were stocked, under th e supervision of th e dele
gation, in bonded warehouses and had the benefit of a special
im port d u ty which was only one per cent of th e norm al rate.
1 See above pp. 10-ir.

39

The shipm ents varied considerably in tonnage, som etim es

am ounting to as m uch as 3,000 tons.
A firm of specialists exam ined th e condition of the goods
on arrival, and its reports were forw arded to th e Red Cross
Societies concerned, w ith the exception of the B ritish Red
Cross, which checked its own shipm ents. D am aged parcels
were repacked sufficiently to allow tra n sp o rt to Geneva. Dam age
which occurred a fter despatch from Lisbon was recorded
either a t Marseilles, Genoa, in Sw itzerland, or on arrival of the
supplies a t th e camps. Thus, the donors often received several
reports in succession concerning a p articu lar consignm ent,
especially in case of dam age. All docum ents relating to the
cargo passed through th e delegation in Lisbon (postal way-bills
showing th e num ber of m ail-bags, bills of lading and accom
panying docum ents, and so on).
The shipm ents were forw arded th ro u g h an official custom s
agent who handled th e work w ith great care and a t very m ode
rate cost, th roughout the war. Goods were re-shipped as and
when space was available, on vessels sailing under th e ICRC
flag, and in the same ratio as th e stocks held by th e respective
organizations using the shipping space.
H andling costs at
Lisbon and carriage to the p ort of destination were charged
direct to the donors.
(2) A t Genoa th e ICRC had no perm anent delegate ; when
large deliveries were expected, a representative was sent for a few
weeks only. Otherwise th e Com m ittee m ade use of the services
of shipping agents who supervised the loading of goods into
railw ay wagons for Sw itzerland, via Chiasso or Domodossola.
(3) At Marseilles, the chief p o rt of arrival, a perm anent
ICRC delegation was set up during th e w inter of 1940-1941.
Assisted b y forw arding agents, it looked after the discharge
of cargoes and the loading, on th e same vessels, of relief supplies
intended for Germ an and Ita lia n P W in countries overseas.
The delegation staff superintended th e warehousing of goods
which were held up owing to th e shortage of wagons. L astly,
th ey took th e necessary steps, in agreem ent w ith Geneva, to
obtain rolling stock, and supervised the loading of th e wagons.
40

Once the shipm ents from overseas had been warehoused

in Sw itzerland, th e ICRC took final delivery of th e goods.
Relief supplies from France itself, usually sent b y the
Direction genrale des prisonniers de guerre a t Lyons, were
received in direct tra n sit by th e ICRC, in th e form of shipm ents
already grouped for despatch to specified camps.
In such
cases it sufficed to m ake a quick tally of th e wagons, to check
their contents, as far as possible w ithout unloading, and to
m ake out fresh way-bills. The goods then left for G erm any
in th e same condition as th a t in which th ey had arrived in
Sw itzerland.
F inally, relief supplies which th e G erm an and Ita lia n Red
Cross Societies sent overseas, and 70 to 80 per cent of which
went by th e ordinary postal service, were addressed to the
ICRC delegations in th e countries where the prisoners were
held, for instance to M ontreal for Canada, and to Simla and
New Delhi for India. N early all were addressed to th e cam p
leaders as the u ltim ate consignees.
The delegate generally placed the e n try form alities for th e
goods in the hands of a forw arding agent, a fter which he passed
the goods through the custom s, obtained free carriage to the
cam ps, and in certain cases, when a transfer of prisoners had
taken place m eanw hile, altered their addresses.
(c)
Warehousing in Switzerland. A fter th e Franco-G erm an
arm istice, which abolished any W estern F ro n t in E urope
between 1940 and 1944, relief supplies intended for French
PW were alm ost all kept in stock in th e unoccupied zone of
France, u n til N ovem ber 1942. A t th e same tim e, it becam e
im perative to build up stocks in Sw itzerland, on behalf first
of the B ritish R ed Cross, th en of the Allied Red Cross Societies
which had been re-form ed in London, and finally, of th e Ame
rican Red Cross, when th e U nited S tates cam e in to th e war.
This was, in fact, th e only m eans of ensuring an u n in terru p ted
flow of supplies for th e prisoners, in view of th e fact th a t ship
m ents arrived a t irregular intervals.
A t first, the ICRC rented prem ises for th is purpose, b u t
it was late r obliged to have warehouses built, which were
41

m anaged by its own staff 1. The conditions of warehousing

in Sw itzerland were known to th e donors and th e D etaining
Powers ; th e goods were not insured unless the senders had
tak en out a policy before despatch.
Most of th e N ational Red Cross Societies had representatives
in Sw itzerland; these m ade regular visits to th e warehouses
and settled all technical m atte rs w ith th e ICRC. The goods
rem ained on an average for th ree m onths in Sw itzerland ; ix
som etim es occurred, however, th a t th e y were held up for a
far longer period, in which case th e C om m ittee had to tak e
all necessary precautions to prevent th e deterioration of food
stuffs and perishable m edicam ents, and to provide against
destruction by insects and rodents.
(d)
W arehousing in belligerent countries. The delegations
of th e ICRC, too, had to have stocks, which were more or less
considerable.
The delegations overseas, who looked after
G erm an an d Ita lia n PW and civilian internees, usually kept
only sufficient stocks to m eet emergencies, as th e Germ an and
Ita lia n Red Cross Societies generally supplied them w ith funds
ra th e r th a n goods. This allowed purchases to be m ade locally
in order to m eet the dem ands of PW or their cam p leaders,
as and when th e y were m ade.
C onditions were not th e sam e in E urope, however. Here
the setting up of large depots proved a m a tte r of necessity in
occupied territories, especially in France, Jugoslavia, R um ania
and Greece.
The ICRC delegation in Berlin did not build up stocks
during the first p a rt of th e W ar, except sm all q u antities of
m edicam ents b rought by th e m edical officers visiting the
cam ps, and a few parcels which had to be issued in Berlin
itself. The delegates were, however, in alm ost daily contact
w ith th e ICRC in Geneva, to whom th ey com m unicated all
th e inform ation th e y were in stru cted to gath er concerning (i)
cam p strengths, (2) the transfers of PW , (3) th e despatch of

1 The question of warehousing is explained in detail on pp. 227-250.

42

supplies to the cam ps, and (4) the stocks and requirem ents of
each cam p. The im portance and usefulness of this liason work
increased in proportion to th e scale of relief work in G erm any,
a n d as and when th e G erm an au th o rities allowed the delegation
to expand th e num ber of its staff, especially th a t of th e visiting
delegates. Tow ards th e end of th e W ar, other warehouses were
set up in G erm any, for instance a t Lbeck, R avensburg and
Landeck 1.
In principle, the delegation in Royne should have been able
to work according to the sam e m ethods, b u t th e conditions
in Ita ly did not allow them to be strictly applied. The Italian
adm inistration was far less system atically organized th a n in
G erm any ; a fu rth er difficulty was th e w idespread dispersal
o f PW , and especially of civilian internees, such as the isolati
a n d the confinati.

4. A rrival o f relief supplies in cam p : unloading,

storing and distribution

The num erical stren g th of a m ain cam p included not only

its actu al occupants, b u t also the m en in th e annexes, the
labour detachm ents, and th e hospitals a n d sick-wards a tta ch e d
to th e m ain cam p. The allocation of supplies by Geneva was,
as a rule, based on th e to ta l strength.
There were, however, m any exceptions to this rule. In the
first place, certain hospitals in Ita ly and G erm any did not
form p a rt of a cam p, adm inistratively speaking. This was the
case in p a rticu la r w ith special centres, such as Mfihlberg, for
seriously disabled men, and T angerhiitte, for tu b ercu lar cases,
where p atien ts were assem bled pending their rep atriatio n by
hospital tra in , or because their proper tre a tm e n t was more
easy to adm inister.
P articu lar difficulties arose in providing for PW enrolled
by th e Germ ans in Bau- und Arbeitsbataillone or BAB 3. These
1 See pp. 90-94.
2 Building and Labour Battalions.

43

were flying squads of skilled workm en, usually roofers and

glaziers, and m ostly composed of French prisoners. Some of
these BAB were co n stan tly being shifted, and were th u s attach ed
to several cam ps in succession, a fact which had to be taken
into account in allocating supplies.
O ther BAB were not
a ttach ed to a n y cam p, or could not be supplied from the m ain
cam p because of distance, or lack of tra n sp o rt : in such cases
supplies had either to be sent direct, or by way of the nearest
cam p, even if the BAB concerned did not form p a rt of its
adm inistration. As a rule, the ICRC was kept inform ed of
these details by the cam p leaders, b u t was som etim es a t a loss,
through lack of precise d a ta on the nearest railw ay station,
m eans of discharging and storing supplies, and so on.
As far as possible, supplies were sent to m ain cam ps and
their annexes by full wagon-loads 1. It was the d u ty of the
cam p leaders to receive and check the goods, to send receipts
for them to Geneva and to distribute them . This last was no
small task, since some cam ps had as m any as 1,400 labour
detachm ents. Moreover, the cam p leaders had frequent diffi
culties in the m atte r of tra n sp o rt ; when appealed to for help,
the ICRC m ade application to the cam p com m andants, either
in w riting or through their visiting delegates. The French
G overnm ent also sent lorries to G erm any for use by the p rin
cipal cam p leaders. The other Allied donors held th e view
th a t it fell to the D etaining Power alone to supply the
vehicles required, and prom pted the ICRC to intervene to
this end.
Some cam ps in Ita ly , for instance those in the Apennines,
lay in regions which had no regular tra n sp o rt service of any
kind. Here the cam p leaders were obliged to em ploy private
lorries, carts and even mules. T ransport by such chance m eans
was not only uncertain, but, co n tra ry to th e usual practice,
was n ot free.
As a rule, donors stipulated th a t the relief which th ey
supplied should be d istributed to PW of their own n ationality 2,
1 On this subject, see pp. 170 et seq.
2 For distribution by nationality, see pp. 251-257.

44

b u t their instructions were frequently overruled by the PW

them selves, in favour of m en from other countries w ith whom
th ey were detained. French PW , in p articu lar, form ed a large
m ajority in m ost cam ps in G erm any and had the advantage
of receiving regular, if not a b u n d a n t supplies, a t least until
th e spring of 1944, and these men usually shared w ith th eir
com rades who had no parcels, either because the D etaining
Power prevented their receiving any, or because there was
no donor to a tte n d to their needs.
This practice of sharing was m ade known from tim e to
tim e in letters and reports from cam p leaders to the ICRC.
So long as it was done on a small scale, the donors were not
over-concerned. For instance, a t the tim e when the cam ps
held only a few Am ericans am ongst great num bers of B ritish
PW , these m en were able to share in th e consignm ents from
the B ritish Red Cross w ithout an y objection being raised by
th a t Society.
The question only becam e acute when the proportion of
such indirect recipients becam e very large, as it did in the case
of R ussian PW , and tow ards th e end of the W ar, in the case
of interned Ita lia n m ilitary personnel, of whom there were
thousands in nearly all th e cam ps. Out of ch a rity for these
un fo rtu n ate m en, several cam p leaders decided, w ith the
consent of th eir com rades, to share p a rt of th eir own supplies
with them . This practice applied as a rule only to food and
cigarettes. Clothing was very rarely shared, either because it
was barely sufficient for the recipients them selves, or because
the donors instructions were especially strict concerning this
form of relief.
The sharing of m edical supplies was nearly alw ays allowed.
A lthough frequent com plaints were in fact m ade, the PW
medical officers who were responsible for hospital tre a tm e n t
were generally able to impose the principle of unconditional
medical aid, and to d istribute to all their patien ts the m edi
cam ents and restoratives a t th eir disposal.

45

5. Supervision of distribution

The ICRC, as early as 1939, m ade provision for obtaining

proof of arrival of relief consignm ents. It held th a t such con
firm ation was due to the donors and m oreover, th a t it encou
raged them to pursue th eir efforts. A t first, three receipt forms
were sent w ith each consignm ent, one of which was kept by
th e cam p com m andant, one by th e cam p leader, whilst the
th ird was retu rn ed to Geneva, bearing th e signature of the
cam p leader (compulsory) and th a t of th e cam p com m andant
(optional).
W hilst adjusting th e m achinery for relief during the w inter
of 1941-42, th e ICRC, after various trials, adopted th e system
of a receipt form in triplicate 1. One p a rt of this was kept by
th e cam p leader and th e others were sent back duly signed
to Geneva. The ICRC was th u s able to hand one receipt to
the donors w ith th e m onthly statem ents. The receipts showed
th e num ber of articles or parcels, their to ta l weight, and any
shortages noted b y th e cam p leader in th e goods on arrival.
R eceipts also bore a num ber and various references to enable
statistics to be m ade b y th e H ollerith m achines system . As
th e num bers of the receipts appeared on th e m onthly statem en ts
of shipm ents, th e donors had no difficulty in checking periodically
th e receipts received and those which were still outstanding.
G enerally, it took from fifteen to six ty days for receipts
to be retu rn ed to Geneva. If, a t the end of two m onths tim e,
th e ICRC had received neither th e receipt, nor a le tte r or report
from th e cam p leader in lieu thereof (should it have gone a stra y
w ith th e o th er docum ents accom panying th e consignm ent :
way-bill, custom s perm it etc.), a copy and a claim were sent
to th e cam p leader. If th is copy was not returned, consignm ents
of slight value were considered as lost. For more valuable
shipm ents, th e ICRC asked th e cam p com m andant for an
explanation, sent a copy of its le tte r to th e delegate and re
quested th e railw ay authorities to open an enquiry. These
steps usually m ade it possible to reconstruct events.
For
1 See facsim ile in the volum e of A nnexes.
46

instance, it was som etim es found th a t (i) a consignm ent had

been diverted in tra n sit from its original destination, owing
to a transfer of prisoners, and could not be identified by the
cam p leader as th e way-bills had been lost, or (2) th a t the
consignm ent h ad been destroyed by bom bing or o ther m ilitary
operations, or finally, (3) th a t it had been to ta lly or p a rtly
pilfered. I t should be recorded, however, th a t losses due to
th eft were few, an d only am ounted to one or tw o per cent of
th e goods forw arded 1.

1 On this question of great im portance to the donors, see pp. 177

et seq.

Chapter 3

Campaigns in the Balkans

Relief schemes in the Balkans were set on foot im m ediately

after the cam paigns of the sum m er of 1941. They were, for
several reasons, exceptionally difficult.
In the first place, the m ain railw ay lines, and especially
th e m ost im p o rtan t, th a t of th e Orient Express, had been cut
in th e B alkan countries owing to m ilitary operations. There
were th u s wide tra c ts of te rrito ry to which relief supplies could
not be sent, since the only route possible from Sw itzerland
was by the Arlberg, or Trieste.
E q ually serious obstacles were offered by th e confused
situation created b y the Germ an occupation, or by the in stal
lation of satellite governm ents.
Com m unications were fre
q uently cut b y th e resistance m ovem ents.
T hanks to the
goodwill generally shown in these countries to th e Red Cross,
shipm ents which did not reach their destination were alm ost
alw ays sent back to th e ICRC representative in one of the
interm ediate countries. For exam ple, th e delegation in Ju g o
slavia had to accept and distribute relief supplies which norm
ally should have gone to PW in Greece ; th e delegation in
R um ania did the sam e w ith goods bound for, or coming from
th e N ear E ast, and which could not be sent in tra n sit through
T urkey, as had been planned.
The conditions of internm ent for PW and civilians in the
B alkans were in m any respects unlike those elsewhere. Thus,
although th e German authorities in Belgrade had sta te d th a t
48

there would only be tra n sit cam ps in Greece, A lbania and

Jugoslavia, thousands of Allied PW were detained in these
countries over a very long period. The sta tu s of th e various
categories of detainees could not have been less clearly defined
or more subject to variation. They com prised Allied service men
and civilians, partisans, people arrested for political reasons by
the Germans, th e Italian s or by G overnm ents acting under
the orders of th e occupying Power, and so on.
In order to a d a p t itself to these circum stances, the ICRC
had to organize its work in th e B alkans on far more flexible
lines th a n in C entral and W estern Europe.
Before speaking of the B alkan countries proper, reference
should be m ade to H ungary. W hen, in 1941, th a t country
entered th e war against Jugoslavia, and in consequence against
Great B ritain also, th e B ritish E m bassy in B udapest had to
abandon th e relief schemes it had been carrying out during
the preceding w inter. On the other hand, th e Em bassy m ain
tained by th e Vichy G overnm ent u n til 1944 gave aid to French
PW who had escaped from G erm any and who arrived in H ungary
by w ay of A ustria or Czechoslovakia. I t also looked after
French citizens who were isolated or in small groups in the
various B alkan countries.
The H ungarian R ed Cross gave
help direct to H ungarians who had rem ained in Jugoslavia
after th e declaration of war, whilst Jugoslavs in H ungary
received fam ily parcels from their own country. Since there
was sufficient food available in both these producing countries,
it was unnecessary for th e ICRC to tak e an y action in behalf
of this group of internees. U ntil 1944, th a t is, before H ungary
p u t herself entirely under German dom ination, th e ICRC was
not called upon to look after Allied nationals in th a t country.
Thenceforth, th e Com m ittee did its best to give those in H ungary
the same help as it gave to those in other occupied territories.
In R um ania and Bulgaria there was little relief work to be
done in behalf of Allied PW . A t the end of th e war there were
only 803 A m erican, 28 British and five Jugoslav PW in R um ania,
and a small group of Am erican airm en in Bulgaria. The ICRC
delegations in B ucharest and Sofia, whose m ain task was to
provide relief for th e civil population and for political deportees
h i. 4

49

and detainees, were also able to assist these PW , in co-operation

w ith th e N ational Red Cross Societies, by m eans of stocks
which were periodically replenished from Geneva.
From 1941 onwards, there were large num bers of Soviet
PW in R um ania b u t th ey are not dealt w ith here ; th e question
of relief to PW of th is n atio n ality will be reviewed as whole
below 1.
M atters were very different in Greece, A lbania and Ju g o
slavia.
W hen Greece was entirely occupied, th e G erm an forces
captured a large num ber of B ritish troops whom they intended
to evacuate w ithout delay. The ICRC im m ediately provided
their delegations in A thens, Salonika and Belgrade w ith stores
to enable th em to supply provisions for th e journey, clothing
and toilet articles for th e thousands of m en who were due for
transfer to G erm any, either by trainloads or in single wagons.
A num ber of them , who were more or less seriously wounded,
rem ained behind in Greek, or even in Jugoslav hospitals.
Moreover, a great m any of the B ritish troops who had joined
the Greek p artisans were tak en prisoner, either singly or in
small groups, for m onths and even years to come. These men
were also rem oved to the north, in so far as their condition
allowed or m eans of tra n sp o rt were available. Greek PW were
transferred either to Ita ly or Germ any, according to which
ever Pow er had captured them .
G erm any en tru sted Ita ly w ith th e adm inistration of the
greater p a rt of Greece and only resum ed it herself after the
arm istice of 1943. U ntil th a t date, it was therefore a t th e
instance of th e Ita lia n authorities, or of th e Greek authorities
under Ita lia n orders, th a t Greek p artisans and civilians con
sidered as politically suspect were arrested and confined, either
in concentration cam ps or in prisons.
This subject will be more fully dealt w ith in th e chapter
on political detainees and deportees 2. I t is, however, touched

1 See pp. 53-60 and Vol. I, pp. 404-436.

2 See pp. 73 et seq.

50

on here, in reference to relief to PW , because the distinction

betw een th e various ty p es of detainees, such as Allied PW ,
partisan s an d civilians, was less clearly defined in Greece th an ,
for exam ple, in G erm any. Consequently, it was possible on
the one h an d to supply Greek concentration cam ps with food
stuffs m ore rap id ly th a n elsewhere, and on the other, some
of th e Greeks confined in prisons benefited by relief to which
th ey norm ally would not have been entitled, because th ey were
together w ith Allied, in particu lar B ritish PW .
W hile assistance to th e Greek population form ed by far
th eir m ost im p o rta n t work, th e ICRC delegations in A thens
and Salonika also looked a fter B ritish PW and small groups
of French, Jugoslav, Polish and other civilian internees. The
work of these delegations was chiefly ham pered by shortage
of tra n sp o rt.
W hen th e G erm an A uthorities took th e place of th e Italians
in 1943, th ey assem bled in Southern Greece labour detachm ents
of Jugoslav prisoners (probably sent from Germany) who,
like th eir fellow -countrym en working in the extrem e N orth of
N orway, had preserved th eir sta tu s of PW . The ICRC encoun
tered great difficulties in bringing up food supplies for these
groups, who were hundreds of miles d istan t from their base
camps.
In Jugoslavia, as in Greece, the partisans took up arm s
against th e Axis troops and th e forces which supported them .
The ICRC delegation in Belgrade, like those in A thens and
Salonika, were provided w ith 50 or 60 tons of relief stocks, and
could th u s deal w ith th e situation during th e frequent break
down of railw ay tra n sp o rt. The delegation had to look after
Greek and B ritish P W transferred from Greece to G erm any
through Jugoslavia, and in particu lar to care for th e sick and
wounded sent to hospital in th a t country. Among these there
were small groups of Am erican airm en, tow ards the end of
th e war.
The delegations in Belgrade and Zagreb also provided
relief for Jugoslav nationals. A fter the cam paigns of 1941,
the G erm an authorities m ade known th a t th ey would keep
only th e Serbs in cap tiv ity , whilst Croats, Slovenes, Istrians
51

and others w ould be released. However, the ICRC soon es

tablished th e fact th a t all cam ps contained an indiscrim inate
m ixture of Serb (or alleged Serb), Croat, Slovene, M ontenegrin,
D alm atian and other PW . These differences were not tak en
into account when appealing for relief supplies. F o rtu n a te ly ,
th e gifts received from London, W ashington, Buenos Aires
and Cairo were intended for Jugoslav PW in general. A large
num ber of these m en were "co n v erted into civilian workers
and kept back in G erm any, where th e y shared th e same con
ditions as French, Polish and other foreign workers. The ICRC
was th u s unable to do anything for them w ith regard to relief
supplies.
Some Jugoslav civilians arrested a fter the occupation
were tak e n to the big concentration cam ps and tre a te d like
the other political detainees. O thers, however, were able to
receive individual relief parcels, in so far as th ey were in loca
lities to which th e delegations had access. Occasionally, the
delegations were able to c arry out th e distribution of supplies
on th e spot. They also m ade every endeavour to prom ote the
despatch of fam ily parcels to H ungary, Ita ly and Germ any.
L astly, th e delegation in Belgrade was extrem ely active in
behalf of Jugoslav PW rep a tria te d from G erm any in such a
bad condition th a t th e y had to be tak e n to hospitals in Belgrade
an d th e neighbourhood. As these un fo rtu n ate men were still
in u n its and w earing uniform , it was possible to give them the
clothing and m edicam ents th e y so urgently needed.

52

Chapter 4

Mass Capture of Prisoners of War on

the Eastern Front in Europe
The ICRC is able to alleviate th e sufferings caused by war
only insofar as the adversaries, in despite of events, retain
some sense of comm on hum anity. The Com m ittee depends
on th e G overnm ents for the success of its efforts, for w ithout
their goodwill it cannot despatch relief shipm ents wherever
th ey are needed, nor can it, th rough the interm ediary of its
delegates authorized to visit th e cam ps, check th eir arrival
and distribution.
D uring the first phase of th e war, relief work for PW was
recognized, approved and assisted by all belligerents ; thus
this work rapidly developed far beyond the scope required by
tre a ty stipulations, and even b y the trad itio n al principles of
hum anity. U nfortunately, th a t was not th e case in E astern
Europe, a fter th e USSR had been a ttack ed by G erm any on
Ju n e 22, 1941. D espite all its efforts, th e ICRC was unable
to help any of th e G erm an, Finnish, H ungarian, Italian , Slovak
and R um anian PW in Russia, or an y of th e Soviet PW detained
by G erm any an d her Allies, w ith th e sole exception of those
who had fallen into Finnish hands. A few m inor and isolated
distributions of relief supplies did tak e place, b u t on th e whole,
the hundreds of thousands of m en captured on the E astern
F ro n t received no collective relief shipm ents of any kind. Such
aid would only have been possible on a reciprocal basis and
this was precluded by the m utual m istrust of th e adversaries 1.
1 For the problem as a whole and for relations between the ICRC
and Soviet Russia, see Vol. I, pp. 404-436.
53

(a) Russian Prisoners of W ar in Germany.

On account of the swift advance of th e Germ an troops there
were a t first very m any more R ussian PW th an German. In
O ctober th e y num bered already over 250,000, according to
inform ation furnished by th e Germ an m ilitary authorities, and
as this num ber steadily increased, th e problem of feeding
such masses of men becam e acute. R eports received on the
com plete destitu tio n of th e R ussian PW justified the fear th a t
the coming w inter would prove fatal to m any of them .
On A ugust 30 th e G erm an High Com m and inform ed the
ICRC th a t not only would it allow, b u t in point of fact th a t
it aw aited th e despatch of collective relief for R ussian PW in
Germ an cam ps, and th a t such supplies would be en tru sted to
th e cam p com m andants for distribution. The ICRC im m ediately
m ade every endeavour to follow up this proposal. Encouraged
b y th e favourable reception given by th e Alliance of Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies in Moscow to its offer of relief for
th e wounded and sick in Russia 1, th e ICRC sent word to the
Soviet authorities by telegram on O ctober 1, th a t it was ready
to forw ard to Soviet PW in G erm any supplies of underw ear,
footw ear and tobacco, to supplem ent th e rations provided by
th e D etaining Power.
At th e sam e tim e, th e Com m ittee sought to procure goods
outside E urope, and in p articu lar in Africa. The B ritish blockade
authorities, to whom application had to be m ade in this m atte r,
replied th a t the Com m ittee was free to tra n sp o rt relief for th e
above purpose on th e vessels it had itself chartered, provided
it accepted responsibility for th e proper distribution of the
supplies.
W hen com m unicating the successful result of its
negotiations to th e Peoples Com m issariat for Foreign Affairs,
th e ICRC added, in th eir telegram of F eb ru ary 16, 1942, th a t it
had th e necessary m eans of tra n sp o rt, and th a t funds to cover
th e costs could be tra n sm itte d to it by the B ank for In te r
national S ettlem ents in Basle.

1 See p. 61.

54

The Soviet G overnm ent did not, however, display any

eagerness to have relief sent to its nationals in enem y hands ;
at a tim e when its arm ies had, above all, to defend Moscow and
Leningrad, it probably found it lacked th e resources needed for
such a purpose. The ICRC then approached the Allied countries
and was able, by the end of F ebruary, to telegraph to Moscow
th a t th e C anadian R ed Cross h ad offered 500,000 capsules of
vitam ins. The C om m ittee m ade it clear, however, th a t the
B ritish au thorities h ad strictly stipulated th a t the issue of these
supplies should be supervised by delegates of the ICRC. I t was
fu rth er added th a t th e G erm an authorities would not allow this
supervision to tak e place, unless th e Soviet Governm ent granted
them reciprocity b y accepting a delegate of th e ICRC in Russia.
No reply to th is telegram was received ; it was therefore
impossible to go to th e help of th e Soviet PW , except in Finland
where, as will be explained below, delegates of the ICRC had
access to th e cam ps. The obstacles created by th e uncom prom is
ing a ttitu d e of b o th sides were all th e more regrettable, since the
m aterial m eans were not w anting. In April 1942, the ICRC could
have secured for Soviet PW in G erm any 5,000 stan d ard food
parcels provided b y th e Am erican Red Cross, whilst an enquiry
had been received from G reat B ritain asking if the Com m ittee
was in a position to forw ard weekly parcels from th e " Allied
Packing Centre
H ad th e first distribution m et w ith success,
fu rth er gifts would doubtless have flowed in.
In M ay 1942, th e ICRC again approached the Germ an
m ilitary authorities, who seemed a t first willing to accept
collective relief, provided it was distrib u ted by cam p com m an
dants, w ithout a n y in tervention w hatsoever b y the C om m ittees
delegates. As this proviso could not be accepted by the blockade
authorities a n d th e donors, th e gifts of the Am erican Red Cross
were sent on to F inland, as recorded late r in this R eport. The
ICRC had expected, in point of fact, th a t the official reply,
ra th e r slow in coming, would be negative. U nfortunately, its
fears were justified. On Septem ber 2, 1942, Germ any, anxious
concerning her m en in R ussian hands, about whom there was no
inform ation, sta te d th a t she declined to m ake furth er con
cessions in behalf of an enem y who gave such clear proof of
55

his ill-will and th a t, consequently, all consignm ents of relief for

Soviet PW would w ithout exception be refused
Circum stances were therefore to blam e for th e failure of the
C om m ittees efforts. M atters rem ained as th ey were until the
last weeks of the war in E urope, when th e Com m ittee introduced
on its own responsibility a new m ethod of distribution called
the pooling system , At this tim e, the general chaos in
G erm any m ade it impossible to allocate food supplies to PW
according to n atio n ality or unit, in obedience to th e donors'
instructions. The urgent need of the m om ent was to save hum an
lives by issuing relief on all hands, in general assem bly cam ps,
on th e roads thronged w ith th e thousands of men who were being
w ithdraw n tow ards th e W est. Russian PW then benefited in good
m easure by th e help th a t th e ICRC brought up by rail and by
road for all PW in G erm any, w ithout distinction.1 F u rth er, in
May 1945, vaccine against exanthem atic ty phus was supplied to
the M arkt-Pongau Camp, where an epidemic had broken out
am ong Soviet PW who had been released, b u t not yet rep atriated.
At an earlier d ate, R ussian PW in Germ an hands had
received, in two exceptional instances, small shipm ents which
should be m entioned. The first consisted of m edicinal herbs,
an allocation from a collection of several hundred kilos m ade in
Sw itzerland by the Swiss W om ens A uxiliary Service and set
aside for Soviet PW in proportion to th eir num bers. I t went
through in April 1944, th e Germ an m ilitary authorities having
agreed th a t they would accept it, despite their standing rule, if
the cam p com m andants were notified in advance and agreed to
undertake the distribution.
D uring the sum m er of 1944, the Swiss Relief Com m ittee for
Russian Refugees handed the ICRC th e following foodstuffs for
Soviet PW :
200 boxes of ovaltine (90 kilos)
1,400 soup cubes
(40 kilos)
109 bottles of tonic
(7.5 kilos)
Once again, the German A rm y High Com m and approved
this consignm ent, on condition th a t it should not be repeated,
1 See p. 87.

56

and agreed to th e proposal of the ICRC to allocate it to PW in

the Freising M ilitary H ospital, atta ch e d to Stalag V II A. This
parcel actu ally reached th e addressees, as proved by a receipt
signed by th eir spokesm an. T hrough their delegates reports,
th e ICRC also learn t th a t in m ilitary hospitals Soviet PW
m ingled w ith P W of all nationalities, and th u s frequently shared
in th eir m edical relief parcels.
This account would be incom plete w ithout reference to
the help given to R ussian PW who had escaped from G erm any
and sought refuge in neu tral countries, p articularly in Switzer
land, where the first R ussians arrived in March 1943. As they
were unable to re tu rn hom e, or join the Allied forces before
th e close of 1944, the Swiss authorities lodged them in camps.
An ICRC delegate visited these cam ps regularly and was th u s
able to issue, up to D ecem ber 31, 1944, some 6,000 kilos of
clothing, underw ear and boots, as well as 1,400 kilos of soap and
toilet articles to Soviet escaped PW and refugees. These relief
supplies were given by the A m erican and B ritish Red Cross
Societies, and by various Swiss welfare organizations.
W hen G erm any collapsed, released Soviet PW again poured
into Sw itzerland. In May 1945, there were 7,000 accom m odated
in 89 cam ps. T hanks to th e A m erican Red Cross, the ICRC had
a large supply of garm ents, invalid foods, and cigarettes for
these m en.1
(b)

R ussian P W in R um ania and Finland.

The only countries other th a n G erm any which held Soviet

PW were R um ania and Finland. Men tak en by the H ungarian,
Slovak an d Ita lia n forces were handed over to the German
m ilitary au th o rities and tak en to Germany.
In N ovem ber 1941, there were some 60,000 Soviet PW in
R um ania and on th e left bank of the D niester, and roughly
47,000 in F inland, in M arch 1942. The R um anian and Finnish
Red Cross Societies who tra n sm itte d this inform ation to the
ICRC, asked for its help ; th e blockade m ade it extrem ely
difficult for these Societies to find sufficient relief locally for
1 F o r fu rth e r d e ta ils see pp. 355 e t seq.

57

men suffering from great exhaustion and in extrem e need of

clothing.
In R um ania, as in G erm any, and for the same reasons, the
ICRC un fo rtu n ately was not in a position to tak e action. The
C om m ittees delegate was how ever authorized, in Ju n e 1943,
to visit th e Mais Camp, where Soviet officers were interned.
A small q u a n tity of pharm aceutical products was sent there a t
th e request of th e cam p doctor.
M eanwhile, however, the
cam p had been disbanded, and the parcel was therefore handed
to Calafat Camp, which held 2,680 R ussian PW .
In F inland, on th e co n trary , relief work was possible on
a fairly large scale. This was th e only country a t w ar with
Russia which, even in th e absence of reciprocity, allowed the
C om m ittees delegates to visit th e cam ps and to supervise the
issue of parcels. Since the blockade au th o rities requirem ents
had been m et on this point, supplies from overseas and elsewhere
could reach Finland.
According to the Finnish Red Cross, m em bers of the Russian
forces taken prisoner during th e w inter of 1941-1942 were
already suffering, a t th e tim e of capture, from undernourish
m ent and vitam in deficiency, and m any died of exhaustion or
disease. Finland herself, a t war a second tim e since 1939,
was a t th a t tim e in great difficulties over her own food supply.
M arshal M annerheim , the President of th e Finnish Red Cross,
inform ed th e ICRC on M arch 1, 1942, th a t food and medical
stores were urgently required. He added th a t the Soviet PW in
F inland had been gran ted the benefits of th e 1929 Convention,
though neither F inland, nor indeed th e Soviet Union, were
signatories, a n d th a t a delegate of th e ICRC would be gladly
accepted by the Finnish authorities an d granted all facilities
for carrying out his duties.
The ICRC a t once p u t th e m a tte r to the Red Cross Societies
of the Allies an d was fo rtu n ate enough to find donors. In the
first place, the Am erican Red Cross handed over relief supplies
which had originally been intended for R ussian P W in Germ any,
b u t which these h ad not been able to receive, as related above,
because the requisite supervision by th e ICRC delegates was
not accepted by th e D etaining Power. These supplies consisted

58

of 5,000 sta n d a rd food parcels each weighing 5 kilos and con

taining tinned m eat and fish, b u tte r, biscuits and chocolate,
having a to ta l n u tritiv e value of 12,200 calories, as well as
cigarettes a n d tobacco.
The parcels left Sw itzerland in sealed wagons in May 1942,
and w ent by w ay of Frankfort-on-M ain, Berlin and Stockholm ,
reaching H elsinki in Ju n e , where th e Finnish R ed Cross took
delivery. In co-operation w ith the Society, a delegate of the
ICRC on a tem p o rary mission to F inland issued these parcels
in Ju ly to 10,000 prisoners, selected from am ongst the most
needy, the seriously w ounded and th e sick, in thirteen camps.
The recipients, m ost of whom were of peasant origin .welcomed
these products of A m erica w ith joy and gratitude. In the
words of th eir cam p leader, th is event was a red le tte r day
for them , and th e gifts " an unexpected message from God ".
Once th e parcels were d istributed, th e delegate sent to Geneva
the com pleted receipts and the letters of th an k s to which, as
is well known, donors a tta c h great im portance.
Again, th an k s to th e A m erican Red Cross, a second shipm ent
of 3,653 sta n d a rd food parcels was sent in December. The
ICRC added fifty parcels containing the 500,000 capsules of
vitam ins (vitam ins A, B, B i, C and nicotinic acids) provided
b y the Canadian Red Cross, and which it was impossible to
send to R ussian PW in Germ any. The ICRC took this oppor
tu n ity of forw arding eighty parcels containing copies of th e
New T estam ent to F inland, a gift from th e W orld Council of
Churches (Commission for Spiritual Aid to PW ) in Geneva.
The delegate h ad inform ed Geneva th a t, on the occasion of
the first d istribution of gifts, the Soviet prisoners had asked
for O rthodox p ray er books and Bibles in Russian for religious
services in cam ps. All th is relief was distributed under the
supervision of an ICRC delegate, who stayed in Finland from
D ecem ber 23, 1942 to J a n u a ry 27, 1943.
In J u ly 1943, the Soviet P W received, for the th ird tim e,
2,770 sta n d a rd food parcels from th e A m erican Red Cross,
a n d a gift from th e Swiss Red Cross comprising 306 boxes of
pease-m eal and eleven cases of m edicam ents weighing res
pectively th ir ty tons an d 580 kilos. In agreem ent w ith the
59

Finnish Red Cross, the delegate distributed the supplies m ainly

to hospital patients, convalescent tubercular cases and the
seriously wounded. The pease-meal was stocked in cam ps and
m ilitary hospitals for use in w inter in the form of soup, to supple
m ent th e usual rations. M edicaments (Becozym, Cibazol, Irgam id,
Redoxon, etc.) were shared am ongst four m ilitary hospitals.
In Septem ber a fourth consignm ent was sent, consisting
of 10,703 sta n d a rd food parcels from th e Am erican Red Cross,
and ten tons of milk powder from th e Swiss Red Cross. The
C om m ittees delegate handed th e m ajor p a rt of this milk to
hospitals, where it was given, on the senior medical officers
directions, to P W who needed ex tra food, in particu lar to
sufferers from tuberculosis and pleurisy.
A fifth distribution took place in April 1944. This was
carried out by delegates of th e ICRC and of th e Finnish Red
Cross, and consisted of the following goods, sent from Sweden
to th e Finnish p ort of Abo : 4,852 stan d ard food parcels, the
gift of the Am erican Red Cross (to which the T olstoy Foundation
in New Y ork had largely contributed) ; 2,000 kilos of m eat,
vegetables, sugar, and soap, which the Argentine Red Cross
had sent on behalf of th e head of th e R ussian O rthodox Church
in Buenos A ires; and 317 tons of pickled cabbage (Sauerkraut)
from the Swedish Red Cross. Like the previous relief supplies,
these too touched the Russian PW deeply, as th ey brought
m oral consolation as well as m aterial aid. This gift has con
vinced us , w rote one of these men, " th a t we had not been
wholly forgotten, th a t we were not altogether friendless and
forsaken .
In October 1944, th e Soviet PW received 2,332 standard
food parcels from the Am erican Red Cross. This was the sixth
and last consignm ent.
The ICRC delegates who spent in te rm itte n t periods in
Finland from 1942 to 1944 were th u s able to distrib u te q u an
tities of foodstuffs, as well as m edicam ents an d religious works.
This relief, which w eighed in all some 500 tons, was provided
b y th e A m erican, A rgentine, Canadian, Swedish and Swiss
Red Cross Societies, and by the " uvre Suisse d E n tr'a id e
Ouvrire (Swiss W orkers M utual W elfare Scheme).
60

(c) German, F innish, H ungarian, Italian, Slovak and R um anian

P W in Russia.
The Soviets cap tu red a very large num ber of enem y com
b a ta n ts , p a rticu larly tow ards the end of th e w ar, when the
Russian arm ies had encircled whole divisions a t Stalingrad,
an d th e G erm ans were retreatin g from Leningrad, Moscow,
the Caucasus an d th e U kraine.
The great m ajo rity of these PW were Germ an, but th ey
also included m em bers of th e R um anian, H ungarian, Slovak
a n d Italian forces fighting on the E astern F ront. There were,
too, nationals of countries annexed by Germ any, in particular
A lsatians and L uxem burgers, conscripted for th e German
a rm y ; fu rth er there were Spaniards and Frenchm en who had
volunteered for the expeditionary forces, and Finns captured
in th e no rth ern sector of th e E astern F ront.
In th e au tu m n of 1941 the ICRC m ade a first a tte m p t to
organize collective relief for these men, after having m ade
a successful intervention in behalf of wounded and sick in
Russia. In reply to the C om m ittees offer of August 12, the
Alliance of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies had stated,
bn Septem ber 20, its willingness to accept m edicam ents, surgical
instrum ents, dressings and other hospital stores, and th a t
donors should send these consignm ents by arrangem ent with
the com m ercial representatives of th e USSR in their own
countries. The ICRC inform ed th e Alliance by telegram on
October 1, th a t it had com m unicated its request to th e Red
Cross Societies concerned 1, and took th e o p p ortunity of expres
sing th e hope th a t, in conform ity w ith A rt. 15 of the F o u rth
Hague Convention 2, it would be able to tran sm it parcels
1 The ICRC learned later th a t several N ational Red Cross Societies
had indeed sent large q uan tities of relief to Russia. The Australian
Red Cross, in particular, sent tw o shipm ents, one of 1,166 com fort
cases, to the value of 19,131 and one of a case of woollen clothing and
of 30,000 sheep skins, to the value of 10,019. A t the beginning of 1942
the American Red Cross gave m edicam ents, surgical instrum ents and
clothing to the to ta l value of 3,500,000 dollars. R ussia received from
the B ritish Red Cross, in 15 different consignm ents, 1,410 tons of m edical
supplies, including one m obile X -ray apparatus.
2 See Vol. I, p. 423.
61

th rough the Alliance, both to R ussian P W in G erm any and

to Germ an PW in Russia. The Com m ittee also asked th e
Peoples Com m issariat for Foreign Affairs to approve two
delegates who, in co-operation w ith the Alliance, would have
settled all o u tstanding questions. In M arch 1942, th e ICRC
again approached the Com m issariat and sought permission
to send parcels to G erm an PW , since it had a small q u a n tity
of relief supplies for them , consisting of tw o cases of sweets
and tobacco which the G erm an Red Cross had handed over
to serve as a trial consignm ent.
U nfortunately, th e Soviet authorities m ade no response
to these proposals, and th e ICRC never succeeded, despite
repeated efforts, in accrediting a delegate to them , nor in
sending an y th in g w hatsoever to Russia. F u rth er, the com plete
absence of inform ation on G erm an and other servicemen
cap tu red by the Soviet arm y prevented these PW from receiving
even th e fam ily parcels provided for in the 1907 H ague Con
vention, to which Russia as well as the S tates a t w ar w ith her
were signatory. Sim ilarly, these S tates, w ith the exception
of F inland, did not reveal th e places of detention of Russian PW .
Besides these direct approaches, the ICRC m ade others,
through its delegates, to th e Soviet representatives in T urkey,
Ira n and Great B ritain. As the Germ an, Finnish, H ungarian,
Ita lia n and R um anian Red Cross Societies had asked the ICRC
on various occasions to forw ard relief supplies and had even,
in 1943 and 1944, handed over funds for th e purchase of food
stuffs and m edicam ents, the C om m ittees delegate, who had
been sent on a special mission to Iran , was instructed to consult
w ith th e representative of the Alliance on how these requests
m ight be carried out. The delegate in Teheran could have
procured flour and rice on the spot. All these plans, however,
cam e to nothing 1.

1 For the negotiations w ith R ussia see Vol. I, pp. 404-436.

62

Chapter 5

The War in North Africa

A fter th e conclusion of th e arm istice betw een the Vichy
G overnm ent an d th e Axis Powers, the Allied Consulates in
Morocco, Algeria and T unisia were still able, in spite of the
increasingly un certain political sta tu s of these three countries,
to give direct assistance to th eir nationals who were in assigned
places of residence, or were interned or lodged in cam ps and
prisons. The to ta l num ber of these persons in 1942 was estim ated
a t roughly io .ooo1.
Relief supplies were d istributed for the
m ost p a rt by th e Am erican Consulates in Casablanca, Algiers
and Tunis, to U.S. nationals, as well as to m any B ritish, Poles
and others. As these direct distributions by the Consulates
encountered ever greater difficulties, th e y were supplem ented,
from 1942 onw ards, by those of the ICRC, whose delegates
had perm ission to visit th e cam ps and several other places of
detention.
A few m onths before th e Allied landing in N orth Africa
the situation d eterio rated greatly, an d th e Allied consular staff
was itself interned. Perm ission to visit these officials, who
were now them selves civilian internees, was gran ted by an
Italo-G erm an A rm istice Commission. D uring this period, th e
ICRC delegates in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia distributed
in all 14,000 sta n d a rd food and m edical parcels and 46 tons of
miscellaneous relief supplies to all th e Allied nationals whose
places of in tern m en t could be reached. Most of these internees
were B ritish seam en of th e M erchant Service or sailors of the
R.N.
1 See R eport of the Joint Relief Commission, Geneva, 1948.

63

The Allied landing in Novem ber 1942 in no w ay hindered

the delegates, who rem ained on the spot and continued their
work. A fortnight after applying to th e Italo-G erm an Arm istice
Commission for perm ission to issue parcels to interned Allied
consular personnel, th e delegate in Morocco visited the m em bers
of th e said Commission, now interned in their tu rn and grateful
enough to receive a first gift of food and tobacco from the
ICRC, w ith th e consent of th e A m erican and B ritish a u th o
rities.
The operations a fter th e landing quickly gave rise to a
great influx of Germ an and Ita lia n PW to the three N orth
African countries. Those who fell into th e hands of th e Am eri
cans and B ritish were placed in tra n sit cam ps, pending their
rem oval to perm anent cam ps in the U nited S tates, Great
B ritain, Canada, South Africa, E g y p t and India. Those who
were c ap tu red by th e Free French forces rem ained in th e hands
of th e N ational Liberation Com m ittee a t Algiers.
The PW held in the B ritish and Am erican tra n sit cam ps
were, on th e whole, well supplied w ith food and essentials.
They were, however, in great need of w inter kit, since m any
of them were soon to be transferred to tem perate or cold cli
m ates. Most were clad in the shirts and shorts usually worn
by troops fighting in Africa. The ICRC approached th e B ritish
and Am erican au th o rities for w arm clothing for these men
and a t once sent off the uniform s supplied by th e Germ an Red
Cross, particu larly for prisoners due to be transferred to Canada.
The Ita lia n and German PW in French hands were less
fo rtu n ate, as th e French population in Morocco, Algeria and
T unisia was itself short of necessary supplies. To m ake good
this shortage, which was aggravated by th e bad harvest in
1943, the ICRC set out to obtain relief supplies of food, m edi
cam ents and clothing for about 38,000 Ita lia n and 40,000 German
PW in th e cam ps scattered over th e three countries. Con
signm ents from th e Germ an Red Cross unfo rtu n ately suffered
loss and great delay due to tra n sp o rt difficulties in th e M editer
ranean and on African te rrito ry 1. The Ita lia n PW were in a
1 See pp. 160-161.

64

still worse plight, as th ey could not expect an y supplies from

th eir own co u n try , which had become a fighting zone. In
addition, th e to ta l lack of paper prevented them from w riting
to th eir fam ilies for several m onths, u n til th e ICRC succeeded
in supplying th e French au th o rities w ith several tons of paper
purchased for th is purpose in Sweden and elsewhere.
The Allied landing in N o rth Africa also affected food sup
plies for F rench P W in G erm any, as concerted m easures in
F rance and F rench overseas territo ry for the purchase and
tra n sp o rt of supplies were now impossible.
The ICRC lent effective support to these various relief
undertakings, although it was prevented b y circum stances from
giving th em th e im petus required. I t was only w ith great
difficulty th a t it secured a few gifts for these PW , who received
little or nothing from th eir home countries. As norm al com
m unications betw een E urope and Africa had broken down,
it sought to organize tra n sp o rt for this purpose only. However,
despite prolonged negotiations w ith the G overnm ents of Vichy
and Algiers it did n ot succeed in getting a single ship allocated
to i t 1. The G erm an authorities, for their p a rt, only used their
own tra n sp o rt facilities when th e y were no longer able to send
relief supplies b y post. The ICRC were, however, able to
arrange five trip s to ports in N orth Africa in 1944, for vessels
ch artered by th e B ritish Red Cross, and one voyage to Casa
blanca b y one of the F oundation ships. Relief supplies
from or to N orth Africa were also carried b y its vessels between
Marseilles an d Lisbon, or G ibraltar.
A fter th e Allied landing in the South of France in 1944,
th e Allied au thorities took over the tra n sp o rt of relief supplies
from Africa. On the other hand, supplies from G erm any intended
for PW in Africa were dependent upon th e C om m ittees fleet.
As direct contact w ith Africa had by th en ceased, th e last
shipm ents from th e Germ an Red Cross, which was shortly to
come to a standstill, were loaded a t G othenburg and sent on
to Philadelphia ; from there, th e y were shipped to Africa by
th e Am erican A rm y services, in the spring of 1945.
1 See pp. 160-161.
h i. 5

65

From N ovem ber 1943 to May 1945, th e C om m ittees ships

carried from E urope to N orth Africa 4,300 tons of relief supplies
for G erm an PW in particu lar, a n d in th e opposite direction
3,200 tons for PW tak e n in N orth Africa and held in th e Frontstalags in occupied France. The a tta c k on th e Em bla caused
th e loss of 221 tons of supplies for G erm an P W .1
These operations called for unceasing negotiations w ith
th e belligerent G overnm ents and N ational Red Cross Societies.
In addition, ICRC delegates in various countries, for instance
in L atin Am erica, w orked to collect donations and set up relief
organizations, especially in behalf of Ita lia n PW . The dele
gations in N o rth Africa, to whom shipm ents were addressed,
were responsible for th e reception, forw arding a n d distribution
of th e goods.

1 See p p . 136-137 an d 159.

66

Chapter 6

Movements of Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees

following the Italian Armistice of September 1943
A profound change occurred as a result of th e Ita lia n arm is
tice in th e relief work done b y th e ICRC. I t was brought about
in th e m ain by th e following events :
(a) Stoppage of norm al rail traffic to Ita ly a n d w ithin
Ita ly , and dislocation of tra n sp o rt to G erm any1.
(b) Escape of m any Allied PW an d Ita lia n anti-fascist
m ilitary personnel and civilians to Sw itzerland2.
(c) Transfer of Allied PW to Germ any.
(d) T ransfer
to G erm any of Ita lia n m ilitary internees
and of deportees of all categories, calling for th e im m ediate
organization of new relief schemes.
(e) R esum ption of relief distributions to Allied nationals
in Ita ly , a fter th e division of th e co u n try into a S tate fighting
w ith th e Allies and a N eo-Fascist Republic.
The present ch ap ter deals w ith points (c), (d) and (e).
I.

Transfer of Allied P W to Germany.

The despatch
of relief consignm ents to Allied PW and
civilian internees
in Ita ly becam e very difficult in th e early
sum m er of 1943, owing to th e destruction of th e railw ays and
the disorganization of th e Ita lia n adm inistration. In Ju ly ,
th e ICRC inform ed th e principal donors of th e situation and
told th em th a t it was no longer able to give th em th e usual
1 See p. 171.
3 See pp. 355 et seq.
67

guarantees for such consignm ents. The unanim ous opinion

was, nevertheless, th a t th e shipm ents should be continued,
despite th e risk of loss, in order p articu larly to build up reserve
stocks in the camps.
A few weeks before th e Ita lia n arm istice, th e Germ an
authorities in Ita ly began the evacuation from th e Peninsula
of all prisoners of w ar tak en b y th em in Africa, and of a
num ber of civilian internees. In Septem ber, th ey did th e same
in respect of all Allied nationals whom th e y could arrest.
Owing to th e tem p o rary closure of th e Italo-Sw iss frontier, the
ICRC had a t first no knowledge of th e exact num bers tra n s
ferred. They were, however, soon inform ed by th e cam p leaders
and cam p com m andants in G erm any of the arrival of thousands
of m en; these figures, to g eth er w ith th e num ber of those who
had escaped to Sw itzerland, gave approxim ation of th e num ber
of prisoners rem aining in Ita ly . M any of these, estim ated at
ab o u t 30,000, w ent into the maquis an d rejoined th e Allied
forces in th eir advance on N orthern Italy .
To ensure sufficient relief for Allied prisoners transferred
to G erm any, the ICRC decided, w ith the consent of th e donors,
to m ake an increase of 10 per cent in th e consignm ents asked
for each m onth by th e cam p leaders of th e large base cam ps,
especially in Southern G erm any and A ustria. This was about
the proportional increase in cam p strengths resulting from
fresh captures and th e continual tran sfer of prisoners who had
been held u n til th en in Ita ly or the Balkans.
2.

Transfer of Italian anti-fascist nationals to Germany.

Im m ediately a fter th e arm istice had been signed by M arshal

Badoglio, th e Germ an m ilitary au thorities and police, aided
b y th e neo-fascist authorities, m ade m ass arrests of Italian
m ilitary personnel and civilians and sent them either to Ger
m any, or to cam ps a n d prisons in N orthern Ita ly . A few weeks
later, th e ICRC was in possession of inform ation, which, although
n ot a u th o rita tiv e , enabled it to distinguish three m ain categories.
(1)The largest, th a t of th e Ita lia n m ilitary internees,
com prised th e anti-fascist m em bers of th e forces who had been
68

arrested as such and sent to G erm any, where considerable

groups of them were soon to be found in all cam ps and labour
detachm ents.
D uring the second half of 1943, their to ta l
strength rose to about 500,000.
(2)There were, furtherm ore, m any thousands of Italian
anti-fascist prisoners, th a t is to say, m em bers of th e forces
captured whilst fighting w ith th e Allies. A fter repeated tra n s
fers betw een increasingly overcrowded cam ps in Germ any,
these men were as a rule m erged, im properly, w ith the m ilitary
internees and tre a te d as such, although their sta tu s was not
in principle th e same.
Since th ey were not given PW statu s, these internees could
not be visited by th e Com m ittees delegates, and thus, under
th e regulations of th e Allied blockade, th ey could not share
in relief supplies from overseas. The President of the IR C R
thereupon appealed to th e h u m an ity of the Germ an G overnm ent.
A few days later, th e ICRC delegate in Berlin was called to the
Chancellery, where he was inform ed th a t a special relief service
had been organized for these internees by th e Italian Em bassy,
in agreem ent with th e Ita lia n Red Cross set up in Vienna ;
if th e Ita lia n delegation agreed, the ICRC would be allowed
to enter the camps. The German authorities, of course, were
well aw are th a t in default of th is consent, the relief which they
recognized as urgent could not be given. A pproval therefore
had to be obtained from th e Ita lia n delegation, who, for poli
tical reasons, m ight have wished to take the credit for this
action. The efforts of th e delegate in Berlin proved successful.
The ICRC delegates were th u s granted the right to supervise
personally th e distribution of relief from overseas, provided
th ey m ade no m ention of th e origin of such supplies. The
ICRC th en inform ed th e B ritish Government and th e represen
tativ e of th e A m erican Red Cross a t Geneva. U nfortunately,
before th e lengthy negotiations necessary to obtain th e goods
had been concluded, th e Ita lia n m ilitary internees were con
verted into civilian workers, which destroyed th e C om m ittees
last chance of giving th e desired help.
In default of relief from overseas, the ICRC now m ade efforts
to prom ote relief schemes on a sm aller scale, from sources on
69

th e continent. On th e offer of a donation b y th e P apal Nuncio

in Berne, th e Com m ittee lent its services for th e purchase and
tra n sp o rt of a wagon-load of foodstuffs, a n d its delegation in
Berlin assisted th e Nuncio in th a t tow n to distrib u te them .
I t also helped to obtain an d despatch railw ay wagons required
for th e tra n sp o rt of fam ily parcels from Ita ly , forw arded in
particu lar b y th e Milan b ran ch of th e Ita lia n R ed Cross. The
Com m ittee were not, however, able to exercise a n y supervision
over th e allocation of these parcels, which th e N eo-Fascist
com m ittees disposed of as th e y pleased.
(3) Finally, a great m any Italian s in G erm an hands belonged
to th e class of civilian deportees. Their tre a tm e n t was the same
as th a t of all nationals of occupied countries held in th e con
cen tratio n cam ps, or in prisons controlled by th e German
police. A sum m ary is given below of th e painful and alm ost
insoluble problem s which confronted th e ICRC in try in g to
help these p articu lar victim s of th e w ar1.
3.

Resum ption of relief distribution to Allied nationals.

A fter th e division of Ita ly by political and m ilitary events,

plans for th e relief of Allied nationals h ad to be laid. F or the
sake of greater efficiency, sub-delegations were form ed in the
larger tow ns and supplied w ith stocks allowing th em to take
prom pt action, w henever necessary. In view of Allied dem ands,
th ey were, however, in stru cted to reserve goods from overseas
for PW an d civilian internees in th e cam ps, and for B ritish and
Am erican isolati. Allied isolati of o ther nationalities -
Jugoslav a n d F rench civilians in p articu lar could only be
given aid from th e slender stocks arriving from France and
th e B alkans, supplem ented b y B ritish and A m erican parcels
recovered from railw ay wagons th a t were destroyed or looted
during bom bardm ents or riots. I t h ad been agreed w ith the
Allied authorities an d Red Cross Societies th a t th e delegates
were empowered to m ake w hatever use th ey th o u g h t fit of
an y supplies th ey m ight elicit or seize in railw ay sidings, or
1 See pp. 73 e t seq.

70

even black-m arket depots. In th is way, th e delegate in Rome,

w ith th e aid of th e local police, took possession of a wagon-load
of sta n d a rd parcels which had been stolen and sh unted into a
suburban station. These parcels were especia1ly useful a t a
tim e when th e breakdow n in com m unications w ith Sw itzerland
p revented th e replenishm ent of stocks ; th ey were d istributed
in gradual stages to th e B ritish, A m erican, French, Jugoslav,
Polish, Greek a n d other nationals who were living secretly in
the tow n and aw aiting th e arrival of th e Allied forces.
Sub-delegations were set up in Florence, Genoa and T urin ;
in th e spring of 1944, th e tw o last nam ed tow ns were able once
more to com m unicate direct w ith Sw itzerland. A nother sub
delegation was established in Ponte San Pietro, near Bergamo,
and becam e th e centre for relief distributions throughout
N orthern Ita ly . Their w ork was of p articular im portance a t
th a t tim e, since th e G erm an m ilitary authorities had set up
large tra n sit cam ps in the plain of L om bardy for PW arriving
from th e Southern front, pending tran sfer to Germ any. A
great m any sick a n d wounded rem ained in th e cam p hospitals
for m onths, and th e able-bodied them selves were evacuated
very slowly, on account of tra n sp o rt difficulties. The delegation
a t Bergam o therefore m ade regular distributions of foodstuffs
and m edical supplies, w ith occasional issues of clothing, in
these assem bly centres, of which th e m ost im p o rtan t were
near M antua and Modena. Since th e tra in service had alm ost
entirely ceased and road tra n sp o rt was unreliable on account
of skirm ishes betw een th e p artisans and N eo-Fascist troops, th e
delegates v ery often had to find lorries or caravans and take
relief supplies them selves to the cam ps in tu rn . They so gained
experience of a system which was afterw ards adopted b y the
ICRC in G erm any, tow ards th e end of hostilities, when no
other m eans of tra n sp o rt existed.
The delegates also issued relief to civilian internees in the
cam ps an d to B ritish a n d Am erican isolati, and when
supplies of E uropean origin were available, to o ther Allied
isolati. The sub-delegation a t T urin gave aid, although
w ith some difficulty, to French civilians confined in prisons.
The sub-delegation a t Genoa carried out sim ilar work w ithin
71

the triangle Genoa-Florence-M ilan, whilst th a t a t Bergamo

dealt w ith Milan and the tow ns of L om bardy which lay on the
route to th e A driatic.
Jugoslav civilians deported to Ita ly were exposed to p a rti
cular hardship. In 1942 a n d 1943, thousands of men, women
and children were gathered in large concentration cam ps where
their tre a tm e n t was ill-defined, about half-w ay betw een th a t
of political deportees a n d civilian internees. R egular visits were
an essential prerequisite to relief. A lthough th e Ita lia n a u th o r
ities m ade no objection in principle to such visits, definite
requests were, however, alw ays refused on one p rete x t or
another. The guarantees necessary before supplies could be
o btained from overseas were therefore lacking, and th e arm istice
cam e before th e ICRC was able to act in behalf of these camps.
F o rtu n a te ly , a great m any such cam ps in Southern Ita ly were
tak e n over b y th e Allies fairly soon and provisioned b y them .
There were also a great m any Jugoslavs in th e Venice and
Trieste areas. A lthough interned in cam ps th ey were, according
to th e N eo-Fascist authorities, ordinary civilians, and therefore
entitled to relief on th e sam e basis as th e Jugoslav p o p u latio n .1
Finally, several th ousand of these civilians were dispersed
am ong th e prisons of N orthern Ita ly an d tre a te d as Allied
isolati. T hey were given relief supplies either bought in
E urope, or tak e n from recovered parcels from overseas.
M any of these parcels cam e from an illicit store discovered in
Milan b y th e G erm an au th o rities : it was th o u g h t likely, but
never confirmed, th a t th is store represented th e load of a
railw ay wagon th a t h ad been stolen or looted a fter dam age in
a raid.
Relief to Allied nationals was continued u n til th eir rep a tria
tion began a fter th e end of hostilities, b u t th e confused situation
in Ita ly and difficulties of tra n sp o rt alw ays prevented adequate
action by th e ICRC.

1 See^pp. 487 e t seq.

72

Chapter 7

Detained and Deported Civilians

Civilians in enem y hands \ as the account of m easures
tak e n for th eir protection has shown, fell into tw o m ain cate
gories :
(1)Civilian internees in th e true sense of the term , th a t
is, civilians living in belligerent te rrito ry a t th e outbreak of
war and interned because of th eir enem y n atio n ality ;
(2)-Civilian internees described as detainees or " de
ported civilians , or civilians deported on adm inistrative
grounds (in Germ an, Schutzhjtlinge 2) who were arrested for
political or racial m otives, or because th eir presence was con
sidered a danger to th e S tate or th e occupation forces. They
included nationals of Axis satellites and of annexed or occupied
countries, as well as a great m any persecuted Germans, who
were m ainly Jew ish.
,
The present ch ap ter deals w ith th e practical help given
b y th e ICRC to civilians in th e second category, who were
confined in prisons, concentration cam ps or closed ghettos
and for whom there was no explicit s ta tu to ry safeguard. This
form of relief work was n ot so wide in its scope as th a t for PW
and for civilian internees w ith rights sim ilar to those of PW under
the 1929 Convention. I t was however considerable, especially
during th e last tw o years of th e W ar, and passed through several
phases, corresponding to th e series of concessions granted by
the belligerents to detained and deported civilians in Germ any,
or in territories occupied by th a t country.
1 See Vol. I, pp. 567 et seq.
2 Persons in p rotective custody .

73

(a) First phase, 193g to 1940.

General representations.

In its general negotiations in behalf of civilians, th e ICRC

a t all tim es advocated th e principle th a t th e sam e protection
should be gran ted to all civilians, w ithout distinction of race,
n ationality, religious belief or political opinion. In practice,
however, th e D etaining Pow er insisted on draw ing certain
distinctions, w ith which th e ICRC perforce had to comply,
in th e absence of a n y tre a ty stipulations on which th ey could
tak e a stand. The Tokyo D raft had, in fact, prescribed not only
legal protection b u t th e rig h t to receive relief supplies, for
civilians of all categories in enem y hands. This D raft was,
against th e wishes of th e Com m ittee, not adopted as a whole
by th e belligerents : th u s only civilians of th e first category
could benefit by th e term s, where applicable, of th e 1929 P ri
soners of W ar C onvention1. For detained and deported civilians
therefore, special representations had to be m ade to each
G overnm ent concerned.
(b) Second phase, 1941.

Special representations.

Upon th e occupation by th e Axis Powers of the greater p a rt

of E urope, millions of civilians fell into th e hands of those
Powers and were confined in prisons or concentration camps.
As these cam ps were chiefly in G erm any, or in countries occupied
by th e G erm an forces, th e ICRC m ade application in th e first
instance to th e G erm an G overnm ent, since obviously no relief
of an y kind could be undertaken w ithout its consent.
The G erm an authorities however placed detained and
deported civilians on the same footing as persons arrested and
im prisoned under comm on law for security reasons.
The
m ajority were in fact not nationals of enem y countries, nor
as a rule even aliens, b u t possessed or had possessed, before
becoming stateless, either G erm an n atio n ality , or th a t of an
annexed country. The m easures applied to these people were,
therefore, from th e Germ an point of view and th a t of the
satellite S tates, strictly a m a tte r of in tern al policy, w ith which
th e ICRC m ight not interfere.
1 See Vol. I, page 569.

74

In view of th e weakness of its legal position th e Com m ittee

was obliged to act w ith prudence. The worse th e situation of
th e detained an d deported civilians becam e, however, th e more
energetically th e ICRC m ade its dem ands ; a n d the m ore th e
Axis Pow ers suffered strategic or political reverses, th e greater
were th e C om m ittees chances of success. The special repre
sentations in regard to prisons and concentration cam ps in
G erm any, as in th e annexed or occupied countries, were usually
m ade th ro u g h th e ICRC delegation in Berlin and th e German
Red Cross. Tow ards th e end of th e war, th e President of the
ICRC m ade personal co ntact w ith some of the Germ an leaders
who a t th a t tim e h ad gained control of in tern al affairs.
Bohemia and Moravia. In th e sum m er of 1942, th e Germ an
R ed Cross inform ed th e ICRC th a t the occupying authorities
in Prague had given perm ission for th e despatch of medical
supplies to T heresienstadt (Terezin), the largest cam p for
Jew s in th e country. A tria l consignm ent of a few parcels was
sent to th e address given, Lagerkommando Theresienstadt, b u t
no receipt was ever retu rn ed to Geneva. T heresienstadt, where
th ere were ab o u t 40,000 Jew s deported from various countries,
was a relatively privileged ghetto, and the visit of a delegate
of th e ICRC in Berlin was perm itted, in Ju n e 1944, as a special
concession.
Slovakia and Jugoslavia. The a tte m p ts m ade by th e
ICRC to intervene in behalf of detained and deported civilians
m et w ith constant opposition from the Germ an authorities in
occupation. The ICRC delegates, who were supported b y the
Slovak and Serbian R ed Cross Societies, were alw ays debarred
from visiting th e Slovak cam p a t Sered, which held Jews
aw aiting dep o rtatio n to G erm any ; th e same applied to th e
cam p a t Zem un, near Belgrade. The delegate a t B ratislava
was however on tw o occasions, during Novem ber 1944, allowed
to visit th e cam p a t M arianka, where a few Am erican Jew s
were interned.
Croatia.
The delegate of the ICRC a t Zagreb succeeded
in obtaining an u ndertaking from th e Croat Governm ent in
75

Ja n u a ry 1944, th a t th e 1929 PW Convention would be observed,

where applicable, in respect of detained civilians. He had,
however, to m ake repeated representations in order to get this
decision p u t into practice. A fter perm ission had a t last been
given, in Ju n e 1944, for th e despatch of relief consignm ents
twice a m onth, the detainees received foodstuffs, clothing and
medical supplies over a certain period. In Ju ly 1944, two
m onths before th e au th o rities in occupation a b ru p tly intervened,
th e delegate was even able to visit th e concentration cam ps
a t Jasenovac, S ta ra G radiska an d G redjani-Salas. He did not
fail to call th e a tte n tio n of th e cam p com m andants to the
reckoning th e y m ight have to m eet, if th ey allowed the civilians
who were detained and deported to be b ru ta lly ill-used. As
a result of th is w arning, conditions in the cam ps were som ew hat
im proved.
H ungary. The ICRC delegate in B udapest was able, in
th e au tu m n of 1944, to visit th e concentration cam ps a t K istarcsa and Sarvar, where detained and deported Jew s were con
fined. H ere he d istrib u ted food and m edical supplies received
from Geneva, or purchased locally w ith funds m ade available
to him.
R um ania. Sim ilar action was taken in this country, and
th e delegate visited th e ghettos for Jew s deported to th e area
lying betw een th e Bug and th e D niester, in T ra n sn istria 1.
Greece.
The m ain difficulties had already been overcome
b y th e end of 1942. The Ita lia n Red Cross inform ed the ICRC,
on D ecem ber 11, th a t th e C om m ittees delegates in A thens had
a u th o rity to visit cam ps and prisons in th e te rrito ry occupied
by th e Ita lia n forces, and to hand out relief supplies. The
ICRC was th u s able to organize relief consignm ents, and a t
once approached th e G overnm ents and Red Cross Societies of
G reat B ritain an d th e U nited S tates to th is end, w ith the
support of th e Greek G overnm ent in exile in London.
In
F eb ru ary 1943, th e Ita lia n authorities even authorized the
1 For the mass deportation of Jews from H ungary and Rum ania,
see Vol. I, pp. 647 and 653.

76

issue of articles of uniform to Greek detainees, on condition

th a t all m ilitary badges were rem oved.
Conditions in the concentration cam ps an d prisons were
appreciably b e tte r in Greece th a n in Germ any. All detained
civilians, except prisoners under comm on law, were allowed to
receive parcels from hom e. In the spring of 1943, the M anage
m ent C om m ittee for Relief in Greece granted double daily
rations to all civilian detainees held in seven concentration
cam ps and 37 prisons in A thens and th e provinces. D uring the
sum m er of 1943, Swedish vessels brought 40,000 stan d ard
parcels from overseas, and th e delegation of the ICRC, w ith
the help of th e Greek Red Cross, set up distribution centres in
A thens and Salonika.
The delegates pressed the Germ an and Italian authorities
to im prove conditions in th e cam ps th e y had visited. They
were never allowed to enter th e cam p a t H aidari, near A thens,
which had th e w orst rep u tatio n , and were only a d m itted to
th e cam p a t Goudhi sh o rtly before th e release of detained and
deported civilians in October 1944. The sub-delegation a t
Salonika m anaged to m ake regular distributions of foodstuffs
in th e cam ps of Pavlo Mela and Vassiliades from 1944 onwards.
In May 1944, a Greek medical officer w rote : " Your parcels
are m eeting a dire need and becoming a vital source of strength
to th e exhausted civilian detainees.
Germany.
As early as J a n u a ry 1941, th e ICRC applied
to th e Germ an R ed Cross for perm ission to send food to detained
and deported civilians in th e cam p a t Oranienburg, b u t this
was refused. E arlier a sim ilar request m ade on May 20, 1940,
concerning th e cam ps a t D rancy, Compigne and in N orth
Africa, had already been tu rn e d down b y th e German Foreign
Office. In th e sum m er of 1942, the ICRC was inform ed by this
M inistry th a t parcels could not be sent to Germ an citizens in
concentration cam ps. A little later, however, in A ugust, a
fresh request was tre a te d w ith more sym pathy, and th e delegate
in Berlin was told th a t detained aliens, not only a t O ranienburg
b u t a t D achau also, could receive small food parcels from th eir
relatives, on condition th a t th e contents could be quickly
77

consum ed. Fam ily parcels were th u s a t last authorized for

detained and deported civilians of enem y nationality, and were
forw arded th rough th e ICRC.
A fter fu rth er representations in October 1942, in behalf
of detained civilians in G erm any and Alsace, fam ily parcels of
foodstuffs and clothing were allowed for persons detained in
H aguenau Prison ; an exception was m ade in the case of those
who had been arrested on th e grounds of political activities,
or for im perilling th e security of th e S tate or of th e authorities
in occupation. F rom F eb ru ary 1943 onwards, this concession
was extended to all o th er cam ps and prisons in Germ any.
The ICRC declined, however, to lim it its action m erely to
th a t of an interm ediary betw een the detainees and th eir rela
tives. I t claim ed th e rig h t to send, itself, consignm ents of
foodstuffs, clothing and m edicam ents, and to supervise th eir
d istribution in th e cam ps. The C om m ittee 'moreover insisted on
ascertaining th e situation w ithin these cam ps and the num ber of
occupants, by nationality. Its efforts were not entirely fruitless.
In M arch 1943, th e G erm an Foreign Office inform ed th e ICRC
delegation in Berlin th a t th e Com m ittee and th e N ational Red
Cross Societies w ould henceforth be allowed to forw ard individual
parcels to detained an d deported aliens whose nam es and
addresses were know n to them . This privilege was, however,
w ithheld from those accused of offences against th e German
S tate or th e G erm an forces. There was no lim it to the num ber
of parcels, b u t th e am ount of foodstuffs sent to a n y one detainee
could not exceed his personal needs ; a n y surplus would be
d istrib u ted am ongst fellow-detainees who received no parcels.
The ICRC delegates were not allowed access to the concentra
tion cam ps, an d th e G erm an Red Cross and cam p com m andants
were forbidden to com m unicate lists of occupants, or even
cam p strengths.
The concession gran ted b y th e G erm an authorities was
therefore very slight, an d indeed more ap p a re n t th a n real,
since on th e one hand, only individual parcels were perm itted,
w hilst on th e other, th e authorities m ade it impossible for the
senders to obtain th e necessary d a ta for consignm ents of this
kind. N evertheless, th e ICRC was not deterred, b u t a t once
78

set to work on th eir relief scheme, although th e y had a t th a t

tim e only some six ty nam es and addresses of civilian detainees
in all th e cam ps in Germ any.
(c) Third phase, 1943 to 1944.
collective parcels.

Despatch of individual and

The ICRC exercised its ingenuity to surm ount th e obstacles

raised b y th e Germ an authorities, and succeeded in obtaining
from p riv ate a n d unofficial sources th e nam es and addresses
of a num ber of deported and detained civilians. This allowed
the despatch of individual relief supplies to several concentration
cam ps, from Ju n e 1943 onwards.
The result of th is experim ent far exceeded expectations.
Only a few weeks late r th e first receipts arrived in Geneva
bearing th e signature of th e consignees. B y August 1943, the
ICRC had in th is w ay collected receipts signed b y Belgian,
D utch, F rench, Norwegian and Polish detained and deported
civilians. Subsequently, a growing num ber of parcels became
available for th e concentration cam ps, and these were forw arded,
as soon as new nam es becam e known, to Belgian, Czech, D utch,
French, Greek, Italian , Norwegian, Polish, Spanish and Ju g o
slav detainees. The g ratitu d e w ith which these parcels were
received in th e cam ps, where underfeeding was having disas
trous effects, m ay well be im agined.
A t Geneva, th e card-index for detained and deported civilians
slowly grew. News of th e arrival of th e first parcels had spread
th rough th e cam ps ; th e detainees who were allowed to write
had to ld th eir relatives, and th e ICRC then began to receive
m any requests, especially from N orw ay a n d Poland, th a t relief
parcels should be sent, w ith all the d a ta required. Lists also
reached Geneva b y secret channels.
H aving overcom e th e first obstacle, th e Com m ittee was
faced w ith th a t of the blockade, which was no less serious.
The Allies only allowed parcels from overseas to be sent to
cam ps where ICRC delegates had access and could supervise
the distribution of relief supplies. This was possible only in
cam ps for P W or for interned civilians on th e same footing as
79

PW , who had equal rights under the 1929 Convention. The

blockade authorities therefore refused, despite th e C om m ittees
repeated applications1, to allow goods to be im ported into
E urope which were intended for th e concentration cam ps,
where neither visits, nor supervision were perm itted by the
Germans. The said authorities also prohibited th e transfer of
funds which had been brought from occupied countries and
deposited in Allied countries for th e use of th e refugee G overn
m ents in London.
The ICRC was therefore obliged to seek th e necessary
com m odities w ithin th e blockaded zone. In spite of the general
scarcity in alm ost th e whole of E urope, the Com m ittee m anaged
to secure large q u antities of tinned m eat, biscuits, jam , sugar
and other foodstuffs in th e B alkan S tates, especially R um ania,
Slovakia a n d H ungary, w ith th e aid of the Jo in t Relief Com
mission of the In te rn atio n a l Red Cross. These purchases were
paid for w ith funds obtained by th e Com m ittee in Sw itzerland,
th rough th e representatives of G overnm ents and Red Cross
Societies, as well as various national and foreign relief organi
zations in th a t country. The goods were w arehoused in bond
a t Geneva, where as m any as 9,000 parcels were packed daily.
From th e au tu m n of 1943 u ntil May 1945, about 1,112,000
parcels, w ith a to ta l weight of 4,500 tons, were sent off to the
concentration cam ps in G erm any2.
The ICRC was, of course, unable to verify th a t th e whole
of these relief goods were handed over to th e consignees ; in
a n y case, this risk did not deter th e senders. W hen parcels
were confiscated in certain cam ps, the Com m ittee soon had
knowledge of th e fact, and a t once suspended th e despatch of
fu rth er supplies ; th is happened in th e case of M authausen.
In general, th e relief scheme worked well and was occasionally
even aided in some degree by th e cam p com m andants. Infor
m ation from escaped detainees and letters from the concentra
tion cam ps provided very useful evidence. F or instance, a
detainee a t O ranienburg notified the ICRC regularly of th e exact
num ber of parcels distributed, or stolen. There is, a t a n y rate, no
1 See pp. 28 et seq.
9 For details, see pp. 335 e t seq.

80

doubt th a t the parcels saved thousands of lives. As one of

the men wrote : Y our parcels were inestim able; in some cases
the arrival of a single parcel gave new life to those on whom
starv atio n had nearly finished its work
In spite of th e extensive card-index set up b y th e Com
m ittee, th e effect of th e individual parcel system was unfo rtu
nately to lim it th e num ber of persons benefited. In order to
enlarge th e circle and to reach even those deportees who were
placed in th e category N acht und Nebel , and whose names
were never to be divulged, th e Com m ittee decided, during the
sum m er of 1944, to send collective parcels to the concentration
camps. This decision was in disregard of the conditions laid
down by the D etaining Power, which however became rath er
less ad am an t a fter the Allied landing on the C ontinent and
the liberation of the occupied countries. The scheme showed
more chance of success th a n in the past, and it was incum bent
on th e ICRC to m ake th e a tte m p t, although the supervision
of collective consignm ents appeared even more hazardous than
th a t of individual parcels. The Com m ittee was indeed urged by
th e G overnm ents concerned to increase a t all costs the volume
of relief supplies sent to detained civilians.
As E uropean resources were steadily diminishing, some
relaxation of the blockade regulations had to be obtained.
F o rtu n ately , through the energetic intervention of the W ar
Refugee B oard in W ashington, set up in J a n u a ry 1944 by Pre
sident Roosevelt, the Allied authorities yielded to th e insistent
requests of the ICRC. The Am erican supplies granted to the
Jo in t Commission for transm ission to the concentration
cam ps 1, which did not arrive in any considerable q u a n tity
until th e end of 1944, provided relief for thousands of civilian
detainees during th e closing m onths of th e war.
Some cam p com m andants prohibited the retu rn of receipts,
while others, such as th e com m andant a t D achau, allowed it.
The receipts which reached Geneva bore several nam es (some
tim es as m any as fifteen), which were im m ediately filed in the
1 See R eport
pp. 194 et seq.
ill. 6

of the

Join t

R elief

Commission,

Geneva,

1948,

81

card-index1.
The ICRC th u s used th e inform ation supplied
by detained civilians to form an estim ate of cam p strengths.
If, for instance, Geneva was inform ed th a t seven Poles in a
certain cam p had shared a parcel, th e inference was draw n
th a t th e num ber of Poles in this cam p was seven tim es greater
th a n th a t of th e parcels sent.
In addition to foodstuffs, the ICRC despatched a certain
am ount of clothing and pharm aceutical supplies. W ith regard
to clothing, it had to be content w ith w hat could be found in
th e E uropean m arket, since th e textile shortage had become
so acute th a t no country overseas would authorize th e export
of clothing. U nderclothing of artificial wool was bought, and
during th e w inter of 1944-1945, a good num ber of Belgian
deportees were supplied w ith woollen garm ents given by the
Belgian G overnm ent.
P harm aceutical supplies (vitam ins, restoratives an d disin
fectants) were sent as sta n d a rd parcels an d were accom panied
by detailed instructions enabling th e recipients to m ake use
of th e contents in th e absence of m edical supervision. E ach
of these parcels contained :
100tab le ts Decalcit
50

Redoxon
40

P ro to v it
20

Saridon
20

Coramin-caffeine
20

E ntero-vioform
I tu b e Cibazol o in tm en t5 p.c. 20 gr.
i tin
Neocide 50 gr.
I roll gauze, 5 x 5 cm.
I roll gauze, 10 X 5 cm.
6 squares cellulose cottonw ool
Finally, m ention should be m ade of intellectual and spiritual
assistance, such as books, cases of Communion wine for French
chaplains, also Bibles and New T estam ents, chiefly for th e French
an d Norwegian deportees.
1 Facsim iles of these receipts are shown in th e Revue internationale
de la Croix-Rouge, No. 320, A ugust 1945, page 612.

82

Parcels were sent to D achau, Buchenw ald, Sangerhausen,

Sachsenhausen, O ranienburg, Flossenburg, L andsberg-am -L ech,
Flha, R avensbriick, H am burg-N euengam m e, M authausen,
T heresienstadt, Auschwitz, Bergen-Belsen, to cam ps near
Vienna and in Central and Southern Germany. The principal
recipients were Belgians, D utch, French, Greeks, Italians,
Norwegians, Poles, and stateless Jews.
This relief work could not unfo rtu n ately be extended to
all concentration cam ps, because a great m any rem ained
unknow n to th e ICRC u n til th e end of th e war. Moreover,
th e ICRC was long prevented by the blockade from procuring
sufficient funds and goods. W hen it could do so a t the very
end of th e w ar, tra n sp o rt had been seriously curtailed by the
destruction of roads and railways.
(d) Fourth phase, January to June 1945. Admittance of the
IC R C delegates to the Concentration Camps.
In the chaotic condition of G erm any after th e invasion
during th e final m onths of th e war, th e cam ps received no food
supplies a t all and starv atio n claimed an increasing num ber
of victim s. Itself alarm ed by this situation, th e German Govern
m ent a t last inform ed the ICRC on F eb ru ary 1, 1945, in reply
to a request of October 2, 1944, th a t individual and collective
relief parcels could be despatched to French and Belgian detai
nees. In M arch 1945, discussions betw een th e President of the
ICRC and General of th e SS K altenbrunner 1 gave even more
decisive results. Relief could henceforth be d istributed b y the
ICRC, and one delegate was authorized to stay in each cam p,
on condition th a t he undertook not to leave it before th e end
of th e war. For th e first tim e, therefore, th e concentration
cam ps were open to th e Committee.
In order to tak e advantage of this last-m inute concession,
road tra n sp o rt had to be im provised, for there were now no
train s in service th roughout Germ any. The efforts m ade by
th e ICRC in th is respect are recorded elsewhere 2. Suffice it
1 See Vol. I, page 620.
2 See pp. 184 et seq.
83

to say th a t road convoys a t once left for Germ any, and th a t

th eir loads of foodstuffs were issued either in th e concentration
cam ps, or to th e m any escaped or evacuated detainees w an
dering on th e roads in a sta te of indescribable distress 1. Between
J a n u a ry i and April 15, 1945, 300,000 parcels weighing 1,200
tons in all were sent to concentration cam ps by road and rail.
On the re tu rn journey to Sw itzerland, th e vehicles brought
back women, children, th e old and sick who were picked up
on the roadside.
(e) Post-war activities, J u ly to December, 1945. Collective
consignments to released civilian detainees and deportees.
For several m onths a fter th e close of hostilities, th e ICRO
continued its relief w ork for detained a n d deported civilians
who could not be rep a tria te d a t once, a n d who were lodged in
th e centres for Displaced Persons. Food, m edical supplies and
clothing were sent to D achau, Munich, M authausen, Linz,
Innsbruck, Liibeck, B ayreuth, Salzburg, Leipzig, Prague and
Pilsen, for Polish, Czech, Baltic, Italian , Spanish, Jugoslav
and other nationals.
F rom A pril 15 to Ju n e 30, 1945, over 300 trucks, in 34
colum ns, were sent to the areas occupied by th e Allied forces,
w ith 1,030 tons of supplies com prising :
272
no
195
143
228
82

tons
tons
tons
to n s
tons
tons

for th e French
for th e Belgians
for th e Poles
of W ar Refugee B oard parcels for all nationals
for th e Jew s
for various nationals (Czechs, Italians, D utch,
Jugoslavs and others).

In the au tu m n of 1945, th e ICRC ceased to send relief

supplies to D isplaced Persons, who henceforth were assisted
by the Allied authorities, U N R R A and national relief organiza
tions.
1 See d elegates reports and the map show ing the principal con
centration cam ps, published in th e Revue internationale de la CroixRouge, No. 327, March 1946, page 246.

84

Chapter 8

The Final Phase of the War in Europe

A fter October 1944, th e In tern atio n al C om m ittees task
becam e m ore onerous an d difficult.
In th e first place, after the Allied landings in N orm andy
and th e South of France, th e supply of parcels from overseas
stopped altogether.
The second of these landings and the
fighting th a t followed m oreover halted the despatch of relief
from France direct to French PW in Germ any. F ortunately,
the ICRC was able to draw on the stocks it had providently
built up in Sw itzerland. Once already, before the arm istice
betw een France and G erm any in 1940, Geneva had acted as
interm ediary betw een th e cam ps of French PW on the one
hand, and France and her colonial empire on th e other. Now
a sim ilar arrangem ent m ade it possible to keep up th e supply
of food for th e French PW .
Meanwhile th e situ atio n in G erm any was steadily deterio
rating. E ven the regulation rations, long since inadequate, were
now no longer guaranteed to PW . As th e Germ an arm ies lost
ground in th e E a st and W est, a h asty evacuation of th e cam ps
near the frontiers followed. Camps in C entral G erm any became
overcrowded, while thousands of men, on the m arch w ithout
a break tow ards new places of detention, reached the lim it of
their endurance.
These constant and sudden transfers so
thoroughly interm ingled the personnel of the cam ps th a t
Geneva had no reliable inform ation on cam p strengths and
relative num bers by nationality, not to m ention nom inal lists.
F urther, th e destruction of railw ays and rolling stock paralysed
transport.
85

Thus, relief work was a t the sam e tim e urgently needed

and seriously im peded. It was nevertheless carried on b y new
m ethods ad ap ted to th e circum stances.
A fter persistent applications to th e Allied, Germ an, and
Swiss A uthorities, the ICRC received some French, Belgian
an d Swiss wagons, in addition to th e German railw ay cars
still a t its disposal. It was th u s able to continue its consignm ents
to th e cam ps still in being and accessible by rail, and even to
increase these shipm ents by 25 to 30 per cent, in order to provide
for th e increased cam p strengths due to th e concentration of
PW . The ICRC also sent considerable q u antities of relief to
the big assem bly centres for PW , internees and deportees, and
set up depots which enabled th e delegates to convey supplies in
trucks to neighbouring cam ps and colum ns on the m arch. A
first block-train1, composed of 50 cars of m edicam ents and
m edical equipm ent, left Sw itzerland on M arch 6, for Moosburg
in Southern G erm any, where a supply centre was set up. O ther
block-trains followed, each carrying betw een 500 and 600 tons
of supplies.
M any cam ps, however, could not, or could no longer, be
reached by rail. The ICRC th en used the num erous m otor
trucks which, a fter repeated requests, th ey had succeeded in
obtaining from th e Allies. A first group of tru ck s set off for
the Eger, Carlsbad and M arienbad districts, across which the
colum ns of PW evacuated from Poland and U pper Silesia
were passing. A second group was sent to th e N o rth and
rem ained a tta ch e d to th e Liibeck supply centre, which furnished
relief supplies to neighbouring cam ps a n d to colum ns of PW
from E a st Prussia 2.
B y th e tim e these railw ay wagons an d lorries were ready
for work, th e invading Allied and Soviet Armies were already
on the point of cu ttin g G erm any in two, and the ICRC could
no longer com m unicate, either direct or through th eir Delegation
in Berlin, w ith th e Germ an High Com m and, th en established
a t Torgau. The ICRC therefore m ade contact a t Constance
w ith officials of th e M inistry for Foreign Affairs a n d of the SS
1 Or set-train ,
2 For technical details concerning block-trains and lorries, see
below, pp. 166 et seq., and 184 et seq.

86

who had retired to South Germ any, and who were in fact
directing the in tern al affairs of th e country. I t was th ey who
authorized convoys to cross th e German-Swiss frontier and to
supply food to all cam ps in Germany.
M ention m ust be m ade of another feature of relief work
during th e last phase of hostilities. From F ebruary 1945, sup
plies could no longer be issued in th e usual m anner. Delegates
w ith th e convoys could have no idea of th e n atio n ality of PW
th e y would m eet on th e way, and it is clear th a t when th ey
came across m en dying of hunger in a cam p or on th e road,
th ey could have no justification for refusing to some w hat
th e y gave to others. I t was decided, therefore, to use the
pooling system , so called because stan d ard food parcels sent
b y th e ICRC were, in each cam p, pooled w ithout regard to
th eir origin (American, B ritish, French, Belgian, etc.), and
placed in th e custody of cam p leaders representing the various
nationalities. These stocks were th en issued equally to all
Allied prisoners and civilian internees. The idea was, m oreover,
fu rth er developed. The ICRC sent telegram s on April 18, 1945,
to the com m andants of sixty-tw o cam ps, inform ing them th a t
relief supplies should be shared out am ong all prisoners, w ithout
distinction. Thus Russian, Italian , R um anian and other PW
also received a share. S hortly afterw ards, pooling was extended
to include even civilian detainees and deportees.
As th e norm al system of distribution b y n atio n ality or
specified cam p had to be abandoned im m ediately, the ICRC
decided to act w ithout first obtaining consent from the donors.
The m ajority of th e contributors, however, and in p articular
the Am erican an d B ritish Red Cross Societies and th e French
and Belgian G overnm ents, inform ed th e Com m ittee th a t th ey
consented. O ther Red Cross Societies gave th eir ta c it approval.
Moreover, in a N ote sent on A ugust 17, 1944, to all belligerent
Powers, dealing w ith th e food supply of PW , internees and
civilians in E urope on th e cessation of hostilities, the ICRC
had already alluded to th e possibility of pooling in th e future
and said : Should the in tern al organization of th e D etaining
S tate break down a t a tim e when it is urgently necessary to
forw ard relief consignm ents, it would be, for hum ane as well
87

as practical reasons, difficult and m aybe impossible to issue

supplies only to nationals of certain countries and certain
categories of persons. A ny such plan for assistance should, in
our view, apply as far as possible w ithout distinction to all
PW , w orkers and deportees in the area being supplied
F

ood

S u pp l ie s

for

the

d if f e r e n t

reas

in

Germ

any

A t this point a few technical and statistical details of relief

work carried out in behalf of PW betw een October 1944 and
th e arm istice of May 1945 m ay be useful.
According to inform ation supplied by th e Am erican Sup
rem e Com m and in E urope there were, in M arch 1945, some
2,200,000 Allied PW lodged in 70 camps. These included :
75,850
65,700
199,500
10,200
754,600

A m ericans
Belgians
B ritish
D utch
F rench

87,100 Italian s
122,100 Jugoslavs.
69,300 Poles
784,300 R ussians

As already m entioned, the re tre a t of the Germ an A rm y led

to th e evacuation of th e cam ps th a t were in danger of falling
into th e hands of the invading arm ies. Am erican and B ritish
PW were m ainly transferred to th e E ast, and Polish and R us
sian PW to th e W est, in order to prevent escaping prisoners
from joining up w ith th eir own forces. L ater, the continuing
advance of b o th th e Allied and R ussian forces obliged the
Germ an m ilitary authorities to tak e other m easures : they
assem bled all PW in .three m ain areas in th e centre of the
country, one in the n o rth a t Liibeck, another in th e centre at
A ltengrabow , and a th ird a t Moosburg in th e south.
These transfers were carried out in circum stances of extrem e
hardship. The PW h ad only a few hours notice to prepare for
their departure. As th e railw ays had been destroyed and there
was a shortage of rolling stock, th ey had to cover th e long dis
tances to th eir new cam ps on foot ; th ey were often obliged to
m arch 40 to 50 kilom etres a day, for eight to ten days. R ations,
88

too, were short so th a t th e ICRC had to supply food not only

to th e cam ps, b u t also to colum ns of PW and detainees on the
road across Germ any.

(a) Eastern Area.

E vacuation of th e E astern area began in J a n u a ry 1945.
E arlier, in O ctober 1944, there had been the surrender in W arsaw
of th e Polish underground arm y com m anded by General BorKomorowski. U nder the term s of th e capitulation, the German
authorities had gran ted th e benefit of the 1929 PW Convention
to all Polish co m b atan ts cap tu red since the beginning of the
rising, including women. F or th e first tim e, therefore, the
ICRC was called upon to help some thousands of women PW
and, in addition, children who had gone w ith th eir m others
into captivity. The Polish Red Cross and various Polish orga
nizations abroad, for instance in the U nited States, made
generous donations to th e ICRC for this work. The relief for
the Polish insurgents was th e last provided in conform ity w ith
th e rule of d istribution by nationality.
Prisoners evacuated from the E astern area were of all
nationalities. The Luckenwalde Camp, for instance, contained
all th e A m erican P W of Oflag 64 and Stalag I I I B, B ritish PW
from Stalag L uft I I I a t Sagan, Polish PW h itherto held in
cam ps in H ungary, Norwegian P W transferred from Schildberg,
and lastly Ita lia n and French PW . Delegates of the ICRC were
able to visit this cam p and to issue 150,000 Am erican parcels,
brought up by rail in F ebruary, to all PW w ithout distinction.
Prisoners from cam ps in U pper Silesia reached th e west
via Czechoslovakia.
D etainees and civilian deportees from
concentration cam ps in E a st G erm any, bound either for the
H am burg-N euengam m e Camp or for D achau in th e south,
were also on th e roads. Confusion was a t its worst when the
endless colum ns of PW , civilian internees and deportees were
joined by civilian refugees considered as being of German race
(Volksdeutsche) , and coming from Bessarabia, Poland, the
U kraine and other p a rts of E astern Europe.
89

(b) Northern Area.

Lbeck.

B y F e b ru ary 1945, over a q u a rte r of all Allied PW in Ger

m any had been, or were being transferred, and th e ICRC had
quickly to assum e th e im m ense ta sk of supplying th e various
assem bly centres w ith food, despite th e growing tra n sp o rt
problem .
F or th e N o rth ern area, th e Com m ittee drew on
parcels warehoused a t G othenburg and sent to Lbeck, where
th e delegation h ad b uilt up a large stock of foodstuffs. From
this depot, which also received goods from Sw itzerland by
m otor tru c k , distribution was m ade as far as possible by rail,
b u t th e arriv al of shipm ents was extrem ely uncertain. L etters
from cam p leaders were often lost in tra n sit. Some reached
G eneva a fte r considerable delay and showed th a t parcels had
tak en several weeks, or even m onths, to arrive a t th eir des
tination.
On th e request of th e G erm an au th o rities and w ith the
aid of inform ation supplied by them , th e delegation of the
ICRC in Berlin im m ediately organized relief work on the roads
followed b y th e PW and civilian internees. As m any of these
were in th e neighbourhood of N eubrandenburg, th e delegation
set up a supply centre in th a t tow n. I t was able to procure
tw o lorries an d asked th e Germ an railw ays for the use of 18
railw ay cars. On F eb ru ary 12, b o th lorries were loaded w ith
foodstuffs a t th e C om m ittees warehouse a t Lbeck and left
for N eubrandenburg. They first w ent to th e Rostock-A nklam
d istrict and, on th e way, left goods a t Dem m in for various
groups of PW who had already arrived there. W hen the railw ay
cars becam e available, it was possible to convey large quantities
of foodstuffs to N eubrandenburg.
Im m ediately on arriv al in th is district, th e delegate drew
up, in agreem ent w ith th e G erm an authorities, a general plan
for supplying food to th e colum s of PW on th e m arch. In order
to reach those on secondary roads, depots were set up a t Anklam ,
W aren, N eustrelitz, Parchim , Dem m in and Teterow .
The
delegate arranged for receipts to be given a n d for a regular
check to avoid losses.
The PW on th e m arch received one parcel each. Some
90

thousands of parcels were dum ped in th e above stores. Finally,

supplies were sent to the following cam ps, a t the ra te of one
parcel for each m an :
Oflag 64 N eubrandenburg . . .
L uftlager IV G ross-Tychow . . .
Oflag I I D Gross-Born
Oflag 65 Berkenbrxigge
Oflag I I B A rnswalde
G roup of Am erican PW coming
from H am m erstein
Group of B ritish PW coming from
Stalag X X B
W ehrm acht Prison a t G rau d en z.
PW ju st arriv ed a t Stalag I I A
N eubrandenburg
......................

680 parcels
6,500

5,000
1,500
2,300

485
1,000
1,000
1,500

To c arry out th is scheme of relief as speedily as possible, the

work had to go on night a n d day. In N eubrandenburg itself,
parcels were issued under th e control of th e French cam p
leader, w ith th e full approval of his Am erican, B ritish, Polish
and Jugoslav colleagues. In the course of th eir m any journeys,
th e tru ck s picked up sick PW and took them to N eubrandenburg
M ilitary H ospital.
W hilst keeping in touch w ith th e supply centre a t Neu
brandenburg, th e delegates th en w ent to th e Lbeck-H am burg
area to m eet P W coming from th e E astern territories, and
supplied them w ith food, using tru ck s placed a t th e disposal
of th e ICRC b y th e Am erican and Swedish R ed Cross Societies.
A fu rth er six tru ck s left Geneva on M arch 7, 1945, carrying
20,000 litres of fuel, and reached Lbeck ju st as great stream s
of Allied P W were arriving in th e neighbourhood. In order
to feed them , th e vessels from G othenburg had to be unloaded
w ithout delay. As th e delegation could not do this by itself,
it enlisted th e v o lu n ta ry help of French P W from Oflag X B
a t Lbeck, a so-called reprisal cam p for officers suspected
of being supporters of General de Gaulle, others guilty of
a tte m p ts to escape, and those of Jew ish origin.
91

In N orth G erm any, there was an issue of relief (standard

food parcels and m edical kits), which had arrived in E urope
by w ay of G othenburg. Clothing for French PW , provided
b y th e A m erican Red Cross, mufflers for Am erican PW and
some blankets for th e B ritish came through th e same port.
(c) Central Area. Altengrabow.
The approach of th e W estern Allies and the Soviet Armies
m ade th is C entral area alm ost inaccessible by rail or road.
There had been a plan to organize a relief depot a t Altengrabow ,
where Stalag X I A, now a large assem bly cam p, was situated.
T h at scheme, however, had to be abandoned, because this
town could be reached neither from Sw itzerland, nor from
Lbeck. The PW therefore depended for food entirely on the
parcels which Allied planes succeeded in dropping to them by
parachute. They were, however, released earlier th an those
in th e other areas.
R oad convoys which were intended for Stalag IV B a t
Miihlberg, Oflag IV C a t Colditz, Stalag IV G a t O schatz and
Stalag IV A a t H ohenstein, could not reach their destination
and were unloaded a t Moosburg in the Southern area.
(d) Southern Area. Moosburg.
The Southern Area, being adjacent to Sw itzerland, fared
b e tte r th an the others in th e m atte r of food. I t was also allocated
th e relief shipm ents th a t could not be forw arded to the Central
area.
A representative of th e ICRC m et officials of the M inistry
for Foreign Affairs, the A rm y High Com m and and the SS at
Uffing (B avaria), and inform ed them th a t the ICRC wished
to set up depots in th is area. A lthough th ey acknowledged the
necessity of such stocks, th e Germ ans were a t first very m uch
against th eir being placed near PW cam ps. Finally, however,
th ey agreed w ith the ICRC th a t it was not feasible to set them
up anyw here b u t in Moosburg. This B avarian village on th e
Isar, n o rth of Munich, held Stalag V II A, which had become
an assem bly cam p, and contained as m any as 80,000, perhaps
92

ioo.ooo PW of all nationalities. I t was to this place th a t on

March 6 and 28, a n d A pril 12, three block-trains of 50 wagons
each were sent, carrying foodstuffs and m edicam ents, and
escorted b y delegates of th e ICRC. One of these trains, the
arrival of which was acclaim ed w ith cheers by the PW , served
to provision Stalag V II A itself ; th e consignm ents carried by
the two following tra in s were tak en by road to neighbouring
cam ps.
A t Moosburg, all th e warehouses were found to be occupied
by civilians who had fled from Munich a fter the bom bardm ents,
and there was nowhere to store th e relief supplies. However,
with th e help of th e statio n m aster and the cam p com m an
dant, a b arn and th ree other storehouses, as well as the station
warehouse were finally m ade available. U nder the delegates
directions, F rench and B ritish PW unloaded the 93,312 parcels
with all speed. The tra in left im m ediately and, on March 11,
arrived a t Buchs, on th e Swiss frontier. The storehouses were
guarded by six F rench, five B ritish and five Am erican NCOs,
in their tu rn guarded by patrols of Germ an soldiers.
On April 4, tw o o ther block-trains left for Stalag X I I I A a t
Sulzbach an d Stalag X I I I B a t W eiden. U nfortunately, m ilitary
operations prevented th eir getting through, and th ey had to
be diverted to Moosburg. Two special train s of tw en ty German
cars each, not escorted by delegates of th e Com m ittee, also
failed to reach th eir destination, Stalag V B a t Villingen, and
the supplies th ey carried were issued to PW in the Augsburg
area.
As there was no furth er room a t Moosburg, the German
authorities asked th e ICRC to establish a new depot a t Ravensburg, a small tow n 20 kilom etres from th e Lake of Constance,
where large prem ises could be reserved for the exclusive use
of th e Com m ittee. This depot, placed under th e supervision
of delegates, could hold 7,000 tons of stores, and th e vehicles
of the ICRC could be parked, repaired and re-fuelled there.
In April, therefore, two block-trains, consisting in all of
n o cars, left for R avensburg, from which point relief supplies
were taken by lorry to PW and concentration cam ps w ithin
a radius of 300 kilom etres. R avensburg was soon afterw ards
93

evacuated b y the G erm an forces and occupied by th e French.

Meanwhile, th e convoys of th e ICRC continued th eir journeys
th rough th e French lines. Food could th u s be provided im m e
diately for released PW . D uring th e days preceding the French
advance beyond R avensburg, th e C om m ittees delegate handed
out some 24,000 food parcels to Allied PW in labour detach
m ents, and to those on th e roads.
The ICRC followed th e same procedure during th e second
fortnight in A pril a t Landeck, near th e Arlberg Pass in th e
Tyrol. I t was learned th a t m ass rem ovals of PW from U pper
A ustria tow ards th e Tyrol, from Lower A ustria tow ards th e
co u n try round Passau and B raunau were in progress. One of
th e delegates found some thousands of P W in Landeck Cam p,
which was atta ch e d to Stalag X V III C a t M arkt-Pongau, where
m any colum ns were also arriving.
Two block-trains were
therefore unloaded a t Landeck, b u t distribution could not be
carried out on a large scale u n til a fter th e surrender, because
th e roads were too congested to perm it any traffic.

I t m ay safely be said th a t the relief schemes carried out

in th e w inter of 1944-45 and the spring of 1945 saved tens of
thousands of lives.
Allied Red Cross Societies played an im p o rtan t p a rt in the
success of these efforts, not only by sending great q u antities
of supplies to Geneva, b u t also by obtaining tra n sp o rt facilities
from various G overnm ents.
Camp leaders also m ade a m ost valuable contribution ; it
was th ey who kept th e ICRC inform ed of th e num bers and
needs of PW , of the sta te of com m unications, and of th e best
m ethod of conveying the supplies to each cam p. F urtherm ore,
th e team s or com m ittees form ed by all the cam p leaders in
each cam p often secured wide powers of discretion from th e
D etaining A uthorities in th e supervision and issue of relief.
The ICRC itself m aintained unrem itting pressure on th e
Allied and G erm an au th o rities for th e supply of m eans to
carry out its welfare work. The C om m ittees experience, its
94

m oral standing, and above all th e confidence its im partiality

inspired in all th e belligerents, enabled it to aid th e victim s
of war in pursuance of its trad itio n al role of neu tral in te r
m ediary, even during th e period when th e war, nearing its
end, was also a t its clim ax.

95

Chapter

The Period of Repatriation

The Am erican and B ritish R ed Cross Societies had given

previous notice th a t when the fighting ceased, th e Allied m ilitary
authorities would them selves tak e care of the nationals of the
U nited N ations who were found in th e respective zones of
occupation. N evertheless, the task of the ICRC did not come
to an end w ith th e arm istice in Europe. They were requested
by the Inter-A llied M ilitary High Com m and (SHAEF) 1, to
give th eir services in helping them to supply relief to Allied
PW , for whom no m eans of im m ediate rep atriatio n were
available.
This relief work m et w ith very great difficulties owing (i)
to th e shortage of tra n sp o rt ; (2) to th e breakdow n of direct
telegraphic com m unication to various p a rts of G erm any ; and
above all (3) to th e imm ense num bers suddenly released. These
included not only hundreds of thousands of PW , b u t civilian
workers, deportees and detainees, each group to be counted
in millions. All these were classified on release either as
ex-PW (RAMP) 2 or Displaced Persons 3.
W ithout w aiting for arrangem ents to be m ade w ith SH A EF,
the ICRC began its relief work from May 8, 1945, as far as
available tra n sp o rt allowed. The necessary inform ation was
supplied by its own delegates and the representatives of SH A EF.
Large am ounts of foodstuffs, medical supplies, tobacco, soap
1 S H A E F Supreme H eadquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces.
2 RAM P Released Allied M ilitary Personnel.
3 W ith regard to D isplaced Persons, see pp. 118 et seq.
96

a n d clothing were sent into G erm any by rail and road. The
Ravensburg D istribution Centre was kept in operation under
th e direction of a perm anent sub-delegation ; th e Landeck
(Tyrol) sub-delegation also had some stocks a t its disposal,
and th e delegation a t Uffing (Bavaria) d istributed the relief
supplies stored a t Moosburg.
Conversations betw een th e representatives of S H A E F and
the ICRC took place a t Kreuzlingen, on the German-Swiss
frontier, on May 22 and 25, 1945, and in Paris during June.
As a result of these talk s th e scheme for supplying nationals
of th e U nited N ations countries was brought into line w ith
the rep atriatio n procedure, and th e stocks held b y the ICRC
in Sw itzerland and abroad were liquidated in th e m ost rational
way. These stocks were used to augm ent the rations supplied
by th e Allied m ilitary authorities to ex-P W and ex-civilian
internees in G erm any, u n til th eir repatriation.
U nder the new scheme, th e ICRC drew on th e General Pool
of relief supplies built up in Sw itzerland w ith stocks of B ritish
and A m erican origin, and despatched them a t the formal
request and on the instructions of SH A EF. The pooled stock
warehoused in Sw itzerland represented about 30,000 tons of
foodstuffs on Ju n e 1, 1945. Some relatively small relief stocks,
which were the p roperty of Allied Red Cross Societies and had
not been placed in th e General Pool, were distributed in accor
dance w ith th e donors wishes, in so far as th e Com m ittee had
th e m eans of tra n sp o rt. O ther relief supplies which did not
form p a rt of th e General Pool and were still lying in p ort a t
Lisbon and Toulon, were returned to the donors.
B y the use of air tran sp o rt, the repatriation of ex-PW and
of civilian internees from U nited N ations countries, was speedily
carried out. The d a ta supplied by SH A E F show th a t about
1,500 tra n sp o rt planes and bom bers took p art during May in
this operation and th a t th ey carried up to 36,000 persons a
day, when w eather conditions were good. For these people,
therefore, only a small proportion of the available stocks was
draw n on, and it was decided by SH A E F and the French
M inistry for PW , Deportees and Refugees th a t the stocks
rem aining should be issued to Displaced Persons who were
h i. 7

97

nationals of U nited N ations countries, w ith th e exception of

four million Am erican sta n d a rd parcels. These were set aside
for possible fu tu re requirem ents of ex-prisoners of w ar 1.

1 See pp. 118 et seq. for an account of the unexpected difficulties

m et in forwarding parcels, and especially stocks of pharm aceutical
supplies, to th e organizations now responsible. For supplies to P W
who were nationals of the A xis countries, see the follow ing chapter.

Chapter i o

Relief to Axis Prisoners of War after the End of Hostilities

eneral

b se r v a t io n s

A t th e end of hostilities in E urope, th e relief work of the

ICRC in behalf of prisoners of w ar necessarily resum ed th e
character it had had a t th e beginning of th e war. A t th a t
tim e (1940), v irtu ally all P W were held by one belligerent, so
th a t an y intervention m ade by th e ICRC was in fact alm ost
entirely unilateral, although in principle based on reciprocity.
A fter th e au tu m n of 1945, th e situation was reversed, and th e
only prisoners rem aining were nationals of Axis countries,
chiefly A ustrian, Germ an, H ungarian, Ita lia n and Japanese.
A t least one of th e countries concerned, nam ely G erm any,
no longer existed as a political body, and the sta tu s of PW was
not in fact im m ediately granted to Germ an com batants who
had laid down th eir arm s under th e term s of surrender 1. The
m ilitary authorities lost no tim e in distinguishing betw een
w ar crim inals, to whom th e G eneva Conventions obviously
did not apply, and all th e o ther detainees from Axis countries,
G erm any in particu lar. Public opinion, however, and m any
m inor officials were inclined to judge m atters in a far more
a rb itra ry way, especially in countries which had undergone
great suffering during hostilities.
A lthough th e Com m ittee was not required to give a con
sidered opinion on th e question, it was nevertheless obliged to
ta k e it into account, and had to use circum spection when
1 See Vol. I, pp. 539 et seq.

99

acting as n eu tral interm ediary and when exercizing its right

of initiative. Since its only concern is to give th e m ost effective
help to those in need, the ICRC chooses in each p articu lar
case th e m ost appropriate m eans to th a t end. T h at is why it
did not, for instance, th in k it useful to m ake a public appeal
for contributions in behalf of prisoners from Axis countries
a fter th e end of hostilities.
The ICRC was undoubtedly bound to act in the interest
of th e defeated, and its efforts from th e end of 1945 were in
fact centred on th eir welfare. In spite of appearances, no
p artisan sh ip was involved in this policy, since the work of th e
Com m ittee during any given conflict has to be considered as
a whole. A rapid survey of th e second W orld W ar and ensuing
events will show th a t, from 1939 to 1943, considerable m oral
and m aterial relief was given alm ost exclusively to nationals
of th e U nited N ations. In 1944 and p a rt of 1945 th e balance
was still in th eir favour, and only in th e post-w ar period was
th e position entirely reversed ; th en th e intervention of the
ICRC was only required for the co m b atan ts of defeated coun
tries. The W estern Powers, m oreover, who had until then
ab u n d a n tly benefited by th e C om m ittees assistance, readily
au th o rized and in fact facilitated its activities, although
circum stances m ade it impossible for these Pow ers to g ran t
PW tre a tm e n t strictly in accordance w ith the Red Cross
Conventions and hu m an itarian principles.
The ICRC therefore m et w ith few difficulties of a diplom atic
or ad m inistrative n ature. As regards m aterial relief, however,
the extrem ely lim ited m eans a t its disposal ham pered its
efforts. F rom 1945 to 1947, the only resources available were :
(1) for G erm an PW , the balance rem aining from sum s subscribed
by the G erm an Red Cross and th e G erm an G overnm ent ;
(2) for G erm an and A ustrian PW , the proceeds of collections
tak en in the U nited S tates am ongst Germ an PW who were
still in relatively com fortable circum stances. For Italian PW ,
m atte rs were slightly less difficult.
The ensuing account will deal m ainly w ith relief to Germ an
PW , since th ey form ed a typical exam ple of the problem s
which affect m aterial assistance to defeated com batants.
100

The collections m entioned above had been organized during

1944 by th e G erm an PW them selves in some of the cam ps in
th e U nited S tates ; th e proceeds had been handed to the delega
tion of the ICRC in W ashington, which kept them as funds for
special grants, when required. O ther cam ps followed suit, and
funds am ounting to $ 1,220 a t the end of 1944 had reached over
$ 12,000 by April 1945.
S hortly afterw ards, contributions
from th e Germ an au th o rities and Germ an Red Cross ceased
altogether, and th e ICRC requested th eir delegation to keep
the above funds in reserve for general relief to German PW , and
to encourage fu rth e r collections. Gifts th en arrived from all
cam ps, raising th e relief fund to $ 200,000 in August 1945, to
8 759,000 a t th e end of th e year and to 8 1,900,834 in June
1946, a t which date th e rem aining German and A ustrian PW
left th e U nited States.
The A m erican authorities p erm itted these collections only
on condition th a t th e donors should not set a n y lim itation to
th e use of the funds obtained, and th a t th e ICRC should be
entirely free to employ the m oney w ithout distinction of n atio
nality, race or religion.
The cam p leaders were, however,
allowed to inform the ICRC delegation of the m ens wishes ;
m any cam ps were more p articularly interested in victim s of
th e concentration cam ps, others in the German and A ustrian
civilian populations, prisoners in p articular need, th e European
children, and so forth.
In com pliance w ith th eir wishes, the ICRC spent about
60% of th e to ta l am ount in favour of Germ an and A ustrian
PW ; the rem ainder was allocated for relief to civilians and
for the constitution of a reserve fund of $ 500,000, to serve
for the retu rn of Surplus K it , of which more will be said
later. However, th is reserve was not used as arranged, and
8 250,000 were released in the au tu m n of 1946 for the purchase
of relief supplies for German prisoners.
It m ust be stressed th a t these funds were absurdly sm all,
as the following com parison will show.
The value of relief consignm ents to German prisoners of
war from the sum m er of 1945 to th a t of 1947 only am ounted
to about ig million Swiss francs, i.e. the approxim ate cost of
101

ten d ay s relief supplies to Allied PXV, to whom relief supplies

am ounting in all to some three thousand m illion francs were
assigned. F u rth e r, a t th e beginning of the post-w ar period,
th e num ber of A ustrian, G erm an, H ungarian, Japanese and
other prisoners greatly exceeded the m axim um Allied PVV
strengths, and, in 1947, th e figure was still over a million men,
not counting those in R ussian hands. Thus, th e ICRC often
had to work out relief schem es a t a tim e when th e funds a t
th eir disposal did not even am ount to one franc per head.
The m ethods em ployed n a tu ra lly suffered by these res
trictions. In stead of m erely tra n sm ittin g gifts for PW , as it
h ad done during hostilities, th e ICRC was obliged to take
active steps to find donors a ta sk which, for the political
a n d psychological reasons already quoted, proved thankless
enough. F u rth e r, its inability to provide adequate relief from
its own resources, reduced th e Com m ittee in the m ain to indirect
assistance, such as appeals to th e D etaining Powers for the
tre a tm e n t of PW in accordance w ith tre a ty stipulations and
h u m an itarian principles. In th e W estern E uropean countries
in particu lar, where th e release of PW was slower th a n overseas,
w ar an d occupation had left deep and painful wounds : ruin
and destruction, im poverished economic conditions, and
resentm ent against th e invaders. The prim ary d u ty of th e
ICRC was to ensure th a t th e prisoners should suffer as little
as possible b y these circum stances ; th e gradual im provem ent
in th eir conditions was p a rtly due to th e C om m ittees efforts,
and to th e willing support which, it m ust be recorded, was inc
reasingly afforded by th e S tates concerned.
The C om m ittees resources, b o th in m oney an d in kind,
were too small to allow of equal d istribution am ong the PW ;
p rio rity was therefore given to those in severe clim ates, or in
countries which were unable to give th e m m inim um m ainte
nance. Thus, G erm an PW in P oland and Jugoslavia often
received p ro portionately m ore th a n th eir com rades in France
an d N o rth Africa, whilst intellectual m a tte r only was provided
for cam ps in th e N ear E ast, A ustralia, the U nited S tates,
G reat B ritain, a n d elsewhere. Merely lim iting th e num ber of
recipients did not, however, entirely solve th e question; the
102

C om m ittee was ultim ately compelled to satisfy only th e most

pressing needs. I t th u s restricted its purchases to m edicam ents,
sm all q u antities of diet foods, hospital linen, underclothing,
tailo rs and shoem akers m aterials and, whenever possible,
footw ear. It was considered advisable to abandon a n y a tte m p t
a t giving food supplies ; even b y abandoning all other forms
of relief, a tte m p ts in th is field would have been insignificant.
The Com m ittee also found th a t, w ith regard to food, the
D etaining Powers were able to follow up its suggestions more
freely th a n hitherto.
From th e above com m ents, it will be seen th a t th e Com
m itte e s resources were very lim ited, especially as it was obliged
to hold back a m inim um reserve fund (often less th a n 500,000
francs) for unforeseen emergencies, such as epidemics, the
relief of d ista n t cam ps th e existence of which h ad rem ained
unknow n, and for rep a tria te d prisoners.
The question of tra n sp o rt costs for relief supplies was also
difficult to settle. As th e levy 1 was only applicable to
relief supplies for Allied PW , and the proceeds of th e levy
from th e Germ an side had ceased, these costs could only be
covered by the balance of th e Germ an G overnm ents paym ents
for th is purpose. This balance am ounted to 613,097.52 francs
on J a n u a ry 1, 1946, and fell to 443.088.22 francs b y Ju n e 30,
1947. As th e ICRC was anxious to keep this balance in hand
against possible deficits, it was obliged to deduct from funds
intended for th e purchase of relief supplies a percentage sufficient
to cover overhead costs, such as adm inistrative expenses a t
G eneva and in th e delegations (when accountable to relief
activities), warehousing, checking of consignm ents, repacking,
loading and tra n sp o rt charges, if free tra n sp o rt was refused.
D uring 1946, a reserve account was in stitu ted , w hereby 20%
of all funds subscribed for an y given relief action were p u t
aside to meet costs, and any rem aining balance was afterw ards
transferred to th e purchase fund.
The question rem ained w hether these deductions were
justifiable, since th e funds had been subscribed exclusively
1 See page 270.

103

for prisoners needs. Some donors, it is tru e, relieved th e ICRC

of an y an x iety on th is point. The Com m ittee had, in view
of the hum an itarian ch aracter of its work, received from the
Swiss pharm aceutical m anufacturers during th e w ar a rebate
of 30% on th e wholesale rate s for its purchases. From Ju ly 1,
1946, half this rebate, which u n til then had been entirely used
for prisoners needs, was placed in th e reserve account. Added
to th e balance of th e G erm an subscriptions already m entioned,
these funds were, w ith th e donors perm ission, used to meet
overhead deficits. These could no longer be paid by th e levy
m ade on th e reserve account, i.e. 2% in 1946, and 5% in 1947.
W hereas during th e war an average levy of less th a n 5 per
th ousand had been sufficient when th e goods handled am ounted
to about 2 million francs a day, overhead expenses inevitably
exceeded this low ra te when the figure reached only 2 million
per q u arter, in spite of reductions in staff and adm inistrative
m achinery. As th e donors would not have approved of a deduc
tion of more th a n 5 per cent (which was the lim it set by the
ICRC in 1947), recourse had to be m ade to the two reserve
accounts m entioned above.
E ven then th e ICRC was faced with financial difficulties,
and a t th e beginning of 1947, it considered w hether the p u r
chase, packing and despatch of relief supplies could not be
more economically un d ertak en by com m ercial agents, despite
th e rem uneration such agents would require for th eir services.
Self-m anagem ent was however found less expensive, as the
rebates which th e suppliers, especially in Sw itzerland, granted
th e ICRC, would not have been available to th ird parties.
No change in working m ethods was m ade during the first
half of 1947 ; during th e period Ju ly 1947-June 1948, a new
b u t p a rtial solution was found \
D uring th e war, the ICRC received a great m any donations
in kind, and purchases were relatively few.
F urtherm ore,
these were m ade on the Swiss m arket, where prices were statecontrolled. A fter th e war, however, the ICRC was obliged to
1 See R eport on the C om m ittee's activities from July 1, 1947 to
Decem ber 31, 1948.

104

draw upon its m ain assets to purchase goods, in some cases

job lots of uncertain value. The Com m ittee was, m oreover, not
responsible to any donors for its transactions, the funds a t its
disposal having been contributed by German PW in the U nited
States, or draw n from frozen funds in Sw itzerland belonging
to th e form er G erm an G overnm ent. It was then decided th a t
the relief schemes should not be th e sole concern of the Relief
D epartm ent, or of the P harm aceutical Section, and considered
by the Central M anagem ent only, b u t th a t th ey should be fu rth er
subm itted for the approval of th e P residents office.
F u rth er, as from th e end of 1946, commercial experts
outside the ICRC and its m anagem ent were appointed to
supervise th e purchase prices of commodities.
However judiciously employed, the above resources proved
insufficient. The ICRC therefore tried to fill the deficiency by
facilitating the despatch of fam ily parcels and organising
collections am ong m em bers of Germ an com m unities overseas.
Fam ily parcels, which were the original form of Red Cross
relief, played an im p o rtan t p a rt during th e W ar 1, especially
in respect of French PW in Germany. The m oral support they
gave was not th eir least advantage. W hen hostilities ceased
and the m ajority of th e detaining S tates were quite unable to
supply prisoners w ith th e m inim um rations laid down by the
Conventions, the m aterial and m oral value of these parcels
increased accordingly. I t rem ained to be seen w hether the
next of kin could m ake the sacrifice involved, and w hether
they should be encouraged to do so by the ICRC, which was
itself supplying relief to the German and A ustralian civilian
populations, at first through the Jo in t Relief Commission and
after th e end of 1946, in conjunction with the League of Red
Cross Societies, through the In tern atio n al Relief Centre for
Civilian Populations, the In tern atio n al Union for Child W elfare,
and other welfare associations. A fter careful study, the ICRC
undertook this responsibility. The Com m ittee was th e p ri
soners only support, while the civilian populations, however
bad circum stances m ight be, were assisted by th e occupying
1 See pp. 10 c t seq.

105

au th o rities and received gifts th rough various channels from

abroad. N evertheless, th e occupation h ead q u arters in various
areas did occasionally lim it th e contents or num ber of parcels
sent, b u t th e goodwill of th e au th o rities in yielding to th e
C om m ittees argum ents led to an early comprom ise, covering
th e interests of th e occupying authorities, th e population,
an d th e prisoners and th eir families.
As early as 1946, th e ICRC launched an appeal to German
com m unities abroad, as th ere rem ained no Germ an Governm ent
or N ational Red Cross to whom it could apply. In particular,
it m ade an application to th e Swiss au th o rities to sanction the
use in favour of G erm an PW , of priv ate G erm an funds im pound
ed in Sw itzerland, w ithin th e lim its of th e agreem ents concluded
betw een the chief Allied Powers and Sw itzerland. The ICRC
also asked th a t certain sum s deposited by th e G erm an G overn
m ent, before th e surrender, w ith th e Swiss G overnm ent or
th e Germ an Legation in Berne, should be released, a t least
partially , for th e benefit of Germ an PW in G erm any.
In spite of th e funds raised in this m anner in 1946 and
early in 1947, th e situation rem ained alarm ing. A lthough food
ratio n s were on an average slightly higher th a n in th e preceding
year, the prisoners were underfed, especially where th eir state
of h ealth required a stim ulant diet.
T hey lacked medical
a tte n tio n an d clothing ; when released and rep a tria te d , th ey
were exposed to hardships which were p articu larly severe for
th e sick a n d disabled.
The ICRC once again urged th e D etaining Powers to im prove
prisoners' conditions an d to hasten th eir repatriation. A t the
sam e tim e, the stu d y of th e reports on cam p visits led the
ICRC to conclude th a t to m eet th e m ost urgent needs would
require a t least th e following am ounts :
$
650,000
for
artificial limbs
$
1,650,000
,,
m edical supplies
S
785,000
,,
foodstuffs
$ 36,600,000
,,
clothing
S 5 , 9 5 0 , 0 0 0 ............................. . sundry articles
S
2 5 0 , 0 0 0 ..........................
,,
intellectual relief
(books, games, etc.).
106

The to ta l requirem ents therefore am ounted to $ 45,885,000.

T his was by no m eans an excessive figure, as it h ard ly reached
a n average of $ 45 per head, th e num ber of prisoners being
th en a t least a million, w ithout including th e rep a tria te s an d th e
disabled.
In F eb ru ary 1947, th e ICRC issued an appeal to th e Gov
ernm ents and Red Cross Societies of 34 countries, which was
accom panied by a rep o rt on The situation of Germ an and
A ustrian Prisoners an d W ar-disabled . The appeal requested
G overnm ents to allow th e use of frozen G erm an funds, and
th e collection and despatch of gifts in m oney and in kind. The
N ational Red Cross Societies were requested to support and
cooperate in these collections. The ICRC also sent represen
tativ e s on special missions to the tw e n ty countries of L atin
Am erica, to th e U nited S tates, and to Spain and Portugal, to
subm it its appeal to th e A uthorities, th e N ational Red Cross
Societies and th e Germ an com m unities.
B y June 30, 1947, tw enty-six countries had responded to
th e appeal. All b u t two unfo rtu n ately declined to allow th e
use of frozen G erm an funds, b u t all agreed to collections in
th e ir territo ry .
To guide persons willing to particip ate in th is relief scheme,
th e ICRC issued a t th e end of Ju n e a leaflet entitled Infor
m ation for the use of Donors , giving a list of products an d
essential articles for P W and disabled, w ith instructions on th e
tran sfer of funds, packing and despatch of goods, and the
refunding of costs.
By the end of Ju n e 1947 th e ICRC h ad received, as a small
beginning, gifts to a value of 20,000 Swiss francs 1.

2.

Supply

of

F ood

and

C l o t h in g 2

A fter th e surrender of th e Germ an forces in May 1945,

th e ICRC was, as in 1940, once more suddenly faced w ith
1 Further details on the subject will be found in the R eport on the
A ctivities of the ICRC from Ju ly 1, 1947, to D ecem ber 31, 1948.
2 For pharm aceutical relief and intellectual aid, see pp. 311-340 passim .

107

great num bers of prisoners in need of relief. Some were given

th e sta tu s of D isarm ed Personnel b u t this had no bearing
on the problem th ey set. A t th a t tim e th ere were, including
Disarm ed Personnel , well over th ree million Germ an PW ,
of whom alm ost one million were held in France, about one
million in Italy , 80,000 to 100,000 in Jugoslavia, 40,000 to
50,000 in Poland, about 20,000 in Czechoslovakia, a few hundred
thousand in th e B ritish Com m onwealth and the U nited S tates,
and alm ost one million in G erm any itself. The num ber held in
Russia was not known.
The physical and m oral condition of th e prisoners was
deplorable. A great num ber had been under arm s for several
years, and th eir health had been affected by th e cam paigns
in E astern E urope or in Africa ; all were profoundly depressed
b y th e to ta l ruin of th eir country. A large proportion consisted
of boys of 15 to 19, and men in the fifties or sixties.
Relief was therefore a m atte r of great urgency, and only
the ICRC could supply it. The only resources available, however,
were a sum of barely 700,000 Swiss francs, representing the
balance of th e funds contributed by th e form er Germ an Go
vernm ent, and about 400 tons of supplies, com prising the last
two deliveries of food supplies from the German Red Cross,
intended for G erm an prisoners in N orth Africa, which had not
been forw arded for technical reasons. In addition, th e shortage
of tra n sp o rt prevented an y im m ediate action ; accordingly,
nothing could be done before 1946 for the German PW in
Jugoslavia, Poland and Czechoslovakia. It was in fact, some
m onths before th e ICRC, or even the G overnm ents of the
D etaining Powers could ascertain the exact num ber of PW , their
postal addresses and th e route by rail or road which served each
cam p. In Poland, for instance, tra n sp o rt was disorganized for
so long, th a t in 1946 there were still prisoners in some provinces
of whom the central authorities in W arsaw knew nothing.
The ICRC had from the beginning to relate its relief work
to the lim ited resources a t its disposal, and it decided on m eas
ures based on the three following principles :
(1)
No response would be m ade to requests for individual
relief, except those from men who were isolated or in prison.
108

I t was to presum ed th a t all prisoners in th e same cam p fared

in m uch the same way, and th a t those who m ade application
were not necessarily th e worst off, b u t ra th e r th e more en ter
prising, who did not hesitate to w rite to th e ICRC and a t th e
sam e tim e to other relief organizations such as th e YMCA, the
Society of Friends and th e Am erican R ed Cross. M oreover, the
system of collective relief was more convenient an d effective ;
it would obviously have been b o th costly a n d difficult to des
p atch parcels to prisoners on farm s or in labour detachm ents
far from a n y railw ay. I t was b e tte r to send full wagon-loads
of provisions to base cam ps, for the m ens com m unal kitchen,
or for fair distribution by the cam p leader.
(2) The ICRC did not th in k th a t it should have to look
after prisoners due for early release. This applied in p a rticu la r
to the men in the big assem bly centres in G erm any itself, where
th e y only rem ained for tw o to six m onths a fter th e arm istice.
(3) Relief, as m entioned above, was also not considered
necessary for prisoners held b y countries in relatively satisfac
to ry economic circum stances, such as Belgium, Canada, D en
m ark, E gypt, G reat B ritain, L uxem burg, th e N etherlands, and
th e U nited States.
The ICRC therefore, from th e au tu m n of 1945, concentrated
its efforts on relief for prisoners in French hands, num bering
ab o u t a million. B y this tim e, rail com m unications had been
alm ost entirely restored, and the m ilitary authorities, having
com pleted the organization of depots and labour detachm ents,
were anxious for the ICRC to share w ith them the ta sk of
feeding and clothing th e men who were being used as labour
throughout France. I t was also agreed th a t th e ICRC m ight
freely visit th e cam ps, and th a t th e distribution of relief supplies
should be carried out by them , or under th eir supervision.
In spite of having lim ited its efforts to th is one category
of PW , the ICRC still found itself w ithout sufficient resources
to meet their full needs for any length of tim e. In agreem ent
w ith its Delegation in Paris, it therefore decided to send relief
in th e first instance to cam ps where the food situation was
109

especially critical ; th ereafter, to th e sick in cam p infirm aries

or in hospitals ; th ird ly , to m en who were isolated in prisons ;
and finally, to th e cam ps in N orth Africa and Corsica, where
th e food supply was still very precarious.
D uring th e sum m er of 1945, th e ICRC learned from its
delegates reports and th e F rench G overnm ent acknowledged
th e fact th a t about 200,000 m en out of one million were in
serious danger from underfeeding. This was p articu larly so
in th e dev astated areas, or in non-agricultural regions such as
the A tlantic seaboard, A uvergne a n d th e B ordeaux district.
The num ber of cases of hunger oedem a and general debility
were increasing, an d m any had, or were likely to have fatal
results, th e daily ratio n s having fallen to less th a n one thousand
calories.
F urtherm ore, th e cam ps had been overcrow ded,
owing to th e cession by the U nited States of 200,000 prisoners
to France.
On A ugust 21, th e ICRC issued a M em orandum to all
G overnm ents concerned on the prisoners condition.
T hey
declared th a t, in th eir own view, prisoners handed over to
an o th er Pow er should be given tre a tm e n t a t least equal to
th a t applying before th eir transfer. On Septem ber 14, th ey
again approached th e U.S. G overnm ent, w ith a request th a t
th e y should tak e urgent steps to alleviate the grievous need
of G erm an prisoners in French hands. The head of th e Dele
gation in Paris had several interview s w ith th e U nited Statesm ilitary au th o rities in Paris and F ran k fo rt, to whom he detailed
th e requirem ents in foodstuffs, m edical supplies and clothing,
a n d offering a t th e sam e tim e th e services of th e C om m ittee.
These negotiations led to an im p o rtan t relief scheme, which
was late r term ed O peration A (American).
This began
on October 6, a n d when it ended, about three weeks later, th e
m ens physical condition and morale showed m arked im prove
m ent. An und ertak in g given by the French G overnm ent to
raise th e daily ratio n to 2,000 calories indicated th a t th ey
were now out of danger.
M otor-trucks and drivers had been placed a t th e disposal
of th e ICRC by th e U nited S tates authorities, and these d istri
b u ted supplies from th e Am erican food depots a t Marseilles,
no

Rheim s, Orleans, Le H avre and Le Mans. Convoying a n d

d istribution were carried out by five ICRC delegates in F rance
an d 25 escort agents. Thus, 3,669,374 kilos of foodstuffs were
distrib u ted to all th e cam ps in fourteen out of 19 m ilitary
districts, a n d 262,485 kilos of clothing an d sleeping bags w ent
to 32 cam ps, containing a to ta l of 169,099 m en 1.
These relief supplies were given free b y th e A m ericans,
b u t th e ICRC delegation was reim bursed for its expenses b y
PW depots a t the rate of one French franc per kilo of goods
delivered. The am ount of these invoices was deducted from
collections am ongst able-bodied P W who received pay, a n d
from th e fairly large sums which th e cam p com m andants were
compelled to accum ulate from mess profits , since th e y
could not alw ays find sufficient supplies on th e m arket to
absorb th e credits allowed th em for purchases of foodstuffs.
C oncurrently, a sim ilar plan, called O peration F (French)
was devised to supplem ent O peration A . A t th e tim e
when it was decided th a t th e situation described above had
to be rectified a t all costs, th e F rench G overnm ent h ad re p a tri
a te d th e great m ajo rity of French PW from G erm any, an d was
a t a n y ra te able to estim ate th e exact am ount of supplies still
necessary for th e rep atriatio n centres. A large stock of food
parcels, m ade up a fter th e liberation of France by th e provincial
branches of th e French Red Cross, still rem ained in Sw itzerland,
an d could not be forw arded to G erm any owing to the breakdow n
in rail tra n sp o rt. A t th e suggestion of th e ICRC, p a rt of these
stocks were bought w ith th e proceeds of collections am ong
prisoners and " mess profits . The parcels were sorted and
m ade up by th e ICRC, which began to dispatch them in th e
au tu m n of 1945. The prisoners th u s received ab o u t 200 to n s
more of foodstuffs.
In addition to these supplies, th e rem ainder of th e Germ an
R ed Cross stocks w arehoused in Sw itzerland was brought into
use. D uring th e au tu m n of 1945, the ICRC also d istrib u ted
to German prisoners in F rance an d N orth Africa various food
1 The details of this distribution were as follow s : 85,555 sleeping
bags, 18,030 pairs of shoes, 19,080 tunics, 700 vests, 18,330 greatcoats,
17,745 pairs of trousers, and 11,774 caps.
Ill

supplies bought in Sweden w ith funds available a t Geneva ;

these purchases consisted of 100 tons of pow dered m ilk, 100
tons of split peas and 15,000 tin s of preserved fish.
G erm an prisoners in F rance suffered from th e lack of
clothing no less th a n from under-nourishm ent. This need was
p artially m et w ith th e help of collections m ade in Germ an PW
cam ps in the U nited States. The Relief Division was th u s able
to buy, a t a cost of $ 175,000, 197,000 pairs of shoes from Ame
rican surplus stores , th a t is to say, the reserve stocks which
th e U.S. G overnm ent had built up in France, and which were
sold off a fter th e war. Of th is footw ear, 157,000 pairs were
d istrib u ted in France, 15,000 in N orth Africa, and a t a later
date, 25,000 in Poland a n d Jugoslavia.
Furtherm ore, the
D elegation of the ICRC in W ashington purchased, a t a cost of
$ 160,000, 72,000 U.S. A rm y sleeping bags, which were divided
am ong th e cam ps in France, Jugoslavia and Poland.
The
delegation in F rance also issued 25,432 articles of underclothing
from A m erican surplus stocks.
The ICRC took fu rth er m easures to procure clothing for
P W during the w inter of 1945-1946. Assuming th a t in the
com paratively less d ev astated regions of G erm any there would
be a considerable num ber of uniform s belonging to dead, c a p tu r
ed or demobilized service men, th e Com m ittee requested th e
occupying Powers to allow th em to collect old Germ an arm y
uniform s and other clothing for th e prisoners use. The proposal
was accepted only b y th e F rench G overnm ent, for whom it
presented obvious advantages. In Novem ber 1945, th e collec
tion was organized in th e French Zone of occupation, w ith the
help of local welfare organizations, and brought in about 875
to n s of clothing, of which 800 were a t once despatched to cam ps
in France. The rem aining 75 tons were cleaned and disinfected
in th e C om m ittees warehouses a t Geneva, and then sent on to
France and Poland. This was certainly a m ost satisfactory result.
The prisoners condition again becam e alarm ing in the
sum m er of 1946, as the " carry-over betw een th e French
harvests had not been sustained. The Swiss Relief F und had
a t th a t tim e m ade a collection of potatoes am ong Swiss farm ers
for distribution in neighbouring countries, and having obtained
112

more th a n the q u a n tity required, it handed over th e surplus

of 67 tons to th e ICRC, which sent them to PW hospitals and
to cam ps where food conditions were especially bad.
A t th e same tim e, the ICRC Delegation in Paris, encouraged
b y th e success of O peration F , established a " Paid Relief
service, w ith th e approval of the French authorities, in order
to provide prisoners w ith a more varied and su b stan tial diet.
I t offered to purchase in France, at the request and the charge
of cam ps and labour detachm ents, especially n utritious food
stuffs, such as date, fig and b anana b u tte r, jam s, honey, flour
m ade from runner beans, haricot beans, peas, barley and
chestnuts, meal for soups, oatflakes, and so on, b u t no rationed
products. Thus, from Septem ber 1946 to Ju n e 1947, it bought
and sold 308 tons of goods a t a cost of 20,400,000 French francs
an d sent off 500 consignm ents to 76 depots, 18 m ilitary hospitals
an d m any labour detachm ents. The scheme was carried on
over th e whole period w ith a working capital of five million
F rench francs, and w ithout an y loss of goods.
The Relief Division also undertook im p o rtan t transactions,
firstly in 1946, and again during the first half of 1947, to a
to ta l value of 282,536 and 481,488 Swiss francs respectively.
I t was th u s able to send foodstuffs to France, Poland, Czecho
slovakia and Jugoslavia (in p articular 9,100 tins of sardines
which it was able to buy cheaply), as well as underclothing,
m aterial for cobblers and tailors repairs, and toilet articles.
Gifts in kind were few. From May 1945 to Ju n e 1947, the
ICRC received 118 tons of such goods, comprising 94 tons of
foodstuffs, 14 tons of clothing and ten tons of cigarettes and
sundry articles. N early all th e donors lived in Sw itzerland :
th e few residing abroad sent th eir gifts direct to the ICRC dele
gations, except for th e Germ an W om ens Com m ittee in Buenos
Ayres, which forw arded some of th e gifts to Geneva.
L astly, a few private collections were organized in Sw it
zerland under the auspices of the ICRC ; one of these was in
behalf of Germ an Red Cross sisters held in captivity. The
results were in general satisfactory.
German prisoners in N orth Africa received relief through
th e ICRC Delegation in Cairo. The head of th a t delegation
III. s

113

visited South Africa and was fo rtu n ate enough to obtain from
th e South A frican Red Cross and other relief organizations
th e gift of several shipm ents of foodstuffs, as well as funds
w ith which goods were purchased in E gypt. The delegation also
received gifts from local sources, an d from th e Germ an civilian
internees in Palestine and Southern Rhodesia. These am ounted
in all to 258 tons of foodstuffs, including 88 tons abandoned
b y th e G erm an forces on th e Island of Rhodes, which th e
B ritish authorities, in th e spring of 1946, handed over for
Germ an PW . These com m odities (maize, barley, m eal, dried
peas, tinned m eat a n d lard) were all sent to N orth Africa,
excepting 18 cases containing 645 kilos of lard ; 15 cases were
forw arded to P oland and th ree to Czechoslovakia.
All consignm ents were sent, not direct to th e cam ps as during
th e war, b u t to th e ICRC delegations, to ensure th e judicious
use of the supplies, which were too lim ited in q u a n tity for general
distribution. The delegates in France were helped in th eir work
b y PW placed a t their service by the m ilitary authorities.
As already m entioned, individual relief was given only to
m en detained in French prisons for various reasons ; these
were supplied w ith sta n d a rd parcels, m ade up by the delegation
in Paris and containing goods received from Geneva. In 1946,
th e parcels held 1 tin of jam , 2 tin s of biscuits, 250 gram m es of
chocolate, 5 cakes of soap, 1 pair of socks and some undercloth
ing. Prisoners who received p ay gave 100 French francs for
each parcel, whilst others received them free of charge.
The ICRC, for th e reasons described above, had some
difficulty in arranging for prisoners to receive parcels from
G erm any and A ustria. T hrough th e efforts of its delegates
in the B ritish, Am erican and French zones in G erm any, th e
relatives of PW in French hands were, in 1945, allowed to send
Christm as parcels. These were officially authorized in 1946 and
accepted by all Germ an post-offices, except in th e R ussian
zone. There were m any losses a t first, b u t a norm al service was
finally established.
I t was a far more difficult m a tte r to secure the sam e a d v a n t
ages for PW in the countries of E astern Europe. I t was not
u n til th e end of 1946 th a t th e ICRC delegations in G erm any,
114

A ustria and Jugoslavia obtained th e consent of all th e authorities

concerned to the despatch of fam ily parcels b y block-trains
for PW in Jugoslavia. The first tra in , composed of nine wagons
from the A m erican zone in G erm any a n d six wagons from
A ustria, left Salzburg on N ovem ber 2, 1946 an d crossed th e
Jugoslav frontier on the following day. The contents were
distrib u ted by th e Jugoslav R ed Cross ; shortly afterw ards
th e Com m ittee was inform ed th a t th e parcels h ad arrived in
th e cam ps. The sam e year, tw o other block-trains left Salzburg
w ith loads not only from th e. A m erican zone and from A ustria,
b u t also from the French zone. A few m onths before, th e
A ustrian post-offices had been authorized to accept postal
packages in tra n s it for prisoners in Jugoslavia and Czechoslo
vakia. F urtherm ore, th e C om m ittees delegations in G erm any
obtained a u th o rity to organize, w ith th e local Red Cross branches,
th e despatch of individual parcels to Poland and Jugoslavia
b y block-trains sent direct from Germany.
3.

o r w a r d in g

of

Surplus

it

The " Surplus K it O peration , set on foot by the Delegation

in W ashington, rem ains to be described. As far back as 1944,
when th e rep atriatio n of Ita lia n PW was under discussion, it
h ad been assum ed th a t prisoners held in the U nited S tates
would not be able to tak e all their personal effects w ith them
when th ey retu rn ed to Europe. A t th e suggestion of th e Dele
gation, th e S ecretary for W ar gave it a u th o rity to collect all
such excess luggage for despatch to Geneva a t the end of hosti
lities, when it could be sent on to the prisoners country of
origin. There were th ree categories of articles :
(1) W orks of a rt, handicraft, and so on, executed by the
prisoners, such as paintings, draw ings, carvings, photographs,
scientific collections, m usical instrum ents, scores and m anus
cripts.
(2) Books of all descriptions.
(3) Clothing and articles bought by the prisoners out
of th eir p ay during captivity.
115

The C om m ittees D elegation in C anada obtained sim ilar

a u th o rity for prisoners in th a t country.
The surplus kit was forw arded from all the cam ps to the
C om m ittees warehouse in New York, to aw ait despatch to
E urope. Such large q u antities arrived th a t the Com m ittee had
to create separate d ep artm en ts to deal w ith it, both in New
York and Geneva. H eavy expenses were incurred, and the
D elegation in W ashington, which had a t first accepted th e kit
free, was eventually compelled to m ake a charge to senders.
However, costs were lower th a n a t first estim ated, and in the
end there rem ained a balance of 470,000 Swiss francs which,
w ith th e consent of th e Landesverbande of the German Red
Cross, was allocated to the purchase of relief supplies for German
prisoners.
W hen th e last prisoners left th e U nited States in Ju n e 1946,
th e surplus kit in the care of th e ICRC am ounted to about
180,000 parcels. These parcels weighed in all 2,000 tons and
th eir tra n sp o rt a t th e ordinary rates would have entailed sum s
th a t neither the Com m ittee, nor th e owners could have borne.
The Am erican authorities were good enough to allow free
carriage. The first shipm ents arrived a t Marseilles and Le H avre
on board Am erican troopships, and were forw arded by rail,
also free of cost, to th e Red Cross warehouses in Geneva. W hen
th e kit could no longer be shipped in th is way, th e Delegation
in W ashington was authorized to send all parcels not exceeding
20 lbs in weight by m ailbag. The rem aining 1,800 tons were
sent to B rem erhaven by th e U.S. W ar D epartm ent.
A fter prolonged discussion, the ICRC and the B avarian
Red Cross cam e to an agreem ent, approved by the occupying
authorities, on the m ethod of forw arding kit to the owners.
It was arranged th a t the B avarian Red Cross should be respon
sible for receiving and sorting th e parcels, checking addresses,
tracing addressees who had changed th eir residence, and forw ar
ding parcels in G erm any and to form er in h ab itan ts of territories
th a t had retu rn ed to Czechoslovakia, or were under Polish
adm inistration . The A ustrian and Ita lia n Red Cross Societies
undertook the same duties in A ustria and Italy. All parcels
116

received a t Geneva or B rem erhaven were th u s forw arded,

according to th eir u ltim ate destination, to one or other of these
organizations, by m eans of block-trains escorted by agents of
the ICRC or of th e Red Cross Societies concerned.

117

C h a p te r i l

Relief to Displaced Persons

The Allies had declared beforehand th a t, a t the end of hosti
lities, th ey would each in th eir respective zones of occupation,
u n d ertak e the provisioning of th e citizens of U nited N ations
countries who m ight be in Germ any. From May 1945 onwards,
th e ICRC therefore m ade every endeavour to co-operate w ith
th e Allied m ilitary authorities. The Com m ittee had a t th a t
time over 100,000 tons of relief consignm ents available in its
warehouses in Sw itzerland, in the ports of arrival and in several
warehouses in Germ any. A part from some 400 tons intended
for G erm an PW in N orth Africa, these supplies had been given
for PW in G erm an hands and included a relatively small qu an
t ity for political detainees in th e concentration camps.
These goods were intended m ainly to supplem ent the rations
issued by the occupation authorities to form er PW and civilian
internees in G erm any pending th eir rep atriatio n ; this last
process, however, was carried out a t such speed th a t only a
very lim ited proportion of goods was used in this w ay l. It
was therefore proposed to use them for displaced persons,
citizens of U nited N ations countries, whose situation was
extrem ely critical. The consent of th e donors was, however,
necessary, and m ost of these preferred to have their goods
retu rn ed to them . The Am erican and B ritish R ed Cross Socie
ties, on the other hand, pooled all the foodstuffs and clothing
sent to the ICRC, and this joint stock could be draw n upon
1 See p. 96.
I l

u n d er th eir supervision and the instructions of the Interallied

Suprem e Com m and, and supplied to Displaced Persons of the
U nited N ations in the A m erican and B ritish Zones. The French
G overnm ent decided th a t in its own zone th e same category
of people should be assisted by th e m ilitary au thorities and
by th e French R ed Cross, who would draw on th e stocks from
F rench sources th a t were in the custody of th e ICRC.
In the first few m onths after th e arm istice, the Allies did
n ot consider it necessary to appeal to the ICRC, although
relief requirem ents were urgent and v a st in scope. In the course
of the early interview s in May 1945 a t K reuzlingen, near the
German-Swiss frontier, atte n d ed b y representatives of the Allied
m ilitary authorities and of th e ICRC, th e Com m ittee was
inform ed th a t its co-operation was no longer considered necesary. F ully inform ed of the distress of the D isplaced Persons,
th e Com m ittee could not b u t persist. In July, th ey opened
fu rth e r negotiations in A ugsburg and F ran k fo rt w ith the
U nited States A rm y High Com m and and did not conceal th eir
firm intention to pursue a task which, though tem porary, was
none the less urgent, and which their technical organization
an d th eir large stocks of goods would enable them to carry
th ro u g h w ith every prospect of success. The Com m ittee pointed
out, m oreover, th a t the occupation authorities were so over
burdened w ith work th a t relief tra n sp o rte d by the ICRC to
th e centres specified, in particu lar to A ugsburg and M ann
heim, had not been issued. These argum ents were, however,
of no avail.
Im m ediately afterw ards, the ICRC took sim ilar steps in
Paris and in London. W hilst their proposals m et w ith sym
p ath y , neither the French M inistry for Prisoners, D eportees
and R efugees,. nor the B ritish W ar Office or the B ritish Red
Cross could give an u ndertaking to intervene in F rankfort.
The interview s which took place in Geneva w ith representatives
of the Am erican Red Cross only served to confirm the C om m it
te e s point of view in principle, w ithout altering the paradoxical
and m ost deplorable fact th a t large quantities of food and cloth
ing rem ained idle in Sw itzerland, when th ey m ight have some
w hat relieved the dire distress of the Displaced Persons.
119

In a M em orandum addressed, in A ugust 1945, to the Govern

m ents and Red Cross Societies of the countries concerned, the
ICRC consequently declined all responsibility for citizens of the
U nited N ations in G erm any, since th e Com m ittee was prevented
from sending them th e relief which it considered indispensable
and which it could have supplied. The Com m ittee fu rth er
deplored the fact th a t it could do nothing in behalf of Dis
placed Persons who were nationals of countries th a t the Allies
considered as ex-enem y States. The O ccupation A uthorities
had inform ed the Com m ittee th a t the m aintenance of these
people devolved on the G erm an adm inistrative d epartm ents
in charge of food supplies for the civil population. These d e p a rt
m ents were, however, unable to d istribute even the barest
necessities to Baltic, B ulgarian, R um anian, H ungarian, and
Ita lia n nationals or to stateless persons, owing to the shortage
of foodstuffs, to requisitioning by th e Allied Armies and to
tra n sp o rt difficulties. In spite of this fact, the ICRC was not
allowed to help th is category of w ar victim s by draw ing on the
pool. The French G overnm ent alone placed a t its disposal
150,000 five-kilo food parcels for B altic and H ungarian DPs,
which were d istrib u ted betw een May 1945 and F eb ru ary 1946.
D espite all the negotiations m entioned above, the situation
rem ained unchanged and, although appeals which increased
in urgency and num ber reached Geneva, it was impossible to
send consignm ents a t shorter intervals. Moreover, the goods
already sent to G erm any and en tru sted to Allied organizations
which had been recom m ended to the ICRC, were neither
guarded, nor even protected against the w eather. A fter m any
incidents, a special ICRC mission again w ent to F ran k fo rt
and m ade it plain to the Allied authorities th a t th e longer the
distribution of stocks was delayed, the greater would be the
liability incurred by the G overnm ents and R ed Cross Societies
who were owners of relief supplies, since th is sta te of affairs
obliged the ICRC to m aintain a large adm inistrative organisa
tion. The Allies then decided to wind up th e pool straig h t away,
and from N ovem ber 1945, sent rolling stock for this purpose
to the Swiss frontier. By th e end of F eb ru ary 1946, the last
wagons had left the warehouses.
120

The ICRC also m ade every endeavour to bring relief direct

to the Displaced Persons. A few donors h ad left it free
to dispose of about a thousand tons of goods, and th e Com m ittee
decided to use them for this purpose ; it was thus, during the
w inter of 1945-46, able to send 113 wagons of sundry goods to
its delegations in G erm any and A ustria. D uring the same
period, the residue of the 150,000 food parcels given b y the
French G overnm ent for Baltic and H ungarian D Ps was dis
patched, the first half of this lot having already been issued in the
sum m er of 1945. At the request of the General P ost Office in
London, th e Swiss Postal A dm inistration also handed over to
the ICRC about 165 tons of cigarette and tobacco parcels posted
direct by relatives of B ritish PW in Germ any, and which were
still in tra n sit th rough Sw itzerland when, the w ar came to an
end. L astly, th e Com m ittee had 250 tons of sundry relief
supplies available, consisting of foodstuffs, clothing and toilet
articles given by the B ritish Red Cross. By th e end of March
1946, these gifts had enabled it to send 66 wagons to D Ps in
G erm any, and 40 wagons to those in A ustria, and also seven
wagons to refugees in France. P a rt of the tobacco and cigarette
parcels m entioned above were handed over to th e Belgian and
French Red Cross Societies.
In behalf of D isplaced Persons also, the ICRC was able to
spend certain sum s which, during the war, had been entrusted
to them for the relief of Allied prisoners, b u t which had not
been used by the tim e of the arm istice. The largest of these
sum s was a rem ittance of 25,000 francs from the Afghan R ed
Crescent, and an o th er of 10,000 francs from the Gam bia W ar
Charities Fund. In all, th e Com m ittee had a t its disposal 120,000
Swiss francs, which it em ployed for the following purposes :
Food parcels for D Ps of all nationalities in the French
Zone of Germ any.
Food parcels for R um anian D Ps in A ustria.
S undry relief supplies for U krainian D Ps in A ustria.
Oat-flakes, chocolate, condensed milk, etc., for the children
of D Ps of all nationalities in A ustria and in the F rench Zone
of Germ any.
121

Candles and various Christm as presents for children of

D Ps in A ustria.
A sum of 12,000 Swiss francs m ade over to the ICRC Dele
gation in Ita ly for local purchases of relief supplies.
L ayettes and underw ear to a value of 20,000 Swiss francs,
sent to th e D elegation in Paris for refugees of all nationalities
in France.
Moreover, since the request of G erm an prisoners in the
U nited S tates had been th a t p a rt of the collection should be
devoted to DPs, some 20,000 francs were used to purchase
lay ettes ; these were distrib u ted in A ustria and in the French
Zone of G erm any, where the D Ps were in decidedly worse
circum stances th a n in the B ritish and Am erican Zones.
O ther funds were spent on D Ps of specified nationalities.
The E sthonian Legation in New Y ork and the L atv ian Legation
in W ashington inform ed the C om m ittees delegate in W ash
ington, of th eir desire to han d over to the ICRC, for the benefit
of E sthonian and L atv ian refugees in Europe, p a rt of their
G overnm ents funds frozen in th e U nited States. The Com m ittee
agreed to these m andates, once convinced th a t its action as a
n eu tral interm ediary was required. It had in fact learned th a t
th e U nited S tates T reasury w ould release these funds only on
condition th a t th e y were en tru sted to itself, and m oreover, th a t
th e authorities of th e U nited S tates Zone of O ccupation were
in favour of this plan. Two sums, one of 200,000 and one of
85,000 dollars were th en transferred to th e ICRC, the first for
E sthonian and th e second for L atv ian refugees ; these allowed
th e despatch of clothing m aterials, layettes, cobblers and
tailo rs m aterial, toilet articles, m edicam ents and so on, to
G erm any and A ustria.
F u rth er, relief organizations in the
U nited States and C anada m ade a gift of 11,000 dollars for the
purchase of foodstuffs for U krainian refugees in A ustria.
Finally, th e ICRC had available, in 1946 and 1947, a few
gifts in kind for its relief w ork in general and for certain c a te
gories of w ar victim s. The first were allotted to Displaced
Persons. Thus, following an appeal launched jo intly by the
ICRC, the League of R ed Cross Societies and the In te rn atio n a l
Union for Child W elfare, the Com m ittee received some fifteen
122

to n s of dried fruits from th e T urkish R ed Crescent, cases of

clothing from the Chilian R ed Cross, 20 tons of su n d ry relief
supplies from th e Brazilian R ed Cross a n d tw o and a half tons
of m ilk pow der from th e U ruguayan Red Cross. These gifts
were despatched to A ustria, except the m ilk pow der which
w ent to children of D Ps in th e French Zone of G erm any. The
ICRC also received th e following relief supplies for Displaced
Persons of specified categories : for U krainians, some 54 tons
of m edicam ents, foodstuffs, worn clothing and school equip
m ent, provided by the U krainian Canadian Relief F u n d in
C anada ; for Jugoslavs in A ustria, some five tons of w arm cloth
ing from th e Serbian Relief C om m ittee of Am erica in the U nited
S tates, together w ith sm all quantities of relief supplies sent by
Jugoslav groups in G reat B ritain.
Am ong refugees of special concern to th e Com m ittee were
th e Spanish R epublicans. The C om m ittee allotted to them a
large p a rt of th e relief goods sent to th e delegation in Paris for
refugees in France. Moreover, th e w ar-disabled a t F ouka Marine,
in Algeria, received about a ton of underw ear, toilet articles and
m edicam ents.
A lthough of considerable ex ten t during the w inter of 1945-46,
relief work in behalf of Displaced Persons dim inished after th a t
period, and was confined to carrying out specified commissions.
In the au tu m n of 1946, th e ICRC decided to wind up this
work as of N ovem ber 1w ith the exception of such comm is
sions as were still in progresssince it was not in a position
to act on a sufficiently large scale ; moreover, its financial
m eans m ade it barely possible for it to carry out its m ain ta sk
of giving aid to PW . D uring 1947, the ICRC received no fu rth e r
appeals for th e relief of D isplaced Persons, so th a t this decision
was not prejudicial to these victim s of th e war.

123

PART II

W O R K OF T H E ICRC
IN T R A N S PO R T AND COM MUNICATIONS 1

Gen er a l R em arks

The m easures tak e n by belligerents during the second

W orld W ar to isolate the enem y, paralyse his com m unica
tions and destroy his m eans of tran sp o rt, seriously ham pered
the application of num erous provisions of the Geneva and
H ague Conventions.
In Ju n e 1940, after the invasion of France and I ta ly s
e n try into th e W ar, there rem ained only one serviceable line
of com m unication betw een the B ritish Com m onwealth and the
C ontinent th a t through P ortugal and Spain. C ontact betw een
G reat B ritain and Sweden was broken when D enm ark and
N orw ay were occupied ; Sw itzerland, surrounded on all sides
by Axis Powers, was also cut off from direct contact w ith the
Com m onwealth. Before the belligerents h ad reached agreem ent
on th e C om m ittees suggestions for th e restoration of com m uni
cations2, the situ atio n was aggravated by the Spanish a u th o r
ities decision, early in Decem ber 1940, to prohibit the tra n sit
of goods th rough Spain. The events which followed occu
pation of the B alkans, invasion of Russia, e n try into th e war
of th e U nited S tates, landings in N orth Africa, w ar in the
Pacific, Allied landings in France everyw here raised im pas
sable barriers, and the destruction of m erchant vessels and the
1 As several N ational Red Cross Societies have expressed a wish to
receive full inform ation regarding the ICRC organization of maritim e
transports and the difficulties w ith which th ey had to contend, a more
detailed explanation has been given under this heading than for other
subjects.
2 See pp. 130 e t seq.

124

bom bing of railroads brought sea and land tra n sp o rt alm ost to
a standstill. From A ugust 1944, all com m unication betw een
territories in G erm an hands and elsewhere had been cut, and
only the ICRC ships, m otor vehicles and block-trains h
together w ith the Swedish vessels ch artered for relief to Greece,
were still able to m aintain betw een belligerent cam ps the
contacts required for the conveyance of mail and relief supplies
to the prisoners of war. W hen J a p a n becam e a t w ar w ith
the USSR in 1945, she was also cut off from other countries.
This sta te of affairs raised problem s affecting m ost countries.
Relief organizations and G overnm ents all m et the same difficul
ties in g etting relief supplies to their nationals or to persons
under th eir protection, and in forw arding correspondence.
In the circum stances, special agreem ents betw een S tates could
only be of p a rtial assistance. On th e other hand, th e especial
s ta tu s of the ICRC enabled it to devise more general plans, and
to tak e practical m easures in favour of all w ar victim s, irres
pective of nationality.
The lack of com m unications was an obstacle to the repa
triatio n , under the Conventions, of m edical personnel and the
seriously w ounded and sick, and sim ilarly to the forw arding
of relief supplies, parcels and m ail for prisoners of war. I t also
prevented the execution of special agreem ents on th e exchange
of civilian internees, the transm ission of civilian messages and
relief to civil populations. The ICRC was th u s faced w ith new
and unforeseen tasks.
Less th a n a year after the outbreak of war, the B ritish Red
Cross had been obliged to ch a rter vessels to carry relief supplies
and parcels. The ICRC, on its p a rt, had to ensure th e regular
transm ission of mail from th e Central Agency, where all inform
ation concerning PW and civilian internees was assem bled,
and the forw arding of R ed Cross Messages. The Com m ittee
m ade every effort to rem ain in contact w ith its delegations,
especially by wireless. In August 1944, when postal services
broke down com pletely, it arranged for the conveyance of
PW correspondence, organized relief tra n sp o rts by sea, road
1 Or " set-trains ,

125

and rail, and a tte m p te d to establish com m unications by air.

The C om m ittee a t once sought m aterial assistance, as its
lim ited funds did not allow it to assum e such heavy liabilities.
As soon as m eans of tra n sp o rt and funds were available, it
p u t its plans into execution. These were not, however, exclusi
vely a m a tte r of organization. D iplom atic problem s grew in
num ber, and effective action in th a t field by the ICRC depended
on the consent of th e belligerents, since th e contacts which
had to be m ade required special privileges and im m unities,
and th e g ra n t of free passage.
These critical and delicate negotiations led th e Com m ittee
to set up in 1942 a separate d epartm ent, th e T ransport and
C om m unications Division, w ith an expert and technical staff,
experienced in postal, wireless and telegraphic com m unications,
and in m aritim e, road and rail tran sp o rt. This Division had to
cope w ith th e difficulties which the constantly changing w ar
situ atio n th rew up ; it h ad to organize tra n sp o rt and obtain th e
necessary perm its from G overnm ents. As some of the vessels
em ployed for sea tra n sp o rt were to become th e p ro p erty of the
ICRC, th e C om m ittee in 1942 set up the " F oundation for th e
O rganization of R ed Cross T ransports as a separate body,
w ith a distinct legal statu s, and th u s entitled to own ships.
In some cases these tra n sp o rts were operated for the Com
m ittee by p riv ate concerns. These possessed technical faci
lities, th e im provisation of which would have raised insuperable
financial and practical difficulties and would in any case have
served only a tem p o rary need.
D uring th e recent W ar, th e Com m ittee was therefore obliged
to a d a p t its m ethods to an entirely novel situation. I t did
not shrink from heavy responsibilities, and so ensured th e
survival of certain hum an itarian principles, despite th e break
down of norm al com m unications and tra n sp o rt restrictions.
The results obtained are set out in th e statistics annexed h ereto 1.
The difficulties of th e u ndertaking and its significance in th e
field of intern atio n al law m ay be estim ated in the following
chapters, which describe th e diplom atic negotiations and the
various m easures tak e n to ensure R ed Cross transports.
1 See volum e A n n e x e s .
126

C h apter i

Maritime Transports
i.

n t r o d u c t io n

i. Earlier schemes.
In 1940, when th e ICRC first proposed to use vessels under
special charter, to fill th e gaps in norm al com m unications,
it could quote no precedents or tre a ty stipulations in support of
its scheme. The In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross Conferences and a
Commission of N aval E x p erts 1 had already studied th e condi
tions under which protection could be g ran ted to R ed Cross
m aritim e tra n sp o rts not covered by th e T enth H ague Conven
t io n 2. N othing, however, was achieved, as none of th e pro
posed system s was approved. These suggestions m ay, however,
be com pared w ith th e m ethods adopted during the last conflict.
The International Fleet. The proposal m ade in 1913 to
create an In te rn atio n a l Red Cross fleet, contained in a report
su b m itted by th e ICRC to the X lV th In te rn atio n a l Red Cross
Conference in 19303, was also raised a t th e Commission of N aval
E x p erts which sat in G eneva in 19374. A lthough the scheme was
strictly confined to aiding wounded, sick and shipw recked
persons, it satisfactorily covered the whole problem of sea tra n s
p ort for hum an itarian purposes. U nfortunately, legal, practical
1 Commission held at Geneva in 1937 to stud y the revision of the
Tenth Hague C onvention of 1907.
2 Hague Convention of October 18, 1907, for the A daptation to
Maritime Warfare of the principles of the Geneva C onvention of July,
6, 1906.
3 See D ocum ent No 14 subm itted to th a t Conference by the ICRC.
4 See ICRC Report to the X V Ith International Red Cross Confe
rence (1938), D ocum ent No 2.
127

and financial obstacles caused the scheme to be abandoned ;

it could not, therefore, serve as the basis on which to build a
case for granting im m unity to vessels carrying Red Cross relief
supplies. On the other hand, there was no question of devising
special legislation, or of exem pting the vessels and crews from
territo rial jurisdiction. In consequence, vessels bearing the
Red Cross em blem and sailing under the C om m ittees control
rem ained subject to the laws of th e co u n try under whose flag
th ey voyaged, and to m aritim e law : any im m unities enjoyed
were those g ran ted by the belligerents.
The following peculiar case was reported by the ICRC
delegate in A nkara. A relief mission to th e Dodecanese Islands,
th en occupied by Germ an forces, had set out on F ebruary 12,
1945 ; the mission sailed on board Turkish caiques flying their
national flag and the Red Cross emblem. On F eb ru ary 23, when
T urkey declared w ar on Germ any, the T urkish flag was hauled
down and from th a t tim e the vessels only displayed the Red
Cross flag. None the less th ey continued to sail in Greek w aters
w ith th e belligerents approval, and were universally considered
by the m ilitary authorities as owned by the ICRC. The ships
c h a rter papers held by the T urkish skippers had been draw n up
in th e nam e of the ICRC, and th e delegate in charge of the
mission was considered as the head of the Red Cross fleet. This
incident was, as it were, the first practical realisation of the
scheme for the intern atio n al R ed Cross fleet, although, of
course, the legal problem involved had not yet been s e ttle d 1.
Transport of Medical Stores. The protection of medical
stores tra n sp o rte d by sea had been studied before the W ar,
in p articu lar by the Commission of N aval E x p erts (1937).
No provisions to this effect were, however, included in the
d raft of the revised M aritim e Convention, as the Commission
preferred to recom m end to the G overnm ents the suggestions
p u t forw ard as suitable subjects of ad hoc a g re e m e n ts 2
1 The fact that the caiques were considered to be the property of
the ICRC did not confer upon them ipso facto this b od ys nationality.
See p. 154.
2 See D ocum ent No 2 subm itted by the ICRC to the X V Ith Interna
tional Red Cross Conference (1938).

128

In Septem ber 1943, th e B ritish R ed Cross inform ed th e

Com m ittee th a t it proposed to c h a rter a n e u tra l vessel for th e
conveyance of m edical stores from G reat B ritain to th e B ritish
m ilitary bases in th e M editerranean, for th e w ounded and
sick of all belligerents irrespective of n atio n ality . The wish was
expressed th a t this tra n sp o rt operation should be carried out
u n d er th e em blem and th e supervision of the ICRC.
Medical stores carried in vessels other th a n hospital ships
enjoy no special protection. The Com m ittee could not, on th e
o th er hand, use th e vessels in its service to convey m edical
stores, because these ships h ad to be exclusively reserved for the
task s th a t th e belligerents h a d agreed to cover b y th e g ran t
of safe-conducts. The ICRC therefore su b m itte d th e proposal
of th e B ritish R ed Cross to th e belligerent G overnm ents con
cerned. The U nited S tates G overnm ent raised no objection of
principle, b u t asked for detailed schedules for each voyage.
No other replies were received.
D uring th e recent W ar, the paradoxical situ atio n therefore
existed in which th e facilities th a t were g ran te d for relief con
signm ents to PW , civilian internees, and even in some cases to
civil populations, could not obtained for th e tra n sp o rt of m edi
cal stores for w ounded and sick m ilitary personnel.
Relief to Civil Populations. In th e field of relief activities
for civil populations, there had been recognition, before th e
W ar, of need for protection of vessels carrying supplies in ten
ded for charitable purposes. To th a t end, th e Com m ittee sub
m itte d th e following question to th e Commission of N aval
E x p erts (1937).
" Does the Commission believe it desirable and possible to stipulate
th a t vessels protected by the Red Cross m ay be used to con vey relief
supplies to certain categories of the civil population, or does it consider
that this protection can only be given under ad hoc agreem ents ?

The Commission, seconded by the N ational R ed Cross

Societies, were in favour of the la tte r alternative.
hi.

129

D uring th e W ar, however, th e ICRC succeeded in getting

agreem ent th a t th e sta tu s g ran te d to its vessels should, in
principle, be extended to cover th e tra n sp o rt of relief supplies
for certain civil populations 1.
2. F irst attempt to commission IC R C vessels.
In Ju n e 1940, th e ICRC m ade its first a tte m p t to establish
lines of com m unication by sea. A t th a t tim e, m ilitary operations
had led to an alm ost com plete break-dow n of regular com m uni
cations and, as already stated , R ed Cross activities were seriously
im perilled. The ICRC thereupon proposed to the B ritish and
G erm an au thorities th a t it should purchase or ch arter a neu tral
vessel to ply, under th e R ed Cross em blem , betw een G reat
B ritain and occupied France, and th a t these G overnm ents
should each m ake good half th e costs.
The G erm an G overnm ent sta te d th a t it was prepared itself
to supply a hospital ship or other vessel, and th a t it would
find half th e running costs.
The B ritish G overnm ent gave preference to a vessel chartered
by the ICRC and stip u late d the conditions under which it
should be p u t into service.
F o u r m onths after tra n sm ittin g th e B ritish proposal, the
C om m ittee was inform ed, th rough th e U nited S tates G overn
m ent acting as P rotecting Power, th a t th e Germ an G overnm ent
declined to agree, on th e grounds th a t navigation betw een
B ritish and French ports in th e Channel was too insecure. The
B ritish authorities replied th a t th ey were preparing a new
proposal.
M atters had th u s reached a deadlock when, in F eb ru ary
1941, th e Com m ittee was advised by th e Swedish L egation th a t
the Swedish R ed Cross was prepared to arrange for an exchange
of seriously w ounded across th e N orth Sea, if th e Swedish
G overnm ent secured the agreem ent of b o th G erm any and
G reat B ritain. The C om m ittee inform ed th e Swedish Legation
of its efforts during th e previous eight m onths, and offered to
support the Swedish proposal to th e tw o countries concerned.
1 See p. pp. 132-133.

130

D uring th e second half of 1940, m em bers of the ICRC

visited L ondon an d Berlin to discuss th e m a tte r w ith th e
authorities concerned, and a delegate was sent to Lisbon to
stu d y th e technical side of th e question.
In th e m eantim e, th e belligerents h ad agreed to allow the
tra n sp o rt in th e M editerranean of PW parcels which h ad been
held up a t Lisbon owing to the suspension of rail tra n sit th rough
Spain 1. This m aritim e service was confined to the carriage of
relief supplies for PW , whereas the schem e for a cross-Channel
service had been planned on a w ider basis. Its acceptance would
have allowed th e in stitu tio n from the outset of th e w ar of a
service sim ilar to th a t for conveying relief supplies to PW , and
th e exchange of rep a tria te s could th u s have been system a
tically organized under R ed Cross auspices.
This failure was n o t due to objections to the principle
of th e scheme, and th e question even of the route was of secon
d ary im portance, since th e two parties h ad successively proposed
com m unication betw een enem y p o rts (G reat B ritain - Occupied
France), and betw een neu tral ports (IrelandPeninsula).
I t was however found impossible to reach agreem ent on the
exchange of civilian internees, th e rep atriatio n of seriously
w ounded and m edical personnel and th e other charitable
operations which the use of a R ed Cross vessel was to have
facilitated. F urtherm ore, th e G overnm ents m ade th eir decision
depend on the settlem ent of o ther problem s, some of which
were handled by th e Com m ittee and others by the P rotecting
Power, and even, in some cases, by both agencies a t the same
tim e. This duplication was bound to be prejudicial to the
work of th e C om m ittee, particu larly when proposals su bm itted
th rough the P rotecting Pow er were accom panied by th re a ts of
reprisals. L astly, th e belligerents were usually inclined to regard
these questions as being in terdependent ; for instance, th e
ICRC was confidentially inform ed th a t the G erm an authorities
would only accept th e B ritish offer, provided the m ail service
fo r G erm an PW in C anada was im proved.

1 See pp. 158 e t seq.

131

N evertheless, the ICRC did not relax its efforts to secure

p rotection for vessels o ther th a n those exclusively em ployed
for carrying PW relief supplies.
3. Red Cross M aritim e Transport during the War.
Use of the Distinctive Emblem. D uring th e recent war,
the R ed Cross em blem began to b e 'u s e d to protect certain
m aritim e tra n sp o rt operations which served th e purposes of
the R ed Cross, b u t were not covered b y in te rn atio n a l conventions
The use of a red cross on a w hite ground, provided for by
th e G eneva Convention, is strictly reserved a t sea for the protec
tion of m ilitary hospital ships. The T enth H ague Convention
of 1907 governs the em ploym ent of these vessels, which m ay not
be p u t to o th er uses w ithout the consent of the belligerent
Pow ers concerned. This held good when R ed Cross organizations
or belligerent G overnm ents wished to place p articu lar tra n sp o rts
under the R ed Cross emblem. In principle, th e form al agreem ent
of all S tates signatory to these Conventions was necessary
before the G eneva Cross could be placed on the vessels which,
in circum stances n ot covered by the term s of the T enth H ague
Convention, actually did sail under the protection of th a t
emblem. Since no such agreem ent could be secured in the m idst
of war, and as circum stances called for im m ediate action, recourse
was h ad in each case to an arrangem ent betw een the belligerent
Powers whose arm ed forces were liable to encounter th e vessels
requiring protection a t a given tim e and on certain defined
routes.
Em ploym ent of protected vessels. The R ed Cross emblem
was used during th e w ar to protect certain vessels, as follows :
(1) Cargo ships carrying, under R ed Cross auspices, relief
supplies intended for PW , civilian internees and some civil
populations, and conveying P W mail and R ed Cross message
form s ;
(2) Swedish vessels carrying relief supplies to Greece ;
132

(3)
Vessels used for th e rep a tria tio n of seriously w ounded
and sick, and for the exchange of PW and civilian internees.
A lthough m any vessels were p u t into service under the
R ed Cross em blem , this practice was lim ited to strictly defined
cases, and could not be extended to all the m aritim e tra n sp o rts
th a t were required in th e execution of relief undertakings.
The belligerents were only requested to g ran t special protec
tion when conveyance by ordinary vessels appeared im prac
ticable owing to th e suspension of services, or when such tra n s
ports were exposed to great risks. The rep atriatio n of seriously
w ounded and th e exchange of civil internees were carried out
p a rtly by ordinary vessels, p a rtly by hospital ships and by
steam ers sailing under special safe-conducts. In regard to
th e tra n sp o rt of goods, the parcels and relief supplies intended
for Axis PW and civil internees were alm ost invariably sent by
ordinary m eans. Large quan tities of parcels and relief supplies
for Allied PW and civil internees in E urope were also carried
by n eu tral or belligerent vessels which did not bear th e Red Cross
em blem . In th e course of th e war, Swiss vessels, for instance,
shipped about 124,000 tons of R ed Cross relief supplies, whilst
th e C om m ittees vessels carried about 470,000 tons.
The p a rticu la r sta tu s of these vessels did not, therefore,
cover all th e uses for which th ey were intended. F urtherm ore,
th ey were lim ited to purposes and to routes which were
clearly defined beforehand.
Vessels of the Red Cross Fleet. A part from hospital ships
exceptionally em ployed for exchanging seriously wounded,
PW and civil internees, m ost of the vessels sailing under Red
Cross protection were com m issioned under charter-parties
betw een n eu tral shipow ners and N ational Red Cross Societies.
Three vessels, however, th e Caritas I , Caritas I I and Henry
D unant were acquired by a R ed Cross body set up for this
purpose by th e ICRC, an d styled th e F oundation for the
O rganization of R ed Cross T ransports .

133

 2.

S tatus

of t h e

C o m m it t e e s V e s s e l s

The vessels were distinguished legally by th e privilege of

im m unities g ran ted to th em by th e belligerent Powers concerned.
A p art from these im m unities, th e y continued to be subject to
th e comm on law governing n e u tra l m erchant shipping.
The m ain conditions which the ICRC placed to th e operation
of vessels under its em blem and control were as follows :
(1) The safe-conducts required for each vessel to be obtained
by the ICRC.
(2) Vessels to be em ployed exclusively for the tra n sp o rt
of relief supplies authorized by agreem ents betw een the ICRC
and th e belligerent Powers concerned, and addressed to the
ICRC or th eir delegates.
(3) D istinctive m arkings to be displayed in accordance
w ith th e regulations in force.
(4) Vessels to be accom panied by neu tral observers appointed
by th e ICRC, to ensure th a t the undertakings given by the
ICRC to th e belligerent Pow ers were carried out.
(5) Adherence to the schedules announced by the ICRC
to th e belligerent Powers, and to the sailing routes approved
b y th e latte r.
The conditions for R ed Cross m aritim e tran sp o rts, agreed
upon by th e ICRC and the belligerents concerned, were set
out in a m em orandum com m unicated in April, 1942, to all
G overnm ents and N ational R ed Cross Societies.
i. Safe-conducts.
Applications for safe-conducts. The ICRC m ade it a
principle only to apply for free passage provided th ey could
control the use of th e vessels concerned. On th e other hand,
th ey were not prepared to assum e responsibility unless the
belligerents undertook to respect the vessels under safe-conduct.
These conditions were fulfilled for all vessels sailing under the
distinctive m arkings of the ICRC.
134

The ICRC, however, occasionally applied for safe-conducts

for vessels which did n o t carry its em blem , and for which it
disclaim ed any responsibility, either because th e belligerents
failed to give sufficient security guarantees, or because the
ICRC itself was n o t in a position to exercise effective supervision.
As an exam ple of th e first class, we m ay quote th e relief tra n p o rts from Sweden to G erm any \ and of th e second, th e sailing
vessels first used betw een Lisbon and Marseilles 2, as well as
th e first Swedish cargo b o ats which carried relief to Greece, the
Radmenso and th e Sicilia, chartered b y the B ritish and the
Am erican R ed Cross respectively.
The ICRC m ade requests for safe-conducts direct to the
G overnm ents of th e Pow ers whose naval forces were likely
to encounter th e vessels. An exception was m ade in th e case
of safe-conducts required from the Soviet authorities, where
the requests were sent th ro u g h th e in term ed iary of th eir Allies.
Description of vessels. A pplication for a safe-conduct had
to be m ade for a specific purpose, in respect of a vessel of given
nam e and precise description. The ICRC was greatly ham pered
b y th is requirem ent, as it never knew how long an interval
w ould elapse before th e application was g ran ted 3. Furtherm ore,
th ere was no fixed tim e lim it for giving notice, such as th a t
which applied to th e notification of routes. P articu lars of each
vessel h ad also to be com m unicated to the belligerents to perm it
its identification by th eir naval forces.
N ationality of the vessels. None of th e belligerents imposed
conditions as to th e class of vessels to be em ployed, b u t the
ICRC, as far as possible, h a d recourse only to neu tral ships.
The Com m ittee also applied for safe-conducts in respect of vessels
u n d er belligerent flags (French, Greek, Italian , R um anian and
Jugoslav). Vessels sailing under th e R ed Cross emblem in fact
1 See p. 163.
2 See p. 158.
2 D etention of a ship while aw aiting a safe-conduct led to considerable
demurrage. If, on the contrary, the vessel was kept in service, there
was the risk of its no longer being available when the safe-conduct
w as finally granted, which involved finding another vessel and filing
a new application.

135

all flew a n eu tral flag, w ith the exception of the Greek steam er
Nereus, which was none th e less under ch a rter to the Swiss
C onfederation. In one case only did ships in th e service of the
ICRC belong to a power which m eanwhile becam e belligerent.
These were th e T urkish caiques em ployed on the tra n sp o rt of
relief to th e Aegean Islands. As already recorded, the vessels
nevertheless continued to enjoy the im m unity which had been
previously g ran ted 1.
Blockade. The blockade influenced th e belligerents in th eir
decisions, and reciprocity therefore was an im p o rta n t factor in
th e success of th e C om m ittees applications. F or instance, the
G erm an au th o rities only consented to the F o u n d atio n s using
Swedish vessels in th e B altic, on condition of receiving
equivalent tonnage from the enem y 2.
Im m unities. In principle, vessels sailing under safec o n d u c t3 were protected and respected.
In practice, th eir
security depended upon th e m anner in which th ey obeyed the
navigation regulations to which th ey were subject 4. In this
respect, each of th e belligerents concerned m ade certain excep
tions and and repeatedly recalled th a t no absolute guarantees
could be g ran te d ; these vessels were, in fact, subject to th e
inevitable risks of war.
Violations. Three vessels sailing under the emblem and
control of the ICRC suffered a tta c k by air. The Stureborg was
torpedoed b y tw o Ita lia n planes and sank on Ju n e 9, 1942, when
retu rn in g from th e Piraeus to A lexandria. The Enibla was twice
1 See p. 128.
2 See Report of the Foundation for the Organization of Red
Cross Transports, p. 7 et seq.
3 This granting of free passage should n ot be confused w ith the
special licenses w hich were required for vessels to pass the blockade,
for instance, the British ' shipwarrant and n avy certificate "
(or " navicert ), which covered both the ship and the cargo. The
navicert was com pulsory. The C om m ittees vessels were not, in
principle, obliged to carry the shipwarrant , but it was preferable
for them to have this docum ent, in order to avoid delays. The form alities
relative to the shipwarrant were usually fulfilled by the consignors.
4 See below p. 149.

136

atta ck e d in th e Gulf of Lions by a form ation of B ritish aircraft,

on April 6 and 19, 1944, and sank during the second a tta ck .
The Cristina was sim ilarly a tta ck e d in th e roadstead of Ste,
on May 6, 1944. She was late r refloated.
The ICRC notified the Powers concerned of these violations
and,, in view of th e repeated a tta c k s suffered by th eir vessels in
th e spring of 1944, decided to suspend th e service u ntil satis
factory guarantees were given. I t was established th a t in no
case h ad there been neglect on th e p a rt of the ICRC, and th a t
the a tta ck s on th eir vessels by belligerents therefore co nstituted
a violation of th e agreem ents m ade for these transports.
A fter an enquiry, th e Ita lia n G overnm ent offered an official
apology for th e a tta c k on th e Stureborg : the B ritish G overnm ent
did likewise in respect of the Embla and the Cristina, and gave
pledges for th e future. W ith regard to com pensation, action by
th e ICRC was not required ; the m a tte r was settled betw een
the in terested parties, either direct, or in th e case of the Stureborg
th rough th e P rotecting Power.
D espite these incidents, th e safe-conducts gran ted by the
belligerents enabled the ICRC to carry out its tasks effectively
until the end of the war. We m ay add th a t in proportion to
the num ber of sailings m ade, the losses were very sm all com pared
w ith those of other m erchant fleets. In fact, only five per cent
of the goods carried, and less th a n three per cent of the tonnage
em ployed were lost 1.
2. Distinctive M arkings.
Red Cross emblem and m arkings. In Ju n e 1940, during the
prelim inary discussions w ith regard to a cross-Channel service
by a single vessel, th e Com m ittee h ad already suggested to the
B ritish and G erm an G overnm ents th a t the ship should be
placed under the protection of the Red Cross emblem 2. The
1 On January 26, 1944, the Swedish Minister at Berne wrote to the
IC R C: "The Swedish G overnm ent has alw ays been deeply impressed
b y the scrupulous care w ith w hich the Maritime D epartm ent of the
ICRC organized and directed the m ovem ents of Red Cross vessels,
thus ensuring a lower proportion of losses in this service than in any
other during the war .
2 See above p. 130.

137

G erm an authorities offered to place a hospital ship a t the

disposal of th e ICRC, while th e B ritish au th o rities suggested
th e use of a n eu tral vessel ch artered by the ICRC ; th ey were,
however, silent on th e question of distinctive m arkings.
Six
m onths later, when applying for a u th o rity to p u t into service
th e Jugoslav steam er Herzegovina and the French ships Penerf
and Ile Rousse for carrying parcels betw een Lisbon and Mar
seilles 1, th e ICRC advised th e B ritish, French, G erm an and
Ita lia n G overnm ents of th eir in tention to place the inscription
C. IN T E R N A T IO N A L on these vessels, in addition to a
red cross on a w hite ground.
Before th e result of these ngociations was known, tra n s
ports h ad been s ta rte d by m eans of m otorized sailing vessels
of th e Spanish and Portuguese m erchant services. At this tim e
th e G erm an and Ita lia n authorities m ade the safe-conduct,
g ran ted to these ships tw o m onths previously, conditional upon
th eir being m arked thenceforw ard w ith the R ed Cross emblem.
The Com m ittee, however, wished this m arking to be reserved for
craft over which th ey could exercise effective control. On the
other hand, the B ritish A dm iralty objected to the use of the
em blem for vessels o ther th a n those covered by the T enth
H ague Convention of 1907, and considered th a t craft sailing
under th e C om m ittees auspices would be sufficiently distin
guished if th ey bore an inscription such as C. IN T E R N A T IO TIO N A L C.R. .
Shortly afterw ards, the tra n sp o rts were organized so as
to give th e C om m ittee the control it desired. Vessels were
chartered direct by th e B ritish R ed Cross, in agreem ent w ith the
ICRC, and were accom panied by a convoying agent appointed
by the Com m ittee. In these circum stances, the ICRC endeavour
ed to ensure the protection of the Red Cross emblem. Since the
C om m ittees independence and n e u tra lity were pledged, it
was in a position to accept responsibility for these tran sp o rts
tow ards the belligerents, in so far a t least as the la tte r undertook
to give them protection.

1 See below p. 158.

138

P ainting of hulls. A fter some discussion, th e B ritish

au th o rities finally consented to the vessels bearing the inscription
C. IN T E R N A T IO N A L , followed by a red cross on a w hite
ground, b u t stip u lated th a t th e hulls should n o t be p ain ted in
light colours, which m ight lead to confusion w ith hospital
ships. Some exceptions were how ever m ade la te r ; for instance,
th e Swedish vessels ch artered by th e F oundation sailed in
th eir custom ary light grey colour.
A t the request of the belligerents the inscriptions and Red
Cross emblems had to be p a in te d directly on th e hulls ; th e use
of m arkings on tem p o rary fixtures was not allowed.
Lighting. The belligerents insisted th a t th e distinctive
m arkings should be illum inated a t night. This ruling n a tu ra lly
applied only to ships a t sea. In p o rts of call, th ey were subject
to blackout regulations and were th u s exposed to th e risk of
a ir raids. In spite of th e frequent n ight bom bardm ents in
which th ey were involved, only one m inor incident occurred.
W hilst anchored in th e p o rt of Genoa, th e Padua was h it on
O ctober 22, 1942, a t 10 p.m . by an incendiary bom b and slightly
dam aged.
Sailing by night on th e P o rt Vendres to Marseilles run was
p rohibited by the G erm ans from April 1944 onwards. Vessels
which could n ot com plete the passage during the day h ad to
p u t in a t Ste.
Scope of rules. As th e rules for m arking the ships were
not in line w ith the regulations of th e n eu tral Powers, the
ICRC h ad to apply to the respective M inistries for licences,
b u t experienced no difficulties in th is respect.
Regulations. D uring th e first two years in which Red
Cross vessels were em ployed, th e m ethods of displaying and
lighting th e distinctive m arkings led to m uch discussion w ith
all th e belligerents concerned, and tra n sp o rts were often delayed
on th is account. The Com m ittee finally obtained th e agreem ent
of all belligerents on each point, and clearly defined regulations
fram ed on experience were a t last introduced in 1943. The rules
for th e m arking of the R ed Cross vessels u n til th e end of the
w ar were the following :
139

(a)

P rin c iple s.

E very ship sailing under the C om m ittees control and w ith the con
sent of the belligerent Powers concerned, shall display the d istinctive
markings prescribed below. These markings shall be at once rem oved
when the vessel is no longer em ployed b y the ICRC.

(b)

Arrangement of markings.

The d istinctive markings shall be the inscription "C. IN T E R N A T IO

N A L and several Red Cross em blem s, thus displayed :
on each side of the vessel and at least one m etre above the w ater
line, the inscription "C. IN T E R N A T IO N A L ,
on each side, at the end of the hull, fore and aft, the red cross em blem
on a w hite ground,
on deck, fore and aft, preferably on the hatchw ays, and if required,
on the roof of the deckhouses, the Red Cross em blem on a w hite ground,
in the axis of the ship and in an elevated position, a vertical panel
show ing the red cross on a w hite ground.

(c)

Dimensions of markings.

The dim ensions of the markings m ay vary according to the space

available. The markings shall be painted directly on the hull or the
deck, where th ey shall preferably be placed on the hatchw ays.
The inscription in capital letters "C. IN T E R N A T IO N A L (C full
stop IN T E R N A T IO N A L ) shall be painted in black letters on a w hite
ground, and shall cover the space betw een the top of the hull and a
height one metre above the water-line. The length of the inscription
shall be equal to fourteen tim es the height of the letters.
The dim ensions of the Red Cross em blem s shall be as great as possible
and shall in any case be not less than three metres square. The Red
Cross shall be placed in the centre of a w hite square ; the length of the
lim bs shall be equal to three quarters, and their thickness to one quar
ter of one side of the w hite square. The lower part of the Red Cross
em blem s appearing fore and aft shall be placed one m etre at least above
the water-line.

(d)

Illumination.

The ligh ting of the d istinctive markings b y night shall be obligatory

and sufficient to make them clearly visible to sea, land and air forces.
The illum ination of the vertical panel and of one of the horizontal
em blem s shall be particularly bright.
140

(e)

Validity of the present regulations.

The present regulations, in stitu ted w ith the agreem ent of the belli
gerent Powers concerned and ensuring the security of vessels placed at
the disposal of the ICRC, shall supersede all other regulations w hich
m ay be inconsistent w ith them . Municipal and international law s and
custom s relative to markings and inscriptions on ships shall ap ply to
the vessels in the C om m ittees service, w ithout prejudice to the present
regulations.

M isuse of m arkings. In April 1941, th e B ritish G overnm ent

agreed to the use of th e R ed Cross em blem on th e C om m ittees
vessels, b u t reserved th e rig h t to w ithdraw th eir consent, should
enem y G overnm ents be shown g u ilty of m isusing th e emblem.
T hroughout th e war, however, only once was an incident of this
kind reported. According to a com m unication m ade by th e
G erm an G overnm ent to th e ICRC, G erm an naval forces had
observed an unusual num ber of vessels bearing th e C om m ittees
m arkings and m oving along the Portuguese coast, during the
night of N ovem ber 6, 7 and 8, 1942, th a t is, ju st before the
Allied landing in N orth Africa. This observation justified every
kind of suspicion 1. No confirm ation was, however, found for
these allegations, and it would therefore appear th a t on no
occasion was there any misuse of R ed Cross m arkings on vessels.
A t th e end of the W ar, distinctive m arkings served no
fu rth e r purpose, and in May 1945, th e ICRC rem oved them from
th e th irte e n vessels which were still being used for Red Cross
purposes.
3.

Use of vessels.

The use of vessels covered by special im m unities was intended,

in th e first place, to m ake good th e breakdow n in regular
com m unications which im peded th e various welfare services
(transport of rep atriates, exchange of civil internees, and for
w arding of m ail and relief supplies). The m ajo rity of these
schemes failed, however, and only tra n sp o rts of parcels for
PW , organized in haste and w ithout previous agreem ent, had
1 There were, in fact, six Red Cross vessels sailing in these waters at
th a t particular tim e.

141

th e approval of the belligerents. The la tte r m ade it clear,

however, th a t vessels used for th e above purpose should carry
no o ther freight, or passengers, and th e B ritish authorities gave
th eir approval only to shipm ents covered by a navicert. T he
vessels were m oreover required to follow specified routes.
These restrictions rem ained in force u n til the end of th e
w ar ; nevertheless, the facilities gran ted were late r extended
to other supplies besides postal parcels, and to new classes
of recipients. In Ju ly , 1942, by agreem ent betw een th e ICRC
and belligerent Powers, the following ruling for th e em ploym ent
of ships was adopted :
The vessels shall be used exclu sively for the transport of goods
addressed to the ICRC or its delegates, and com posed of relief supplies
for prisoners of war and civil internees of all nationalities.
In addition, m edicam ents and hospital supplies intended for civil
populations will be allow ed.
For all other cargoes addressed to the
ICRC or the Joint Relief Commission and intended for other categories
of war victim s, the ICRC m ust obtain the previous agreem ent of the
belligerent Powers.

The B ritish authorities requested the ICRC to add th e

following prescription :
Mail bags, addressed to the Swiss postal authorities or to the ICRC,
and containing PW parcels, m ay also be conveyed by Red Cross vessels.

The ICRC was la te r authorized, in principle, to forw ard

relief supplies intended for th e civil population of occupied
countries, on condition th a t these shipm ents were provided
w ith navicerts.
The tra n sp o rt of m aterial necessary for carrying out relief
schemes, such as m otor vehicles, lubricants, tyres, and so
forth, was also perm itted.
These provisions also applied to m ail for PW and civilian
internees, b u t this concession in principle only held good
for letters exem pt from postal charges : the conveyance of
Civilian Messages on Red Cross form s therefore required special
a u th o rity 1.
1 This au th ority was refused for the transport of civilian m essages
b y the Vega to and from the Channel Islands, as the German authori
ties were unable to organize a censorship in the Islands.
142

On th e o ther hand, the ICRC was unable to get th e use of

a vessel to carry m edicam ents and supplies for the m edical
corps of expeditionary forces 1.
From 1944 onw ards, a few exceptions were m ade to the
ban on th e tra n sp o rt of passengers. A t the request of the Swedish
G overnm ent, the C om m ittee agreed to allow th eir diplom atic
m essengers and o ther Swedish citizens to tra v e l on Swedish
vessels chartered by th e F oundation, subject to the approval
of th e belligerents concerned. In all, 145 passengers th u s crossed
the A tlantic on R ed Cross ships.
The use of the C om m ittees vessels for the evacuation of
groups of civilian w ar victim s gave rise to no objection in prin
ciple. The a tte m p ts m ade to p u t this scheme into practice were,
however, usually fru strated , owing to the ta c it opposition of one
or o ther of th e belligerents. The C om m ittee could not, of
course, u n d ertake such operations w ithout th e form al consent
of all G overnm ents concerned.
In short, th e R ed Cross vessels were restricted to the tra n s
port, over certain routes, of PW m ail and authorized relief
supplies, addressed to th e Com m ittee and for th e exclusive use
of specified categories of w ar victim s.
As a result of the supervision carried out by the C om m ittees
delegates few incidents occurred, and none was serious. Some
cases of ordinary m erchandise were loaded by m istake a t Lisbon
on one occasion 2. There were, however, a num ber of stowaways.
These were usually p u t on shore before sailing ; a few were
discovered too late for them to be landed 3.
1 See above p. 128.
2 The ICRC informed the British authorities and offered to send
the cases back to Lisbon, but it was finally agreed th at the goods should
be handed over to the consignee in Switzerland.
3 Some Portuguese who left Lisbon on Red Cross vessels bound
for the U nited S tates were taken back to Lisbon at the request of the
U .S. authorities. An A lsatian citizen found on board the Embla, which left
Marseilles on D ecem ber 26, 1942, was landed at Gibraltar b y the British
authorities. This incident m ight have had serious consequences for
the ICRC transport system , as the British authorities refused to ship
the man back to Marseilles, as was dem anded b y the German authorities
there. A German PW was also found, on April 25, 1945, on board the
Caritas I I on arrival at Lisbon ; this stow aw ay had escaped the notice
of the Allied control officials, both at Toulon and Gibraltar.

143

The convoying agents were bound to inform the authorities

concerned of a n y m erchandise or stow aw ays found on board,
and th u s a t the first o p p o rtu n ity curtail any misuse of the
im m unities gran ted by the belligerents. Any such irregularities
were subject to com m on law, w hatever the circum stances.
Claims p u t in by a belligerent could only be referred to the
belligerent Pow er concerned, together w ith a statem en t of the
C om m ittees opinion.
A llocation of tonnage was subject to th e sole condition
th a t the vessels should be a t th e disposal of both adverse parties.
W hen g ran tin g safe-conducts for ships carrying parcels for
P W held in E urope, both G erm any and Ita ly specified th a t the
same vessels should, on th eir retu rn voyage, carry relief supplies
for th eir own nationals in Allied hands. As a m a tte r of fact, the
Axis Powers very seldom had recourse to the C om m ittees
vessels 1.
Since the ICRC itself had no funds w ith which to procure
m eans of tra n sp o rt, these were supplied by the relief organiza
tions or the G overnm ents concerned. The la tte r were, however,
inclined to claim th e exclusive use of the vessels th u s supplied,
w hereas the C om m ittees policy of strict im p a rtiality forbade
it to waive its rights in favour of any p articu lar body. The ICRC
therefore accepted m eans of tra n sp o rt only on condition of
being free to use them for th e benefit of all nationalities ; the
only concession m ade was a bare p rio rity for th e organization
bearing the costs incurred.
The C om m ittees delegations in the sailing ports allocated
th e available cargo space equally am ongst all concerned, accor
ding to th e volum e and prio rity of th e goods to be shipped,
and irrespective of the charterers and the ships origin 2. This
system allowed th e Com m ittee a t the same tim e to co-ordinate

1 A bout i y2 per cent of the total tonnage shipped.

2 A sim ilar arrangem ent was made w ith the Swiss Federal Maritime
Transport Service, w ith reference to the cargo space which this Service
placed at the disposal of the Red Cross in Swiss vessels sailing between
South America and Europe. A pplications for freightage were referred
to the ICRC, which allocated the space available betw een the relief
organizations concerned.

144

its tra n sp o rt, build up stocks, and space out th e shipm ents
according to th eir urgency.
4. Organization of supervision.
The ICRC was obliged, in view of its responsibilities, to
tak e steps for th e protection of th e rights of belligerents. I t
was unable, however, to give any absolute guarantees, especially
before having acquired some experience in th is field. The
Ita lia n G overnm ent, which was dissatisfied w ith these reserva
tions, proposed th a t th e ships should call a t an Ita lia n port,
in stead of Marseilles, in order to ease th e ta sk of th e ICRC and
to sim plify th e m achinery of supervision
B u t th e gradual
organization of tra n sp o rts allowed th e C om m ittee to exercise
m ore effective control and to gain th e belligerents confidence
to an increasing degree. These Pow ers confined them selves to
sanctioning and m aking com pulsory th e presence of convoying
agents, whom th e ICRC h ad itself introduced on the vessels
sailing under th e R ed Cross flag. In other respects th e ships
a t sea a n d in p o rt were subject to th e same supervision as any
o th er n e u tra l m erchant shipping.
Special charter clauses. Since financial considerations
prevented th e ICRC from purchasing or chartering ships itself,
it could only fulfil its obligation tow ards th e belligerents by
obtaining certain guarantees in tu rn from th e owners and
charterers. To this end, it required of all subscribers to th e
c h a rte r-p a rty a form al und ertak in g to observe and to ensure
th e observation of th e regulations laid down for R ed Cross
tran sp o rts. The purpose of th e c h a rter h ad to be expressly
nam ed in th e agreem ents : th e contracting parties undertook
to place the vessels a t th e sole disposal of th e ICRC, and to
follow th e instructions given th em b y its representatives, in
p articu lar those relating to schedule and routes.
C hartering was also subject to th e following clauses :
(1)
Distinctive marking of the Committee's vessels. The location
and dimensions of these inscriptions and em blem s m ust be approved
b y the C om m ittees agents. T h ey m ust be in position before sailing
i l l . 10

145

for the first voyage ; th ey m ust be kept in good order and removed be
fore the vessels is returned to the owners. All costs incidental to -th e
markings and to their illum ination shall be placed to the ship's account.
(2) Restrictions on the use of the vessels. The C om m ittees vessels
are exclu sively reserved for th e transport of shipm ents th a t are intended
for the categories of war victim s entitled to such relief supplies, and that
are addressed to the ICRC (or to its delegates, or the Joint R elief Com
m ission), for distribution under its supervision. Only the goods entered
on the ships m anifest, w hich m ust be handed for signature to the Com
m ittees representatives at the loading port, m ay and shall be on board.
W ithout special au th ority from the ICRC at Geneva, no persons except
the regular crew and the convoying agent appointed by the Com m ittee
m ay sail on board any of these ships.
(3) Convoying agents of the IC RC. Since the obligations towards
the belligerents im pose a responsibility upon the ICRC, the Com m ittee
shall place a convoying agent on board each vessel, to represent the
ICRC in all questions in volvin g its interests. The primary d u ty of the
convoying agent shall be to ensure the observance of the pledges given
b y the Com m ittee, covering the vessel. The ship w ill supply the con
voyin g agent w ith appropriate accom m odation and food.
(4) Supervision of vessels of the IC R C . The interests of the vessel
itself dem and th at the restrictions im posed b y belligerents in accordance
w ith Paragraph (2) should be strictly observed. The m aster m ust therefore
take all steps he m ay find desirable to prevent any infringem ent of the
restrictions. H e shall give all necessary orders and explanations to the
crew. The convoying agent shall assist in the supervision. Since both
m aster and convoying agent have the same objects in view, their co
operation should present no difficulties. Their action should be based
on m utual confidence and the desire to render service to the ICRC.
If, despite all precautions, stow aw ays or unauthorized cargo are
discovered during the voyage, such persons or goods shall in principle
be taken back to the sailing port and put ashore. The captain and the
convoying agent shall do their utm ost to follow this rule, and all vessels
in the service of the ICRC shall lend each other assistance.
(5) Neutrality of Red Cross vessels. The duties assigned to the
Red Cross vessels entail the observance of strict neutrality by all per
sonnel on board. Masters shall require their crews to abstain from giving
to an y third person an y inform ation th at m ight be of interest to belli
gerents. Members of the crew m ust refuse to answer questions put to
them by officials, except those relating to their duties on board, stating,
if necessary, th at th ey have strict orders from the ICRC to this effect.
146

(6)
Validity of the present regulations. Certain international,
municipal or other laws and regulations m ay be contrary to the fore
going clauses. In such an even t it shall be expressly understood th a t the
above stipulations, the purpose of which is to ensure the fulfilm ent of
the obligations incurred towards belligerents, supersede all other consi
derations. These shall be w aived in face of the overriding interests of
the ICRC, w hose m aritim e transport service cannot be carried on
w ith ou t the fulfilm ent of th e said obligations.

The above provisions were in serted in the charter-parties.

The ICRC m oreover reserved the right to nam e th e consignees
of both vessels and cargo.
Delegations. The C om m ittees delegations organized and
supervised th e loading an d unloading of the ships. They had
sole responsibility for th e allocation of tonnage for the various
consignm ents ; th e y received and forw arded cargoes, determ ined
th e schedules for each voyage (which had to be notified to the
belligerents concerned), and gave th e necessary in structions
to th e owners or th eir agents, particu larly in regard to distinctive
m arkings, sailing dates and routes. The delegations them selves
discussed all m atte rs relating to the m ovem ents of vessels
w ith th e local au th o rities and th e representatives of belligerent
Powers in n e u tra l countries. This m ethod prevented th e risk
of co n trad icto ry instructions to the m asters. W hen on du ty ,
th e convoying agents took th eir instructions direct from th e
delegations in the ports.
Convoying agents. On receiving a u th o rity to organize
m aritim e tra n sp o rt, the ICRC decided th a t supervision should
be exercised by convoying agents exclusively of Swiss n atio n ality .
The belligerents soon dem anded th a t all vessels sailing under
safe-conduct should be accom panied by such agents. This was
however not alw ays possible ; on several occasions, disordered
com m unications an d the long delays in obtaining visas prevented
the agent appointed from arriving in tim e 1. To avoid holding
up th e tra n sp o rt, th e vessel th en sailed according to schedule,
1 C onvoying agents travelled w ith ordinary passports and were
signed on as part of the crew for the duration of their m ission. They
carried official com m issions from the ICRC and wore arm lets with the
Red Cross badge.

147

w hilst th e belligerents were notified th a t no convoying agent

was on board. Incidents of this kind becam e, in tim e, so comm on
th a t th e ICRC in D ecem ber 1944 requested the belligerents
to release it from this obligation. T hey agreed to dispense
w ith th e convoying, b u t reserved th e right to ask for it in special
cases. The C om m ittee, for th eir p a rt, continued to place con
voying agents on board, w henever possible.
A lthough th e belligerents had insisted on th e presence
of such representatives, th e y o m itted to specify th eir duties.
Before leaving, each convoying agent received instructions from
th e ICRC ; these were to ensure strict application of the regula
tions for th e use of the vessel and th e distinctive m arkings, to
be present a t all loadings and unloadings, to obtain a nom inal
roll of th e crew, and copies of th e bill of lading, the postal w ay
bills, a n d so forth.
The convoying agent had to rem ain on board from the tim e
th e custom s w ater-guard w ent ashore, u n til the officers a t the
arriv al p ort cam e on board. He was em pow ered to m ake a
com plete inspection of th e vessel. D uring the voyage, no cargo
could be loaded or discharged ; no strangers were a d m itte d
on board and no-one could leave the ship. In th e event of any
infringem ents of the obligations assum ed tow ards th e bellige
rents, th e convoying agent h ad to tak e all app ro p riate steps.
R esponsibility for navigation, however, belonged exclusively
to th e m aster.
Crews. The ICRC took no p a rt in the enlistm ent of crews ;
it did, however, stip u late th a t all m em bers of ships crews should
be nationals of S tates recognized as neutral. W hen the signing
on of seam en who were citizens of belligerent countries becam e
unavoidable, the C om m ittee su b m itted such cases for the
approval of th e Powers 1. These raised no objection to the
1 This undertaking could only be kept w ith difficulty, for it was by
no m eans easy to find neutral seamen. Moreover, this restriction, volun
tarily established by the ICRC, proved unnecessary. The crews of the
Swiss m erchant fleet consisted, to a great exten t, of nationals of belli
gerent countries, and m ost of these vessels had Russian or Belgian
m asters, w ithout causing any disadvantage. All the incidents in conne
xion w ith the crews of ICRC vessels concerned neutral seamen, except
in one case, where a British subject had been signed on.
148

signing on of seam en of n on-neutral countries (the B altic S tates,

Belgium, B razil, D enm ark, E g y p t, F inland, Greece, N orw ay and
Russia), whose services h ad to be enlisted in various occasions 1.
The crews were recruited in n e u tra l countries ; those intended
for R ed Cross vessels sailing from a belligerent p o rt were usually
conveyed th ere by o th er ICRC ships.
The C om m ittee ordered th e im m ediate discharge of any
seam an who was clearly n o t approved by one or other of the
belligerents. This m easure had to be tak e n only on four occa
sions 2.
The B ritish G overnm ent insisted, in th e case of th e Rosa
Sm ith, which sailed betw een G othenburg an d Aberdeen, th a t
th e crew list should be su b m itted tp the B ritish Consul a t
G othenburg. The m em bers of the crew were allowed to go
ashore a t Aberdeen, b u t could not leave th e town.
The various m easures of supervision ad o p ted b y th e ICRC
proved in practice to be adequate, since th eir vessels h a d th e
confidence of th e belligerents u n til the end of th e war.
6. Provisions relating to navigation.
In addition to safe-conducts and th e use of th e R ed Cross
em blem , th e security of the vessels called for o ther precautions.
Ships h ad to follow th e routes laid down by th e Com m ittee in
agreem ent w ith th e belligerents. However, such agreem ent was
often v ery difficult to obtain, and this seriously delayed the
sailings. Vessels could n o t p u t to sea when each of th e p arties
wished a different route to be followed, and if discussions did
not lead to a t least some provisional arrangem ent, the service
was suspended for an indefinite period.
1 W hen it was proposed to charter an ICRC vessel for service in
the Far E ast, th e A llies consented to the crews being com posed of
Japanese seamen, provided this concession induced the Japanese author
ities to approve Red Cross transports.
2 The discharge of a Swedish officer of the Vega a t Lisbon, which
was dem anded b y the Arm istice Commission at Marseilles, led to an
incident in N ovem ber 1942. The master, the owners and the B ritish
Red Cross refused to dism iss this officer, who had been brought by air
a t great expense from Sweden to Lisbon. T hey changed their view s,
however, and engaged a Finnish su bstitute, so th at the ICRC was able
to authorize the vessel to resume its service.
149

Notification. W hen th e belligerents concerned were

inform ed th a t the first R ed Cross tra n sp o rts would tak e place,
th e y declined to give any g u arantee of th e vessels safety unless
th e tim e-table to be followed was com m unicated to them ten
days in advance. Thus, whereas the safe conduct was granted
once and for all, notification of the tim e-table had to be m ade
for each voyage. The Ita lia n au th o rities even dem anded th a t
the Com m ittee should aw ait confirm ation of th eir consent
before giving sailing orders 1.
The notification procedure was laid down by each belligerent
and was frequently modified. N otice of the tim e-table, in
particu lar, was a t first required ten days in advance, afterw ards
six, and finally four days. Some belligerents even accepted 48
hours previous notice ; the period varied also according to the
route followed.
The notification included a detailed schedule of th e outw ard
and re tu rn voyage, including ports of call and dates of clearing
an d arrival a t th e various ports. W hen a vessel sailed from a
n e u tra l port, th e notification was m ade by th e ICRC delegation
to th e n av al attach s of th e belligerent S tates ; sailings from
belligerent ports were notified direct to th e G overnm ents
concerned by the ICRC itself.
The object of notification was to allow belligerent Govern
m ents to inform th eir arm ed forces. Its chief disadvantage
was th a t a n y vessel which for some reason could not keep to
the schedule, had to be held in p ort during th e period required
for fresh notification.
The ICRC was, m oreover, a t tim es
com pletely cut off from all com m unication w ith its ships :
it had, for instance, from 1944 onwards, no m eans of rapid
com m unication w ith its delegations in Marseilles and Toulon,
and was in consequence not in a position to rep o rt any delays
incurred by vessels calling a t these ports 2.
1 When this consent arrived after the proposed sailing date, a fresh
notification w ith ten d ays notice was required.
2 For instance, the ICRC was unable to report to the British author
ities before June 19, 1944, th at the sailing from Ste of the Cristina,
notified for June 13, 1944, had been delayed until June 25. The Foreign
Office at once informed the C om m ittee th a t th ey could accept no
responsibility in respect of this vessel until the m ilitary authorities
had received the fresh notification.
ISO

Sea routes. Safe-conducts were g ran te d for voyages not

only betw een the ports of call, b u t also along courses precisely
defined by geographical pin-points.
The determ ination of
the route was one cause of u n fo rtu n a te delays, as it usually
entailed draw n-out negotiations w ith the belligerents. One of
the G overnm ents concerned would som etim es accept beforehand
th e route to be fixed by its allies, or would even leave it in p a rt
to th e discretion of th e adversary. All parties were inform ed of
the route finally chosen. However, changes were often dem anded
during the tim e the vessels were in service. Shoals or m ine
fields m ade certain routes very dangerous for ships, which bad
w eather m ight divert slightly from th eir course. The Vega in
this way ran aground on a sand bank, and th e Padua sank
a fter striking a m ine in th e Gulf of Lions.
Pilots. G overnm ents often insisted th a t the vessels should
tak e pilots on board, especially in th e territo ria l w aters of
belligerent S tates 1.
In view of the dangers to navigation betw een P o rt Vendres
and Marseilles, th e ICRC itself requested th e G erm an authorities
to provide pilots. The request was granted, on condition th a t
th e pilots should be regarded as n eu tral ; this the U nited S tates
G overnm ent accepted, b u t the B ritish G overnm ent refused.
Three m onths later, the B ritish revoked th eir decision and gave
an assurance th a t pilots shipped betw een P o rt Vendres and
M arseilles would be tre a te d as neutrals by the B ritish a u th o r
ities, and be exem pt from capture. A fter this arrangem ent no
fu rth e r incidents occurred on this route.
Pilots whose services were used in other w aters did not
receive favoured tre a tm e n t, since th e R ed Cross vessels had
not been g ran te d e x tra -te rrito ria l statu s.
Reports of position by wireless. In May 1944, shortly after
th e a tta c k s on th e E m bla and th e Cristina, the B ritish G overn
m ent requested th a t, as an additional precaution, ICRC vessels
should give th eir position by wireless, to perm it th eir identifica
1 This was the usual practice betw een Rhodes and the Piraeus,
in the Faroe Islands channel, the Delaware estuary, German waters
of the B altic and the N orth Sea, the Channel Islands, and so on.
151

tion b y th e arm ed forces. The B ritish au th o rities sta te d th a t

th e Allied air forces in th e M editerranean declined all responsi
bility for air attack s, unless certain inform ation in respect of
sailings were given in good tim e. The Germ an authorities,
on being consulted, agreed to th e use of wireless on board.
A fter frequent changes during th e first three m onths \ th e
regulations for wireless signals were fixed as follows in August
1944.
(1) Signals by radio every four hours starting from m idnight
(C.E.T.) on 600 metres (500 kilocycles) in the follow ing order.
Position a t . . . hours GMT ; l a t it u d e ..., lon gitud e. . ., c o u r s e ...,
sp eed . . . k n ots. . . .
(2) Position by wireless d aily on 600 metres to radio stations a t
Algiers (or Gibraltar), and Coltano (Leghorn).
(3)

In the even t of an unexpected call at an interm ediate port :

(a) The m aster shall give notice b y wireless (600 metres, 500 k ilo
cycles) of his in tention of p utting into port and shall inform the Lisbon
delegation of his arrival and of the probable date and hour of sailing.
The m aster shall also give notice, at least four days before sailing, to
the owners or their agents, for transm ission to the British authorities,
of the probable date and tim e of sailing from the port of call.
(b) The m aster shall give at least 48 hours previous notice of sailing
from the port of call b y wireless.
(4) Should the ships wireless be unable to reach the stations of
Algiers, Gibraltar and Coltano, the aforesaid com m unications shall be
sent through Spanish radio stations.

The consent of th e Spanish G overnm ent was necessary for

calling a t Spanish ports. I t was gran ted w ith th e following
reservations : wireless com m unications to be lim ited to the
dates of arrival and sailing and to be m ade either in clear, or in
in tern atio n al code. Transm issions to be m ade in the frequencies
in in tern atio n al use for th e service of th e m erchant m arine.
1 Six vessels which had been held up at Marseilles w hilst these
form alities were being com pleted, were allowed to leave port w ithout
observing the new regulations, on condition th a t th ey sailed in convoy.

152

In D ecem ber 1944, th e B ritish G overnm ent intorm ed the

ICRC th a t its vessels were no longer required to give th eir
position b y wireless in the M editerranean. The m easure was
therefore only applied when this zone was a m ajor th e a tre of
war.
In th e A tlantic, the ICRC vessels h ad to give th eir position
once a day to th eir national statio n on a w avelength of 500
kilocycles. The Rosa Sm ith, sailing betw een A berdeen and
G othenburg, h ad to give her position twice a day.
Scope of regulations. All these regulations were intended
to enhance th e safety of the C om m ittees vessels. The la tte r
m ight, however, on occasion be unable to com ply w ith them ,
owing either to orders issued by the m ilitary authorities, or
to some other im perative reason. The question arose, therefore,
w hether vessels m ight be w ithout protection in especially
dangerous situations.
The B ritish G overnm ent repeatedly
m ade it clear th a t th ey would accept no responsibility for
a tta ck s on ships or crews th a t had failed strictly to observe
regulations. The ICRC vessels were th u s exposed to the perils
inevitable in a sta te of war, w hilst th eir safety depended
solely on th e exact observance of all regulations to which they
were subject. A lthough no consequences ensued, th e fact th a t
these vessels bore th e onus of obligations which could n o t in all
circum stances be fulfilled, created an unusual situation. From
a logical point of view, w ithdraw al of protection could only
be grounded in breaches of the general conditions governing
safe - conducts, use of the vessel, schedule of routes, and
distinctive m arkings. This question was n ot specially discussed,
b u t the Ita lia n authorities seem ed to have in terp reted the
principles of protection in this sense. W hen the ICRC m ade
certain reservations early in 1941 regarding th e use of th e R ed
Cross emblem, th ey replied as follows :
W ith regard to the display of the distinctive Red Cross markings,
the M inistry believe th a t it is precisely, and a fortiori the fact th a t
routes, port of call, sailing dates, etc., m ay not always be stated in
advance, w hich m akes it advisable for sailing-ships to bear the Red
Cross em blem , particularly for their protection against air a tta c k .

153

In conclusion, provisions governing navigation should be

fram ed solely to ensure the b e tte r identification of the vessels ;
th e protection of those vessels should not be in any w ay condi
tional on such regulations. Belligerents should not therefore
be en titled to decline all responsibility for a tta c k s against
vessels displaying th e emblem, on th e grounds th a t th ey were
unable to identify them .
7. Transfer of flag.
Owing to th e losses suffered by th eir m erchant fleets, the
n eu tral countries were h ardly able to offer tonnage to the ICRC.
Moreover, th e U nited S tates and the G erm an authorities had
on several occasions expressed a wish for all R ed Cross tra n s
p o rt to be placed under th e control of the ICRC and under the
Swiss flag.
The Com m ittee therefore asked the G overnm ents
concerned to g ran t exceptions to the provisions of intern atio n al
law governing th e tran sfer of flag, and succeeded in having three
belligerent vessels placed under the Swiss flag.
The Swiss C onfederation approved these transfers, on
condition th a t th e vessels should be subject to Swiss law, in
p articu lar w ith regard to transfer of ownership of th e vessels
to Swiss nationals, and rem oval from the shipping register
of the home country. The ICRC was, m oreover, required to
obtain the consent of th e belligerents to the proposed transfers,
and to tak e responsibility for th e em ploym ent of the vessels,
which could not be included in the allocation of tonnage assigned
to Sw itzerland by the belligerents.
On th e occasion of the purchase of th e Frederic, a Belgian
steam er held up a t Casablanca, the G erm an G overnm ent m ade
th e tran sfer of ow nership conditional on its right to dem and at
any tim e the retu rn of the vessel to her owners 1. The British
G overnm ent stip u lated th a t no financial profit from the
tran sfer should accrue, even indirectly, to the enem y Powers.
In order to reconcile these various conditions, the transfers
were effected on a basis of sale w ith privilege of repurchase,
1 The Swiss P olitical D epartm ent agreed to the German reservation,
w ith the approval of the Belgian Governm ent in London.

154

and paym ent was deferred u n til th e end of th e war. T he vessels

were n ot subject to registration fee for th eir e n try in th e Swiss
R egister 1.
W hereas th e comm issioning of n eu tral vessels as R ed Cross
tra n sp o rts was subject only to concurrence betw een certain
belligerent Powers, transfers of n atio n ality h ad to be notified
to all G overnm ents concerned by the Swiss diplom atic repre
sentatives.
The C om m ittee sought th e prelim inary agreem ent of the
Belgian, Brazilian, B ritish, French, Germ an, Italian , Swiss and
U nited S tates G overnm ents. T hereafter, it was found necessary
to secure the adherence of J a p a n too, because this country, a t
the tim e of the initial transfer, h ad m ade reservations on the
score th a t she m ight la te r regard th is change of flag as a deroga
tion to certain provisions of in tern atio n al law.
In short th e ICRC, in order to tran sfer belligerent vessels to
a neu tral flag, h ad to bring about th e following :
(1) B elligerents should waive th eir right, recognized by the
London D eclaration of 1909, to consider such transfers as null
and void.
(2) The ownership of the vessel should be transferred to
a Swiss corporate body.
(3) The purchase should not lead to any financial gain to
th e belligerents.
(4) These Pow ers should consent to release ships in spite of
th eir own needs of tonnage.
(5) The F oundation should obtain adequate financial support
to cover th e risks of operating th e vessels th u s acquired.
L astly, th e sta tu s of vessels transferred to th e F oundation
was identical w ith th a t of th e o ther ships sailing under the
control of the ICRC.

1 For clauses relating to the sales and financial guarantees, see the
Report of the Foundation.

155

 3- T e c h n i c a l O r g a n iz a tio n

Chartering. The first shipm ents under safe-conduct

com prising parcels for PW were m ade possible by co n tracts
entered into w ith a Portuguese firm, which over a period of
three m onths was responsible for chartering the required
tonnage.
The ICRC also contem plated the chartering of ships 1 either
a t th e expense of th e G overnm ents concerned, or a t th e charge
of N ational R ed Cross Societies. The plans fell through and
th e C om m ittee soon abandoned th e idea, having in the m eantim e
had recourse to a m ethod by which its own interests and those
of relief organizations and G overnm ents were protected. C harterparties were concluded betw een the B ritish Red Cross and
owners in n eu tral countries, b u t the ICRC had the exclusive
use of the vessels and all facilities for carrying out the supervi
sion required by the belligerents.
This system , concurrently w ith another adopted in 1942,
lasted u n til the end of the war. A fter the U nited S ta te s e n try
into the war, the A m erican R ed Cross asked the ICRC if the
relief supplies given by th em m ight not be carried by vessels
flying the Swiss flag and sailing under the same conditions as
th e ships of the C om m ittee already in service. On being con
sulted, th e Swiss G overnm ent were willing to allow vessels
to be transferred to th eir flag, provided th e ICRC obtained th e
necessary au th o rity . They offered m eantim e to set aside from
2,000 to 3,000 tons per m onth of cargo space in their own ships,
for use in the tra n sa tla n tic service of the Red Cross 2.
As the relief consignm ents planned greatly exceeded th is
figure, the proposal of the Am erican R ed Cross, which was
endorsed b y the U. S. S tate D epartm ent, was accepted, and the
ICRC, together w ith th e Swiss authorities, studied m eans for
giving it effect. The ICRC th en decided to set up a F oundation
1 This condition was made by the British Governm ent during th e
discussion of the cross-Channel schem e. See above p. 130.
2 This proposal was discussed by the British and Swiss authorities
and the conditions for releasing Swiss tonnage for Red Cross transports
were laid down in the Agreem ent of April 9, 1942.

156

governed by Swiss law, for the purpose of acquiring the vessels

to be transferred to the Swiss flag, and of tak in g responsibi
lity for the relief shipm ents en tru sted to the Com m ittee. The
vessels purchased by th e said F oundation were to be m anaged
either by this body, or by a shipping agent of Swiss nationality.
According to Swiss law, th e vessels could not be chartered by a
foreign organization. The F oundation, however, was authorized
to ch arter vessels sailing under foreign flags.
F rom 1942 onwards, therefore, the shipm ent of relief supplies
was in th e hands of a special R ed Cross body, th e a c tiv ity of
which was nevertheless subject to th e ICRC 1.
In point of fact, the F oundation purchased only three
vessels. Most of the cargoes were carried by ships under charter,
m ainly because the purchase of ships and the change of flag
created such difficulties on each occasion as to leave small
chance of any settlem ent w ithin a reasonable space of tim e.
In the end, only vessels ch artered by the B ritish R ed Cross,
or by the Foundation, or ships belonging to th e la tte r body,
were used as tra n sp o rts under the em blem of the ICRC.
The term s of the charters were ad ap ted to the form s in
com m on use, and were different in alm ost every case ; some
vessels were on tim e-charter, some for the voyage and others
for the d uration of the war.
Financing. The recovery of freight and costs for vessels
chartered by th e B ritish Red Cross was ensured by th e ICRC
delegation, which m ade up the invoices according to th e tonnage
allocated am ongst the consignors, and reim bursed the B ritish
Red Cross. The F oundation settled in respect of its own vessels,
as a rule direct w ith the consignors, and the ICRC was only
required to act in the case of certain transfers of funds.
The freight rates varied according to the charter-parties.
For the F o u n d atio n s vessels the rates were calculated a t cost
level, as this body asked no rem uneration for its services and
had also certain tax a tio n privileges.
1 The form ation and activities of the F oundation are shown in the
R eport of its adm inistration issued together w ith the present Report.

157

P a rt of the relief supplies carried consisted of sacks of

postal parcels which were conveyed free. The net cost of
carriage was charged by th e ICRC to the N ational R ed Cross
Societies of the recipients. The charterers did not ask for
repaym ent of carriage of bags containing PW mail.
Adm inistration. N egotiations w ith belligerents were th e
sole concern of th e ICRC. A separate dep artm en t was set up
for this purpose ; it was a t first a tta ch e d to the Relief Division,
and la te r on to the T ransport and Com m unications Division,
which was form ed in A ugust 1942 and placed under a Commission
of th e ICRC.
The T ransport and Com m unications Division had the task
of approaching G overnm ents on tra n sp o rt questions, and
supervised the general work of the M aritime T ransport Service,
to which the convoying agents were directly responsible. In s
tructions to shipowners, charterers or m asters were given
through the delegations, or the Foundation.

4.

ork

a c c o m p l is h e d

i. Lisbon-M arseilles
At the outb reak of the wrar, relief supplies for Allied PW
were conveyed from Lisbon to G erm any by rail. In the w inter
of 1940, the Spanish G overnm ent was obliged to prohibit the
tra n sit of goods from Portugal over its railw ay system . The
ICRC then began to carry relief supplies by sea from Lisbon to
Genoa or Marseilles. O ur review of this service, as of the others
dealt w ith below, will be confined to essentials ; space does not
perm it an account in detail of the technical problem s connected
w ith the various shipping routes, of the m any negotiations
th ey involved, or of the regulations frequently modified
which were established by th e belligerents 1.
1 Figures are given in the volum e of A nnexes showing the m ove
m ents of the vessels which during the war carried relief supplies under
the C om m ittees auspices for PW , civilian internees and civil populations.
The C om m ittee is able to supply full d ata on all technical questions rela
tin g to their Maritime Transport Service.

158

The first shipm ents in the M editerranean began in D ecem ber

1939 and Ja n u a ry 1940, and were carried out by sm all Portuguese
sailing ships chartered by the B ritish R ed Cross and sailing
under a safe-conduct from the belligerents. Their supervision
was not, however, sufficiently strict, and the G erm an G overnm ent
indicated th a t th ey were disinclined to place confidence in
these vessels for an indefinite period. The ICRC then had
recourse to steam ers, each having one of their agents on board ;
these would carry exclusively goods intended for PW and
civilian internees. This course proved satisfactory as regards
B ritish PW ; it was not so, however, in the case of French PW ,
since the plan for em ploying vessels chartered by the French
R ed Cross m et w ith insurm ountable obstacles. The French
authorities, who were faced w ith urgent needs, had to resort to
block-trains from Portugal, although the costs were heavy.
A fter th e U nited S tates came into the war, shipm ents for
PW steadily increased, and the use of large cargo-vessels
becam e essential. There were, m oreover, draw backs to the
chartering of Portuguese steam ers, since the ICRC had to
deal w ith shipowners on a purely com m ercial basis ; furtherm ore,
no voyage could be m ade w ithout a u th o rity from the Portuguese
G overnm ent. At this ju n ctu re the F oundation for Red Cross
T ransports, recently set up by the ICRC, purchased the Belgian
vessels Frederic, which thenceforth sailed under the nam e of
Caritas I. This ship was intended for the U nited S ta te sMarseilles route, b u t its first voyage was from Lisbon to the
M editerranean.
In N ovem ber 1942, the Allied landing in N orth Africa m ade
navigation in the M editerranean extrem ely hazardous ; one
Red Cross vessel was caught in an air raid on Genoa. The dangers
becam e such th a t the Portuguese G overnm ent forbade its
m erchant ships to call at M editerranean ports. As rail com m u
nications had also broken down betw een Marseilles and Geneva,
all consignm ents from Lisbon had to be suspended. W hen
these routes were re-opened, Spanish, Portuguese and Swedish
vessels chartered by the B ritish Red Cross were employed.
The increasing pitch of w ar in the M editerranean had its
effect on Red Cross transports. Some vessels were exposed
r59

to great risks in following the difficult routes laid down by th e

belligerents. O thers were repeatedly a tta ck e d by aircraft, and
one was sunk. The ICRC then suspended the M arseilles-Lisbon
service and sent a pro test to London. The B ritish authorities
expressed their regret ; to avoid the recurrence of sim ilar
incidents, th ey requested th a t the R ed Cross vessels should
rep o rt their position and speed four tim es a day by wireless.
Several cargo-boats were th u s able to leave Marseilles, b u t
shortly afterw ards the Allied landing on th e French coast
(August, 1944) again held up all navigation. Since there was
no more room in the warehouses a t Lisbon for goods which
continued to arrive from overseas, several ships unloaded
a t Barcelona. B y th e a u tu m of 1944, conditions for navigation
had once m ore become alm ost norm al, and it was possible to
send relief supplies to Toulon, u ntil the port of Marseilles was
again m ade serviceable.
A fter the end of hostilities, th e ICRC considered th a t ships
bearing the Red Cross em blem and convoyed by its agents were
no longer necessary, and inform ed the Red Cross Societies of
the Allied countries of this view. However, at their express
dem and, the C om m ittees M aritim e Service was continued for
a tim e, u ntil th e stores of relief supplies in the various ports
had been cleared.
2. North A frican Route
A fter th e events of 1942, G erm an PW cam ps were set up
in N orth Africa ; on the o ther hand, France was no longer able
to obtain goods direct from Algeria for French PW . The ICRC
therefore endeavoured to establish a link betw een Marseilles
and Algiers or Casablanca.
No more n eu tral vessels being
available, ships already in its service had to be used. Some of the
vessels on sh uttle service betw een Lisbon and Marseilles therefore
touched a t Casablanca, to unload supplies for G erm an PW and
to tak e on board others for French PW .
These irregular passages proved inadequate, and other
expedients h ad to be found. Goods from N orth Africa were
tra n sp o rte d to Lisbon free of charge by th e B ritish A dm iralty,
160

and thence to Marseilles on Red Cross ships. A fter th e landings

in France, the Allied services were able to send supplies direct
to th a t country. Relief supplies from the G erm an R ed Cross
had to be shipped by th e N orthern route. The first consignm ent
reached Casablanca direct from G othenburg, the others were
shipped from G othenburg to Philadelphia, and were thence
forw arded to Casablanca by the Am erican Red Cross.
3. South Am erican Route
T hroughout the war, relief supplies from South Am erica were
carried alm ost entirely in Swiss vessels. A greem ents concluded
by the B ritish and U nited States G overnm ents and by the
ICRC w ith the Swiss G overnm ent supplied th e A rgentine
R ed Cross w ith cargo space of varying capacity in vessels
detailed for carrying food to Sw itzerland. This space it was
asked to allocate im partially betw een the various Allied nations.
The system did not however allow of rap id disposal of available
stocks. The B ritish R ed Cross therefore, a t th e beginning of
1943, ch artered a Swedish vessel lying in Buenos Aires, which
th en m ade several voyages betw een th a t p ort and Marseilles,
w ith the consent of the belligerents and under the em blem of
th e ICRC.
4. North Am erican Route
In th e early years of the war, the Am erican R ed Cross had
sent relief supplies to E urope on board Am erican ships, which
unloaded a t Lisbon. The U nited S tates, on entering the war,
were anxious to supply th eir nationals held in E urope and
Ja p an .
Two m aritim e services, A tlantic and Pacific, were
planned for this purpose, under the auspices of th e ICRC ; th ey
were the subject of negotiations a t the beginning of 1942, and
in the case of the A tlantic tran sp o rts, were brought to a satis
factory conclusion.
Am erican tonnage being no longer available, the Am erican
R ed Cross set about finding neu tral cargo-boats. The ICRC
was asked if it would consent to ship Am erican consignm ents
on steam ers flying the Swiss flag and displaying the ICRC
hi.

11

161

emblems. The difficulty lay in reconciling this procedure w ith

Swiss law ; it was not overcom e u n til th e ICRC had set up th e
F oundation, which was th en able to purchase neu tral vessels
and sail th em under th e Swiss flag.
The conveyance of relief supplies betw een the tw o conti
n ents form ed the m ain a c tiv ity of the Foundation. E ighty-seven
per cent of the cargoes shipped by vessels bought or chartered
b y th e F oundation was carried from Philadelphia to Marseilles
and G othenburg. The vessels on this route also accounted for
m ost of the shipm ents m ade under the ICRC emblem. F u rth e r
d a ta on th e stru c tu re and operation of th is regular service will
be found in th e R eport of th e F oundation.
N egotiations which took place a t th a t tim e betw een th e
Swiss and B ritish G overnm ents led to an agreem ent, counter
signed by the ICRC, u n d er which Sw itzerland set aside
4,000 tons a m onth for th e ICRC, 3,000 tons being allotted tothe B ritish R ed Cross and 1,000 tons to th e Am erican Red Cross.
These cargoes were carried a t preferential rates. In its concern
for neu trality , th e Swiss Federal G overnm ent decided th a t, on
the re tu rn voyage from E urope, th e cargo space it had m ade
available to belligerents should be used for relief supplies sent
to PW of th e Axis countries in the U nited S tates and Canada.
F our vessels chartered by th e B ritish Red Cross occasionally
form ed p a rt of these transports.
In the sum m er of 1944 th e Allied landing in the South of
F rance debarred the p ort of Marseilles from use by navigation.
The ICRC had already considered the possibility of linking
N orth Am erica w ith a N orth G erm an port, via the Faroe Isles,
and the Scandinavian coast. The dangers to shipping n o rth of th e
G erm an coast prevented Red Cross vessels in the A tlantic
service from sailing direct to G erm an ports. The ICRC was
th u s obliged to w arehouse relief supplies a t G othenburg, which
henceforth served as a relay statio n for goods bound for Ger
m any from th e N orth. A delegation was opened there, w ith the
same, duties for th e B altic as those of th e delegation in Lisbon
for the M editerranean.
A few vessels, nevertheless, continued to operate on th e
southern route and discharged th eir cargoes a t B arcelona,
162

to be w arehoused pending the re-opening of the ports of Mar

seilles and Toulon.
5. Aberdeen-Gothenburg Route
A direct line betw een G reat B ritain and Sweden was proposed
b y the B ritish Red Cross as early as Septem ber 1941. Aberdeen
h ad been selected in view of its good com m unications w ith
' the interior. I t was n ot u n til th e a u tu m n of 1944, however,
th a t th e G erm an authorities accepted this plan in principle,
on condition th a t th e ships, on their re tu rn passage, should
c arry m ail and parcels for G erm an PW . T heir uncom prom ising
a ttitu d e m oreover prevented any agreem ent being reached before
M arch 1945 on th e choice, sta tu s and conditions of charter
of such vessels. The first shipm ent of relief from Aberdeen
did not therefore reach G othenburg u n til after the arm istice.
6. Gothenburg-Lbeck Route
E v en ts in th e M editerranean th e a tre of w ar a t first led the
ICRC to consider linking th e U nited S tates direct w ith G erm any
b y the n orth. The B ritish G overnm ent and the owners of vessels
ch artered by the F o undation objected, however, to this idea,
on account of the dangers referred to above. In default of other
routes, it was decided to ship relief supplies to G othenburg,
whence it was hoped to convey them to G erm any via D enm ark
b y the Helsingborg-Elsinore ferry. This service was irregular,
however, and the ICRC a tte m p te d to set up a coastal sh uttle
service betw een Sweden and Germ any.
This service could n ot be opened u n til N ovem ber 1944.
The belligerents h ad chosen the p ort of Lfibeck, despite the
danger of destruction by bom bing. Since the Allies had refused
safe-conducts to these Swedish vessels, the ICRC did not provide
them w ith the Red Cross em blem , or place their convoying
agents on board, for no responsibility for this service could be
assum ed in these conditions. The ICRC delegates did, however,
supervise the loading and discharging of goods and th eir for
w arding to the cam ps in G erm any. The Swedish G overnm ent
asked th a t the cargo-boats should a t least be painted w hite,
163

and th a t th eir sailings should be notified in advance by the

ICRC to the B ritish and R ussian diplom atic representatives in
Stockholm .
In the absence of safe-conducts, the Swedish
G overnm ent accepted declarations from th e belligerents to the
effect th a t the vessels would be respected as far as possible.
D espite these restricted guarantees, the Swedish boats,
up to the Arm istice, m ade tw enty-seven trip s w ithout incident.
A t the end of April 1945, tw o of the ships took off a t Lfibeck
about a th o u san d people released from concentration cam ps.
S hortly after the end of hostilities, the Liibeck service was
given up, b u t the ICRC delegation in G othenburg rem ained
in their post, a t the request of the Red Cross Societies concerned,
to cooperate w ith them in clearing stocks. These were forw arded
to France, Belgium, Finland, Poland and Germ any.
7. Projected Near East Route
The occupation of the B alkans by Axis forces m ade com m u
nications w ith the N ear E ast both difficult and precarious. Great
delays and losses a tte n d ed the tra n sp o rt of parcels to Axis PW and
civilian internees in countries overseas, and th e conveyance of
supplies from India, E gypt, T urkey and Syria. To rectify this
situ atio n and to prom ote the despatch of urgent relief supplies
to the 3,000 B ritish PW held in Greece, the ICRC a tte m p te d
to p u t a line in operation betw een T urkey and the A driatic,
sim ilar to th a t betw een Lisbon and Marseilles. A fter some
hesitation, the belligerents, a t the beginning of 1942, agreed
to this plan in principle. U nfortunately, none of the vessels the
ICRC wished to place in service were approved by all the
G overnm ents concerned, and since railw ay com m unications
had m eanwhile been re-opened, the scheme was abandoned.
8. Projected Far East Route
An account of th e C om m ittees a tte m p ts to organize the
sea tra n sp o rt of relief supplies to Allied PW in Japanese hands
will be found in the ch ap ter covering all the problem s of the
w ar in th e F a r E a s t1.
1 See Vol. I, pp. 437 e t seq.
I 64

g. M aritim e Transport of Relief for C ivilian Populations

The results achieved by the ICRC in the sphere of m aritim e
tra n sp o rt of relief supplies for civilian populations are set out
below. D etails are given, in particu lar, of tra n sp o rts from
T urkey, E g y p t and Palestine to Greece, from Lisbon to the
Channel Islands and to the N etherlands, and finally from
T urkey to the Dodecanese.

1 See pp. 401 e t scq.

165

C hapter 2

Railway Transport
U p to the m iddle of 1940, the railw ays worked norm ally
in W estern and C entral E urope, so th a t relief supplies could be
sent to PW and internees of b o th parties by the o rdinary mail
service across th e countries a t war. This was so in p articu lar of
parcels sent by post from any p a rt of the world to Polish PW ,
and to F rench and B ritish PW and internees in G erm any.
A fter the occupation in 1940 of N orway, Belgium, H olland
and p a rt of France, followed in 1941 by th a t of Jugoslavia and
Greece, the num ber of PW increased considerably. The ICRC
itself th en h ad to solve the problem s raised by the rail tran sp o rt
of th e collective and individual relief consignm ents required
for such large num bers of men.
The forw arding of individual and especially fam ily parcels
will be discussed later. T hroughout the w ar such parcels were
sent chiefly th rough th e post office ; the ICRC was therefore
not concerned w ith them . I t did, however, take repeated steps
to assure the despatch of individual parcels in m ail bags or cases,
of anonym ous parcels having no p articu lar addressee, and of
goods in bulk.
U p to the beginning of 1944, the Germ an and French railw ay
system s were more or less in ta c t, b u t requisitions by the Germ an
m ilitary authorities in G erm any and in the occupied countries
led to a shortage of rolling stock. Thus, from the tim e of the
Franco-G erm an arm istice in 1940, the daily civilian train
which should have connected H endaye and Paris never ran ;
in fact, th e regular use of this line was confined to m ilitary tra n s
ports. As a result, parcels sent through the A rm y post offices
166

to G erm an PW held in th e B ritish Com m onw ealth were acceptedj

b u t the reverse did not hold good. Relief supplies for Allied P W
shipped by th e A m erican, A rgentine, B ritish, Brazilian, Canadian
a n d other R ed Cross Societies had, therefore, to be sent by
a n o th e r itinerary, proposed as early as 1940 by the ICRC ; this
was by the sea route from Lisbon to Marseilles or Genoa, and
thence by rail to Sw itzerland. This route was increasingly used
until the end of th e war, except for a few m onths in 1944,
a fte r th e Allied landing in th e South of France.
R elief supplies to PW in E urope were carried largely by
the French, Italian , Swiss, Germ an, H ungarian and B alkan
railw ay system s. A lthough conditions were often m ost difficult,
th e railw ay staff everyw here showed a devotion to d u ty which
earned th e g ratitu d e of th e ICRC and the donor agencies.
The m any problem s of railw ay tra n sp o rt will be discussed
under th e following four headings 7
(a)
(b)
('cj
r ()

O rganization ;
Shortage of rolling stock ;
A pplication of provisions for free tra n sp o rt ;
Looting, accidents and p e tty theft.

(a) Organization
At first, the ICRC comm issioned intern atio n al tra n sp o rt
firms to a tte n d to the receipt and despatch of goods sent to
PW th rough its agency. A fter a few m onths this system proved
too costly. W ithout entirely dispensing w ith the services of
intern atio n al shipping agencies, th e ICRC set up its own T rans
port D epartm ent. As this was not a com m ercial undertaking,
expenses were m uch reduced (from 1942 to 1946 th ey were no
higher th a n 4.5 centim es per kilogram) ; more im p o rtan t, the
consignm ents sent to P W and internees of all categories shared
the privileges enjoyed by th e C om m ittee itself.
Shortly after setting up this railw ay tra n sp o rt central
office, th e ICRC opened sim ilar offices a t the headquarters
of certain delegations, one or several of whose staff were assigned
to tra n sp o rt form alities. Those delegations th a t only occasion
ally had duties of this kind continued to em ploy the local
tra n sp o rt agents.
167

(b )

Shortage of wagons

Box cars in good condition, w ith a load capacity of seven

to tw en ty tons and utilizable over the whole E uropean netw ork,
were required. As supplies arrived irregularly in Sw itzerland,
applications for rolling stock could not be satisfactorily m et
w ithin the required tim e lim its. From the outset therefore,
consignm ents were ham pered by a persistent lack of freight
cars.
In view of the n e u tra lity of Sw itzerland, th e Federal R ailw ays
soon prohibited the despatch abroad of single cars. On being
refused a request for one or several lifts of wagons, the ICRC
proposed th a t rolling stock should be supplied to the F o u n d a
tion for R ed Cross T ransports. A fter consultation w ith the
Swiss G overnm ent, the Federal Railw ays again refused, but
prom ised th a t if negotiations w ith the French and Ita lia n
S tate Railw ays failed, th ey would consider the tem p o rary
loan of Swiss wagons th en a t Marseilles or Genoa.
At the sam e tim e, it was impossible to obtain sufficient
French or Ita lia n wagons when R ed Cross ships reached Mar
seilles or Genoa, nor enough G erm an wagons to tak e the goods
from Sw itzerland to the PW cam ps in G erm any. In the absence
of a rem edy, the ICRC had to m ake constant applications to
the various railw ay m anagem ents ; in spite of these efforts,
its relief service was seriously m enaced on more th an one
occasion. There were three periods of acute crisis :
(i). The first occurred during the w inter of 1940-41 and
lasted u n til spring ; it affected traffic from Marseilles to G eneva,
and from Singen into Germ any. The organization difficulties
which had provoked the crisis having been overcome, th e
volum e of tra n sp o rt becam e fairly stable as from the w inter of
1942-43 and showed the following m onthly averages : 1,000 to
1,800 wagons received, 1,000 to 1,200 sen tto G erm any, and 100
to 300 to Ita ly and the B alkans.
As m ost of the relief goods en tru sted to the ICRC were
destined for G erm any, th e despatch office at the frontier station
of Singen was of prim ary im portance. Technical details were
finally settled under an agreem ent w ith the German Red Cross
168

in Septem ber and O ctober 1943. The G erm an Railw ays then
announced th a t the goods would be directed over sixteen
sectors of their netw ork. Consequently, the ICRC had to set
up a com position d epartm ent.
As consignm ents for single
cam ps did not always m ake up a full wagon-load, the Germ an
Railw ays h ad agreed to accept single wagons of not less th an
five tons weight and addressed to several cam ps in the sam e
neighbourhood. In such cases all the addressees had to be
entered on the way-bill and the custom s declaration, and the
various lots so m arked th a t th ey could w ithout difficulty be
unloaded separately.
All the parcels in one car were num bered according to a
system which allowed the ICRC to keep a statistical record.
On the 12th and 25th of each m onth, despatch schedules
for the following fortnight h ad to be sent to the G erm an R ail
ways. As goods arrived in Sw itzerland irregularly, however,
the ICRC schedules m ade a distinction betw een those shipm ents
which were definite and those which were probable
or doubtful . The cars were of course loaded in conform ity
w ith custom s regulations. Each was placed under bond ; th e
seals of the wagons were num bered, and the num bers were
entered on the docum ent.
The same procedure applied to the so-called " com posite
cars containing separate consignm ents for more th a n tw o or
three cam ps. Consignments of this kind were loaded in the same
car for tra n sp o rt to the G erm an statio n a t Singen, where th ey
were re-loaded for direct forw arding to the addressees. This
system , although less reliable th an previous arrangem ents,
was the only way of sending relief supplies to isolated groups
of PW who could not receive their parcels through a large cam p.
E very com posite car had to have a way-bill m ade out
for Singen by the C om m ittees D espatch D epartm ent, and
another for each co nstituent consignm ent. As m any as 20 or
30 way-bills were th u s needed, in addition to the custom s
declarations, m anifests, etc., m aking in all eleven docum ents
for each consignm ent. Special form s were used by arrangem ent
w ith the Swiss a n d German Customs and Railways. An agree
m ent was signed w ith the Swiss Railw ays for the loading of the
169

cars in the warehouses, since cars had often to be loaded success

ively in four or five warehouses (e.g. Geneva-Cornavin for medical
stores, Geneva-La Renfile for clothing from France, Vallorbe for
foodstuffs from overseas, Bienne for the toilet articles sorted
there, etc.).
Composite despatches were m aintained u ntil the sum m er
of 1944, th a t is, u n til norm al traffic in G erm any broke down.
At th a t point, these consignm ents suffered such losses th a t the
m ethod had to be abandoned.
Combined loading on the same cars of supplies intended
for PW of various nationalities was increasingly aided by the
stan d ard izatio n of overseas parcels ; thus, repeated loading and
the despatch of single cases to small detachm ents of PW were
avoided.
The C om m ittees shipm ents followed the six principal m eth
ods shown below.
(a) F ull cars ; one or more ladings. These were intended
for PW of the sam e n atio n ality and the same cam p (including
subsidiary labour detachm ents, infirm aries and hospitals).
This was th e m ost reliable m ethod and was applied as often as
possible.
(b) Combined cars ; one lading. These cars were sealed ;
th ey contained supplies taken from one warehouse and were
sent to PW of several nationalities in the same camp.
(c) Combined cars ; several ladings. These were also
sealed ; th ey carried goods taken from several warehouses and
were sent to PW of different nationalities held in the sam e cm p.
(d) Combined cars routed indirectly ; one lading. These
rem ained sealed until th ey reached th eir first destination ;
th ey carried supplies from one warehouse and for P W of different
nationalities in two or three cam ps in the same railw ay sector.
(e) Combined cars routed indirectly ; several ladings.
These also rem ained sealed until th ey reached th eir first desti
nation ; th ey contained goods from several warehouses for
PW of different nationalities held in tw o or three cam ps in
th e same railw ay sector.
170

(f) " Composite cars. These were sent to Singen and

contained separate consignm ents. This system was only used
in th e last resort.
The above procedures also applied, w ith a few m odifications,
to shipm ents for Ita ly and other countries. They ensured th e
fullest possible use of the available rolling stock.
(2)
In 1943, the C om m ittees railw ay tra n sp o rt passed
through a second critical period, chiefly as regards tra n s p o rt to
Germ any. Up to th a t tim e, th e ICRC h ad been able to secure
num bers of German wagons, and a fair num ber of Ita lia n ,
French and other cars, m ainly owing to th e volum e of com m ercial
traffic betw een G erm any and Ita ly by w ay of th e B renner and
th e St. G othard. The Swiss Federal R ailw ays were th e n able
to provide the ICRC w ith G erm an em pties retu rn in g from
Ita ly through the St. G othard. In th e spring of 1943 difficulties
arose, as the result of the air raids on th e stations of Milan,
Bologna, Verona and Rome. A fter the cap itu latio n of Ita ly , th e
num ber of G erm an wagons crossing Sw itzerland becam e steadily
less, and there were no Ita lia n cars available a t all. This was at
th e same tim e a period of unprecedented need for rolling stock,
as thousands of Allied prisoners were being tran sferred to
Germ any.
At a conference held in Berne, in N ovem ber 1943, it was
found th a t the shipm ent of Christm as parcels alone to all the
Allied prisoners in G erm any would require 1,300 wagons. The
Federal Railw ays could, however, only provide a few dozen. In
face of this serious situation, th e ICRC urged th e Allied R ed
Cross Societies to send rolling stock to assist in m aintaining the
supply of relief to Allied PW . I t h ad already m ade sim ilar
appeals, first in 1940 to th e B ritish R ed Cross, a t the tim e when
this Society was establishing its relief program m e, and again
in 1941, when th e ICRC advised the representative of the
American R ed Cross to m ake plans for sending Am erican
freight-cars, in the event of relief supplies from the U nited
S tates arriving in still greater quantities.
In 1943, warnings of a possible collapse of the railw ay
tra n sp o rt system in G erm any could not be given officially b y the
171

Com m ittee, since Geneva was not entitled to express its views
regarding the issue of th e war. The ICRC had therefore to
confine itself to priv ate talks w ith the Am erican, B ritish and
C anadian Red Cross. A representative of the ICRC was sent to
these three im p o rtan t contributing Societies, to propose th a t
wagons and m otor-trucks should be supplied against the day
when the m eans of tra n sp o rt of the D etaining Power com pletely
failed.
These negotiations were unsuccessful, and as before, the
ICRC had to rely wholly on G erm an rolling stock. The confusion
which followed th e arm istice in Ita ly was, it is true, of short
duration, and th e situation im proved slightly by the end of
1943. N evertheless, from N ovem ber 1943 to Ju ly 1944, the
despatch schedule of supplies was delayed by about two m onths,
on an average. This situation righted itself later, when from
Ju n e to O ctober shipm ents from overseas ceased entirely, as
the result of the Allied landing in F rance 1, while shipm ents
from Sw itzerland to G erm any betw een Ju n e and Novem ber
averaged 900 wagons m onthly.
(3)
In N ovem ber 1944, a th ird rail tra n sp o rt crisis occurred
and this laste d u ntil the close of hostilities. D uring this period,
the steadily increasing air a tta ck s on the German railw ay
system , in particu lar on the lines leading to the m arshalling
yards a t Cassel, Leipzig, Berlin and Munich, im m obilized or
destroyed tens of thousands of wagons ; in addition, th e y
caused th e loss of loads standing in these yards. The consequences
were soon felt in Geneva ; owing to the lack of rolling stock,
the num ber of consignm ents fell rapidly and in D ecem ber 1944
there was an arrears of 1,700 wagons. In October, supplies
from overseas arrived again in Sw itzerland through the ports
of Toulon and Marseilles, which had both been hastily repaired.
The line from Marseilles to Geneva, through Lyons, became a
bottle-neck, as more th a n five ships had unloaded sim ultaneously
a t Marseilles. In Sw itzerland, the C om m ittees warehouses were
full, and it was not easy to find other storage room for the mass
1 See p. 159.

172

of supplies arriving in Am erican wagons which h ad to be

retu rn ed to France w ithin tw enty-four hours of th eir arrival.
On the other hand, the situ atio n of th e PW and internees
daily becam e worse, since in view of the concentric a tta c k on the
Reich itself, th ey were being transferred from the frontier
districts to the interior of the country. The ICRC dispatched
a representative to Berlin, to m ake a last effort to obtain as
m any G erm an wagons as possible. In D ecem ber 1944, the
German Railw ays prom ised to p u t 1,000 wagons a t th e im m ediate
disposal of th e ICRC. D espite th eir undoubted goodwill,
the com petent authorities were unable to keep th eir word :
instead of one thousand, th ey supplied only a few dozen.
The earlier negotiations w ith the Am erican, B ritish and
C anadian Red Cross Societies now bore fruit, the more so as
the Allied G overnm ents felt th e need for quick action, if th eir
nationals in G erm any were to be saved. These G overnm ents
an d Red Cross Societies, after consultation w ith th e T ransport
Division of the Allied High Com m and, agreed to p u t rolling
stock a t the disposal of the ICRC : the Am erican, C anadian and
Polish Red Cross Societies undertook to supply m o to r-tru c k s1,
while the Belgian and French G overnm ents prom ised railw ay
wagons.
The ICRC thereupon drew up a scheme, based on the
n atio n ality and num ber of PW in G erm any, the rate of issue
desired by the donors, and the stocks available in Sw itzerland.
The Com m ittee asked for at least 2,460 wagons, as from the end of
Decem ber 1944, or the beginning of Ja n u a ry 1945. In F eb ru ary
1945, the French Railw ays furnished 247 wagons, and the
Belgian Railw ays 71, instead of the prom ised initial deliveries
of 300 and 100 respectively. The rem ainder was to be delivered
by March, b u t in the m eantim e the course of events was hastened,
and the ICRC would in any case have been unable to use the
to ta l num ber requested.
W ith regard to these contributions by the French and
Belgian G overnm ents m ention should be m ade of the blocktrain s
1 See p. 186.

T73

In 1942 a considerable stock of F rench m aterial was aw aiting

shipping space a t Lisbon, and the ICRC, to g eth er w ith th e
French G overnm ent and Red Cross, conceived th e idea of
forw arding it by block-trains
The representative of th e French Red Cross a t Lisbon, acting
in agreem ent w ith the C om m ittees delegation in th a t tow n,
assem bled com plete lifts of 20 to 25 wagons for the use of th e
ICRC, and arranged for th eir dispatch from Port-B ou to
Geneva. Tim ely use was th u s m ade of supplies which o th er
wise would have been greatly delayed th rough lack of shipping
space in the M editerranean. Sixteen block-trains ran from
Lisbon to G eneva ; this very costly scheme was abandoned when
n avigation in th e M editerranean again becam e norm al.
At the beginning of 1945 the cam ps in N orth, E ast, W est a n d
C entral G erm any, as well as those in U pper and Lower A ustria,
could no longer be reached by rail, owing to the close proxim ity
of th e com bat areas. The ICRC had therefore to continue its
use of railw ays for tra n sp o rt to Southern G erm any (Baden,
W urtem berg and B avaria), and W estern A ustria (Vorarlberg
and th e Tyrol). H ere foodstuffs and m edicam ents were the more
urg en tly required, as the D etaining Pow er had rem oved large
num bers of PW to these areas and could no longer give them
th eir regular basic rations. The ICRC thereupon decided to
send block-trains of 20 or 25 wagons each to supply these
cam ps and to build up stocks which could be sent by road to
cam ps near the zone of operations.
The F rench and Belgian wagons were registered by th e
Swiss Federal Railw ays ; th ey were m arked P rivate : In te r
national Com m ittee of the Red Cross and Freight for
Prisoners of W ar only , In view of the danger of air a tta ck ,
th e wagons were painted white all over, to distinguish them
from the G erm an rolling stock ; in addition, th ey displayed the
R ed Cross em blem and, w ith the perm ission of the Swiss Govern
m ent, th e Swiss Federal Cross.
As the registration of French and Belgian rolling stock was
delayed, th e ICRC borrow ed tw o lifts of 50 Swiss wagons from
th e Federal Railw ays in F ebruary 1945 ; these were used to form
block-trains until wagons from abroad becam e available.
174

The 186 block-trains which the ICRC was able to

organize were used chiefly to carry supplies to :
(a) the w arehouse a t R atisbon. F rom here, lorries took
supplies to cam ps in W urtem berg and Baden, a n d also to th e
N orth, tow ards th e convoys of PW on the m arch from Silesia
and Saxony.
(b) Stalag V II A, a t Moosburg, near Munich, w here th e
G erm an au th o rities had assem bled nearly 100,000 Allied PW ,
(c) V orarlberg and the Tyrol, where PW and civilian
internees from Ita ly and U pper and Lower A ustria were con
verging l.
(c)

Arrangements for free carriage.

As a general rule, th e C om m ittees consignm ents to PW , and

b y analogy, to civilian w ar victim s, were eligible for free carriage
under A rt. 38 of the Convention. This privilege was gran ted
b y the Swiss Federal Railw ays, and the Germ an, Ita lia n 2,
Jugoslav, Greek and H ungarian S tate railw ays.
The position was m ore com plicated in countries where th e
railw ays belonged to p riv ate companies.
Ngociations w ith the French N ational Railw ays in th is
connexion were p articularly im p o rtan t. N ot only were nearly
all shipm ents from N orth and South Am erica to C entral E urope
directed across France, b u t th e French dpartements all des
patched large quantities of relief goods to Sw itzerland, for onw ard
carriage to French PW in Germ any. The m ovem ent of supplies
in the reverse direction was no less heavy, as th e ICRC forw arded
considerable relief consignm ents from Sw itzerland to the cam ps
for Allied PW , civilian internees and others in France ; in
addition, the shipm ents which th e Com m ittee sent on behalf of
th e G erm an Red Cross to its delegations overseas had to
cross French territo ry .
1 To this end, the ICRC set up a large depot of foodstuffs at Landeck,
at the end of the Arlberg tunnel ; road transport left from here for the
E ast. This depot was also used for the feeding of PW in transit.
2 As no official confirm ation was given by the Director-General of
th e Italian R ailw ays, the C om m ittee was obliged, throughout the war,
to negotiate w ith d istrict m anagers and stationm asters in order to
secure the application of Art. 38 in each particular case.

175

I t was in th e interest of the German authorities to facilitate

th e tra n sp o rt of relief goods, both for their nationals in enem y
hands and for the P W whom th ey held. Accordingly, th ey
placed no obstacle in the way of the negotiations betw een the
ICRC and the Vichy G overnm ent. The authorities a t Vichy,
who were n a tu ra lly anxious about the fate of French PW in
Germ any, were unwilling to incur carriage charges for the
supplies th ey despatched in conjunction w ith the French Red
Cross, or which th ey received from overseas for relief purposes.
To avoid am ending the s ta tu te s of the French Railw ays, th ey
set up a governm ent organization called the Comit de la
reconnaissance franaise, whose d u ty it was to refund expenses
of this kind to the French railw ay system . Meanwhile, the
ICRC, acting as interm ediary betw een the belligerents and their
nationals held in PW cam ps, had already established the
principle of equal tre a tm e n t in this respect for PW of all n atio n
alities. F or th a t reason, the Vichy G overnm ent, when discussing
free carriage, did not even refer to the possibility of discrim i
nation betw een relief supplies for French PW and for Allied
PW of other nationalities. The French authorities realized,
m oreover, th a t concessions on bulk shipm ents from the B ritish
Red Cross would facilitate the grant by the blockade authorities
of the navicerts and landcerts required for the relief goods they
wished to send from overseas, or from Portugal, to French PW.
No controversy arose in this connection until the close
of hostilities. Large quantities of relief supplies, warehoused
in Sw itzerland, were then returned to the donors, since they
could not be sent to Germ any. The cost of th eir tra n sp o rt by
the F rench railw ays was claimed, not from the Comit de la
reconnaissance franaise, b u t from the French Red Cross,
which in tu rn requested reim bursem ent from the ICRC. Finally,
the donors, after discussions w ith the Com m ittee, agreed to
m eet these costs, as th ey concerned goods which were returned
to them . On this occasion, the M inistry for W ar in Paris agreed
to bear the carriage charges for the relief supplies sent by the
ICRC to Germ an PW in France.
The technical features of rail tra n sp o rt dealt w ith above
relate only to E uropean countries ; in others, where the tra n sp o rt
176

system continued to work norm ally, there was no need for the
ICRC to intervene. The question of free carriage was, however,
a different m atter. The principle of reciprocity required th a t
th is facility, already accorded to relief supplies for Allied PW
in the hands of the Axis Powers, should apply also for consign
m ents to G erm an and Ita lia n PW even when conveyed by
priv ate railw ay companies.
The m a tte r was of slight im portance u n til 1943 ; before th a t
date, the num bers of PW from the Axis countries were relatively
low, and the small quantities addressed to them could be sent
by post. In 1943, however, the G erm an Red Cross m ade large
consignm ents of uniforms, games, books, C hristm as presents
and o ther goods, while th e Ita lia n Red Cross sent considerable
qu an tities of m edicam ents. The ICRC thereupon applied to the
G overnm ents and railw ay com panies in G reat B ritain, Canada,
India, South Africa and Turkey, and to the G overnm ent and
Red Cross of the U nited States, for th e carriage of these supplies
under the term s of Article 38 also.
Great B ritain granted the free tra n sp o rt requested. The United
States, whose railw ays are under private ownership, did like
wise, whilst statin g th a t the cost of tran sp o rt, including the
unloading and tra n sit through Canada, would be refunded
by the Am erican Red Cross. The G overnm ents of the B ritish
Dominions and In d ia also fell in w ith the wishes of the ICRC.
On the other hand, the m any a tte m p ts m ade to obtain
free tra n sp o rt on the T urkish Railw ays u n fo rtu n ately rem ained
unavailing. From the outset a v a rie ty of difficulties atten d ed
the tra n sit of cases of m edicam ents and C hristm as parcels for
Germ an and Italian PW in E gypt, Palestine, In d ia and the
N ear E ast. These goods had in fact to pass through T urkey to
Mersina, whence th ey were shipped to th eir destination, b u t
were often held up a t th a t port. W hen the Germ an and Italian
Red Cross learned of these delays, th ey ceased to send collective
parcels in cases and retu rn ed to the system of parcel post.
(d)

Looting, Accidents and Petty Theft.

Thefts and looting, although un im p o rtan t in relation to the

volume of goods, were during th e period of war itself so
i n .

12

177

com m on th a t it would be tedious, and indeed impossible, to

e num erate th em in detail. Their frequency varied w ith th e
progress of th e war. D uring relatively quiet periods, the ICRC
dep artm en ts and th e consignees were able to exercise a fairly
efficient supervision. B ut when m ilitary operations disorganized
an area which th e supplies h ad to cross in tra n sit, or in which
th ey were to be distributed, losses were inevitable, despite all
the precautions taken. I t is n ot therefore surprising th a t a fte r
1940 th e num ber rose steadily.
Losses through th eft, looting or accident were of different
kinds.
(1). Thefts m ight be com m itted by the persons packing
the parcels, cases or bales. They were negligible in the case
of goods sent by national Red Cross Societies, whose workers
were under strict discipline. W hen the supplies were dispatched
by less well-organized agencies, or when th ey came from c o u n t
ries im poverished by the war, a com parison betw een the
weights given by the donors and those of the goods received
generally showed appreciable discrepancies.
(2). Thefts also occurred during tra n sp o rt by rail and in
th e ordinary post. These increased from 1941 to 1945, as certain
com m odities becam e scarcer in th e countries of origin.
(3). Goods were pilfered or dam aged in the shipping ports.
These losses were relatively small, as the ports were usually
under m ilitary supervision.
(4). Losses during sea tra n sp o rt itself were also sm all and
were usually due to accident ra th e r th an to dishonesty.
(5). Risks were, however, greater during unloading in
harbour, especially when th e port had been dam aged or partially
destroyed by bom bardm ent, which m ade supervision more
difficult.
(6). Thefts during tra n sit through neu tral countries were
negligible.
(7). Difficult problem s were raised by the theft, looting and
confiscation of goods in th e detaining countries. W henever a
loss was reported by the cam p leader or by a PW , endless
178

discussions ensued. I t was indeed not easy to identify the

culprits, since th e th efts m ight have occurred in m any circum
stances :
(a) Most frequently during carriage by railw ay in the
detaining countries ;
(b) At a tim e when the wagons were sta tio n a ry and being
opened a t the rail depot a tta ch e d to a m ain cam p ;
( c) D uring the unloading an d th e storing of goods in
prem ises of varying suitability, usually situ a te d a t some distance
from the cam p ;
(d)

D uring tra n sp o rt to cam p annexes, hospitals, etc ;

(e) D uring tra n sp o rt to labour detachm ents. M any cam ps

had several hundreds of these detachm ents ; one even possessed

i,4o ;
(f) At the destination, where th efts m ight be com m itted
b y PW other th a n the consignees, or by the cam p guard.
As a rule, enquiry in to isolated th efts shed no light on the
m atte r. S atisfactory results -were only secured when the ICRC
was able to prove th a t the loss h ad occurred during tra n sp o rt
by rail, since the railw ays were th en responsible and were
obliged to m ake good the value of the loss.
E nquiries were effective only in cases of repeated th eft.
The contents of th e wagons and the weight and num ber of
parcels were verified a t the tim e of despatch ; a check was
also m ade by the cam p leader, a statio n m aster or th e individual
consignee. These checks som etim es m ade it possible to discover
a t least th e place where th e losses occured, after which th ey were
often reduced and even stopped by appropriate security measures.
The ICRC had only two m eans of discovering losses :
(a) by com paring the weight of the goods received w ith
th a t shown on consignm ent notes ;
( b) by checking the receipts of the cam p leaders or indivi
dual consignees.
From J a n u a ry i, 1942 (the date from which statistics of
this kind were kept) u n til F e b ru ary 1945 (on which date con
179

signm ents according to n atio n ality were replaced by so-called

pooled shipm ents), the ICRC received receipts for 91.888%
of the goods sent into belligerent countries. D uring this period
the percentage of goods on which receipts were not returned
rose to 8.115% , whereas it has been only 0.48% in 1941. This
considerable increase m ay be a ttrib u te d to the growing dis
location in E urope a t the end of the war.
The proportion of 8.115% was the absolute m axim um of
un retu rn ed receipts. I t m ay be supposed, however, th a t a
certain num ber of receipt form s (attached to way-bills and
custom s declarations) did not reach the consignees, and th a t
the others, once signed, were lost in the post. The tru e losses
could therefore not have am ounted to more th an 4-5% . In
addition, th e tran sfer of PW and of entire cam ps, and the
recovery of consignm ents which had been only p a rtly rifled,
also prevented the ICRC from establishing any precise facts.
At all events, the following conclusions m ay be draw n from
these facts.
(1). Losses were inevitable in view of the scarcity of goods
caused by the war, and the risks to which tra n sp o rt was exposed
in belligerent countries, m ainly owing to m ilitary operations.
These losses varied betw een one and ten per cent, according to
the phase of the w ar and the circum stances in which the relief
supplies were forw arded and distributed.
(2). Losses rem ained a t a relatively low level for collective
consignm ents sent in sealed full wagons, and for cases or sta n d
ard parcels. I t was far higher for individual parcels, the super
vision of which was more difficult owing to the variety of
packings and addresses.
(3). The ICRC regularly inform ed th e donors of losses, and
also drew th eir a tte n tio n to the risks. Donors were m oreover
notified when th e losses exceeded 10% during carriage through
an y given co u n try and were asked w hether, in spite of this,
th ey wished to continue sending goods at th eir own risk. As a
rule, the donors assented.
180

D e spa tc h

of

G if t s

by

P o st

A lthough problem s relating to the despatch of postal

packages often arose, and were solved in conjunction w ith
those concerning m ail in general, some special difficulties also
occurred. These only will be considered here.
The forw arding of postal packages intended for PW and
civilian internees was one of the m ost im p o rta n t m atters before
the ICRC th roughout the war, firstly, because the parcel post
afforded easy and rapid distribution of packages to individual
addressees, and secondly, because th e free carriage of postal
packages was guaranteed by the W orld Postal Convention signed
in Cairo in 1935. This C onvention however, could obviously
m ake no provision for the technical problem s inherent in the
bulk consignm ent of relief to PW under A rt. 38 of th e Geneva
Convention. These were problem s which the ICRC could solve
only in close collaboration w ith th e natio n al postal authorities
m em bers of the W orld P ostal Union. W hen any two countries
go to war, th eir direct postal intercom m unication is au to m a
tically cut.
However, since relief supplies were guaranteed
to PW , and as m ost categories of civilian internees eventually
shared this benefit, the postal au th o rities of th e countries
a t war a tte m p te d to m aintain a regular service th rough the
postal m achinery of neu tral countries. Thus th e tra n sp o rt of
postal packages on the continent of E urope depended to a large
ex ten t on Portugal, Sw itzerland and Turkey.
A fter the Franco-G erm an arm istice in 1940, the ICRC was
faced w ith the task of re-establishing the postal connection
betw een Portugal and Sw itzerland. I t was urgently necessary
to forw ard the postal packages which had accum ulated in th e
B ritish General Post Office, from Lisbon to G erm any and Ita ly .
In order to retain the advantage of postal transm ission as far
as possible, the following arrangem ents were followed.
The parcels held up in Lisbon were p u t in m ail-bags and
handed over to the delegation of the ICRC by the Post Office.
They were th u s tem porarily w ithdraw n from the postal circuit
and, in agreem ent w ith th e B ritish R ed Cross, were sent to
Marseilles ; the delegation of the ICRC there forw arded th e
181

parcels to Sw itzerland in the same way as non-postal consign

m ents, b u t w ith post office forms instead of the usual consign
m ent notes. Once in Sw itzerland, th ey re-entered the in te rn a
tional postal circuit, for the Swiss Post Office forw arded them
to G erm any and Ita ly by the ordinary postal channels. This
m ethod of sem i-postal transm ission was m aintained u n til
D ecem ber 1944, when the German railw ay system was p u t out
of action by the Allied air-raids.
This channel of com m unication from W estern to C entral
E urope was first used for the bulk shipm ents of the B ritish
General Post Office, and late r for those of the W estern H em is
phere (Canada, U nited States, L atin Am erica and th e W est
Coast of Africa), am ounting in all to three or four thousand
m ail-bags a m onth. P ostal packages sent from N orth Africa
to E urope continued to go by the sea route betw een th e French
colonies and F rance itself, which was in fairly regular use until
th e Allied landing of N ovem ber 1942 in N orth Africa 1.
P ostal packages sent to or from the S outh-E ast of E urope,
th e N ear E ast and India had to pass through the T urkish postal
system . This traffic consisted of parcels sent in one direction
from Ita ly and G erm any to PW and civilian internees in E g y p t,
Palestine, E a st Africa and India, and in the other from Allied
organizations in E gypt, Syria, Palestine and T urkey to PW
and civilian internees held in Ita ly and Germ any. The postal
authorities sent considerable quantities of goods by this route,
which was cut for a few m onths in 1941, owing to m ilitary opera
tions in the Balkans : it was later in use again provisionally,
and finally opened to regular traffic from October 1941 u n til
th e sum m er of 1944.
T hrough the receipts and reports sent to it by the cam p
leaders, the ICRC had a direct check on the collective consign
m ents sent through its care. A check on the arrival of postal
packages in the camps, hospitals and prisons, however, could
only be m ade indirectly and was lim ited to a count of the indi
vidual receipts atta ch e d to these parcels. At the request of the
1 From the m onth of Decem ber 1944, the ICRC was able to des
patch postal packages for German PW held in N orth Africa from Geneva
to Toulon, b y its own transport.

182

ICRC, th e N ational R ed Cross Societies sent in statistics a t

regular intervals, showing the q u a n tity and som etim es the
serial num bers of the consignm ents, as well as th e percentage of
receipts retu rn ed after a reasonable lapse of tim e. I t was th u s
able to tak e action when delays and losses exceeded th e propor
tion considered norm al in tim e of war. D elays were due either
to congestion in the ports such as Lisbon, Aleppo and M ersina 1,
or to the accum ulation of goods a t the censorship offices. In the
first case, the ICRC was, as a rule, able to im prove m atte rs by
applying to th e shipowners and charterers, as well as to G overn
m ents who m ight p u t shipping space a t its disposal. In the
second case, however, it had to content itself w ith m aking
recom m endations to the D etaining Power. The problem of
th e ft becam e still more com plicated, as m entioned above 2.

1 In April 1943, the Istam bul-M ersina line was opened in

the Istam bul-A leppo line.
1 The consignm ents of postal packages were all the more
to control because parcels forwarded carriage free are not
separately on postal forms, or registered. In consequence, no
enquiry was possible concerning them .

place of
difficult
entered
separate

Chapter

Road Transport
(i).

General Survey

The work of relief was dependent on tra n sp o rt facilities

not only by sea and rail, b u t also by road. The la tte r even
becam e a m ajor problem after the Allied landing in France. In
the reigning to ta l disorder, a tra n sp o rt system capable of
supplying food for the millions of detainees in Germ any, facing
starv atio n in the cam ps or on the roads, had to be established
w ithin a few weeks. The only way in which the ICRC could
reach them was, besides a few block-trains , by m eans of
fleets of m otor-trucks. Earlier, however, the Com m ittee had
already been active in this field, as the following brief details
will show.
Portugal-Switzerland. On the occupation of France and
u n til its liberation, the ICRC several tim es studied the possibi
lity of com m unication by road w ith Lisbon. This idea was
abandoned, because the C om m ittees ships sailing betw een
Lisbon and Marseilles were able to m eet all requirem ents.
Moreover, road tra n sp o rt from P ortugal to Sw itzerland would
have been very difficult and expensive ; it was tho u g h t preferable
to keep it in reserve, in case other m eans failed.
Italy. A fter the Ita lia n arm istice, the dispatch of relief
to th e N orth and Centre of Ita ly , which were still in the hands
of the Axis, becam e a very hazardous m atter. The C om m ittees
representatives in Rom e and Ponte San Pietro (near Milan)
needed vehicles to convey relief to the cam ps. In stead of sending
lorries from Sw itzerland or buying them in Ita ly , the ICRC
first applied to the Germ an m ilitary authorities responsible
184

for the m aintenance of the PW . As this request was not granted,

the ICRC, in April 1944, prepared to send truck-loads of
foodstuffs to Rome, b u t this the G erm an Com m and refused to
allow. The ICRC was reduced to sending a trailer to its represen
tativ e in Ponte San Pietro, who already had a car, and it was
not u ntil a year late r th a t the delegates received the vehicles
th ey required.
Greece. In Greece, the representatives of th e ICRC also
needed m otor-trucks for the d istribution of relief supplies to
Allied PW and to the w ar-disabled of th e Greek A rm y, b u t
these vehicles could not be tak en from the p ark held by the
M anaging Commission for th e feeding of the civilian popula
tion h The ICRC then applied to the Greek W ar Relief in
New-York, which sent four trucks of C anadian origin for the
exclusive use of the ICRC. These trucks were retu rn ed to th e
Greek W ar Relief in A thens when th ey were no longer required.
France and Germany. - L ater, it will be seen how th e
steps tak en by th e ICRC to tra n sp o rt overseas relief supplies
by road from the M editerranean to Sw itzerland enabled it to
build up a large fleet of vehicles. These were used in 1945 for
conveying food to the cam ps in G erm any. A road service of
this kind had already been contem plated in 1943, when the
Germ an railw ay system began to deteriorate. In May 1943, at
th e request of the B ritish Red Cross, the ICRC asked the German
G overnm ent to authorize the tra n sp o rt of relief supplies in
lorries driven by Swiss personnel.
I t was th en planned to create a food-depot at Singen, on
G erm an territo ry , and a p ark of vehicles in Sw itzerland. The
scheme was to carry supplies by rail to Singen ; a t the end
of each trip into G erm any the trucks would have been serviced
in Sw itzerland before proceeding to Singen for a fresh load.
This service would have p a rtially ensured the food-supply of
cam ps w ithin a radius of 500 kilom etres.

1 See p p. 450 e t seq.

185

The ICRC requested the B ritish Red Cross to supply the

lorries and sent a representative to G reat B ritain and th e U nited
S tates to discuss the m a tte r w ith the Red Cross Societies of
these countries. In th e m eantim e, it asked the Swiss A rm y
Com m and for perm ission to use Swiss trucks, and sought the
consent of the G erm an G overnm ent. The ICRC counted on
G erm anys supplying the fuel, in retu rn for th e trucks which
it would save in this way. B ut the Germ an Com m and inform ed
the ICRC th a t it had not sufficient oil or fuel for these vehicles ;
o th er arrangem ents therefore had to be sought.
Sup p ly of equipment to the IC RC .

(2).
A.

Lorries.

Foreseeing an in terru p tio n of rail traffic in the Rhone Valley,

th e ICRC in May 1944 proposed to the Am erican Red Cross
th a t m otor-trucks be sent to Europe, and asked the U nited
S tates Legation in Berne to support this m otion. S hortly
afterw ards, the M inistry of Econom ic W arfare expressed a
desire for a road service betw een P ortugal and Sw itzerland.
The ICRC then addressed a definite request for th irty trucks
to th e A m erican R ed Cross. This request was approved, b u t
th e ARC advised the Com m ittee in the m eantim e to use Swiss
or Spanish vehicles, for which the U.S. A would supply the tyres,
fuel and oil. The ICRC th en asked the Spanish G overnm ent for
the tem p o rary loan of about fifty vehicles, and some fuel. B ut
neither Spain nor Sw itzerland could offer a n y lorries.
Meanwhile, the supplies for Sw itzerland and the ICRC
were already aw aiting tra n sp o rt from Marseilles to Geneva,
and th e ICRC m ade arrangem ents w ith the Swiss authorities to
convey them to Geneva, in addition to the relief supplies w aiting
a t Lyons. U nfortunately, th e vehicles which could have been
lent b y th e French R ed Cross were useless owing to lack of
fuel, and the Swiss A rm y Com m and could not spare some 50
gas-producer lorries requested for this purpose, in view of the
m ilitary operations going on near the Swiss frontier.
First delivery of trucks. S hortly afterw ards, the D ep art
m ent of S tate in W ashington announced th a t 50 tru ck s had
186

been sent. The first 26 were shipped on the Caritas I, and landed
a t B arcelona on Septem ber 20. These heavy trucks, w ith ten
wheels and a capacity of eight tons, were not able to reach the
Spanish frontier w ith th eir loads u ntil three m onths later. A
great m any form alities and lengthy negotiations were required
before the vehicles could be handed over to th e ICRC and
allowed to tak e the road. The visas required to enable th e
Swiss drivers to tak e over these vehicles were not g ran ted u n til
the end of Novem ber.
In th e m eantim e, tw enty-three more Am erican vehicles h ad
arrived a t Marseilles on the Caritas I I on October 20, and the
fiftieth tru c k reached Toulon on N ovem ber 9, on the Henry
D unant. To begin with, th ey were used for a sh uttle service
betw een the port of Toulon and the warehouses.
By an agreem ent signed on Septem ber 29, 1944, these trucks
were handed over to the ICRC for the tra n sp o rt of PW parcels,
after which th ey were to be returned to th e Am erican R ed
Cross. This Society also assum ed all operation expenses and
m aintenance.
The Canadian Red Cross in its tu rn offered about 50 threeton trucks, then in England. These vehicles were loaded by the
B ritish Red Cross on the Silver Oak and reached Toulon a t the
end of Novem ber.
At the beginning of F eb ru ary 1945, all the vehicles supplied
by the USA and C anada were in th e hands of th e ICRC in
Geneva, except 24 Am erican trucks, which for a tim e were used
b y the C om m ittees warehouses a t Toulon.
The ICRC had originally intended all these vehicles for the
tra n sp o rt to Sw itzerland of the relief supplies unloaded in
Portugal or on the M editerranean. B ut when the lorries arrived
at Geneva, the situation had com pletely changed. The Com m it
te e s ships were again calling a t the southern French ports,
and from there to Sw itzerland the railw ays were sufficiently
repaired for a resum ption of traffic. On the other hand, the
disorganisation of tra n sp o rt in G erm any was so great th a t it
th reaten ed to h alt the flow of relief to the interior of the country.
In J a n u a ry 1945, the Germ an authorities m ade no further
objection to the e n try of Red Cross m otor convoys to Germ an
187

territo ry . The ICRC th u s found itself suddenly faced by an

unprecedented task, far surpassing its m aterial resources : th e
block-trains it was able to organize on certain sectors, and the
hundred or so trucks at its disposal, were quite inadequate.
Northern Germany. At th a t tim e help was not sent from
Sw itzerland alone. A fter the opening of th e m aritim e route
in the N orth, Lbeck had become the relief-centre for N orthern
Germany. The C om m ittees representative in th a t tow n was
therefore also in urgent need of vehicles in order to tran sp o rt
food to the cam ps in Prussia. The ICRC could however only
m ake about th irty trucks available to th a t sector, since the
rem ainder were absolutely essential for its work in South
G erm any and A ustria. The Am erican Red Cross then sent direct
to the C om m ittees representative in Lbeck the trucks which
it was able to purchase in Sweden. A bout fifty of these vehicles
were th u s tra n sp o rte d to Lbeck, in April, on Red Cross ships ;
m oreover, about sixty tru ck s from America were unloaded
there in May.
Meanwhile the C om m ittees representative in Liibeck had
tried to organize a service of m otor-barges. These would have
navigated the Elbe, to points near the cam ps (for example,
B randenburg), and from there the trucks would have carried
th e supplies to th eir destination. B ut this plan fell through when
the Elbe was cut by the Allied advance.
In F eb ru ary the Allied High Com m and placed one hundred
Am erican A rm y tru ck s at the disposal of the ICRC, to g eth er
w ith fuel. The convoy reached Geneva from Paris on M arch 12.
N ot only had prisoners to be fed, but deportees had to
be helped and rep atriated . As a large num ber of these were
F rench, the French G overnm ent requisitioned about a hundred
vehicles for the ICRC, of which the la tte r received 97. W hen it
asked for more, the French G overnm ent was unable to comply,
b u t prom ised to m ake good to the Swiss G overnm ent any
ty res and fuel which the la tte r m ight advance to the ICRC for
th e tra n sp o rt of rep a tria te d persons.
In response to th e C om m ittees request for m otor coaches,
w ith which to tra n sp o rt repatriates, the Swiss A rm y Com m and

offered 28 coaches w ith an aggregate capacity of 600 to 700

persons. L ater on, the Swiss M otor-Owners Association offered
some fifty vehicles, for which, however, the fuel was to be
found by the Com m ittee. The ICRC th en asked the Allied
C om m and for perm ission to use the fuel which h ad h ith erto
been reserved for the tra n sp o rt of PW , and took the fu rth e r step
on May 11 of requesting th e Swiss A rm y Com m and to lend it
some petrol. These steps were how ever unsuccessful, and the
plan for using the Swiss coaches had to be abandoned.
In March 1945, the YMCA placed tw elve tru ck s a t the
disposal of the ICRC. Ten three-ton tru ck s were also received
from the Polish Red Cross. These reached Geneva from E ngland
on M arch 21.
In April, th irteen 2% tons trucks were sent from the Am eri
can depot a t Vitrolles to the C om m ittees representative at
Toulon, for the local service.
Again in April, the Am erican Red Cross supplied fifty
more trucks of a type sim ilar to those which it had sent in the
au tu m n of 1944, and five m otor-cars.
The Italian Red Cross offered sixty Ita lia n lorries, im m obi
lized in Sw itzerland. I t could however, not m ake use of them ,
because th ey were claimed by th e Ita lia n Army.
A ltogether 474 vehicles and 137 trailers were directlyoperated by the ICRC. I t also en tru sted some tra n sp o rt work
to private firms using their own vehicles.
B.

Fuel.

As we have ju st seen, the ICRC had considerable difficulty

in obtaining trucks. I t was equally difficult to obtain the fuel
required for running them , as petrol was strictly rationed in
Sw itzerland. The ICRC had to try to obtain it from abroad,
and was successful only after p ro tra cte d negotiation.
W hen the first contingent of trucks was landed a t Barcelona,
the delegation of the ICRC had a t its disposal an initial reserve of
150,000 litres of fuel, and a weekly allocation of 50,000 litres.
This fuel was advanced by Spain and charged to the Am erican
Red Cross.
189

The Am erican A rm y supplied the petrol, p articularly to

th e pipe-line at Lyons, for th e sh u ttle service betw een Toulon
and Geneva, in Ja n u a ry 1945.
W hen preparing to use Am erican and C anadian trucks in
G erm any, th e ICRC had to ensure fuel supplies in advance. The
Allied High Com m and in Paris, to which it applied, gran ted some
petrol, which had to be sent from Marseilles and Lyons in
tank-w agons. The French G overnm ent also prom ised to deliver
250 litres a day a t th e frontier close to Geneva. Finally, some
of the fuel was sent from Sw itzerland, through the ICRC, to
th e supply-centres set up in Germ any. Thus, two tank-w agons
(i.e. about 36,000 litres of petrol) were sent to Moosburg in
M arch ; and tank-lorries also accom panied the convoys.
F or th e Ltibeck service the ICRC at the same tim e sent five
lorries carrying petrol in containers. L ater, the Ltibeck delegation
was supplied direct by the Allies.
At th e end of April 1945, the Allied Fuel Office (Petroleum
Section), which had supplied 85,000 gallons of petrol during
the second half of M arch (i.e. 17 tank-w agons), inform ed the
ICRC th a t it could th ereafter count on 25,000 gallons weekly.
This u ndertaking precluded any fu rth er risk of hold-up in th e
organization of road tran sp o rt.
Between April and December, 1945, the Am erican Arm y
supplied nearly two million litres of petrol.
(3).

Use of the Committees trucks.

The tru ck s were reserved a t first exclusively for carrying

food supplies to Allied prisoners and internees, b u t it was not
long before th ey were also used for the benefit of deportees,
particu larly in the case of the trucks assigned to the ICRC by the
French G overnm ent ; the la tte r hoped in this way to send
relief to the civilian workers, whose position was causing it
great anxiety. W hen the w ar came to an end, the ICRC was
authorized to use Am erican trucks for the relief of civilians.
The ICRCs trucks were also used to tra n sp o rt people from
one cam p to another and to rep a tria te them , and to c arry
Red Cross m ail and correspondence for PW .
190

The list given in the Annex to this R eport contains detailed

inform ation on the use m ade of the trucks. Briefly sta te d , th ey
m ade 3,140 journeys, travelled 2,831,840 kilom etres, conveyed
8,602,580 kilogram s of goods and rep a tria te d 23,481 persons. In the
present volume only a sum m ary account can be given of the 366
missions carried out by the ICRC m otor convoys during 1945.
Before th ey were sent to Germ any, the trucks were used for
conveying to Sw itzerland the goods unloaded at Barcelona,
Toulon and Marseilles by the C om m ittees ships. D uring this
period the ICRC was negotiating for perm ission to send its
trucks into G erm any, where the situation was growing more
alarm ing every day. The foodstocks in the cam ps were inade
quate ; m oreover, th e cam ps in E astern G erm any had been
evacuated and the prisoners were being m oved w estw ard ;
during these long m arches the m eagre provisions w ith which th ey
set out were soon exhausted. The ICRC delegation in Berlin
procured two trucks a t th e beginning of F ebruary, for the
em ergency relief of these PW columns. The supplies were
loaded a t th e ICRC depots a t Liibeck ; the lorries thence m ade
th eir w ay across Pom erania, leaving depots en route a t Dem min,
A ltburgund (Oflag 63) and especially at N eubrandenburg,
which becam e a distribution centre for the secondary depots
(Parchim , T atarow , etc.), situated along the route traversed
by the evacuated prisoners. Any PW picked up on the roads
were carried to the hospital at N eubrandenburg.
At the beginning of March the ICRC was a t last authorized
to send its own lorries into Germ any. The first convoy crossed
the frontier at Constance on March 7. The following is an account
of this first mission.
First M ission. The m otor colum n consisted of 25 trucks,
driven by Swiss drivers and escorted by a delegate of the ICRC
and by 14 m em bers of the G erm an Army. N ineteen of these
trucks, loaded w ith 120 tons of food, were to go to Bohem ia, the
other six to the N orth of Germ any.
The fleet of trucks destined for Bohem ia passed through
Ulm, Ingolstadt, B ayreuth and E ger and reached K arlsbad in
tim e to relieve tw o colum ns of prisoners. One of these colum ns,
191

5,000 strong, had come from the cam p a t Lam sdorf and was
m arching tow ards B ayreuth ; the other, 6,000 strong, came from
Teschen and was m aking for Auschwitz. The m arching colum ns
were spread over a distance of hundreds of kilom etres, and
th eir com m anders were ignorant of the exact position of each
group. The delegates car and a m otor-cycle were used for
frequent reconnaissances. W hen the convoy located a com pany,
on inform ation from the com m anders, the contents of one truck
were handed over, against a receipt, to the cam p leader and
were d istrib u ted by him. The operations were carried out at
night, when the men were halted. The supplies were distributed
betw een M arch 9 and 11 ; each of the prisoners received about
5 kilos of food.
E m p ty trucks were used for the tra n sp o rt of the wounded
and sick. Medicines were delivered to the relay hospital at
T chentschnitz, and the trucks then retu rn ed through Moosburg.
One of them m ade a dtour in order to tak e supplies of m edi
cam ents to the relay cam p for prisoners (No. 4088) a t Eger, a n d
Stalag X I I I B a t Weiden. E ight trucks rem ained a t Moosburg
which had become a supply-centre ; the others returned to
G eneva on March 13.
Of the six trucks which went to N orthern G erm any, five
carried 20,000 litres of petrol for the use of the delegation at
Liibeck, and the sixth took m edicam ents to the cam p a t Luckenwalde, near Berlin. On th eir way through Berlin, they left p a rt
of the petrol there. Three of these trucks rem ained for ICRC
activities in Prussia, and the three others retu rn ed to Sw itzerland
a fter having supplied a cam p near Berlin w ith foodstuffs
brought from the depots a t Liibeck.
T hereafter the missions continued, and the m otor colum ns
were despatched in all directions ; those from Sw itzerland
supplied Southern G erm any, while others were organized by
the delegation a t Liibeck and did the same service in the N orth.
There were also supply centres in G erm any itself, under the
direct control of a R ed Cross representative, w ith th eir own
lorry park. For instance, a t th e end of March a supply centre
w ith 47 vehicles was set up a t Moosburg, and transferred
sh o rtly afterw ards to R avensburg.
192

D eportees from the cam ps a t Ravensbriick, Buchenw ald and

M authausen were also supplied ; on th eir w ay back, in April, the
tru ck s tra n sp o rte d certain categories of deportees, such as
women, children, and aged or sick persons, whose evacuation
was p erm itted b y the G erm an authorities.
In April several of th e convoys were overtaken by the
Allied advance. Some of the vehicles were requisitioned by
th e Am erican troops, for th e supply of liberated cam ps and the
rep atriatio n of prisoners and deportees. O thers were diverted
to A ustria. A large num ber of prisoners had poured into the
Tyrol, where a supply centre was quickly established by the
despatch of two block-trains. D uring this tim e, m ost of the
convoys were therefore obliged to change th eir destination
w hilst still en route.
At the end of April, the Allied H igh Com m and requested
th e ICRC to tak e relief to the P W who could not yet be rep a tria
ted, and to the civilians of various nationalities who were still
in G erm any, described as " D isplaced Persons .
However,
im m ediately after the capitu latio n on May 8, the Allied High
Com m and decided to m ake its own arrangem ents for feeding
nationals of Allied countries. N evertheless, the ICRC had to
carry on its activities u n til the end of the year, and it tu rn ed
its a tte n tio n more particu larly to the form er deportees.
A fter th e surrender, th e convoys rem ained in operation to
th e end of 1945, observing th e same frequency and principles
as before : relief on the journey out, rep atriatio n on the journey
back. Some of them deserve special m ention.
At the end of May 1945, a convoy set out to cross the dem ar
cation line betw een the Am erican and Soviet armies, in order
to tak e relief to the Jew ish population a t Terezin (Theresienstadt). I t reached Prague w ithout difficulty, th an k s to the
assistance of th e Soviet m ilitary authorities.
In June, the tru ck s of the ICRC rep a tria te d nearly 4,000
Ita lia n prisoners of w ar from B avaria, and 3,000 Swiss from
Berlin, who were collected from an assem bly point near H anover
(Fallersleben Camp).
The ICRC also organized the tra n sp o rt of relief supplies
h i.

13

193

to A ustria, H ungary and R um ania, which were occupied by

the Soviet arm ies. D uring the sum m er tw enty-tw o trucks in
three convoys travelled to Vienna, B udapest and Bucarest.
T hey carried 180 tons of goods, p a rt of which were supplied
by the Jo in t Relief Commission. A fter accom plishing this task,
th ey brought back rep a tria te d persons to Sw itzerland.
A lthough no general agreem ent h ad been m ade concern
ing these missions, th ey were all successfully carried out,
th an k s to th e ta c it consent of the R ussian m ilitary com m anders,
which was obtained along the route by the convoy-leaders.
As the first mission to E astern E urope had proved successful
the ICRC sent a convoy of fifteen tru ck s in Septem ber to
W arsaw. In N ovem ber, fu rth e r convoys were sent to Vienna
and B udapest.
*

As already m entioned, the ICRC trucks were also used to

carry m ail to and from P W and from th e C entral Prisoners of W ar
Agency. W hen norm al com m unications were in te rru p ted in
A ugust 1944 by the Allied offensive, the ICRC took im m ediate
steps to provide a ltern ativ e arrangem ents, w ith the consent of
the Allied authorities and th e postal adm inistrations of the
countries affected. As it th en had no vehicles for the tra n s
p ort of relief, the ICRC acquired a three-ton lorry and organized,
a t its own expense, a regular service betw een Geneva, Lyons
and Marseilles, for th e exclusive carriage of P W and R ed Cross
mail.
The following spring th e C om m ittees trucks, originally
destined for the tra n sp o rt of relief, were used for th e carriage
of m ail-bags sent from and addressed to all the countries in
the world, except G reat B ritain. The B ritish Legation at
Berne, in agreem ent w ith the ICRC and the Swiss postal adm inis
tratio n , organized its own tra n sp o rt by tru c k betw een Geneva
and an airport in France, whence th e m ail-bags were flown to
E ngland by B ritish m ilitary planes.
A fter D ecem ber 1944, an Am erican plane also m aintained
a regular service betw een New York and Geneva, solely however
194

for th e tra n sp o rt of PW m ail betw een G erm any and th e U nited

S tates. Civilian messages and PW m ail of all other nationalities
continued to travel, on th e C om m ittees trucks, to Marseilles,
where th ey were either handed over to th e F rench postal
authorities, or placed on the C om m ittees ships, or on Am erican
A rm y tra n sp o rt aeroplanes, and delivered to the ICRC delega
tions in the co u n try of destination. Inw ard m ail followed exactly
the sam e route, and was delivered to th e Swiss postal authorities
on a rriv al in Geneva.
In the spring of 1945 the Swiss postal authorities were
no longer able to forw ard the m ail to Germ any, and from then
u n til April 1946 all correspondence w ith this country had to
be carried by the ICRC trucks. These tru ck s m aintained regular
services betw een Sw itzerland a n d the different zones of occupa
tion in G erm any and A ustria. They also tran sp o rted th e m ail
bags aw aiting delivery to PW in Czechoslovakia and Poland
which were held up in Sw itzerland.
(4)

Organization of Road Transport.

Protection. From th e outset the ICRC was careful to

ensure th e security of its convoys. A request to the B ritish
G overnm ent to be p u t in touch w ith th e French Forces of the
In te rio r was refused.
However, the French Com m ittee of
L iberation gran ted som ething in th e n a tu re of a safe-conduct :
The trucks for Sw itzerland should be m arked in a special way,
and instructions could be given to the com batants by wireless
th a t these tra n sp o rts should not be attack ed .
A request for safe-conduct was also sent to the German
Com m and on A ugust 11, for the trucks which were on their
w ay to Geneva from Barcelona, Marseilles and Lyons and which
were to carry relief from the Germ an R ed Cross on their retu rn
journey. This sector, however, was liberated by the Allies
before a reply reached the ICRC.
In order to protect its trucks as m uch as possible against
air attack s, the Com m ittee had them p ain ted white and placed
on them b o th the cross of th e Swiss Confederation and the
em blem of the R ed Cross, w ith the initials of the ICRC betw een
195

th e four arm s. The belligerents concerned were inform ed to

th is effect and raised no objection to the use of these signs, b u t
m ade it clear th a t th ey were nevertheless unable to guarantee th e
secu rity of the convoys.
D espite these precautions, m any of the convoys were a tta c k
ed. Moreover, w ith the rapid advance of the Allies th ey cam e
into the p a th of the fighting troops. E very convoy leader knew
the procedure in such an event : the trucks were h alted and the
personnel took cover ; the leader carrying a white flag, advanced
upon the nearest officer, presented his papers and his in stru c
tions for the convoy, and enquired how he m ight continue his
journey. At night the flag was replaced by a white light.
As th e vehicles were operating in dangerous conditions and
on extrem ely poor roads, accidents were not u n u s u a l1. However,
none were serious except one which occurred on the Pilsen road
and was caused by the bad surface ; four refugee passengers
were killed and eight seriously injured. The Czechoslovak
G overnm ent assum ed full responsibility.
H ow ever carefully planned, the itin erary laid down in th e
convoy-leaders instructions had frequently to be modified en
route. The orders of the m ilitary authorities and the destruction
of roads m ight a t any m om ent require the trucks to m ake long
dtours.
To avoid delays through breakdow ns, each convoy had its
own mobile repair shop. A dam aged vehicle th a t could not be
repaired on the spot was tak en in tow, and its load was divided
betw een the other lorries. The convoy was th u s not held up
and was able to rem ain in tact. On the retu rn journey the drivers
them selves serviced the trucks. Some tw en ty mechanics were
em ployed by the ICRC for repair work.
Composition and equipment of the convoys. A convoy of
trucks usually consisted of about ten vehicles, in addition to

1 Some lorries supplied b y the French authorities had been sab o

taged while under construction by workers belonging to the R esistance.
An accident was caused b y the steering post breaking on June 5, 1945,
a t Lodenice, in Czechoslovakia.

196

those carrying p etrol and spare parts. PW were em ployed as

drivers ; one instance of this was the em ploym ent of C anadian
PW in th e cam p a t Moosburg, who were released for this purpose
by perm ission of th e G erm an Com m and. Five Swiss drivers
th u s sufficed for each convoy. B ut there was one draw back to
this system : when th eir cam p was liberated, the PW im m edia
tely left th eir work, and the convoy found itself in difficulties.
A fter May, th e Canadian drivers had all to be replaced by
Swiss personnel.
R oad tra n sp o rt activ ity , a t its peak, required a staff of
about 400, tw enty-five of whom were convoy-leaders. The
drivers were exem pt from m ilitary service and were furnished
w ith the necessary passports, perm its, visas and safe-conducts,
together w ith an arm let bearing th e emblem of the ICRC. They
carried everything th ey needed for their own use (sleepingsacks, blankets, provisions and cooking utensils). E very con
voy also had a receiving set, because no warnings were given
of isolated air-attacks, which were announced only by wire
less.
F or help in the tra n sp o rt of the sick, the Swiss Red Cross
supplied doctors and nurses to th e ICRC, and equipm ent
(blankets, m attresses, m edicam ents). Each convoy of about
ten vehicles was accom panied by a doctor and four nurses, and
the convoy-leader was provided w ith a medicine chest.
Truck pool.
In m aking over trucks to the ICRC the
Am erican Red Cross stip u lated th a t preference was to be given
to the tran sp o rt of parcels for A m erican and B ritish PW . I t
was impossible, however, to fulfil this condition, because when
on their journeys and in the cam ps the convoys encountered
PW of all nationalities, besides deportees and civilian internees.
As a result of hurried evacuation, these people were all herded
together in the reception camps, and there would have been no
justification in helping some, and not others.
In F eb ru ary 1945, the C om m ittee placed the question
before the B ritish G overnm ent, which replied th a t the
vehicles supplied by the Dom inions were chiefly intended for
the benefit of B ritish and Am erican PW , b u t th a t th e ICRC,
197

in which the B ritish G overnm ent h ad com plete confidence,

was free to decide w hat should be done in p a rticu la r c a se s1.
Internal organization. F or the organization of the m otor
convoys, the ICRC, in N ovem ber 1944, created a sep arate
section atta ch e d to the Division for T ransport and Com m uni
cations. D uring the first few m onths, m otor convoys betw een
th e M editerranean and Sw itzerland were m anaged b y a priv ate
firm ; their im portance becam e so great, however, th a t the
ICRC began to operate th em directly.
The staff was recruited from the Swiss Army. Most of the
convoy-leaders were officers from A rm y m otorised units, and
the convoys were under m ilitary com m and while on the road.
The central organization in G eneva com prised :
(1) a technical dep artm en t which engaged staff, inspected
and m aintained the vehicles, obtained driving licences, num ber
plates, try p tiq u e s for international travel, kept fuel accounts and
prepared the convoys;
(2) an accounting and adm inistrative d ep artm ent which
dealt w ith salaries, insurance contracts, passport form alities,
drew up instructions for each convoy and organized the work
of the convoy-leaders.
The ICRC also established a num ber of depots and d istrib u
tion centres near the G erm an frontier, a t Kreuzlingen and
St. M argrethen in particular. These centres had repair shops
and lorry parks. The work in G erm any itself was divided into
tw o zones by a line running from Berlin to Cassel. The depots
in Sw itzerland, and th a t a t R avensburg, were the centres
for the Southern Zone, while the delegation a t Lbeck was
responsible for the N orthern Zone.
Three fleets of trucks,
35 vehicles in all, were a tta ch e d to the perm anent depot at
Ravensburg, about 20 kilom etres from the Lake of Constance.
The parcels were sent by rail from the C om m ittees warehouses
a t Geneva and Vallorbe to R avensburg, and thence were
1 See also p. 87.
198

d istributed to the cam ps by tru ck every day. The isolated

delegation a t Liibeck, which h ad no contact w ith Sw itzerland,
distrib u ted relief supplies sent in the C om m ittees ships from
America to G othenburg. Most of the trucks a t Lbeck had come
direct from Sweden and America.
The four distribution centres a t St. M argrethen, Kreuzlingen,
R avensburg and Liibeck were each in the charge of a leader
responsible for their technical m anagem ent. They were subor
dinate to the C om m ittees delegation in Germ any, which alone
was empowered to deal w ith the civilian and m ilitary authorities.
These depots on the E astern frontier of Sw itzerland and in
G erm any m ade it possible to deliver supplies more quickly
and to m ake th e fullest use of the vehicles a t the disposal of
the ICRC.
A fter the end of Septem ber 1945, Basle becam e the startin g
point for all convoys, and relief supplies were stored after th a t
d ate in the prem ises of the Mustermesse in Basle.
The road tra n sp o rt service was wound up a t the end of
1945, and the 80 cars and 25 tru ck s rem aining in the C om m ittees
possession were th en placed under the A dm inistrative Service.
(5)

Return of Vehicles.

The French tru ck s were returned to the French Red Cross

in batches during June and J u ly 1945 ; a few still rem ained for
a tim e at the depots of St. M argrethen, Vernier and Liibeck.
As from the m onth of Ju n e, th e Am erican R ed Cross announ
ced its intention of offering to th e Am erican A rm y the vehicles
it had lent to the ICRC. As a result, 164 trucks and 137 trailers
were assem bled a t G eneva and m ade over on J u ly 31, 1945, to
the representative of the Am erican R ed Cross. The trucks were
finally parked in Basle and th e trailers in Geneva. In August,
75 trucks left Basle for Paris. O thers were sent in different
directions (Italy, Jugoslavia and Poland). Many of them were
m ade over to the representatives of the Am erican R ed Cross
in E urope : five in D enm ark, four in Czechoslovakia and seven
in Rum ania.
On the other hand, the C anadian Red Cross declared itself
ready to leave its 50 vehicles in the hands of the ICRC, as long
199

as th ey were needed. A t the end of 1946 it handed them over

to the Com m ittee as a gift. The C om m ittee th en presented some
to the N ational Red Cross Societies who had applied for them .
T hus th e Polish, A ustrian, H ungarian, R um anian and Jugoslav
R ed Cross each received four trucks. Fourteen vehicles were
d istrib u ted am ong the delegations of the ICRC a t Paris, Lyons,
Berlin, B aden-B aden, F ra n k fu rt, Vlotho, Prague, V ienna and
W arsaw, and were still in use on June 30, 1947. The ICRC kept
about ten for its own use in Geneva.
The closing of the Liibeck Centre, contem plated in Ju ly ,
was postponed u n til its stocks were exhausted. The Swedish
lorries were sent to Norway, in accordance w ith th e Allied
au th o rities desire to present th em to the Norwegian R ed Cross.
The lorries which had been sent to the delegation in Liibeck by
the ICRC were left there, so th a t its stocks m ight be cleared.

200

PART III
E X E C U T IO N OF R E L IE F SCHEM ES
Chapter i

Collective Relief Supplies for Prisoners of War

i.

dvantages

of

C o l l e c t iv e

S u pp l ie s

The immense scale of relief work for prisoners during the

recent war is not easy to assess.
Individual parcels 1 despatched by private persons, N ational
Red Cross Societies or relief organizations took the form of
postal packages, usually weighing five kilogram s and addressed
to prisoners by nam e. They were exem pt from all postal char
ges 2, and were despatched either direct or through the m edium
of the In te rn atio n a l Com m ittee.
Parcels sent to the ports of Lisbon and Marseilles were
checked by the delegates of the C om m ittee and then sent on
by post direct to the camps. Parcels arriving a t Geneva in
tra n sit were im m ediately forw arded to th eir destination ; th eir
contents were not checked and the forw arding in no w ay invol
ved the C om m ittees responsibility.
O ther individual parcels were sent unaddressed to Geneva
in cases or in bags, and a list of recipients draw n up by th e
donors came by separate mail. The Com m ittee then a ttach ed

1 See pp. 281 e t seq.

2 In conform ity with Art. 38 of the 1929 PW Convention.

201

the list to the parcels, and forw arded these by rail to th cam p
leader, who d istrib u ted the parcels according to the instructions
received.
The individual package system was adequate for a lim ited
relief scheme, b u t was unfit to m eet the needs of a host of PW
and civilian internees of all nationalities.
From th e au tu m n of 1940 onwards, th e C om m ittee, with
the support of its delegates, the cam p com m andants, cam p
leaders and the PW them selves, recom m ended the donor
organizations to send th eir relief supplies in th e form of collective
consignments.
These organizations com plied w ith th is advice and as a rule
sent sta n d a rd five-kilogram unaddressed parcels in cases
a new m ethod which was evolved during the war.
They also sent bales of foodstuffs, clothing and underw ear in
bulk to the Com m ittee. These goods were sent on from Geneva
carriage-free by rail to a cam p leader of specified nationality,
who stocked and issued them according to need. These consign
m ents could be sent only on behalf of a N ational Red Cross
Society recognized by the other side.
Individual parcels were of course greatly appreciated by
PW , to whom th ey brought m ost valuable encouragem ent.
Through them contact was established w ith relatives or friends ;
the receipt came back to the donor, bearing the signature and
com m ent of the recipient. However, despite the psychological
value of individual parcels, their distribution raised such
practical difficulties th a t the ICRC preferred to handle collective
consignm ents. Indeed, except for B ritish or Am erican addressees
the G erm an authorities allowed individual parcels to be handed
over only when the id en tity of the men had been checked by the
cam p leader as well as by the cam p com m andant. A list showing
the nam e, num ber and address of the recipients then had to be
forw arded to the Com m ittee, w ith the regulation labels. The
lists and labels took some tim e to reach Geneva, and their
transm ission to the donor, som etim es in a d ista n t country,
involved a fu rth er delay. The postal itin erary and its hazards
also had to be tak en into account. Finally, all sorts of changes
m ight tak e place during this process ; the consignees m ight have
202

m oved to another cam p, or have been sent to a labour detachm ent

or to h o sp ita l, n ot to speak of the m en who m ight have died
or been released, converted into civilian workers or rep atriated .
Thus, in a great m any cases, parcels did not reach th eir
destinations. They were held in store for a few days and th en
distrib u ted to PW of the same n atio n ality who were sick or in
need. They were only rarely reforw arded, for fear of loss. The
receipt, when available, was sent back to the donor unsigned,
or w ith one or more signatures of recipients o ther th a n the
consignee. The donors, although glad to have helped one or
more PW , were usually disappointed not to have assisted their
own relative or friend.
The censorship of parcels in the cam ps was very thorough ;
fam ily parcels were often found to contain prohibited articles,
or w ritten and p rin ted messages, which entailed to ta l or partial
confiscation.
N ot all consignm ents, indeed, were carefully
checked on departure, as th ey were in Great B ritain. Here the
B ritish Red Cross had organized two big packing centres for
fam ily parcels, the larger in London and the other in Glasgow.
The Red Cross Societies of the Dominions, in p articu lar those
of South Africa and New Zealand, also had centres of this
kind. Parcels m ade up by individuals were sent there and
opened, th eir contents checked w ith the g reatest care, then
repacked according to a stan d ard m ethod, and put in sealed
mail-bags.
D espatch through the post was b o th uncertain and difficult.
The considerable increase in the num ber of PW in G erm any
brought about such an influx of letters, parcels, and receipts
th a t the postal censors and distribution departm ents were
often overwhelm ed w ith work. Consignm ents were held up at
some points in tra n sit, and were liable to arrive a t their destina
tion several m onths later, or not a t all. I t transpired th a t from
60 to 70 per cent of personal parcels were lost in tra n sit. The
postal authorities declined all responsibility, since post-free
carriage excluded parcels from registration. Searches by the
Com m ittee were therefore confined to enquiries in the camps.
The tem porary or final suspension of rail tra n sp o rt in different
countries fu rth er com plicated the situation.
203

C rated individual parcels accom panied by nom inal lists

an d despatched by rail were more certain of arrival, b u t dis
trib u tio n difficulties such as deaths, transfers and releases
rem ained.
Collective Relief Supplies therefore represented th e m ost
effective m eans of helping PW . W hilst avoiding the disad
vantages of th e individual relief system , these supplies provided
the m aterial additions necessary to the food and clothing allot
ted by the D etaining A uthorities under A rts, n and 12 of the
C onvention. In all the occupied or belligerent countries of
Europe, th e food situ atio n becam e worse from 1942 onwards,
and th is additional food was in m an y cases indispensable ; the
needs of prisoners could indeed be m et only by consignm ents
of this type. The N ational Red Cross Societies sent the Com m ittee
collective gifts, usually from oversea sources, a t regular in te r
vals. The Com m ittee allocated these gifts in accordance w ith
th e instructions received, on the basis of strengths supplied
by th e cam ps ; th ey were th en eq u itab ly d istributed w ithin the
cam ps to PW of the sam e n atio n ality , according to th e scale
fixed by the donors. S trict supervision was exercized by cam p
leaders a n d cam p authorities. The delegates of the ICRC, on
th eir periodical visits, also confirm ed the safe arrival of gifts.
This system of forw arding supplies also afforded a higher
degree of safety, and the percentage of parcels found missing on
unloading was usually very low. Camp leaders h ad stocks
available to m eet all contingencies, such as losses, thefts, or the
unexpected arrival of new prisoners. In the last case the Com
m ittee ad ju sted its shipm ents to the new cam p stren g th
notified, a n d replaced th e parcels draw n from the cam p reserve
stocks. The Com m ittee could also send a consignm ent a t short
notice, from the stocks held in its warehouses in Sw itzerland.
The undoubted advantages of collective consignm ents were
em phasized by the Com m ittee w henever a new relief scheme
was being planned by a N ational Red Cross Society. W hen the
problem arose of food supplies for Ita lia n PW and m ilitary
internees in G erm any, the Com m ittee again drew a tte n tio n
to the difficulties in the w ay of a distribution of individual
204

parcels : a real im provem ent for food and clothing of these

internees could only derive from a fair allotm ent of collective
parcels.
Most N ational R ed Cross Societies adopted the collective
relief system , and seem ed convinced th a t sta n d a rd parcels and
b ulk consignm ents were m ost suitable.
On N ovem ber 7, 1940, in response to a request from the
Com m ittee, th e B ritish authorities gave th eir consent for th e
despatch of collective relief supplies from overseas.
They
hoped th a t this m ethod would offer b e tte r safeguards and have
b e tte r results in general th a n individual relief supplies. Six
m onths later, th ey openly sta te d th eir preference for collective
parcels. Personal parcels were, how ever, still only discouraged,
ra th e r th a n prohibited.
W ith regard to food supplies, the A m erican R ed Cross
sta te d in J u ly 1942 th a t all orders of sta n d a rd parcels for
individual PW would in fu tu re be refused. P riv ate con trib u tio n s
were thenceforth accepted only for th e purpose of d istrib u tin g
parcels to PW in general, or to those of a specified n ationality.
R elatives and friends wishing to send relief to PW were
n o t prevented from doing so, b u t th ey had to m ake up
th e parcels them selves and hand th em to the local post-office
which then despatched them . The A m erican R ed Cross th u s
concentrated on collective aid to A m erican or Allied PW and
internees, sending the parcels in cases to the Com m ittee, which
forw arded them to the cam ps for d istribution by cam p leaders.
The B ritish authorities decided about th e sam e tim e th a t
food parcels should be sent through th e m edium of the B ritish
R ed Cross, w ithout explicit addresses, for equal distribution
am ong all B ritish PW .
In taking these restrictive m easures in respect of individual
consignm ents and in th u s prom oting a rational and practical
m ethod of sending food supplies, the B ritish and Am erican
Red Cross Societies acted in the in terest of fairness and in the
desire to sim plify th eir own ta sk and th a t of th e Com m ittee.
To m aintain the principle of equal tre a tm e n t, th ey decided
th a t P W still receiving food parcels from private sources should
not, during the week in which such parcels arrived, share in the
205

general weekly issue of sta n d a rd food parcels, or th eir equivalent

in bulk consignm ents.
The G erm an authorities on several occasions pointed out the
difficulties of censorship and checking involved in th e delivery
of individual parcels to th e camps. They decided to regulate
these consignm ents by laying down th a t th ey m ust be packed
in cases or m ail-bags. B oth cases and bags were addressed to the
cam p leader, who issued the parcels according to the nom inal
lists attached.
Some relief organizations, whilst recognizing th e draw backs
of individual consignm ents, tho u g h t it th eir d u ty to conform
to th e wishes of a great m any donors and continued to send
supplies in this form u ntil alm ost the end of the war. Large
num bers of individual parcels therefore continued to arrive
from th e Belgian Congo, N orth Africa and French W est Africa.
T hey were intended for colonials, form er colonials or other
prisoners indicated by nam e. The French G overnm ent, the
B razilian and the Polish R ed Cross Societies also sent this type
of parcel. The Belgian Red Cross, in Septem ber 1944, adopted
the advice of the Com m ittee, as th ey considered th a t the system
of individual parcels no longer conform ed to the general con
ditions of th e war. It scarcely seemed fair th a t a small num ber
of PW should receive parcels individually, while so m any
others did not, an d while th e increasing tra n sp o rt difficulties
prevented a norm al collective supply.
The suspension of direct postal traffic w ith G erm any in
1945 and the difficulties m et w ith by the Swiss Postal A dm inis
tra tio n in finding rolling stock brought the despatch of individual
parcels to an end.
The Germ an and Ita lia n R ed Cross Societies sent both
personal and sta n d a rd parcels. Recognizing the force of the
C om m ittees view, th ey agreed th a t perishable goods and
articles w ithout personal value for PW or civilian internees
who had been rep a tria te d or released, or who had died, should
be handed over to cam p leaders for distribution to sick or
needy prisoners of the same nationality. An exception was m ade
for strictly personal effects and for objects of value which had
in all cases to be retu rn ed to the senders. The Com m ittee gave
206

its form al approval to this rule, which was to be applied on a

basis of reciprocity to parcels for prisoners and internees of
all nationalities. The C om m ittees delegations in Canada, the
Belgian Congo, A ustralia, B ritish India and the U nited States
were asked to tak e m easures accordingly.
A lthough th e collective parcel, a form of generalized relief
which becam e p a rt of th e routine of th e camps, never had the
same personal value for th e recipients as th e individual parcel,
it m ust be recognized th a t th e sta n d a rd five-kilogram collective
parcel, the corner stone of relief work, played a v ital p a rt in
the food supply of th e PW and civilian internees. Collective
relief was in fact one of the m ost im p o rtan t R ed Cross achieve
m ents during the last war. The parcels, a gift from the com m u
n ity to the com m unity, were d istrib u ted during the final phase
of the w ar in the assem bly centres and on the roads in G erm any,
and saved thousands of lives, w ithout any distinction of n a tio n a
lity.
2.

espatch

and

e c e ipt

of

if t

e l ie f

S u p p l ie s

In 1940, relief schemes for PW and civilian internees took

on regular proportions and entailed th e m ovem ent of consider
able am ounts of foodstuffs, clothing, m edical supplies and
articles of all kinds. As the peacetim e staff and resources of
relief organizations were not equal to the e x tra work involved,
the N ational Red Cross Societies were obliged to tak e on new
personnel and to raise the funds required for w ar-tim e tasks.
Some of them h ad the advice and aid of their G overnm ents and
received g ran ts in cash and in kind from th e M inistries respon
sible for food and supplies.
In some countries, the S tate, by its contribution to the
work of th e N ational R ed Cross, was able to exercise a fairly
considerable influence upon its activities. In others, the Societies
h ad more independence, especially when th ey were able to
collect large funds from th e public an d the prisoners relatives.
In b o th instances, th e work of the In tern atio n al Com m ittee
was usually th e same, varying only in th e w ay it was carried
207

out. W hen th e G overnm ent was th e principal source of relief,

th e Com m ittee had to give an account of its use of funds both
to th e G overnm ent a n d to the N ational Red Cross.
The work of the C om m ittee was easier when only one im por
ta n t donor was concerned, th a n when it h ad to negotiate w ith
several and c arry out differing instructions for th e use and
allocation of supplies. N evertheless, th e system of sm all contri
butions proved useful for filling in th e gaps in standardized
schem es which did not provide for w ar-victim s who had no
clearly defined statu s. The m ajor donors, in fact, nearly always
specified the recipients, b o th by th eir n atio n ality and category ;
on the other hand, private donors and small com m ittees left the
ICRC free to distrib u te the m oney or parcels as it tho u g h t
proper.
S ta n d ard consignm ents were, however, the m ost
num erous and form ed the greater p a rt of contributions from
overseas.
Packing and M arking
Relief supplies from overseas, which were som etim es six
m onths on the way, required strong, com pact and airtight
packing. F rom the beginning, th e ICRC, acting on inform ation
from the cam p leaders, advised senders to m ake up parcels of
uniform weight, size and packing, able to w ith stan d handling
in tra n sit and in warehouses. The best packing was done by the
Canadian R ed Cross, whose parcels were sheathed in sto u t
cardboard and packed in lots of 8 or 16 in plywood packingcases. W ith th e donors consent, the Com m ittee forw arded the
cartons only to G erm any and used the packing-cases to recondi
tion other consignm ents arriving dam aged in Sw itzerland.
Some parcels sent from overseas, in p articu lar from th e N ear
E ast, were sewn up in sto u t canvas, which proved quite satis
factory. L ight wooden boxes were not strong enough. The
packing of parcels from the E uropean countries and N orth
Africa was handicapped b y th e shortage of the requisite m aterial,
a n d th e percentage of losses was higher th a n for those from
overseas, although not so high as for fam ily parcels ; these were
often badly packed, in spite of appeals m ade to the public by
N ational R ed Cross Societies a t the C om m ittees request.
208

In 1942, it becam e urgently necessary to recover the

packing m aterial used in consignm ents to Germ any.
The
C om m ittee obtained th e G erm an au th o rities undertaking to
retu rn packing m aterial from the French R ed Cross w ithin
France and from th e Belgian R ed Cross, to the country of
origin, and to send m aterial from overseas back to Geneva.
O rders to this effect from the Germ an m ilitary authorities to
cam p com m andants were only p a rtly carried out, especially
when there was a shortage of rolling stock. A few wagon-loads
of packing m aterial were, however, sent back a t regular intervals
from Germ any, from 1942 to 1944. Moreover, the German
Red Cross was authorized to use C anadian Red Cross packing
m aterial for parcels sent to G erm an prisoners in C anada for
occasional consignm ents ; these parcels arrived satisfactorily.
The question of m arking parcels was an im p o rtan t one
from the outset. The q u a n tity and varied natu re of relief
supplies coming from all parts, the diversity of the donor
organizations, and th e v ast num bers of PW and civilian internees
of all nationalities held in m any countries m ade it im perative
to avoid all possible confusion in m arking ; in spite of this,
th ere was m uch criticism .
The system of colour markings proved itself in practice.
Some cases were painted all over, others only at the corners ;
some sim ply had bands or stripes of paint, in varying num bers
and pattern s. Som etimes only the labels on parcels and bales
were of different colours. Inscriptions and special symbols for
each n atio n ality were also used.
Markings in fact had to be of all descriptions ; besides
varying w ith th e country of origin, th ey differed sometim es
according to the donor organizations of these countries, the
contents of parcels, th e n atio n ality of the consignees and
their sta tu s as PW or civilian internees.
A fter repeated efforts during th e years 1941 to 1943, the
C om m ittee secured the senders a g re e m e n t. to use a clearly
defined and simple system . This was a code corresponding to
th a t used for the W atson Business Machine statistics, by which
donors were given m onthly returns for the distribution made.
Prisoners of each natio n ality were indicated by not more th an
m . 14

209

tw o lette rs,for instance, AM (American), B E (Belgian),

F R (French), G (Greek), followed by a reference num ber of one
to three figures.
Reference to Donors
The donors wished th eir nam es to appear on parcels, labels
and receipts, so th a t th e recipients should be aw are of their
origin.
There were two types of sender whose nam es could at all
tim es be shown : th e private donor, and the N ational Red Cross
Society established in its own country.
O rganizations th a t were not recognized by one of the
belligerent parties, such as R ed Cross Societies in exile and
relief organizations whose nam es showed th eir connection w ith a
belligerent S tate, could n ot be m entioned. The Germ an and
Ita lia n authorities, in particular, feared the propaganda effect
of th e influx of supplies from overseas. The Germ an authorities
invoked A rt. 78 of the Convention in this respect, which lays
down th a t prisoners m ay receive supplies from societies regu
larly c o n stitu ted under the laws of th eir country . From this
th ey argued th a t Red Cross Societies set up in exile abroad had
no a u th o rity to appear as donors on the shipping docum ents.
The C om m ittee inform ed all Allied donors of these term s
stip u lated by the o ther side. There were three ways of over
coming th e difficulty : (1) gifts of which the tru e origin could
n ot be given were term ed gifts of the R ed Cross Society of
the donors co u n try of domicile ; (2) gifts sent through the
m edium of th a t Society ; (3) gifts sent " through the m edium
of the ICRC , if it was not expedient to m ention any particu lar
country.
The Com m ittee was able to satisfy itself th a t these restrictive
m easures did not prevent the prisoners being inform ed, in one
way or another, of the tru e origin of the gifts and the work in
general of G overnm ents and R ed Cross Societies in exile.

210

Grading of supplies by N ationality

(a)

Am erican P W and C ivilian Internees.

As early as N ovem ber 1941, before th e U nited S tates came

into the war, the Am erican R ed Cross h ad shown considerable
a c tiv ity in behalf of Allied nationals. The Society sold several
lots of sta n d a rd parcels to th e ICRC ; up to the U nited S ta te s
e n try into th e war, these parcels were re-sold to Swiss donors.
A fter th e 1940 cam paign, which led to th e setting up of
Allied G overnm ents and R ed Cross Societies in exile and the
form ation of Allied relief com m ittees in th e U nited States,
the Am erican R ed Cross provided sta n d a rd parcels for Belgian,
D utch, French, Greek, Polish and Jugoslav nationals, in confor
m ity w ith financial agreem ents concluded by the G overnm ents,
the Red Cross Societies an d other organizations of these countries
w ith the Am erican R ed Cross and th e U.S. G overnm ent. Thus
the vast Lease and Lend scheme covered bulk deliveries
of relief in foodstuffs, clothing, m edicam ents and other articles
for Allied prisoners in Europe.
G uided by its own experience and th a t gained by the B ritish
R ed Cross w ith its sta n d a rd parcels, introduced in 1940, the
Am erican R ed Cross w ent about its plans in a m ethodical way.
Large q u antities were despatched, indicated by num ber and
subdivided into num bered sections. D istribution was m ade
according to code letters and in conform ity w ith the general
ruling th a t PW and civilian internees of Am erican n atio n ality
should have priority. Thus, assum ing the ICRC had 300,000
sta n d a rd food parcels available in Sw itzerland, th en according
to the general instructions, it issued, in the first place, one
parcel a week to each Am erican PW or civilian internee ; th ere
after, it referred to th e code letters for allocation to French,
D utch and o ther PW . E xcellent results were obtained by this
system , which enabled regular supplies to be m ade to Allied
PW ; interru p tio n s were only tem porary, during the m ajor
tra n sp o rt crises or shipping hold-ups, or when vessels were lost.
Food parcels were of four principal types : (1) the stan d ard
parcel, (2) the invalid parcel, (3) the m edical em ergency
kit, and (4) th e capture parcel.
211

(i)
The stan d ard food parcel weighed 4.5 kilogram s net
a n d contained food in 'tins or preservative packing ; it had a
m axim um food-value estim ated a t 10,000 to 12,000 calories.
(2) In the invalid parcels, the less easily digestible item s
were replaced by food suitable for tuberculosis cases, or for
stom ach or liver p a tie n ts ; these were in particu lar condensed
m ilk, w ater-biscuits and rice. W hereas sta n d a rd parcels were
issued regularly, irrespective of the recipients sta te of health,
invalid parcels were lim ited to about 5 per cent of the to ta l
stre n g th of the cam p.
(3) The distribution of first-aid kits was b e tte r assured
th a n th a t of food parcels, which, as far as th e Allies were con
cerned, depended on purchases m ade by the donors. At the
o u tb reak of war, the A m erican Red Cross accepted the scale
ad o p ted for B ritish prisoners, th a t is, one first-aid kit per
1000 PW in a cam p, or two kits per 100 PW in a m ilitary
hospital. This proportion was found inadequate, and after
April 1944, five kits per 1000 m en were issued to cam ps. The
m edical officers in charge who used the kits supplied the m edica
m ents first to A m erican PW , b u t also to large num bers of
Allied P W under tre a tm e n t in the same cam p or hospital.
(4) The cap tu re p a rc e l , in stitu te d by the Am erican
R ed Cross in 1943, owed its origin to the plight of aircraft crews
c a p tu red after baling out, or when th eir planes had been shot
down. These m en had no kit and th eir equipm ent (heavy
boots, electrically heated overalls and flying helm ets) were of
no use for life in cam p. Em ergency relief parcels for these men
were therefore indispensable. F rom Ju n e 1943 onwards, the
Am erican R ed Cross forw arded cap tu re parcels to the
Com m ittee ; these were sm all fibre or plastic boxes, containing
a set of underclothing and articles of personal use, especially
toilet articles. One parcel was issued to each m an belonging
to th e U.S. land, sea or air forces on his arrival a t his first cam p.
The distribution of cap tu re parcels was m ade easier
b y th e fact th a t Allied prisoners usually passed through a
Dulag or tra n sit cam p before being sent to a perm anent
cam p. The capture parcels were therefore handed over to the
212

cam p leaders of th e Dulag, who issued them to all new-comers.

The parcel was accom panied by an A rm y toilet kit.
F rom th e a u tu m n of 1944, th e A m erican R ed Cross, in
order to give some v a rie ty to sta n d a rd food parcels, introduced
tw o new types of parcel. The contents of A were som ew hat
more digestible th a n those of th e ordinary parcels. The parcels
labelled A included com m odities of slightly b e tte r quality
and were allotted in th e first place to A m erican PW .
In addition to th e sta n d a rd parcels, tobacco, cigarettes
soap, towels, blankets, footw ear, clothing and underw ear were
sent to prisoners. These consignm ents, in th e form of cases
or bales, usually contained one ty p e of article, and were useful
for bulk d istribution in the camps. For this reason, th e A m eri
can Red Cross introduced a fu rth e r sta n d a rd parcel intended
for m en who were isolated, which contained the following
articles :
1
2
1
2
i
i

(b)

cap
pairs u n derpants
pair gloves
handkerchiefs
b a ttle blouse
pair shoe laces

1
2
1
6
2
2

greatcoat
shirts
pair boots
pairs socks
pairs trousers
undervests

British Prisoners of War.

The B ritish G overnm ent and R ed Cross Society had decided

to send relief of identical weight an d q uality to the citizens
of Great B ritain and all countries of the Com m onwealth. The
contents of the parcels, however, varied slightly according to
th e origin, religion and h ab its of recipients. The R ed Cross
Societies of the Dom inions and other p a rts of the Com m onwealth
arranged w ith the B ritish R ed Cross to supply sta n d a rd parcels
of the sam e description.
The Com m ittee was in stru cted to issue one sta n d a rd food
parcel a week to every B ritish prisoner, w hatever his hom e
co u n try ; the men also received parcels direct from hom e.
213

The B ritish sta n d a rd food parcels weighed n lbs English ;

various types, tw o of which were intended for Indian prisoners,
were packed in G reat B ritain. The five in m ost comm on use
c o n tained products th a t would keep for some tim e ; their food
value m ade them suitable for supplem enting the daily rations
of the D etaining Power. The com position of these parcels
was excellent and served as a m odel for o ther Red Cross
Societies.
Parcels of the ordinary kind contained the following
products : biscuits, chocolate, condensed milk, jam (or syrup),
fish, sugar, tea, m eat roll (or sausage), soap, dried eggs, dried
fruit (or puddings, or cream ed rice), oatm eal (or rolled oats, or
pancake b a tte r), hot m eat (or corned beef), cheese, m argarine
or b u tte r. Vegetables, bacon, cocoa, sweets and seasoning were
only included in a few ty p es of parcels.
P roducts included in parcels for Indian prisoners were as
follows : a tta (flour), dahl (lentils), rice, salt, fish, curry powder,
m argarine, condensed milk, tea, dried or tinned fruit, biscuits,
chocolate, sugar, vegetables, bacon, etc.
Parcels packed in A ustralia, Canada, India, New Zealand
an d South Africa were of identical weight and contents. C anada
sent up to 70,000 parcels a week, whilst those from New Zealand
reached th e figure of 88,000.
In the interests of variety, sta n d a rd parcels a ltern ated w ith
bulk supplies bought by the B ritish com m unity in the A rgentine
and forw arded through th e A rgentine Red Cross. At regular
intervals, th e B ritish R ed Cross, in agreem ent w ith the other
R ed Cross Societies of the Com m onwealth, su b stitu te d one for
the other. F our hundred tons of bulk supplies from the Argentine
were equivalent to 20,000 sta n d a rd food parcels. Supplies were
likewise collected by the B ritish Relief Com m ittee in Brazil,
and gifts or special parcels were sent by some Dominions.
Thus am ongst other products, the South African R ed Cross
sent th e Com m ittee 32 tons of sugar to the value of 1,500
South African pounds.
Unlike the Am erican and French R ed Cross, th e B ritish
R ed Cross did not add packets of cigarettes to the stan d ard
food parcels. Separate parcels containing a ration of 2 ounces
214

of tobacco and 50 cigarettes were sent each week to every

B ritish prisoner.
The B ritish R ed Cross despatched large q u antities of uni
forms, greatcoats, b a ttle blouses, trousers and footw ear, as
well as shirts, pullovers, undervests, gloves, caps, linen, etc.
The A ustralian R ed Cross in Melbourne also supplied sheepskin
coats, when the G erm an High Com m and had given a u th o rity
for these to be d istrib u ted in May 1944 ; each prisoner was to
receive one. Clothing was sent a t the request of cam p leaders
according to need. W henever stocks of any particu lar article
were exhausted, th e C om m ittee a t once inform ed th e B ritish
R ed Cross. In addition, toilet articles and other articles in
every day use were also provided.
F rom Ju n e 1943 onw ards, the C anadian R ed Cross m ade up
cap tu re parcels on the same model as those of th e Am erican
Red Cross 1.
W hen the w ar began, soap was included in food parcels, b u t
cam p leaders found th a t this spoilt th e food and advised the
C om m ittee and the donors to pack th e soap separately. From
April i , 1944 onwards, the B ritish and Canadian R ed Cross
Societies m ade special consignm ents of soap, equivalent to three,
and th en two ounces a week for each man.
The Invalid Comforts Section of the B ritish R ed Cross
reached a very high sta n d a rd in preparing special parcels for
th e sick. There were two types of diet parcels and four kinds
of m edical parcels, which were sent to sick qu arters atta ch e d
to cam p or to independent hospitals, on a scale of distribution
based on cam p strengths 2.
The invalid parcel could replace or supplem ent the rations
contained in th e ordinary sta n d a rd parcel, according to need.
Some specially m ade-up diet parcels, as well as m edical and
surgical kits, were issued on th e recom m endation of cam p and
hospital m edical officers.
U ntil Septem ber 1943, th e m ajo rity of th e parcels for senior
m edical officers were sent direct from London. They were
1 The con ten ts are given in the Annexes.
2 See Annexes.

215

opened by th e ICRC in Geneva, who m ade additions to the

contents as requested, from reserve stocks in Sw itzerland. These
reserve stocks were especially useful for supplying cam ps newly
established and for m eeting cases of extrem e urgency. A fter
Septem ber 1943, however, th e growing v a rie ty and size of
cam p populations, to g eth er w ith tra n sp o rt difficulties, led the
Invalid Comforts Section to replace direct consignm ents by
supplies sent from Sw itzerland.
In J u ly 1943, th e Invalid Com forts Section sent a weeklyto ta l of 17,000 special parcels. This figure was even exceeded
during 1944 and 1945.

(c)

French Prisoners.

As early as 1940, relief to French PW was characterized

by th e large proportion of consignm ents in bulk.
At th a t
juncture, about a million men had been tak en prisoner, and
relief had to be organized w ith all speed. France was short of
foodstuffs and packing m aterial, so th a t a scheme such as th a t
of th e B ritish and A m erican R ed Cross could not be introduced.
Collective relief, in any case, did not play so im p o rtan t a role
for prisoners from F rance itself as for B ritish PW , since as
soon as postal com m unications were resum ed betw een G erm any
and France, these m en received individual parcels from th eir
relatives. This fact com pensated, to some extent, for the absence
of collective consignm ents.
The ICRC therefore sent relief
supplies prim arily to cam ps w ith a stren g th of more th an 20,000
French PW . These provisions were intended for the sick, for
men who were undernourished or who had no relatives, and for
labour detachm ents where conditions were bad, owing to local
circum stances, th e kind of work carried out, or the a ttitu d e of
the cam p com m andant. These bulk supplies, which a t first
only provided 800 gram s a m onth for each m an, gradually
increased, th an k s to the efforts of the whole French Em pire
and French donors living abroad. The ICRC gave constant
inform ation to the donors, and assisted in the necessary nego
tiations.
216

The D irectorate-G eneral for Prisoners of W ar, a t Lyons,

the executive body for relief workwas under th e direct
control of the M inistry of W ar ; in co-operation w ith th e French
Red Cross, it was able to plan the distribution in the cam ps
before the relief supplies were despatched. From 1941 to 1944,
supplies were sent in tra n sit th rough S w itzerland; the wagons
were exam ined by the Swiss custom s on arrival from Lyons.
The contents and packing of the parcels were verified by the
C om m ittees experts, who reported losses and dam age to Lyons ;
the wagons were thereupon sealed and sent on their w ay w ith
fresh waybills to Germ any. The French R ed Cross and G overn
m ent h ad some difficulty in obtaining the necessary foodstuffs
for these bulk consignm ents 1.
The relief organizations and Red Cross Societies in N orth
Africa took th eir share of this relief scheme. The D irectorate
for PW was anxious to receive its qu o ta of foodstuffs a t
regular intervals, in order to supply the F rontstalags in
France, in which the German authorities had assem bled nearly
all the African PW . These shipm ents were however held up
b y tra n sp o rt difficulties in th e M editerranean 2. On th e Allied
landing in N orth Africa in 1942 and the to ta l occupation of
France, supplies were suspended until the au tu m n of 1944.
The French Red Cross a t home and French donors overseas
wished to establish a system of regular collective supplies by
stan d ard parcels, b u t the scheme could n ot be in stitu ted in
France itself u ntil the liberation of the country. In 1942, th e
Free French organizations m ade financial arrangem ents w ith
the Am erican and B ritish R ed Cross, under which home supplies
from F rance were supplem ented by large consignm ents of
parcels. In 1943, th e ra te of consignm ents was one parcel
a m onth for each m an ; a plan for d istributing two parcels a
m onth was only p artially effective, as the first deliveries coin
cided w ith the breakdow n of railw ay tra n sp o rt in G erm any 3.

1 See pp. 26 e t seq..

2 See p. 159.
3 See p. 172.

217

B ulk consignm ents, which included some dietetic foods,

were supplem ented by arm y ty p e m edical kits, a d ap ted for
use in th e cam ps. These kits were sent to Lyons together w ith
th e food supplies. The C om m ittee also bought various m edica
m ents in Sw itzerland, on the charge of the French G overnm ent.
Besides sta n d a rd food parcels, the U nited S tates, during
th e second half of the war, supplied parcels of m edicam ents
and other special relief.
The great num ber of French prisoners m ade the problem
of clothing a p a rticu larly difficult one. The uniform s of these
men, c a p tu red a fter a brief cam paign, were in m ost cases in
good condition and lasted u n til th e beginning of 1942. The
position becam e m ore strained during the w inter of 1942-43,
and there was a great shortage of underclothing. The Germ an
authorities, who h ad seized a large q u a n tity of French uniforms,
d istrib u ted some of these to the prisoners. A t the same tim e,
the D irectorate-G eneral for PW was able to meet requirem ents
in p a rt from supplies draw n from reserve stocks, or from the
m anufacturers.
These sources were exhausted in 1943 and
deficiencies could only be m ade up from overseas. It was, however,
difficult to clothe 750,000 men in this way, and deliveries in
bulk did not begin u ntil the end of 1944. Conditions in G erm any
no longer allowed of norm al distribution, so th a t uniform s
could only be supplied to cam ps easily accessible from Switzer
land, or via Lbeck.
(d)

Belgian, Dutch, Greek and other Allied Prisoners.

Supplies to Belgian prisoners differed from those for th e French

in only tw o respects : (1) relief consignm ents from the Belgian
Congo, which corresponded to those from N orth Africa for the
French, only began tow ards the m iddle of the w ar and were
entirely for E uropean Belgians, there being no native prisoners
from the Congo ; (2) the lim ited num ber of prisoners p erm itted
the speedier provision of parcels by the Belgian R ed Cross.
The other Allied prisoners, such as th e D utch, Greeks,
Norwegians, Poles and Jugoslavs, only received a steadily
dim inishing supply of fam ily parcels from their own countries.
218

A fter the events of 1941-42, the flow of parcels to Greek, Norwe

gian, Polish and Jugoslav prisoners ceased altogether and the
supply th en depended chiefly on the relief organisations set
up abroad to assist these men, in co-operation w ith th e G overn
m ents in exile established in London. The organizations in
the Argentine, Brazil, the B ritish Com m onw ealth or the U nited
S tates sent th eir supplies th rough the Red Cross Societies of
those countries, or th rough the E g y p tian Red Crescent in the
case of those in Cairo. These Allied organizations and Red
Cross Societies in exile negotiated agreem ents for the supply
of foodstuffs, and late r of clothing.
All these PW received B ritish or Am erican stan d ard parcels
a t the following rates : D utch, two a m onth ; Greeks, three ;
Norwegians, four. The Belgians, Poles and Jugoslavs received,
like the French, one parcel a m onth u ntil 1944, and th ereafter
two, as far as tra n sp o rt allowed.
The following is a brief sum m ary of the relief supplies
d istrib u ted by the ICRC to D utch prisoners :
(a) Regular consignments : two sta n d a rd parcels a m onth
to each m an, from the Am erican or B ritish Red Cross (gifts of
th e D utch Red Cross in London, or th e D utch E m bassy in
W ashington), and about 230 B ritish or A m erican cigarettes
m onthly for each m an.
(b)

Periodical consignments : in place of regular supplies :

(1) Foodstuffs in bulk sent by the A rgentine Red Cross ;

(2) E quipm ent sent by th e B ritish Red Cross ;
(3) Clothing given and forw arded by the ICRC on behalf
of the D utch Legation in Berne, a t the request of cam p leaders
and w ith th e consent of th e D etaining Power.
This m ethod of supply was, w ith some variations, adopted
for all Allied prisoners other th a n Am erican or British.
(e)

Italian Prisoners.

In Ita ly , where a m arked preference was shown for indivi

dual fam ily parcels, th e Ita lia n R ed Cross prom oted a system
219

of despatch which, although not very system atic, was appre

ciated by th e recipients. The num ber and value of parcels sent
direct by post cannot be determ ined.
However, a t the request of m any prisoners, the Ita lia n
R ed Cross introduced a system of sta n d a rd parcels in the
w inter of 1942-43. The first 5,000 parcels were sent in March
1943 to prisoners in various p a rts of the B ritish Common
w ealth, who were sick or who h ad no relatives. A fter th e events
of Septem ber 1943, this scheme came to an end.
The Ita lia n Red Cross, whose m eans were lim ited, con
c en trated on sending m edical supplies to Ita lia n senior medical
officers, since a large proportion of the men were detained in
tropical areas ; here th e illnesses th ey had co ntracted during
the cam paigns in Africa were aggravated by the clim ate. The
tre a tm e n t prescribed by the Italian medical officers often
differed from th a t proposed by their Allied counterparts, so
th a t urgent requests for large consignm ents of Ita lia n pharm a
ceutical specialities had to be m et.
In view of th e clim ate, th e clothing question h ardly arose ;
m oreover, the D etaining Powers provided w hat was required.
A t th e end of the war, the Ita lia n Red Cross was reorganized
and assisted th e Ita lia n prisoners in N orth Africa.
(f)

German Prisoners.

There were b u t few Germ an prisoners u n til the N orth

A frican cam paign. Up to th a t tim e, th ey were supplied by
the D etaining Powers w ith all their prim e necessities. A fter
1940, th e G erm an Red Cross arranged the despatch of fam ily
parcels and, in the early years of the war, of Christm as parcels.
F rom 1943 onw ards, the German Red Cross called upon
th e A rm y authorities to aid in the bulk shipm ent of uniform s.
In accordance w ith A rm y regulations, the G erm an Govern
m ent only supplied equipm ent to NCOs and men. Officers
were given special g rants (Selbsteinkleiderzuschsse) to procure
th eir own clothing ; the allowance was paid to their next of
kin, who had to m ake up the clothing parcels them selves,
either from personal stocks or by private purchase. These
220

individual parcels were m ade over to the G erm an R ed Cross,

which verified and despatched them .
Fam ily parcels containing foodstuffs sent in th e sam e way,
a fte r checking by the Germ an R ed Cross, were of tw o kinds :
(a) lette r parcels weighing from 250 gr. to 2 kilogram s and
(b) postal parcels of 2 to 5 kilograms.
W hen increasingly severe food restrictions prevented most
families from m aking up these parcels, th e Germ an R ed Cross
offered sta n d a rd parcels of a specified weight, each containing
two kinds of food (T ypenpakete). Those m ost usually sent
contained cigarettes, tobacco, biscuits and toilet articles.
In th e spring of 1944, th e Germ an R ed Cross planned to
m ake m onthly consignm ents of 200 tons of collective food
parcels for the 40,000 prisoners in N orth Africa, so th a t each
m an m ight receive one sta n d a rd parcel a m onth. This scheme
w as especially handicapped by th e lack of tran sp o rt.
Christmas Parcels to German and Italian Prisoners
The Ita lia n Red Cross sent books on a rt in the place of
food parcels a t Christm as.
In 1941, the G erm an Red Cross, in agreem ent w ith the
G erm an G overnm ent, deposited large sums in Swiss francs
w ith the Com m ittee, so th a t the la tte r s delegates m ight buy
C hristm as gifts for prisoners in various p a rts of the B ritish
Com m onwealth. The B ritish, A ustralian and C anadian Govern
m ents consented to these purchases. The Com m ittee's delegate
was th u s able to give each of the 2,942 officers and men held in
C anada a parcel containing 100 cigarettes, chocolate, toilet
articles and linen.
He also handed over collective gifts to
cam p leaders, such as m usical instrum ents, table m ats for
dining halls, razors, sports gear and so on, and a sum of m oney
for a C hristm as dinner.
In 1942, th e G erm an R ed Cross an d G overnm ent m ade
sim ilar arrangem ents, b u t on a large scale, owing to th e increase
in th e num ber of prisoners.
In 1943, the G erm an donors wished to continue th e practice,
but had some difficulty in obtaining, through the ICRC, the
221

perm ission to purchase goods in Allied countries.

G reat
B ritain lim ited th e purchases and asked th a t th ey should
be replaced, a t least in p a rt, by consignm ents in kind from
Germ any.
In th e sam e year, the A ustralian G overnm ent found a w ay
out of th e dilem m a, b y consenting to th e G erm an scheme on
condition th a t a sim ilar plan should be carried out by the
C om m ittees delegation in Berlin in behalf of A ustralian
prisoners in Germ any.
Christmas Parcels for Allied Prisoners
All th e R ed Cross Societies of th e Allied countries were
careful to replace the sta n d a rd parcels at C hristm astim e by
parcels containing a few delicacies. E x tra issues of 50 or 100
cigarettes were given to each man.
In 1942, for instance, Belgian PW received supplem entary
parcels from New Y ork containing one pound of gingerbread,
half a pound of fig biscuits and half a pound of raisin biscuits.
Norwegian PW , in 1942 and 1943, received parcels packed
by the ICRC in Sw itzerland, which contained 125 gr. chocolate,
250 gr. biscuits, cigarettes and, some of them , a bottle of red
wine. In 1941, th e ICRC obtained the belligerents a u th o rity
for the inclusion of greeting cards in C hristm as parcels.
Prohibited articles
The following could not be sent to PW of any n atio n ality :
Alcoholic beverages.
Medical personnel arm lets (except for those entitled to
w ear them ).
C ertain toilet articles (toothpaste in tubes, nail-files) l.
Arm s, tools and objects liable to be used for escape or
sabotage (m etal saws, files, screw-drivers, draw ing pens, scissors,
com passes, id e n tity cards, m aps, cam eras, field-glasses, pocket
knives, scout knives, tin openers) 2.
1 N ail-files were not confiscated in Italy.
2 Germany and Ita ly allowed sm all penknives and Ita ly scissors.

222

Money, correspondence, p rinted m a tte r (in parcels).

Certain form s of office equipm ent (m ultigraph a p p aratu s,
carbon paper, duplicating paper, m arking ink, stencils, note
books, calendars, etc.).
Certain gam es and sports gear : skis, m etal golf clubs,
referee whistles (allowed in G erm any during gam es and tak en
aw ay after use), tennis nets 1, ping-pong nets, tennis balls,
gym nastic rings, ropes, Indian clubs, cricket bats, boxinggloves, football boots, dum b-bells.
C igarette papers, cigarette holders, packets of cigarette
papers 2.
Ngociations concerning prohibited articles
A lthough the ICRC had agreed w ith the belligerents on
rules for th e authorization of articles intended for PW , some
articles rem ained in dispute th roughout the war 3. The ICRC
had to begin negotiations anew w ith the D etaining Powers
w henever a new ty p e of parcel contained articles th a t were
liable to confiscation.
In A ustralia, for instance, qu aran tin e regulations proscribed
the im port of m eat th a t had not been com pletely sterilised ;
some tinned m eat sent by th e G erm an R ed Cross was im pounded
in consequence.
A fter having inform ed th e donors of this
particu lar regulation, the ICRC negotiated w ith th e A ustralian
authorities for th e replacem ent of these goods.
Consignm ents of coffee from the Allied R ed Cross Societies
to PW in G erm any and Ita ly also caused difficulties. Since
P W in labour detachm ents were in contact w ith the popula
tion, there was a danger of illicit trad in g in coffee (sale or b a rter,
and black-m arket dealings in p reparation for escape). The
G erm ans prohibited th e despatch of coffee, b u t th e ICRC
1 These and the follow ing articles were only prohibited by Italy.
2 On October 27, 1944, the German authorities granted permission
to distribute these articles to PW in Germany, on condition th a t the
other side took similar steps. The authorities kept the prohibition in
force until March 1945, from which tim e th ey agreed to these articles
being distributed, if contained in German Red Cross parcels.
3 See pp. 12-13.

223

interceded in favour of the hospitals, pointing out th a t coffee

was issued under m edical supervision and th a t the p atien ts
h a d no contact w ith the civil population. The G erm an a u th o r
ities th en g ran ted this request.
In 1942, the Ita lia n authorities prohibited the issue of
coffee in the cam ps. The ICRC, which had received large gifts
of raw coffee from Brazil and Venezuela, m ade arrangem ents
w ith the donors for the coffee to be roasted and ground in
Sw itzerland and th en sent in sm all qu an tities to all the hospitals
a n d to the sick, on the basis of 2% of th e to ta l stren g th in
each cam p.
The same difficulties occurred w ith regard to chocolate,
b u t the ICRC obtained th e belligerents approval for small
q u an tities.
As the Convention provides for the use of tobacco in the
cam ps, th e D etaining Powers placed tobacco and cigarettes
on sale in the canteens a t th e beginning of the w ar ; but as
early as 1941, the Germ ans sta te d their inability to do
this, in view of the great influx of Allied PW . The Allied donors
had therefore to supply tobacco them selves ; this led to some
difficulty, since certain types of packing had p rinted inscrip
tions which the Germ an authorities regarded as propaganda.
Some confiscations occurred, and the ICRC had provisionally
to rem ove th e original packing of some brands warehoused in
Sw itzerland and to send the contents in plain bulk. In course
of tim e the donors overseas were able to m ake fresh consign
m ents in packings acceptable to the adverse part}'.
All large consignm ents of clothing required strenuous
negotiations 1 ; three instances of this m ay be quoted.
W hilst the Ita lia n authorities would only allow khaki
pullovers, the G erm an au th o rities refused them to begin w ith
a n d even placed conditions on th e adm ission of grey pullovers ;
a t first th ey also objected to brown shirts.
The Ita lia n authorities refused to allow shoes and insisted
upon A rm y boots. In 1942, the Germ ans introduced the
Bekleidungs-Soll regulation, by which prisoners were allowed
1 See p. 36.

224

to possess only two articles of clothing of the sam e kind ; th ey

confiscated nearly all th e footw ear which th e m en could n ot
prove to be th eir own property, stored it under th e ir own
supervision and gave out wooden clogs in exchange.
The B ritish au thorities prohibited th e d istribution in E g y p t
of A frika-K orps uniform s, owing to th eir sim ilarity w ith those
of the B ritish Forces in Africa (khaki shirt and shorts).
3.

urchase

of

e l ie f

n t e r n a t io n a l

s u p p l ie s

Com

by

the

m it t e e

In 1942 and 1943, th e ICRC m ade purchases for PW and

civilian internees am ounting ap proxim ately to fourteen million
Swiss francs.
These purchases m ainly com prised foodstuffs such as
vegetables, flour, tin n e d m eat and fish, from countries other
th a n Sw itzerland, especially from H ungary, R um ania, T unisia
a n d Portugal. Condensed milk, toilet articles and everyday
articles were bought in Sw itzerland.
D uring and after 1944, general trad in g conditions com pelled
th e ICRC to purchase m ainly in Sw itzerland. The m ost varied
com m odities were bought during th a t p articu lar year, including
Com m union wine, Passover bread, jam s, soup thickening,
green coffee, w hite flour, apples, soup cubes, O valtine, tu n n y
fish, condensed milk, cheese, cigarettes, shaving tackle, to o th
brushes, to o th -p aste, b a rb e rs clippers and scissors, combs,
tin openers, padlocks, pens, paper bags, typew riters, sewing
m achines, bicycles, children's cots, feeding bottles, etc.
Two m em bers of th e Relief Division were in charge of th e
P urchasing Section. Purchases were, as a rule, carried out as
follows :
(1) R eports from delegates on th e lack of certain articles
in several camps.
(2) R equests by the PW or internees, com m unicated to
th e Geneva representatives of the R ed Cross Societies concerned.
(3) If these representatives agreed, instructions were
given to the Purchasing Section to d raft a provisional buying
scheme.
hi.

15

225

(4) Call for tenders and rendering of an estim ate by the

Section.
(5) Subm ission of th e estim ate to the donors representa
tives.
(6) If th e estim ate was accepted, allocation to th e Section
of funds not exceeding th e estim ate.
(7) R equest to th e suppliers for details on conditions of
purchase, custom s classification, gross and net weights, and
packing m ethods.
(8) A pplication for export perm its to the Im p o rt and
E x p o rt Section of the F ederal D ep artm en t for Commerce in
Berne, w ith a sta te m e n t of the m ethod of financing the p u r
chases (origin of gifts, etc.).
(9) In th e case of rationed goods, sim ultaneous applica
tio n to th e C om m odity Section and th e R ationing Section of
th e F ederal W artim e Office.
(10) On receipt of the export perm its, placing of the order
w ith th e suppliers.
(11) On delivery of th e goods, verification of qu ality and
q u a n tity .
These eleven points m erely outline th e procedure.
The
operation was, in point of fact, subject to m any difficulties,
th e g reatest of which was th e increasing scarcity of goods.
Few firms were in a position to deliver goods in th e large q u a n ti
ties required.
In m ost cases, offers were not firm and contained reserve
clauses on price increases. A great m any suppliers, apprehen
sive of exhausting th eir stocks and of being unable to satisfy
th eir usual custom ers, preferred n o t to quote for orders from
th e Com m ittee. A t th e sam e tim e, th e shortage of packing
m aterial grew ; th e strict rationing of paper and cardboard
delayed, and som etim es even prevented, th e delivery of articles
already ordered, or available. Assembling and packing in th e
C om m ittees warehouses would have been b o th com plicated
an d costly ; firms able to c arry out this work under expert
supervision, according to instructions from Geneva, had th e re
fore to be found.
226

E x p o rt regulations in Sw itzerland were an o th er source of

difficulty. B lank export perm its, which did not sta te the
q u a n tity or q u a lity of th e goods for export, could only rarely
be obtained, so th a t th e ICRC usually h a d to aw ait a special
perm it before placing an order, -or to m ake purchases condi
tional on th e perm it being granted. As a rule, suppliers refused
to accept conditional orders, for fear of loss should the perm it
be refused. N evertheless, despite th e aw kw ard supply position
for certain goods and raw m aterials in Sw itzerland, th e ICRC
alw ays m et w ith u n d erstanding and support from the a u th o r
ities, who in difficult cases m ade allowance for the fact th a t
th e operation served a h u m an ita ria n purpose.
F or technical reasons, no export qu o ta could be allocated
to th e Relief Division for certain rationed goods. However,
the Jo in t Relief Commission of th e In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross,
which h ad quotas for these goods, shared these w ith th e Com
m ittee in u rgent cases.
In 1946 and 1947, th e com m odity shortage in Sw itzerland
becam e m ore severe, and prices rose sharply. The ICRC was
obliged to m ake purchases outside Sw itzerland.
The atta ch e d Annexes include a general sum m ary of the
purchases m ade by the Com m ittee from J a n u a ry 1, 1944, to
Ju n e 30, 1947.

4.
(a)

he

arehouses

of

the

ICRC

Stocks in European transhipment ports.

Southern Route I.

Relief supplies from G reat B ritain, the U nited States,

South Am erica and Africa, intended for Allied PW , had to be
unloaded a t Lisbon or, w ith the consent of th e B ritish a u th o r
ities, in another neu tral E uropean port ; navicerts were only
gran ted on this condition.

1 See p. 158.

227

Since rail traffic from Lisbon to G eneva was very congested,

slow and costly, and road tra n sp o rt could not be considered,
th e ICRC obtained a u th o rity to forw ard th e goods by sea from
Lisbon to Marseilles on n eu tral vessels ; th e supplies were
th en sent on to Sw itzerland by rail, to be stored in ICRC w are
houses and th en forw arded to camps.
D uring the wffiole of the war, Lisbon was the great cen tral
tran sh ip m en t port. F rom 1940 onwards, a delegate was s ta
tioned here and for five years worked in close contact w ith
the representatives of th e N ational R ed Cross Societies. The
w ork of the R ed Cross in Lisbon during these five years was
extensive. The handling of Red Cross supplies, the negotiations
b oth w ith the Portuguese authorities and the Blockade Control,
m ade Lisbon a very anim ated centre of relief activities.
The following account outlines the principal duties of the
delegation in Lisbon.
(1) On receipt of the consignm ent advice the head
delegate recorded this in the register and gave each bill of
lading a num ber.
(2) Before fixing the date of despatch, he applied to
th e Portuguese custom s authorities for exem ption of dues
and other privileges. A bout ten days elapsed before the reply
reached the C om m ittees custom s agent.
For consignm ents
in tra n sit, the delegate applied for free re-export facilities,
and for exem ption from export ta x on purchases m ade in
Portugal.
(3) All consignm ents from overseas were covered by
a B ritish navicert, for which application had to be m ade to the
B ritish Consul General in Lisbon. The docum ent was available
w ithin tw enty-four hours.
(4) The delegate forw arded the navicert, together w ith
the application for export or re-export perm it (whichever
was required), m ade out on official stam ped paper, to the
Portuguese M inistry of Econom ic Services.
(5) F rom 1941 u ntil the end of the war, the Lisbon
port authorities allowed a 90% rebate on all p ort dues ; appli
cation had however to be m ade in each case for this reb ate.
228

(6) A pplication to the dock labour agencies for th e

unloading, w arehousing and loading of goods a t cost price ;
this was also gran ted for the d uration of th e war.
(7) The application to th e Portuguese M inistry of
Econom ic Services, the navicert, th e original bill of lading
a n d th e cargo list were handed to th e C om m ittees tra n sit
agent. A fu rth e r tim e lapse of ten days was necessary before
th e goods could be loaded on the vessels.
(8) On com pletion of loading, the accom panying docu
m ents were su b m itted to th e delegation office for stam ping
an d signature before being handed to th e B ritish Consul General
a few hours prior to departure. The navicerts a tta ch e d to th e
m anifest were handed over a t G ibraltar during inspection.
All other form alities were effected by th e C om m ittees tra n sit
agent.
To avoid loading entire cargoes for consignees of the sam e
n a tio n a lity (British m ail-bags, for instance), the Lisbon dele
gation tried to arrange com bined cargoes on th e basis of the
arrival dates of supplies. Cargoes were n ot tran sh ip p ed direct
from incom ing to outgoing vessels ; too m any cargoes arrived
sim ultaneously and some had suffered dam age owing to insuf
ficient packing. The parcels were stored in the p ort warehouses ;
however, these were som etim es so full th a t consignm ents had
to be stacked on the quays under tarpaulins. In view of the
port area and its congestion, it will readily be understood
th a t unloading was a m a tte r of great difficulty, and th a t reload
ing for Marseilles, which had to be effected fairly soon, was
also far from easy.
U ntil May 1942, there was h ard ly ever an exam ination on
arrival except by th e custom s, and goods were inspected only
b y the Lloyds' agent in Lisbon. The vessels som etim es reached
port before the delegation had received the relevant docum ents ;
accordingly, the delegation itself organized a checking system ;
it engaged a tallym an who was present on arrival of the goods,
which he then checked, sorted and warehoused.
Shortages
an d dam age were recorded and the dam aged parcels repacked.
Usable goods which were too dam aged to undergo fu rth er
229

tra n sp o rta tio n were sold or d istrib u ted locally ; goods unfit
for use were m ade over to the public refuse service. A fter
having passed th rough several hands in the countries of origin,
parcels were subject to two, three or som etim es four fu rth er
handlings when loading and reloading were effected by barges.
The sam e occurred a t Marseilles, Toulon and Genoa, in Sw it
zerland and finally a t the camps.
The delegation sent regular fortn ig h tly lists to the ICRC
of all relief supplies arriving a t Lisbon for prisoners of w ar ;
th ey also sent e x tra cts from these lists to the donor organi
zations.
Goods traffic in Lisbon, already considerable, greatly
augm ented in 1943 after the decision of the Am erican, British,
French, Belgian and Jugoslav Red Cross Societies to increase
th eir reserve stocks of food, clothing and other articles ; the
A m erican Red Cross, in particu lar, set up large stocks in Sw it
zerland.
A fter the opening of the port of Lisbon to Red Cross traffic
(at the end of 1940), m ail-bags from G reat B ritain were also
sent there ; these were deem ed not to leave the postal circuit
in passing via Portugal, w hether by rail or sea. The Portuguese
and B ritish postal authorities (a representative of the General
P ost Office was perm anently stationed a t Lisbon) atte n d ed
to th e unloading, w arehousing and reloading of the bags,
w ithout calling upon the services of the ICRC delegate. On
a claim being lodged by the C om m ittee w ith regard to contents
missing from bags, a t Marseilles or Genoa, the Portuguese
postal au th o rities gave the following account of th eir security
m easures :
(a) F rom discharge at Lisbon and u n til reloading,
B ritish m ail-bags were in the care of the Portuguese postal
staff.
(b) On delivery to the shipping com panies whose
vessels had been ch artered by th e ICRC, th e m ail-bags were
checked singly by th e representatives (1) of the postal a u th o r
ities, (2) of th e shipping com pany, (3) of the stevedores ;
in case of discrepancies, th e bags were recounted.
230

( c)
The same checkers exam ined th e bags singly ;
sacks which were torn, opened or unsealed, were rem oved
and replaced by bags in good condition. Those which had
been too badly dam aged were sent to the Post Office depot
for repair.
In O ctober 1942, the first consignm ent of m ail-bags from
the Dom inions and other countries reached Lisbon. The first
category arrived from G reat B ritain on B ritish vessels, the
second from the U nited S tates by n eu tral ships. The cargoes
were placed in the sam e warehouses, and checked and recon
ditioned in the same m anner as m ail from England.
The m ail-bags from other countries (Belgian Congo, etc.)
were the sole concern of the Portuguese postal authorities,
who warehoused them on their own prem ises ; this was only
for a very brief period, as th ey were given p riority for re
despatch th ro u g h th e ICRC.
On th eir retu rn to Lisbon, the vessels brought goods (mail
bags, cases or bales) from the G erm an and Ita lia n R ed Cross
Societies for P W in G reat B ritain, India, South Africa and
U ruguay. The E ast-W est traffic could not com pare w ith the
W est-E ast, as the num ber of Axis PW and civilian internees
was m uch sm aller th a n those of the Allies.
Consignments for the E ast-W est route were also subject
to the following form alities during tra n sit through Portugal :
(1) Permission of Blockade authorities.
No consignm ents could be reforw arded overseas w ithout
a u th o rity from the local blockade authorities ; application
was in each case m ade in w riting to the B ritish ConsulateGeneral by the delegate in Lisbon (with th e exception of con
signm ents for N orth Africa, for which a landcert or navicert
was required). The lette r of application was returned, m arked
A pproved . A pplications were never refused, b u t on some
occasions the B ritish authorities asked to be shown the arrival
docum ents.
(2) Portuguese re-export permits.
For each consignm ent, a separate application had to be
m ade to the M inistry of Econom ic Services, statin g the nam es
231

of senders, addressees and beneficiaries, the num ber, w eight,

description, contents and value of th e parcels, and th e form
of tra n sp o rt co ntem plated (rail, ship or aeroplane). On occasion,
th e navicert had to be attach ed . A lthough this inform ation
was only required for sta tistic a l purposes, the au th o rities
insisted on th eir p u n ctu al subm ission in full.
(3) Exem ption from import and other duties.
A lthough exem ption of this n a tu re was required under the
1929 Convention, to which P ortugal was a signatory, the
M inistry of Finance dem anded an application in each p a rti
cular case. In F eb ru ary 1944, exem ption of duties was only
allowed in respect of prisoners of war, and was refused outright
for civilian internees. E qual tre a tm e n t for these two categories
of w ar victim s, though accepted by the belligerents, was not
th en a d m itte d b y Portugal.
W arehousing at Barcelona. W ith the increasing danger
to m aritim e traffic in the M editerranean, shipm ents for M ar
seilles h a d to be in te rru p ted in the m iddle of May, 1944. S hortly
afterw ards, all sailings for the M editerranean were stopped
and goods accum ulated in the Lisbon warehouses to such an
ex ten t th a t th e delegation was compelled to hire warehouses
outside th e port, a t great expense.
Owing to the inconvenience of warehousing goods which
were m ainly perishable, the ICRC advised Red Cross Societies
to curtail or suspend th eir consignm ents to Lisbon, u n til norm al
dispatch to G eneva could be resum ed.
A t th e same tim e, the ICRC also studied the possibility
of setting up other depots in Spain and Portugal, so as to
prevent, if possible, a com plete stoppage of relief traffic, and
to perm it forw arding to Sw itzerland overland. These depots
would have had th e advantage of being easily accessible to
A m erican, B ritish and Allied vessels. A scheme for settin g
u p a depot a t Leixoes, near Oporto, had already been d rafted
in 1942 ; it was again considered, but was not given effect.
In Spain-, the Com m ittee chose the port of Barcelona and
the B ritish authorities gave their approval in principle to th e
232

despatch of goods to this port. B arcelona could be entered

in all w eathers by vessels of large tonnage and had th e necessary
equipm ent for loading cargoes direct into railw ay wagons and
m otor vehicles. I t was less convenient for warehousing, since
its lim ited sheds were designed to accom m odate Spanish
im ports only, ra th e r th a n goods in intern atio n al traffic ; storage
charges were also very high. O ther warehouses could be found
a t cheaper rates outside the dock precincts, b u t th eir use
entailed heavy carriage costs. U nloading a t Barcelona sta rte d
in Ju n e 1944, and the ICRC then estim ated it sufficient to
warehouse 20,000 tons, requiring a floor space of 60,000 sq.
m etres.
The Com m ittee then apprised the Spanish Legation in
Berne of their scheme for rail tra n sp o rt from Barcelona to
Port-Bou, a sm all p ort on the Franco-Spanish frontier, and
thence by m otor vehicles to Geneva. The authorities gave
their consent for the tra n sp o rt of all goods across Spain in
tra n sit, and free rail carriage from B arcelona to Port-Bou.
These warehouses rem ained in use u n til June, 1946.
Marseilles. U nder an agreem ent betw een the belligerent
Powers, supplies for PW unloaded a t Marseilles were to be
im m ediately reloaded on railw ay trucks and despatched to
Sw itzerland ; no stocking in the port was allowed, and tra n sit
could only be effected th rough France. This clause, to which
the ICRC adhered in general, laid a great burden on the local
delegation and on th e dock-workers. Cargoes were m ixed en
route, parcels were found broken into or em ptied during loading
at Lisbon. Some packings had not w ithstood the journey and
the contents were heaped a t the b ottom of th e holds. Recon
ditioning had to be done a t first in aw kw ard circum stances,
as the ICRC prem ises were cram ped and badly equipped.
On application to the port authorities, the ICRC obtained
b e tte r conditions which enabled cargoes to be discharged
more rapidly.
A fter inspection, counting, sorting and division by lots,
goods were loaded in wagons. D uring the early m onths of
1942, rolling stock becam e scarce in Marseilles ; to m eet th is
233

difficulty, the ICRC secured fifty Swiss wagons for use as a

reserve a t the port. In spite of th e risk of theft, it was decided
to warehouse goods tem porarily in the tow n, where adequate
prem ises were available. The C om m ittee even recom m ended
th a t goods should be sent there, as far as storage capacity
allowed, in anticipation of sea tra n sp o rt difficulties.
A fter Ju n e 1943, the use of ICRC vessels was considered
for the tra n sp o rt betw een Lisbon and Marseilles of consignm ents
from N orth Africa intended for PW from those areas. Some
of these men were interned in occupied France, and the French
R ed Cross wished to send them parcels direct from Marseilles.
In view of steadily increasing tra n sp o rt and storage difficulties
in Sw itzerland, th e ICRC decided th a t the goods should be
sent not direct to cam ps, b u t to the warehouse it then possessed
in Paris. This m et w ith the Blockade au th o rities proviso th a t
th e d istribution of supplies should be supervised by the Com
m itte e s delegates. Senders were requested to m ark the cases
" F ro n tsta la g , in order to distinguish them from supplies
intended for prisoners in Germ any.
Marseilles received relief supplies from Syria, M artinique
and Guadeloupe, carried by French vessels from Casablanca.
Relief supplies for N orth Africa or destined for Lisbon were
also sent from this port.
Toulon. A fter a few m onths interval, the Lisbon traffic
was resum ed in the au tu m n of 1944, b ut the vessels, w ith the
exception of th e Caritas I I , could not be unloaded at Mar
seilles, where the docks had greatly suffered through bom
bardm ent. Vessels were sent to the harbour of Toulon, which
the Allied Suprem e Com m and had assigned for the use of the
ICRC for its M editerranean traffic.
Goods arriving in this
port were to be despatched only in conform ity w ith storage
space in Sw itzerland. Since a t th a t tim e such space hardlyexisted, these re-shipm ents came to a tem porary standstill.
W ithin a short tim e, the only goods sent on were the relief
stores urgently7asked for by the cam ps and which th e warehouses
in Sw itzerland could no longer supply. W arehouses therefore
h a d to be established in France. At Toulon itself, the ICRC
234

set up an im p o rtan t centre in the Arsenal de Mer. Goods

sheds and warehouses which had been seriously dam aged in
air raids were allocated to it on condition th a t th ey were re
paired.
W hilst the repairs were being done, the Com m ittee
was allowed to use a very large warehouse in th e Arsenal de
Terre, four kilom etres from Toulon. Goods were carried from
the h arb o u r to the warehouse by road.
T hanks to the help of the naval, m ilitary and civil a u th o r
ities, the ICRC base a t Toulon becam e a m odel establishm ent
for the docking of the ships, and the warehousing and onw ard
despatch of the cargoes. I t included an unloading je tty 180
m etres long and 18 m etres wide, w ith a railw ay track, which
allowed goods to be unloaded direct on to railw ay wagons.
The warehouses, now repaired, and th e new building could
accom m odate 9,300 tons of relief stores.
The supervision of th e storehouses was m aintained in th e
d ay tim e by the ICRC staff and the h arbour personnel. D uring
th e night, a guard was kept by a p atrol of h arbour police
consisting of 12 to 15 Senegalese riflemen.
In M arch 1945, th e Allied authorities p erm itted the rail
tra n sp o rt from Geneva to Toulon of goods from the German
R ed Cross, provided the to ta l despatches did not exceed
1,000 tons a m onth, th a t storage, handling, and loading on
ships at Toulon was done a t the C om m ittees responsibility,
and th a t the shipping space was supplied by the ICRC.
Genoa. Cargoes of varying types of parcels (bulk food,
clothing, footw ear, blankets, etc.) and B ritish postal parcels
were unloaded a t Genoa after May, 1942. These parcels from
various sources and addressed to Allied PW , only passed
th rough in tra n sit. The perm it for free tra n sit th ro u g h Ita lia n
te rrito ry had to be renewed for each shipm ent.
Northern Route ( Gothenburg-Lbeck 1) .
In view of the hold-up of relief parcels in A tlantic and
M editerranean ports, due to the breakdow n of traffic caused
1 See p. 163.

235

in its tu rn by the events in France in 1944, m easures were

tak en , a t th e end of the sum m er of th a t year, to send to Sweden
ships carrying relief supplies destined for G erm any.
The
Swedish ships Mangalore and Travancore arrived a t G othen
burg on Septem ber 6, 1944, after having called, w ithout u n
loading, a t Barcelona. Two days late r the Gripsholm arrived
direct from P hiladelphia w ith a cargo of Christm as parcels
for A m erican PW , m edical stores, and sta n d a rd food parcels.
I t was difficult to accom m odate the cargoes in the free port,
already overflowing w ith goods owing to the restrictions imposed
sh o rtly before betw een G erm any and Sweden. The supplies
rem ained there for nearly two m onths, stacked in wooden
sheds. The h arbour adm inistration prom ised the ICRC per
m anent storage for 12,000 tons .
In J a n u a ry 1945, 30,261,000 kilogram s of various goods
had been received a t G othenburg ; a little more th a n half
h a d reached their final destination. The A m erican PW had,
for th e m ost p a rt, received their Christm as parcels on Christm as
Eve.
At this point the sh u ttle service had, in its tu rn , to be
suspended, for supplies of coal, until then obtained only w ith
difficulty, were com pletely stopped.
For the same reason,
an d also because of the scarcity of wagons, another cessation
of rail tra n sp o rt was to be expected. This was a disquieting
situation for the ICRC delegate, whose warehouses were th en
full 2. I t was possible, as an extrem e m easure, to build te m
porary wooden huts, since there was no lack of th a t m aterial
in Sweden, or to use as floating warehouses the num erous
vessels lying idle in the harbour.
Countless im provisations resorted to during the last weeks
of the w ar ensured th e safe tra n sp o rt of relief to G erm any 3.
1 See p. 163.
2 The possibility of storing at Malmoe, or in another Swedish port
was rejected after exam ination.
3 Sec pp. 89 et seq. and p. 164.

236

(b) Storehouses in Switzerland.

(Setting up and organisation of storehouses.)

The registration, storage and distribution of the goods

received, required the establishm ent on Swiss te rrito ry of
large warehouses under custom s control.
Geneva. From Septem ber 1939 to th e end of 1940, the
sole tra n sit agent of the ICRC was a com m ercial firm, which
forw arded food, clothing and pharm aceutical products in its
own nam e. For this purpose, it used its own storage prem ises
in Geneva, in p articu lar in the bonded stores of Rive and
Cornavin.
' A fter J a n u a ry 1941, th e B ritish R ed Cross began regular
supplies to B ritish PW , and relief in tra n sit for th em arrived
in Sw itzerland a t an increasing rate.
D epots well suited for handling goods had to be obtained ;
th e bonded warehouses of Geneva, situ a te d as th ey were,
fulfilled these conditions. In May 1941, the ICRC came to
an agreem ent w ith the Socit dexploitation des ports-francs
et des entrepts cantonaux de Genve.
This agreem ent was
confirmed by a convention on the existing relations betw een
the two parties. The convention principally laid down th a t
the Socit dexploitation should tak e delivery of all goods
consigned to the ICRC, unload the wagons, sort the consign
m ents and store them . The ICRC itself paid a m onthly ren t
based on the stocks recorded a t th e end of each m onth, no
account being tak en of the actu al area occupied. A lum p sum
paym ent was agreed upon for the loading and unloading of
wagons.
R ates were high, b u t th ey included all handling,
supervision and adm inistration expenses, and all charges for
storage.
The cost of wages for the reconditioning of parcels and
the actual dues charged by the Federal Railw ays outside the
storehouses were not included in this agreem ent and had to
be reim bursed separately.
On Septem ber 30, 1941, 8,000 tons of goods (comprising
postal parcels, foodstuffs in cases and in bulk, bales of u n d er
237

wear, blankets, uniform s, cases of footw ear, tobacco, etc.)

occupied four-fifths of th e bonded storehouses. At the same
tim e, consignm ents from overseas had been notified, and
others were a t Lisbon and Marseilles ; the space reserved at
Cornavin was no longer sufficient. F urtherm ore, access to the
G eneva warehouses could be had only by a single-track railw ay,
which m ade speedy unloading of the num erous wagons im pos
sible : these were often imm obilised and could not be des
p atch ed w ithin the usual tim e lim its. L astly, th e adm inistration
of th e warehouses was under co n tract to store large consign
m ents intended for the food supply of Sw itzerland, and it
had to lim it R ed Cross traffic to ten wagons a day and to a
m axim um w arehouse content of 6,000 tons.
Vallorbe. New prem ises therefore had to be sought.
T hanks to the kindness and understanding of th e Federal
R ailw ays and the Swiss Customs, storehouses a t Vallorbe were
brought into use in N ovem ber, 1941. As a rule, wagons con
taining collective postal packages were sent from Marseilles
direct to Vallorbe ; these com prised a t the tim e 11 lb food
parcels from G reat B ritain, and crated parcels from the U nited
S tates and Canada. A fter Ja n u a ry 1942, bulk consignm ents
were sent to Vallorbe, where the cost of handling and dem urrage
were m uch less th a n in Geneva.
The adm inistrative costs
were also m uch lower, although an ICRC representative had
to be detailed to organize and supervise the work. L astly,
th e size of the prem ises and their good organization m ade it
possible to centralise stocks and th u s facilititate control and
supervision.
At the beginning, the ICRC used only one goods shed
and one engine shed ; later, the Swiss and French sheds and
the passenger buildings and platform s, which were specially
ad ap ted for the purpose, were occupied up to the last square
foot (about 6,000 sq. m etres, in all).
In order to provide storage for the continually increasing
quantities of goods coming into Sw itzerland, and for the reserve
of an additional four to five th o u san d tons th a t the donors
intended to set up there, the ICRC arranged to hire prem ises
238

in Zurich and Basle ; on the rejection of a plan for using p re

mises offered at Payerne by the Nestl Com pany, a shed was
erected at Vallorbe w ith an area of 3,300 sq. m etres. This
was a prelim inary to large construction work.
In Ju ly 1942, the need for a new storehouse becam e evident.
The C om m ittees warehousing facilities in Sw itzerland did
not allow of th e storage of more th a n three to four th o u san d
tons of goods, equalling on an average th e load of six to eight
wagons a day a t Cornavin and 20 a t Vallorbe. As th e w are
house facilities were exhausted and th e d istributing staff over
worked, delays in th e despatch of goods were inevitable.
Furtherm ore, the B ritish R ed Cross h ad already, in M arch
1942, expressed its intention of gradually setting up in G eneva
a reserve of sta n d a rd parcels ; in Ju ly 1942, it planned to keep
a perm anent ten weeks reserve supply, am ounting to 1,500,000
parcels, and a floating four weeks reserve covering the current
m onthly distribution of 600,000 parcels
In Ju n e 1942, the
Am erican R ed Cross had reported the despatch of 10,000 food
parcels, which reserve it increased two m onths la te r to 25,000
parcels. The storing of these large consignm ents was a diffi
cult problem , in view of the lim ited space available in the
depots a t Geneva and Vallorbe ; therefore, in Septem ber,
th e ICRC entered into negotiations w ith th e Conseil dEtat
of Geneva, for the construction a t Vernier (Geneva) of a shed
sim ilar to those which had been erected a t Vallorbe.
La Renfile ( Geneva). On N ovem ber 2, th e ICRC agreed
in principle to th e construction of sheds a t L a Renfile. This
building was raised in two portions, the first covering 3,700 sq.
m etres, and th e second 2,600 sq. m etres, the whole being
calculated to tak e the freight of 1,200 wagons. A double railw ay
tra c k was laid down to serve the new buildings. I t was understood
th a t the warehouse would be m anaged by th e ICRC, w ith the
collaborationwhich was of course indispensableof the
Customs. On May 28, 1943, th e local authorities ratified these
agreem ents and gave the ICRC possession for five years of the
first shed th a t had been built. In 1945, the ICRC p u t up, a t
its own expense, a new building covering an area of nearly
239

5,000 sq. m etres. On April 30, 1946, it had storage accom m oda
tio n a t La Renfile of about 13,500 sq. m etres, w ith a capacity
of 15,000 tons.
Bienne. A t th e beginning of 1943, th e ICRC leased p art
of th e prem ises (3,000 sq. m etres) belonging to a com m ercial
u nd ertak in g a t Bienne. These stores, able to take from 8,000
to 10,000 tons of goods, were provided w ith p riv ate sidings and
a custom s office ; th ey were reserved for clothing and other
articles from th e Am erican Red Cross.
Lausanne. As from Septem ber 1943, the ICRC also
stored clothing a t Lausanne. The goods stored were subject
to th e sam e custom s regulations as a t Vallorbe.
Geneva. The Palais des Expositions (E xhibition Hall)
being in th e centre of th e tow n, exactly m et the requirem ents
for th e system atic storage of a large q u a n tity of packages.
The ICRC was gran ted th e use of this building as from April
1944. A t th a t tim e 45,000 tons of relief stores, consisting of
foodstuffs, m edical supplies, clothing, sports gear, games,
etc., were accum ulated in the th irteen warehouses scattered
throughout Sw itzerland.
T h irty thousand tons more were
expected, for which no accom m odation had been found. F u r
therm ore, the Am erican R ed Cross had announced its program m e
for th e year 1944, involving an increase in the dispatch of goods
am ounting alone to 85,000 tons, of which hardly one-fifth had
arrived in E urope. On its side, the B ritish R ed Cross had
notified 60,000 tons on the basis of shipm ents in 1943, whilst
th e R ed Cross Societies predicted 15 to 20,000 tons. On th e
other hand, the ICRC, which was short of rolling stock, was
no longer able to forw ard goods a t th e same rate as before.
To facilitate th e arrival of supplies a t th e Palais des E xpo
sitions and their despatch in com plete wagon-loads, the Geneva
T ram w ay Com pany established a tem p o rary branch enabling
wagons to unload inside the building. A service of lorries
increased to th e utm o st the capacity of this warehouse, traffic
reaching its peak a t th e end of 1944 and during 1945.
240

Basle. At the beginning of 1944, the ICRC, which was

handling about two million sta n d a rd food parcels a m onth,
hired prem ises in th e bonded depots of Zurich, Basle and A arau.
The bonded warehouse of Basle, which is patronised by
th e C ham ber of Commerce of th a t city and controlled by the
Federal authorities, offered every desirable guarantee, and
its m odern equipm ent and storage presented m any advantages.
I t was very suitable as a tra n sit warehouse in the distribution
of goods and parcels for prisoners of war. Since this depot
was regarded, from the custom s point of view, as foreign te r
ritory, goods only cam e into contact w ith the custom s when
th ey left it ; while stored there, th ey could be unpacked, sorted
a n d allocated free of custom s supervision.
Bucks. Some private firms sub-let to the Red Cross the
few hundred square m etres which they were not using. This
was th e case a t the frontier station of Buchs, whence supplies
left for Germ any.
Chiasso. In Ita lia n Sw itzerland the ICRC used the depot
a t Chiasso, m anaged jo intly by the Swiss Federal Railw ays
a n d the Italian S tate Railw ays, and supervised by the Swiss
and Italian custom s. A bout 2,000 sq. m etres were also obtained
inside the bonded warehouse in this town.
France. In Ja n u a ry 1945, all depots both in French
an d Germ an Sw itzerland were full ; th ey contained about
110,000 tons of supplies to a value of several hundred million
Swiss francs. Stores continued to pour in, b u t, owing to air
a tta c k s on the G erm an railways, it becam e impossible to send
consignm ents to G erm any. The ICRC then decided to set up
tem porary depots in France close to the Swiss frontier, for
relief goods arriving day and night by lorry from the French
capital and from local branches of the French Red Cross.
When hostilities ceased in E urope on May 8, 1945, the
ICRC had in all parts of Sw itzerland 21 depots w ith a to tal
area of about 75,000 sq. m etres and a capacity of about 105,000
tons.
m . 16

241

The four warehouses a t Vallorbe, Bienne, La Renfile and

the Palais des Expositions in Geneva were m anaged solely
b y th e ICRC, which m ainly em ployed its own staff and workers
there. The other depots were m erely rented.
B y March 31, 1946, all th e depots in Sw itzerland had been
liquidated.
The Palais des Expositions had been officially
closed on M arch 12, and the only depot still in use in F eb ru ary
1947 was th a t a t La Renfile, which took all the parcels intended
for displaced persons and G erm an PVV still interned in Europe.
Checking, allocation and despatch o f goods.

As a general rule, the depots were advised by Geneva

h ead q u arters of the arrival of wagons. A fter custom s exam i
nation and checking of waybills, the wagons were unsealed
and unloaded, and th eir contents verified in the presence of
an ICRC representative and a custom s official. This operatio n ,
which m ight a t first appear of a routine n ature, was com plicated
b y th e g reat v ariety of goods carried.
A fter th ey had been checked, the consignm ents were sorted
according to class of goods and lots in bays for each n ationality.
D uring sorting th ey were inspected for dam age. Losses and
spoilt goods were noted and a report on them was m ade to
th e inform ation and enquiry services. D am aged parcels were
reconditioned by a team of workm en, who repacked the sound
goods.
The warehouses reported a fair num ber of dam aged parcels ;
dam age especially resulted from faulty packing, unable to
w ith stan d long sea journeys. Parcels from the N ear E ast, South
Africa and N orth Africa, some of which reached Geneva in
a very bad condition, were particu larly liable to dam age in
this way.
In its desire to ' carry out its duties conscientiously and
w ith due regard for the donors the ICRC endeavoured to
salvage the greatest possible proportion of goods dam aged
en route ; th e staff engaged in this work spared neither tim e
nor trouble. The proportion of supplies dam aged during storage
in Sw itzerland was so insignificant th a t the donor societies
ceased to insure against this risk.
242

D am aged consignm ents were sorted, according to contents

and type of parcel, b y the ICRC under the supervision of
th e Customs, the H ealth Service and the C antonal V eterinary
Service, which decided on the fu rth e r use of the goods. D am aged
stock was classed as follows :
(1) F or refuse.
(2) F or cattle-fodder and use as industrial waste.
(3) F or im m ediate consum ption.
(4) For delivery to the P W camps.
If the goods had been spoilt by sea-w ater or dam aged
th rough perforation of tins during packing, or th rough the
action of verm in, th ey were delivered to the tow n refuse service,
or destroyed in the presence of a Customs official.
R econditioned goods which were unfit for hum an con
sum ption, were sold, when suitable, in Sw itzerland as fodder
for cattle. The m oney earned by the sale of w aste was credited
to th e consignor, the price being fixed according to th e sta te
of the goods. As in the case of fodder, receipts for the sale of
w aste was paid to the account of the donor organization.
Sale prices varied betw een 15 and 70 francs per 100 kilos.
Some of the goods, after health inspection, were declared
fit for im m ediate consum ption, and were d istrib u ted under
a general im port perm it from th e Customs to Swiss aid societies,
hospitals, or to the poor. The Cartel Rom and for Child Relief,
and the H enry D unant Centre a t Geneva, atta ch e d to the
Swiss R ed Cross, som etim es benefited.
The Customs districts of Lausanne and Geneva were a u th o r
ised to adm it, d u ty free, foodstuffs still fit for consum ption
which were stored in the Geneva and Vallorbe warehouses,
as long as th ey were intended solely for charitable distribution.
The recipients were required to give w ritten undertakings to
th e Customs not to sell the goods, b u t to use th em solely for
th eir own purposes. T hey th en gave a receipt to th e Custom
which authorised the clearance.
These provisions applied in respect of Geneva, Vallorbe,
and subsequently Basle, Zurich and Chiasso.
243

O ther goods were sold under agreem ents betw een the
ICRC, the Customs and the Federal W artim e Food Office.
Such was the case particu larly w ith th e contents of the French
fam ily parcels warehoused a t G eneva (Palais and Cornavin),
which had to be reh ab ilitated before delivery to the consum er.
These goods were sold to p rivate firms, who then m ade a rra n
gem ents w ith the Swiss authorities regarding the conditions
of sale. The ICRC credited the donor w ith the proceeds. P ro
visions sold in Sw itzerland for im m ediate consum ption, ex
changed for o ther goods intended for export, or kept as p aym ent
for services, were subject to custom s duties and the usual
taxes, in accordance w ith a decision tak en by the Swiss Customs
a t Berne on May 7, 1945.
The foodstuffs in dam aged parcels which would bear fu rth er
tra n sp o rt were reconditioned and sent in bulk ; th ey were
shipped in crates, each filled as far as possible w ith the same
ty p e of goods, and were forw arded to PW as supplem entary
rations. The ICRC in stru cted its staff a t the warehouses to
use separate packings, ra th e r th a n p u t sta n d a rd parcels retrieved
in ta c t from cartons into the sam e cases as reconditioned supplies
in bulk. Individual parcels dam aged in any w ay could not
be forw arded in th a t sta te , and were also reconditioned.
Supplies unfit for consum ption were tak en out, and provisions
which could be saved were packed in cases by type of article,
th u s avoiding the excessive cost of m aking up fresh parcels.
Clothing was rarely dam aged. If in irreparable condition,
it was sent to the rag m erchants ; if dam aged b u t still wearable,
it was repaired and given to welfare institutions.

A llocation and shipm ent o f goods.

A fter inspection, the ICRC and the Customs were advised

of the arrival of th e goods by m eans of warehouse certificates 1,
indicating th e place of origin, the n atu re, num ber and weight
of th e provisions, and o ther essential particulars.
Dam age
1 See specim en in th e volum e of A nnexes.

244

an d shortages were recorded and confirm ed in w riting. The

goods th u s m ade available to the relevant services of the ICRC
were easier to divide and despatch 1.
On receipt of the shipping orders 2, tra n sp o rt and custom s
papers, th e warehouse staff loaded th e wagons, in th e presence
of a custom s inspector and an ICRC tally-m an, and in exact
accordance w ith the allocation scheme. Shipm ents conform ed
strictly to th e order of arrival of the goods, those which had
been delivered first leaving first. W here absolutely necessary
owing to lack of storage space, arrival of large q u antities of
goods, requests for im p o rtan t shipm ents, or shortage of stocks,
the parcels were transferred direct from the wagon on which
th ey arrived to th a t on which th ey left. The ICRC authorised
this procedure only in extrem ely urgent cases.
Once loading was com pleted, an ICRC forem an and a
railw ay official checked th e closing of the doors and windows ;
th e custom s inspector affixed the seals and noted the n u m b er
of each wagon ; the railw ay official th en checked the seals, and
fastened insecure doors and sh u tters w ith official cord. The
goods then left for G erm any, Ita ly and France.
(c) Warehouses abroad.
North Africa. In the last m onths of 1942, the ICRC
opened depots at Algiers and Casablanca as assem bly points
for all consignm ents for B ritish, Polish, Norwegian, D utch
and Belgian civilian internees, and for G erm an PW . At Algiers,
a Swiss national was appointed assistant-delegate and placed
in charge of the local depot ; another Swiss resident in C asa
blanca served as warehouse m anager in this port.
A large depot was opened a t Cairo, where th e C om m ittees
delegation had to m eet requests for supplies from P W and
civil internees who were either in perm anent cam ps in E g y p t,
or aw aiting transfer to B ritish India or the Dominions. In
these countries reserve stocks were built up w ith regular con
1 See p. 277.
2 See specimen in the volum e of A nnexes.

245

signm ents from the G erm an Red Cross. (The same applied
to the U nited States, although th e needs were not urgent,
as P W were given adequate food and clothing by the a u th o r
ities.)
France. D uring the early m onths of German occupation,
th e Paris delegate proposed setting up a bonded warehouse,
em phasising in support of his request th e difficult situ atio n
of the detainees in assem bly centres, who received quite irre
gularly th e parcels sent to them direct from Geneva. The
scheme did n ot become effective u n til M arch 1943, when th e
first consignm ent of 10 tons of B ritish and A m erican food
and clothing was delivered to the Paris warehouse. This depot
was reserved for ICRC consignm ents to PW , civil internees,
detainees in m inor camps, in hospital or in forced residence,
to whom com plete wagons of supplies could not be sent. The
prem ises were located in a form er warehouse of the F rench
R ed Cross, who gave the ICRC the free use of about 80 cubic
m etres. T h at Society also assisted the delegate by tran sp o rtin g
supplies from th e statio n to the warehouse, handling and
despatching the goods to cam ps or hospitals free of ch arg e.
The C om m ittees expenses consisted in gratuities for the staff.
As practically no packing m aterial was available locally,
the large civilian in tern m en t cam ps of the N orthern zone
sent th e em p ty packings of consignm ents from Geneva back
to the Paris warehouse. The ICRC forw arded sta n d a rd B ritish,
Am erican, Indian and E gyptian food parcels, and tobacco,
cigarettes, footw ear and clothing to Paris.
Consignm ents
from N orth Africa, intended for N orth African PW interned
in France, were sent direct from Marseilles. The stocks available
on the liberation of France were d istributed in accordance
w ith instructions from the donors and the Allied Suprem e
Command.
Great Britain. U ntil the au tu m n of 1942, the B ritish
R ed Cross m ade store-room s available to the ICRC, where
postal parcels from the G erm an and Ita lia n Red Cross were
stacked pending distribution.
A reserve food supply was
c o n stitu te d against w inter emergencies, b u t the regular relief
246

consignm ents to cam ps went on.

The store-room reserved
for the ICRC th u s served as a perm anent depot. The delegation
provided its own staff for packing and despatch. The B ritish
Post Office were in stru cted to send to th e depot all parcels
of any size which bore no cam p num ber. The B ritish Red
Cross also undertook all warehousing form alities, th u s lighten
ing th e delegations task.
At the beginning of 1945, th e q u a n tity of G erm an R ed
Cross supplies sent to London grew to such proportions th a t
it became difficult to find storage room. The B ritish authorities
allowed the C om m ittees delegation in London to open store
rooms a t Camp No 7, in Devonshire, which was of easy access.
I t was decided th a t the receiving, sorting, w arehousing and
distribution of parcels should be done b y PW volunteers.
In com pensation for their loss of pay, th e cam p com m andant
authorized th e delegation to han d an equivalent lum p sum
to the cam p welfare funds.
Italy 1. D uring the sum m er of 1942, th e ICRC delegate
h ad a reserve supply of parcels a t Rome, b u t this was soon
exhausted and was not renewed.
So long as PW cam ps in Ita ly were know n to th e ICRC
only b y th eir num bers, w ithout indication as to locality, relief
supplies h ad to be addressed to the Commando della difesa
territoriale a t Milan, a m ilitary adm in istratio n which acted
as interm ediary betw een the ICRC and th e Ita lia n R ed Cross
and th e m ilitary authorities. The Commando b o th supervised
and distrib u ted supplies am ongst the cam ps ; distribution was
m ade according to directions from the Ita lia n Red Cross.
In accordance w ith an agreem ent w ith th e authorities,
civilian internee cam ps were how ever supplied direct from
Geneva. The ICRC inform ed the Ita lia n Red Cross of all its
consignm ents, in order to ascertain, as num bers increased or
decreased, w hat quantities were required for each p articu lar
cam p ; reserve stocks were th u s no longer necessary.

1 See also p p . 67 e t seq.

247

At the beginning of 1944, in view of the increasing num ber

of requests from Allied PW and internees, and on being inform ed
by th e Rome delegation th a t rail consignm ents could not go
farth er th a n Florence, the ICRC decided to set up stocks of
food and clothing in N orthern Ita ly a t their sub-delegation
of Ponte San Pietro (Bergamo). The G erm an and Italian
authorities both consented to the forw arding of wagons to
the new depot, conveying relief supplies for Am erican, B ritish,
French, Jugoslav and Greek P W and internees, or isolati.
Supplies were stored under the direct supervision of the delegate,
whom the ICRC left free to effect distributions in accordance
w ith th e general conditions reigning in the country ; supplies
to cam ps, in particular, were forw arded by m otor lorries.
A few m onths later, the ICRC shut down the Ponte San
P ietro depot, as the locality was too exposed to air a tta ck s ;
food and clothing were th ereafter sent to Chiasso, on the Italo Swiss frontier, for distribution in the PW cam ps of N orth
Ita ly , and in prisons.
Greece. Supplies for Allied PW , w ar-disabled and Greek
detainees were concentrated in th e depots a t Athens, the
Piraeus and Salonika. In 1944, the delegation held very large
stocks for disabled, seriously wounded and tubercular cases.
To prevent an accum ulation of perishable goods, it was proposed
to issue p a rt to security detainees in prisons and concentration
cam ps, the distribution being m ade under the control of the
C om m ittees delegates, who could pay regular visits to these
persons. The ICRC suggested to donors and the blockade
authorities th a t one-fifth of the m onthly consignm ents should
be set aside for this purpose ; this was agreed.
D uring the civil war of 1944, 24,785 C anadian food parcels
stored in the " E v ro tas Mills in the Piraeus were com pletely
destroyed.
In 1945, w ith the consent of the donors, parcels were dis
trib u te d to homeless persons whose villages had been b u rn t
down, and to welfare institutions.
Jugoslavia. A t the end of J a n u a ry 1944, B ritish an d
Am erican airm en from Salonika were interned in Belgrade,
248

pending an o p p o rtu n ity to transfer them to PW cam ps in

G erm any. These men usually arrived exhausted and, as th ey
came from the South, lightly clad. The ICRC delegation in
Jugoslavia on their behalf called for a stock of clothing,
underw ear, shoes, blankets, toilet articles and m edicam ents.
The ICRC set up a depot in Belgrade, in the charge of th e ir
delegate, who m ade issues of these articles to the cam ps and
hospitals.
In N ovem ber, th e C om m ittees delegate inform ed th e
B ritish and Am erican m ilitary missions w ith the Jugoslav
liberation forces th a t he had in Belgrade a large stock of food
parcels and clothing from B ritish and Am erican sources. A t
the request of these tw o missions, the m ajor p a rt of the reserve
stores was handed to the Jugoslav Red Cross, to assist dis
tressed Ju g o slav nationals. A sm all stock of each article was
p u t aside by the ICRC for needy Am erican and B ritish nationals
residing in Jugoslavia, and for Allied ex-prisoners of w ar and
refugees.
Germany. E arly in 1944, the ICRC set up a reserve
stock of about 10,000 parcels, of which four-fifths were sta n d a rd
food parcels and the rem ainder m edical parcels, provided
equally by the Am erican and B ritish Red Cross Societies.
These parcels were stored a t the Swiss Legation in Berlin and
in prem ises provided by Swiss nationals. F rom tim e to tim e
thereafter the delegate received supplies for urgent and special
cases, for instance, B ritish or Am erican PW or internees detained
individually in civil prisons.
Torgan. In May 1944, the B ritish cam p leader a t Stalag
344, Lam sdorf, the largest B ritish PW cam p, suggested th a t
a central distribution centre should be set up in G erm any.
The Germ an authorities approved the creation of a cen tral
depot for all nationalities, for the exclusive use of the ICRC.
They proposed th a t the depot should be a t Torgau, a fortified
tow n on the banks of the Elbe ; its central position (south
west of Berlin) would allow supplies to be sent to all the cam ps
of the river, i.e. to about 750,000 PW . However, conditions
249

in th e Torgau sector becam e too uncertain and th e ICRC finally

h ad to abandon th e idea.
Lbeck. On th e offer of th e G erm an authorities, this port
was used by the vessels on th e B altic sh u ttle service betw een
Sweden and G erm any, and it now becam e an im p o rta n t supply
centre for the N orthern camps. The Com m ittee sent a special
delegate to supervise the unloading of cargoes, and to issue
supplies to PW of each n ationality, as directed by the G othen
burg delegation. The goods were carried by the m otor lorries
w ith which th e ICRC equipped its delegations in G erm any,
or by rail, w henever possible. The Lbeck depot also supplied
the cam ps in th e m ilitary regions (Wehrkreise) II, I II , IV, V I,
IX , X and X I.
Moosburg. A fter March 1945, consignm ents from Sw it
zerland were sent to Stalag V II A, a t Moosburg (Bavaria).
This cam p could still be reached by rail, or by road, an d become
the central relief depot to the cam ps in South G erm any 1.
Ravensburg. This place, situ a te d north-east of Lake
Constance and about ten miles from the Swiss frontier, was
also an im p o rta n t d istributing centre a t this tim e. A wellequipped warehouse accom m odated stocks which arrived by
tw o rail routes, one from Constance, th e other from Bregenz.
W hen rail tra n sp o rt was im practicable, supplies were sent
b y road. W ithin a radius of some 180 miles from R avensburg,
lorries delivered supplies to PW and concentration cam ps ;
to this effect, the ICRC delegate had created a stock pool.
In spite of m ilitary events, th e R avensburg centre continued
after M ay to be of th e utm o st im portance in supplying PW
in neighbouring te rrito ry not yet occupied by the Allies, as
well as those who h ad been released, b u t whose rep atriatio n
was m eeting w ith difficulties.
A ustria. Sim ilar action was tak en , during the second
fortnight in April, a t Landeck in th e Tyrol, near th e A rlberg
1 See p. 92.

250

Pass. Columns of PW , evacuated by the G erm an authorities

from Lower and U pper A ustria were m oving tow ards th e
Tyrol and the Passau and B raunau regions. The ICRC ascer
tain ed th a t some thousands of PW were in Landeck, a cam p
previously a tta ch e d to Stalag X V III C a t M arkt-Pongau.
Two block-trainloads were stocked in th e village. The ICRC
would have wished to tak e large-scale action, b u t its m otor
vehicles could only move w ith difficulty in this m ountainous
region, where roads were few and in very bad condition. By
June, stocks in Landeck had all been issued and the centre
was closed, since fu rth e r consignm ents by block-train or lorry
were impossible.
5.

is t r ib u t io n

by

a t io n a l it y

From the beginning, the donors en tru sted their individual

or collective gifts to the care of the ICRC on the one essential
condition th a t distribution to PW should be according to
nationality. In some cases this rule gave rise to highly in
tricate problems.
(a) Polish Prisoners of War
The D etaining Powers considered as Polish PW all officers
a n d m en cap tu red by the G erm an forces in 1939-40. Con
sequently, all those who had fought under Ridz-Sm igly were
looked upon as Polish, including th e Volksdeutsche (or
racial Germans), and th e R uthenians and U krainians who
had been Polish since 1918. For this reason, th e ICRC was
unable to inform U krainian and R uth en ian donors where
these ethnical groups were interned or w hat was th eir cam p
streng th, and had to ask them to allow of distribution w ithout
discrim ination to all PW whom the Axis Powers designated
as Polish.
A fter the 1939 cam paign, some 400,000 m en of the Polish
forces m anaged to reach France, via th e th en neu tral territories
of R um ania and Italy . A Polish arm y was reco n stitu ted in
F rance under General Sikorski and thenceforth fought on th e
251

Franco-G erm an front. On the o ther hand, p a rt of the m any

thousand Polish workers em ployed in France before th e war,,
particu larly as m iners, had been mobilise das French nationals,
whilst others joined the Sikorski arm y. Thus, after the 1940
cam paign in France, there were three classes of Polish prisoners
in G erm any : (1) those c ap tu red during the Polish cam paign,
(2) those from th e French arm y and (3) those who had belonged
to the forces under General Sikorski.
The Germ an m ilitary authorities decided to consider as
Polish prisoners all those cap tu red on th e E astern F ro n t
(Ostpolen), and as French prisoners those taken on the W estern
F ro n t (Westpolen) , regardless of the forces (French A rm y o r
Sikorski units) to which th ey belonged. This ap p arently simple
m easure was the source of m uch confusion. W hen th e cam ps
for French prisoners of w ar included small num bers of W estern
Poles, the French cam p leader supplied them w ith the sam e
com m odities as his com patriots.
W hen in large num bers,
the Polish prisoners elected Polish cam p leaders, who could
claim p a rt of the relief supplies intended for the French. The
French authorities approved this arrangem ent, b u t the E astern
Poles, who received no parcels in 1940 and 1941, did not con
sider it fair th a t th eir com patriots should be given relief supplies
while th ey had none. F rom 1943 and u ntil the end of 1944,
however, the E astern Poles alone received Am erican R ed
Cross sta n d a rd parcels, provided by Polish welfare organizations
in th e USA, and the W estern Poles com plained in th eir tu rn
to the ICRC.
On several occasions the ICRC proposed to the Germ an
authorities th a t th ey should merge Ostpolen and Westpolen
in a single national group, where all Poles would be subject
to th e same tre a tm e n t and would receive the same collective
relief. The G erm an authorities refused to revise their first
general settlem ent and throughout the w ar continued to ascribe
to prisoners of w ar the n atio n ality of th e arm y in which th ey
were serving a t the tim e of capture.

252

(b) British Prisoners of War

The B ritish Red Cross m ade no discrim ination betw een
th e various nationals of the Com m onwealth.
R egard was
had to n atio n ality only in some cases ; for instance, the In d ia n
PW , for whom special parcels were m ade up. F u rth er, B ritish
m erchant seamen, w hatever their n ationality, were regarded
as naval personnel. As the G erm an and Ita lia n m ilitary a u th o r
ities, for purposes of relief, ascribed to these crews the natio n ality
of the flag under which th ey sailed, this decision raised no
difficulties. Thus, in one cam p for m arine personnel, which
contained 54 different nationalities, the prisoners were consi
dered as B ritish subjects, and all shared in collective relief.
E arly in 1943, the Germ an and Ita lia n cam ps began to
receive groups of PW from the Free Forces (units form ed
in exile and composed of French, Czechoslovaks, Jugoslavs,
Norwegians, Greeks, and so on), who were placed w ith the
B ritish and Am erican prisoners, and in whose behalf the B ritish
Red Cross gave th e Com m ittee the following inform ation.
" For relief purposes, the following prisoners of w ar should
be considered as B ritish :
(1) Those who had taken the oath of allegiance to th e
King, and were thereby legally p art of the B ritish arm ed forces.
T hey should include :
(a) Those who had sworn allegiance to the King
only (for instance, m em bers of the French N avy who entered
the Royal N avy in 1940, the Belgian Section of the R oyal
N avy, and persons of various nationalities incorporated
in the Forces) ;
(b) Members of Allied national air forces, sworn in
by their own S tate and enrolled in the Belgian and Czecho
slovak Air Forces, who were also m em bers of the R oyal
Air Force V olunteer Reserve ;
(2) Members of Allied Forces, reconstituted w ith B ritish
aid and under B ritish au th o rity , in the period since the occu
253

p a tio n of their national territo ry , form ing the land, sea and
air forces of Allied G overnm ents tem porarily established in
G reat B ritain.
Prisoners of this last category should have the same standing
as B ritish nationals for th e purpose of food and clothing supplies
only in so far as th ey are separated by the D etaining Pow er
from their com patriots who were tak en prisoner while defending
th eir national territo ry .
(c) French Prisoners of War
The French authorities and Red Cross adopted the same
stan d p o in t as the B ritish Red Cross : any m an taken prisoner
while fighting under the French flag was to receive the sam e
supplies as those given to French prisoners. The only distinction
was th a t m ade for Colonial troops, the m ajority of whom were,
after approaches had been m ade by the ICRC, collected by
the German authorities during 1942 and 1943 in F rontstalags in France, where the clim ate was more suitable. The
C entral D irectorate for Prisoners of W ar a t Lyons, which
d istrib u ted supplies, was aware of these cam ps and gave them
p rio rity for m aterial sent by the Red Cross in Algiers, the
French Red Cross in Morocco and the Fraternit de guerre
a t R ab at, by donors in French W est Africa, E g y p t and Syria.
Besides the usual com m odities, these consignm ents included
couscous, dates, dried figs, etc., and they were usually d istri
b u ted in original packing. E x tra collective supplies had to
be provided for French PW of colonial origin, to replace th e
fam ily parcels which were regularly received by French m etro
politan prisoners.
The m ajority of families in Senegal and
Morocco were unable to m ake up and despatch such parcels
In these cases also, the collective gifts from Africa were very
useful.
The m ost im p o rtan t point in regard to distinction betw een
French PW was th a t of the tre a tm e n t of men belonging to
the Allied Forces reco n stitu ted by General de Gaulle, afterw ards
called the A rm y of the N ational L iberation Com m ittee. The
first large parties of prisoners in this category were notified
254

to the ICRC in 1943. The Ita lia n au th o rities considered th a t

these men form ed a special category of F rench PW , th e Gaullis t i , whereas th e G erm an au th o rities inform ed th e ICRC
th a t th e y considered these prisoners as B ritish or A m erican.
No difficulties w ith regard to relief supplies ensued from these
conflicting views, the B ritish authorities having agreed to send
relief through the ICRC, on the same basis as to nationals of
the Com m onwealth, to men of the reconstituted French Forces,
w hether in B ritish or Gaullist units.
(d) Czechoslovak, Jugoslav, Greek, Dutch and
Norwegian P W
Czechoslovak prisoners of war were of various origins :
(1) Volunteers in the British Forces. M any Czechoslovak
nationals were in th e R oyal Air Force.
(2) Volunteers in the Am erican Forces.
Their exact
num bers were never known, particularly as th e US Forces
included a great m any men of Czechoslovak origin who had
become Am erican citizens.
(3) Volunteers in the French A rm y. The Foreign Legion
contained a large proportion of the foreign volunteers in the
French Army.
(4) Volksdeutsche from Czechoslovakia.
A fter the
annexation in 1939, these m en were considered as G erm an
nationals and were mobilised in the G erm an Forces, in particu lar
the W affen-SS. In captivity, th ey were given th e same relief
supplies as G erm an PW .
The situation of Slovak nationals was indefinite ; some
fought w ith and others against the Allied Forces ; th eir case
therefore belongs to th e general problem of partisans.
Czechoslovaks serving in the French, B ritish and A m erican
forces were given relief in the sam e way as all other foreigners
in those armies. Those belonging to reconstituted Allied troops
were treated in accordance w ith the above-m entioned principles
adopted by the B ritish G overnm ent.
255

The sam e tre a tm e n t was given to the Jugoslav, Greek,

Norwegian and D utch nationals in the French, B ritish and
A m erican Forces.
(e) Other nationalities
All arm ed forces in conflict com prised individuals or small
groups of various nationalities ; Spanish, Portuguese, Turks,
Swiss, A rm enians, E gyptians, Swedes and stateless persons,
who fought with the French, B ritish, Am erican, Ita lia n and
G erm an forces. They were usually given the same relief as
their com rades w ith whom th ey were taken prisoner. Their
applications to th e ICRC were particu larly for individual
and fam ily parcels ; th ey asked to be placed in contact with
donors and appealed to legations, consulates and various
welfare associations.
The situ atio n of civilian internees from South American
S tates was also very confused, especially as a great m any
citizens of Colombia, G uatem ala, Peru and H aiti, for instance,
were of E uropean origin and in m ost cases Jew s from
G erm any, A ustria, H ungary, R um ania or Poland, who had
acquired the other nationalities. Here again, the m ain difficulty
was th a t of individual relief.
(f) Hungarian, R um anian and Bulgarian
Prisoners of War
In the early years of the war, the nationals of these three
countries fought w ith the G erm an and Ita lia n forces (if
th ey followed the official policy of their Governm ents) and
rem ained as separate groups am ong Axis PW , receiving relief
from th eir consulates or legations. On several occasions, the
ICRC urged the Germ an Red Cross to supply these prisoners,
when th ey were isolated or in sm all groups.
Before the change of policy in these countries, however,
some of their nationals had decided to fight on the Allied side.
In these cases, the problem of th eir relief was sim ilar to th a t
of partisans of all nationalities.
256

(g) Partisans
I t is extrem ely difficult to give precise details of the efforts
m ade by th e Com m ittee to assist partisans. Aid for p artisans
in c ap tiv ity was contingent upon th eir tre a tm e n t by the
D etaining Power. Those enlisted in th e Allied Forces were
considered as m em bers of these forces. W hen th e y form ed m ilitary
or p aram ilitary associations in their own countries, th e y were
considered, when c ap tu red by th e Germ ans, as political prisoners.
Their position in regard to relief was th en the same as th a t
of detainees in concentration cam ps, or in prisons under police
control. They were generally unknow n to th e ICRC and th ere
fore beyond assistance u n til th e closing m onths of th e w ar 1.
Among internees of indefinite sta tu s there was a very large
group of Ita lia n m ilitary internees designated as B adoglisti ;
these were not, as a general rule, sent to concentration cam ps,
b u t were atta ch e d to PW camps. However, th ey were not
allowed relief in th e same m anner as regular co m b atan ts B.
6.

A r r iv a l

of

R e l ie f S u p p l ie s

of

in

P r is o n e r

W a r Ca m p s

Germany. The m ajority of prisoners of w ar in G erm any

were held in cam ps dispersed over 17 sectors (W ehrkreise).
In April 1944 there were, a p a rt from R ussian PW , 1,850,000
prisoners in all, housed in 60 cam ps for NCOs and men, and
25 cam ps for officers, w ith a few orderlies. In general, each
cam p had an adm inistrative centre where about 10% of the
prisoners and th e spokesm en of each n atio n ality were occupied.
The rem ainder were in the num erous labour detachm ents of
the m ain cam p, som etim es several hundred kilom etres away.
The cam ps usually included an infirm ary and one or several
hospitals. Some of the largest cam ps, w ith several thousand
prisoners, were composed of a base cam p and satellite cam ps,
called Zweiglager.
1 See pp. 73 et seq.

2 See p. 68.
hi.

17

257

The G erm an authorities tried to group prisoners by n a tio n

ality, w ith only partial success. Some cam ps were set aside
for m em bers of the sea and air forces ; one of these was Stalag
L uft I II, near Sagan-on-Bober, in Lower Silesia, : where
A m erican and B ritish airm en, including Dom inion personnel,
were accom m odated after th e opening of the cam p in 1942.
In Ju n e 1944, the cam p contained 12,989 airm en.
The cam p leaders task of d istributing relief supplies to
thousands of prisoners was often overw helm ing and one not
always in relation to his ran k and experience. Thus, a stu d en t
of 26, a corporal in the F rench forces, acted as cam p leader
for 26,000 men, to whom he issued supplies during the entire
war. In th e largest B ritish cam p, Stalag 344, the cam p leader
was a w arran t officer of the R egular Arm y, and was responsible
for th e supplies to 50,000 men.
A t the base cam ps, the spokesm en had to organise the
distribution of supplies to hundreds of labour detachm ents
and to m en in hospitals. A uxiliary stores of food and tobacco
had to be set up to facilitate issues. Supplies to French PW were
distrib u ted by lorries furnished b y th e F rench R ed Cross.
The num ber of m en in hospital was regularly com m unicated
to G eneva and the supplies for th eir use were sent to the spokes
men w ith directions as to the hospitals to which th ey should
be delivered. As the stren g th (and even the existence) of some
infirm aries and hospitals were unknow n to the ICRC, bulk
supplies were sent to the spokesm an, who apportioned them
according to the num ber of patien ts and their requirem ents.
TB cases were, as far as possible, placed in separate hospitals.
D iet being m ost im p o rtan t in the tre a tm e n t of these cases,
it was fo rtu n ately possible to supplem ent th e G erm an basic
rations by issues of sugar, honey, pow dered milk, fats and
rice, in addition to the ordinary food parcels. Cod-liver oil
from South Africa and highly vitam inised yeast preparations
were also given. The B ritish R ed Cross m oreover supplied
each m an w ith 6 oz. of dried bananas and rice weekly.
P articu lar care was tak en in sending relief to PW undergoing
disciplinary detention in th e prisons a t Torgau, G raudenz and
Germersheim. They received the same tre a tm e n t as Germ an
258

m ilitary personnel undergoing sim ilar punishm ent and were

consequently p e rm itte d only to receive clothing. As th eir food
was inadequate, the ICRC requested the Germ an G overnm ent
to allow these m en to share in relief supplies ; a settlem ent
was m ade in J u ly 1944, and each detainee was thenceforth
allowed to have one parcel m onthly.
The spokesm en were in close contact w ith the ICRC dele
gates and could obtain advice on all questions concerning
distribution, pro p rietary rights in supplies, etc.
Their letters
described th eir problem s and, while giving useful and varied
inform ation, also m ade suggestions for m eeting th eir difficulties.
W hereas the food supply problem was solved by 1942,
th a t of clothing was more difficult. The following are a few
e x tracts tak e n a t random from delegates reports on cam p
visits in 1942 :
It was noticed during camp visits th a t the state of PW clothing
was a serious m atter... Mending m aterial was everyw here short....
Garments taken as war b ooty or from collective consignm ents are
w ithdrawn from PW who receive clothing from their n ex t of kin...
Shoes are no longer issued, even to British P W ... In labour detachm ents
the em ployer is supposed to provide working b oots when footw ear is
worn out. A great m any em ployers cannot obtain an y... The French
P W are still wearing the same trousers... The m ost acute question is
th a t of footw ear... N in ety per cent of the men in labour detachm ents
have only one pair of socks... The spokesm an states th a t the m en have
been given no blankets b y the Germans. T w enty per cent have no
blankets at all. Thirty-three per cent have only one blanket. F ortyseven per cent have tw o... For eighteen m onths the cam p spokesman
has been vain ly trying to obtain new blankets in place of the old...".

The spokesm en also kept the Com m ittee inform ed of th eir

anxiety about black-m arket activities and th e replacem ent
of stocks destroyed by bom bing. F or instance, the Belgian
spokesm an a t S talag X I B w rote on October 11, 1943 :
" In all farm detachm ents the Canadian parcels for th e Septem ber
issue have been w ithdrawn ; this is an excep tional measure, and applies
to all the detachm ents of the Stalag. It was required for the following
reasons :

259

(1) It is com m on knowledge th a t the food position in farm

detachm ents is b etter than in m any industrial detachm ents.
The
thousand Canadian food parcels recovered in Septem ber are to provide
for som e particularly bad industrial detachm ents, and to give extra
rations to those who are really in need. Our thorough knowledge of
the food conditions in each detachm ent tells us the true requirem ents
of som e of the men.
(2) D uring their v isit to Stalag X I B in A ugust last, the ICRC
delegates remarked th a t it m ight be well to make a distinction between
farm and industrial labour detachm ents, as the prisoners in the former
were using the con ten ts of Canadian and American parcels for blackm arket purposes to an undesirable degree a fact which has been
obvious to us for som e tim e. W e followed the d elegates advice, and
th e disappointm ent shown by D etach m ent 1443 at the rem oval of
the Septem ber Canadian parcels is precisely due to the fact th a t a
large black-m arket is practised there .

I t will be seen by this report th a t the cam p leaders, acting

som etim es on the delegates advice, stepped in to prevent
abuses. T heir action resulted in the m aintenance of proper
discipline and prevented the detaining authorities from taking
sudden and injurious decisions.
A ir bombardment. F rom 1943 onwards, conditions in
the m ajo rity of cam ps in G erm any were disrupted, or a t least
severely im paired, b y air a tta ck s which destroyed quantities
of relief stores. The cam p leaders in bom bed cam ps applied
to th e ICRC for new consignm ents and for the replacem ent
of indispensable stocks.
Prohibition of camp reserves. This extrem ely im p o rtan t
question has already been dealt w ith in the ch ap ter on th e
general problem s relating to Allied PW of all nationalities
in G erm any. I t is impossible to quote here all the appeals
from base cam ps and labour detachm ents. The prisoners
were qu ite aw are th a t the m easure endangered th eir health
or even, tow ards th e end of the w ar w hen com m unications
stead ily d eterio rated , th eir lives.
*

260

As an illustration of life in the cam ps, we conclude this

account w ith ex tracts from correspondence exchanged betw een
th e cam p leader of S talag X A (Schleswig) and Geneva. This
cam p contained over 20,000 French P W a n d a large num ber
of o ther Allied PW . Com pared to cam ps in G erm any as a
whole, it m ay be considered as of average stan d ard . Relief
d istributions were on th e whole satisfactory, although th e
u su al difficulties were present.
Camp

Leader to I C R C (October 5, 1941).

Owing to reorganization and a marked reduction in the num ber of

French PW in the cam p, the great m ajority of labour detachm ents
still rem aining are on farm work. B iscuit, form erly one of the chief
necessities, is no longer in urgent dem and. All surplus stocks of biscuit
were form erly sent to industrial detachm ents, but these are now in minor
ity . W e should therefore be glad if you would reduce consignm ents
of biscuit and all other shipm ents in general.
Camp Leader to IC R C (November 13, 1941).
All Red Cross consignm ents are distributed to the camp, the detach
m ents and the hospitals. Further, in corresponding w ith detachm ents,
I learn which are in greatest need and am able to give them priority.
Camp Leader to I C R C (March 18, 1942).
The living quarters of one detachm ent have been entirely destroyed
by fire, and 21 French PW were unable to save an y of their clothing.
T h ey now have no underclothing, and as th e German replacem ents
will not cover their losses, I have taken up their case. I should be
grateful if you would bring the m atter to th e notice of the French
authorities, so th a t th e required articles, nam ely, shirts, pants, socks,
pullovers and slippers m ay be sent.
Camp Leader to IC R C ( M a y 5, 1942).
Clothing is inadequate in the cam p and in m ost of the labour detach
m ents. In D etachm ent No 605, som e of the men are em ployed in the
tanneries of a leather works. In th is job, it is im possible to avoid getting
one's feet w et.
The works m anagem ents supplied rubber boots to
tw en ty men, but cannot furnish more as rubber is so scarce. W e should
be m ost grateful if the ICRC could supply D etachm ent No 605 w ith
about th irty pairs of rubber boots.
261

Camp Leader to IC R C ( J u ly 3, 1942).

Most vvagonloads of fam ily parcels from Lyons arrive in very poor
condition ; the parcels are crushed, broken open and otherw ise dam aged.
The cause seem s to lie in rough handling during loading and en route.
We should be glad if you would make sure th a t the necessary preventive
steps are taken in France.
Camp Leader to IC R C (November. 6, 1942).
Sick prisoners in cam p, and som e industrial detachm ents badly
need some milk. The French R ed Cross, to whom we have already
turned, has sent a q u an tity which is quite inadequate to m eet require
m ents. The men fully realise the difficulties now existing in France,
and for this reason I take the liberty of applying to you.
Camp Leader to IC R C ( M a y 18, 1943).
Since Decem ber 1942, the Polish Legionaries have shared equally
w ith the French in collective gifts from the Red Cross.
Camp Leader to IC R C (June 22, 1943).
According to instructions from you dated January 15, 1943, I have
today despatched to Cornavin Station, Geneva, a wagon containing
all em p ty packing cases recovered to date. I shall take all necessary
steps to prepare a second wagon in the near future.
Camp Leader to IC R C (August 26,

1943).

Bau- und Arbeitsbataillon N o

10 has sustained dam age during
the bom bing of the Ham burg area. All their effects, including food
and clothing, have been destroyed. Please
send to th is cam p as soon
as possible an extra wagonload of food and the usual clothing supplies
for this em ergency.
Camp Leader to IC R C (March 15, 1944).
W e have received 200 bags of lentils sent b y th e French Red Cross
at Beirut, for which the men are m ost grateful. The general receipt
has already been returned to you.
IC R C to Camp Leader (A p r il 5, 1944).
The first lots of parcels from Morocco are being despatched. Unlike
the Algerian parcels, these parcels are from anonym ous donors and
are for issue by you to all French PW from N orth Africa under your
charge.

262

Cam p Leader to IC R C (November 14, 1944).

In m y letter dated October 30, 1944 , 1 informed you of the loss through
bom bing of 43 tons of goods intended for French PW in Hamburg.
To help their comrades, who were all in industrial detachm ents,
the men at once em ptied their stores and sent off tw o wagons ; one
of these,containing 2,116 American parcels, was despatched on N ovem ber 4,
and arrived the follow ing week. N othing is known of the second wagon.
As we now have no reserves w hatever, we are q u ii ; unable to provide
relief supplies, either for the men at Ham burg or for the full cam p
strength at Stalag X A.

Camp Leader to IC R C (November 28, 1944).

C ollective consignm ents : The French in industrial detachm ents
received one American parcel per man for October, and half a Canadian
parcel per man for September. The French R ed Cross sent sardines,
tinned m eat and fruit paste for industrial detachm ents. The German
High Commands prohibition of food reserves is strictly applied in
this cam p but we have, however, m anaged to keep a fairly large stock
of tinned foods for the sick.

Camp Leader to IC R C (November 28, 1944).

The last issue of American parcels took place in October. In view
of the losses notified and should the present rate of arrivals continue, I
cannot exp ect to make another issue before the end of January, 1945.
Each man receives a parcel every tw o m onths ; the situ ation at present
is extrem ely difficult, ow ing to the fact th a t out of th e 21,000 French
in Stalag X A, 8,500 are em ployed in industry. Only rapid replacement
of lost stocks will provide the m en w ith relief supplies which, you will
understand, are urgently required. Just over nine wagonloads every
two m onths are required to ensure a supply of one parcel per man.

I C R C to Camp Leader (Janu ary 12, 1945).

W ith regard to supplies for French PW camps, large consignm ents
have arrived which are being distributed. We have sent off from Lbeck
nine wagons, each of 637 cartons of four American parcels apiece ; and
one wagon containing 644 cartons of four parcels each, to cover the
m onths of Septem ber and October 1944.
W e are now once again receiving food supplies from France, not
in bulk as before, but in standard five-kilo parcels.

263

IC R C to P W complaining about unfair distribution by his Camp Leader

(March 2y, 1945).
The supply of food to PW in Germ any has generally becom e very
serious of late ; this of course has led to hitches in m onthly issues.
It is therefore quite possible th a t som e detachm ents m ay n ot receive
the supplies th ey exp ect, ow ing to the fact th a t these have not arrived
a t the base cam ps, or only after delays which m ay run into weeks or
m onths.
This situation is caused by the alm ost tota l suspension of rail traffic,
and we are trying to m eet it b y sending supplies b y road. W e are
m aking every effort in th e present very incertain and changeable con
ditions to continue the supply of relief to PW of all nationalities.

Sim ilar e x tra cts could be given of correspondence exchanged

w ith Stalag 344, the largest cam p for B ritish PW in G erm any ;
as early as 1943, it contained over 21,000 men. Correspondence
w ith this cam p was heavy, as the B ritish Red Cross was able
to provide a weekly parcel for each m an, as well as large am ounts
of clothing.

Italy. A rrangem ents for the delivery of supplies to

cam ps in Ita ly were, except for details, the same as those in
G erm any. The C om m ittees difficulties in distribution arose
from m ilitary events 1.
R um ania. This was also tru e of relief supplies in B alkan
countries under Axis control, where the same principles of
distribution applied as in Central Europe, b u t where difficulties
directly caused by m ilitary operations were encountered.
One instance of this was the case of th e Am erican airm en
interned in R um ania in 1943. A lthough the num bers involved
were only 810, the ICRC found the difficulties of supply about
equal to those for thousands of men assem bled in one cam p
in G erm any. On Aug. 24, 1943, the C om m ittees delegation in
B ucharest sent a telegram notifying the arrival of n o Am erican
1 See pp. 67 e t seq.

264

prisoners, 69 of whom were w ounded ; all of them lacked th e

kind of clothing th ey would need for cap tiv ity , in face of th e
oncoming w inter : greatcoats, shoes, w arm underclothing,
pullovers, gloves, socks, scarves, toilet requisites and cigarettes
had to be provided. The first supplies were despatched on
Septem ber 7. On Septem ber 18 the B ucharest D elegation
sta te d th a t th e m en had been transferred to Timis, and th a t
food supplies should be sent, since th eir pay was not sufficient
for them to b u y th e e x tra food th ey needed.
On Septem ber 20 the Geneva representative of the
A m erican R ed Cross granted a u th o rity to send them invalid
parcels in addition to food parcels. On N ovem ber 10 the ICRC
inform ed its B ucharest delegation th a t a wagonload of food h ad
been sent off to th e R um anian R ed Cross. On N ovem ber 19
the Com m ittee added th a t the clothing was ready, b u t had not
y et been despatched through lack of wagons. On N ovem ber 22
a telegram from B ucharest reported th e Am erican prisoners'
great disappointm ent over th e absence of clothing on th e wagon
which arrived a t B ucharest on N ovem ber 9. In view of th is
delay, th e R um anian R ed Cross lent the Am erican prisoners
120 greatcoats, trousers, and pairs of shoes, and 240 shirts and
towels, pending the arrival of supplies from Geneva. On th e
same day the Com m ittee sent word th a t a w agonload of cloth
ing and food had been despatched.
On D ecem ber 7, the B ucharest delegate reported on his visits
to th e cam p a t Timisul de Jos and Sinaia H ospital. On behalf
of th e PW he asked for sports gear, games, 120 tooth-brushes
and a second blanket for each m an. He added th a t th e prisoners
a t Timis and Brosof included five Jugoslavs and four B ritish,
who were also entitled to regular supplies, and requested th e
ICRC to prepare furth er consignm ents.
In May 1944, th e B ucharest delegate reported a regular
increase in the num ber of Am erican airm en cap tu red ; fourteen
of the new arrivals were in hospital and required special relief.
In April 1944, the to ta l had increased by 145 airm en. The
Com m ittee thereupon despatched several wagonloads of relief,
b u t rail com m unications w ith R um ania were tem porarily
cu t during the m onth of August.
265

On Septem ber 20, 1944, Am erican and B ritish PW were re

leased and rep atriated . As the stocks in B ucharest could not be
rem oved to another co u n try the ICRC referred to the Am erican
R ed Cross, who authorised the delegate to d istribute the sup
plies jo in tly w ith th e A m erican Mission in R um ania and the
R um anian R ed Cross. On M arch 30, 1945, one-fourth of the
stocks were handed to th e R ussian Red Cross for distribution
to Soviet w ounded in R um ania, and th ree-q u arters to the
R um anian R ed Cross for sharing betw een the hospitals and
civil population of M oldavia and N orthern T ransylvania.
Occupied France. Relief activities for the F rontstalags
for Colonial French, Poles and a few B ritish airm en in occupied
France and in Belgium and occupied H olland were sim ilar
to those un d ertak en in Germ any.
Greece. A ctivities in Greece have been described in the
c h a p te r concerning relief in the Balkans.
Norway. In 1943 the ICRC were obliged to extend their
activities to Norway, on being inform ed th a t detachm ents of
Polish and Jugoslav prisoners in the hands of the G erm an SS
and u n til then considered as political detainees, had been
" ceded to the Wehrmacht, and were therefore entitled to
PW sta tu s and relief supplies. There were about 1,750 Poles
and 1,700 Jugoslavs in labour detachm ents dispersed betw een
Egersund, in the S outh-E ast, and N arvik, in the N orth. The
Jugoslavs had been captured while fighting w ith partisan
units. On visiting th e detachm ents in the sum m er of 1943,
the delegate observed th a t th ey were short of w arm undercloth
ing, boots, uniform s and greatcoats and urgently needed
food supplies. The Com m ittee arranged w ith overseas donors
to draw from the Jugoslav and Polish stocks received through
th e Am erican Red Cross, and d istrib u ted one Am erican food
parcel a m onth to each man.
These men, whose state of health was particu larly bad,
also received rice, beans and lentils from welfare organizations
in Cairo. Clothing, too, was sent, p articularly to the sick and
w ounded in hospital. A small reserve was set up on the pre266

mises of the Norwegian Red Cross in Oslo, from which supplies

could be draw n as required. A m onthly ration of 210 cigarettes
per m an (equivalent to th a t of PW in Germ any) was also
issued to all cam ps, even in the extrem e N orth.
*

German and Italian Prisoners of War

Overseas. In general, relief supplies for Germ an and
Ita lia n PW overseas arrived w ithout incident or noticeable
loss, b u t w ith great delay. A good m any requests for relief
took three to four m onths to reach Geneva, and some convoys
travelled from four to eight m onths before reaching their
destination. This caused considerable inconvenience, especially
where perishable goods or urgently needed m edicam ents were
expected. Accordingly, delegations were often asked to provide
relief, if possible w ith local purchases.
As a general rule, the Allied D etaining Powers supplied
sufficient q u antities of food and clothing. Most Ita lia n and
G erm an cam p leaders sta te d th a t the m en were not in need
of foodstuffs ; only vegetables and fresh fruit were occasionally
lacking.
Their m ain requirem ents were books, sports gear
a n d educational m atter.
Great Britain. A fter O ctober 1939, the ICRC had a small
num ber of G erm an PW in G reat B ritain under its care. The
authorities gave their sanction and support to th e establishm ent
of a Prisoners' W elfare Com m ittee representing the B ritish
Red Cross, the Y.M.C.A., the Churches and Jew ish religious
organizations. This Com m ittee supplied prisoners w ith daily
necessities, such as tooth-brushes, too th -p aste and soap, when
these could not be provided by cam p canteens. I t also set
up dental centres and supplied m edical kits and some surgical
instrum ents. The C om m ittee kept the ICRC inform ed of its
work and tra n sm itte d requests to which it could not give
effect.
267

G erm an and Ita lia n PW in G reat B ritain received th e

sam e m ilitary rations as B ritish troops and were given used
uniform s, dyed brow n or green, w ith distinctive m arkings.
Spare underclothing arrived fairly regularly in fam ily parcels
and G erm an R ed Cross gifts, sent th rough the post. A small
fund held by the C om m ittees delegation in London and m ain
tained by the G erm an Red Crosswas used to m eet the urgent
needs of the wounded or sick.
A fter the m ilitary operations in N orth Africa and Ita ly ,
several tra n sit cam ps were set up in G reat B ritain for Germ an
PW aw aiting tran sfer to the U nited S tates or Canada. T hey
arrived ju st as th ey had been captured, in light uniform s, and
suffered g reatly from the cold. As th eir tra n sit sta y was not
long enough for any relief scheme to be u n d ertaken in th e ir
favour, the ICRC appealed to the D etaining Powers to im prove
th eir living conditions, and to the Germ an Red Cross to send
w inter uniform s w ith all speed to the countries holding German
m ilitary personnel.
Canada. The largest PW cam p in C anada was Camp
133. The following are e x tra cts from correspondence :
Letter from the IC R C delegation, Montreal (A u gust 4, 1942).
U p to June, m ost of the men in this cam p had received no standard
parcels. Parcel deliveries are very irregular, the delay in transit being
from six to nine m onths. The con ten ts are well chosen and of good
quality. In m any cases, especially during the la st few m onths, all the
tooth -p aste was m issing.
Tooth-powder should be sent in future ;
tubes are no longer allowed.
Letter from German Camp Leader, Camp 133 ( August 10, 1942).
A bout 4,500 men of the Army, 500 of the N avy, and 500 of th e
Luftwaffe, captured in N orth Africa, only have tropical clothing. In
view of the clim ate in Canada, warm clothing is urgently required.
Letter from IC R C Delegate,
(September 9, 1942).

Montreal to Camp Leader,

Camp

133

A parcel of catskins is being forwarded, for cases of rheum atism .

I am unable to send elastic belts or any rubber articles (hernia belts
268

or surgical articles), as these are prohibited. B olts of flannel are being

sen t, however, w ith w hich the cam p leader can make b ody b elts. Rubber
or m etal hot-w ater b ottles are not obtainable. It takes som e tim e to
provide supplies for such a large num ber of men (11,000). I shall do
m y u tm ost to obtain tobacco and cigarettes. So far on ly three men
have received parcels from home.
Letter from, the IC R C to the German Red Cross (December 14, 1942).
A third of the parcels arrived in bad condition, som e w ithou t
acknow ledgem ent slips ; others had been sent first to E g y p t, then to
South Africa and finally to Canada. H undreds of parcels w ill have
to be repacked in Canada ; as the con ten ts have becom e m ixed in
th e mail-bags.
A further consignm ent of 605 uniform s is on the w ay, m ostly to
Camp 133.
Letter from Camp Leader, Camp 133 (March, 10, 1943).
The Christmas gifts from the German Governm ent and Red Cross
have now all arrived ; 9,900 German R ed Cross parcels were distributed
on January 30 to the men in the camp. All the groups working outside
the cam p shared in the distribution. In th e nam e of all the men I am
sending our heartfelt thanks to the German R ed Cross ; once again
we have received a proof of our countrys solicitude in our behalf.
The cam p strength was, on February 12, 1945, 9 officers and 13,313
m en.

Relief activities in behalf of R ussian prisoners in F inland

an d of P W in Japanese hands are described in the chapters
entitled Conflicts in E astern E urope and " The F a r E astern
Conflict , (Vol. I, pp. 404-514).

7.

l l o c a t io n

of

xpenses

D uring th e early years of the war, th e adm inistrative

expenses of relief work were advanced by the ICRC ; recovery
of the outlay was confined to a commission of 2% on purchases
m ade for the donors.
269

B y th e beginning of 1942, th e work becam e so extensive

and overhead costs increased in such proportion th a t the
ICRC was m anifestly unable to m eet its com m itm ents through
its regular resources. I t th u s becam e necessary to draw up
a plan to cover these expenses, and an agreem ent to this effect
was concluded betw een the ICRC and the national Red Cross
Societies.
F ix in g of a Levy.
I t was decided th a t the cost of handling the supplies (for
th e m ost p a rt from overseas) should be borne by the N ational
Societies, and th a t the ICRC should collect a levy proportionate
to th e tonnage handled. This levy was m ade either on the
arrival in Sw itzerland of tra n sit consignm ents, or a t Marseilles,
Toulon, B arcelona or G othenburg, if the goods were shipped
direct to those ports w ithout passing th rough Switzerland.
A simple and equitable m ethod of calculation was adopted :
to ta l overhead expenses were divided by the to ta l weight of
supplies handled, th u s giving th e rate per kilogram. U nder
th e agreem ent, statem en ts were to be m ade out annually, b u t
for practical reasons shorter periods were preferred.
The
N ational Societies were th en debited according to the rate
fixed and in proportion to the supplies earm arked for PW and
internees of each particu lar country. The same rule applied
to welfare associations and private donors.
Since th e B ritish and A m erican Red Cross Societies m ade
it a practice to send to the ICRC large quantities of relief
supplies for non-B ritish and non-A m erican prisoners and
internees, these Societies agreed to sim plify the work of account
ing by paying th e am ounts due on the whole of their shipm ents,
irrespective of the n atio n ality of the recipients ; it was fu rth er
agreed th a t the debt thus incurred in respect of these detainees
would be repaid late r by the R ed Cross Societies concerned.
The rate of the levy, nam ely four centim es, charged as
from Ja n u a ry 1, 1942, was reduced to 1% centim es during
th a t year, through saving m ade in the costs and increase in
th e q u a n tity handled. In 1943, the rate was two centim es.
270

In 1944, it was, in view of increasing costs, raised to five centim es,

which exceeded the actual costs by about 2 centim es per kilo
gram . The levy m ade a t this rate enabled the ICRC T reasury
to build up a reserve fund. Deliveries fell in 1945, whilst costs
rose, m ainly owing to road shipm ents being su b stitu te d for
railw ay tra n sp o rt and a rate of 6,35 centim es had to be
charged betw een J a n u a ry 1, 1945, and Ju n e 30, 1946.
The average ra te betw een 1942 and 1946 was 4 y2 centim es
per kilo and was levied on a to ta l of 380,783,385 kilograms.
The yield from these charges enabled adm inistrative costs of
of over 17 million Swiss francs to be met.
Difficulties in the tran sfer of funds owed to th e ICRC created
an unsatisfactory situation. On Ju n e 30, 1947, a num ber of
N ational Societies still owed large sums to the ICRC for their
share of the levy.
The following figures illustrate

these operations :

(A). Supplies conveyed and administrative Costs

Supplies conveyed (in kilograms) 1
1942
1943
1944
1945

................................................
................................................
................................................
................................................

46,152,492
104,037,810
132,765,282
97,827,801
380,783,385

A dm inistrative costs (in Swiss francs)

1942 ................................................
1943 ................................................

520,670.50
2,006,103.48

..............................

3 6 9 0 9 7 4 -3 0

1945 ................................................
194 6 ................................................

8,665,548.21
2,309,027.13

1944

, ,

17,192,323.62

1 i k ilogram = 2.205 lb.

(B ).

D e tails of Costs (in S w is s francs)

Percentage of
gross total

Salaries of office staff

. . . .
W ages of m anual w orkers
. .
R oad tra n sp o rt c o s t s ..................
O verheads in the 24 Swiss
w a r e h o u s e s ..........................
E rection of tem p o rary w are
houses, purchase of furni
ture, m achines, stores and
cost of installation . . . .
R en t of sundry warehouses and
a m o r tis a tio n ..........................
Local road t r a n s p o r t ..................
P harm aceutical Division . . .
Sundries
(delegations,
con
voying agents, etc.) . . . .
Sundry adm inistrative office
expenses in Sw itzerland and
abroad (office costs, supplies,
cost of missions, telephone,
telegraph, lighting, heating,
social insurance, etc.) . . .
Reserve fund for liquidation
expenses 1 ...............................
Gross T o t a l ..................
Less : Sundry receipts 2 . . .
N et Expenses . . . .

4-754,596.64
2,680,302.32
2,505,073.02

27.07
15.60
14.57

1,945,009.76

II.3 2

1,691,358.15

9.84

1,124,494.95
688,154.92
690,864.57

6.38
4.01
4.02

563,838.61

3.28

1,666,444.52

9.74

699,647.85_______4-07
19,009,785.31
n o . 10
1,817,461.69
10.10
17,192,323.62
100.00

1 This R eserve Fund is intended to cover all expenses foreseen and

undertaken before June 30, 1946, those incurred in the process of
w inding up relief activities after th a t date, and unforeseen expenses
(disputes, litigation , delayed claim s).
A statem en t on the use made of these funds will be supplied by
th e ICRC to all N ational Red Cross Societies as soon as the former
relief activities have been wound up,
2 These are the produce of the sale of tem porary buildings or m iscel
laneous equipm ent, etc.
272

To the above expenses m ust be added th e cost of recon

ditioning dam aged parcels in Sw itzerland and repacking goods
on instructions from donors. The cost of the labour and supplies
required for this work could not be charged to the levy. They
were therefore debited to the N ational Societies and other
welfare agencies directly concerned.
L astly, unloading costs a t Genoa, Lisbon, Marseilles and
Toulon were charged direct to the Red Cross Societies, according
to the n atio n ality of th e recipients.
8.

nternal

r g a n iz a t io n

On the o u tb reak of war, the ICRC em ployed only two

staff m em bers to deal w ith relief supplies : these had h itherto
been engaged in purchasing goods for the victim s of th e Spanish
Civil W ar 1.
This Purchasing Section becam e th e Relief Section
a fte r a few weeks. Its work was to procure donations for PW
an d civilian internees, and to forw ard reliefwhich was usually
done via one or more neu tral countries. As international
com m unications were still fairly satisfactory during the early
m onths of the war, th e ICRC en tru sted th e handling and
carriage of goods to expert business firms, in p articu lar to
shipping agents. Various purchases were also m ade in Sw itzer
land by th e Relief Section a t the request of the donors.
A fter the cam paigns in W estern E urope, applications for
relief reached Geneva in steadily increasing num bers. R estric
tions of all kinds, p articularly in the occupied countries, required
action by the ICRC on m any occasions ; finally, th e Com m ittee
itself undertook a num ber of duties it had h ith erto deputed to
shipping agents.
The extension of these activities is illu strated by the cor
responding increase in the staff of the Relief Section : whilst
there were six m em bers in 1939, th ey num bered fifty-tw o at
th e end of 1940. At th a t date, the work was allotted as follows.
1 See Report of the ICRC on their work in connection w ith the Spanish
Civil War.
i l l . 18

273

The Section com prised three services : the Collective Relief

Service, the Individual Relief Service and the Pharmaceutical
Service. Two branches were added to th e Collective Relief
Service, the first known as the Commercial Service, which
dealt w ith all questions pertaining to purchases, warehousing
and other technical problem s concerning the supplies th em
selves, and a service known as the Shipping Section, which
specialized in distribution and despatch. These two d e p a rt
m ents took over the tasks previously perform ed by the shipping
agents.
W hereas collective relief consignm ents grew continously,
the level of individual relief consignm ents, which were so
im p o rta n t during the early m onths, soon becam e statio n ary ;
in fact, w ith the increasing insecurity of com m unications in
Europe, the level presently declined. Consequently, the staff
of th e Individual Relief Section showed no tendency to increase ;
it com prised a secretariat, w ith a Swiss correspondence office,
a foreign correspondence office, an adm inistrative bureau
and a shipping office, which m aintained close contact with
the Post Office.
The P harm aceutical Service worked in close cooperation
w ith the Jo in t Relief Commission, which had a qualified staff
for the purchase and packing of m edicam ents. A separate
organization for pharm aceutical supplies was justified by the
need for expert staff (pharm acists and chemists).
Goods were shipped through the Relief Division. On Octo
ber i, 1942, the P harm aceutical Medical Control office was
reorganized as th e P harm aceutical Liaison Section.
This
Section also dealt w ith relief for B ritish and Am erican PW .
At this tim e therefore two parallel bodies were in existence,
the P harm aceutical Liaison Section of the ICRC and the P h a r
m aceutical Section a ttach ed to the Jo in t Relief Commission.
At the close of 1940, three separate d epartm ents under
a single m anagem ent handled questions concerning relief to
PW , civilian internees and populations 1. At the beginning
1 This last a ctiv ity was taken over by the Joint R elief Commission
of the International Red Cross upon its official inception in July 1941.
(See pp. 359 et seq. and the said Com m issions Report).
274

of 1942 the extension of relief activities to new th eatres of

war (Balkans, N orth Africa, E astern front) raised a great
m any questions of principle, and the ICRC set up a m anaging
body able to tak e full responsibility and to act as a board of
directors. This body was the Relief Commission 1.
A t the sam e tim e, the Relief Section for collective shipm ents
to PW and civilian internees of equivalent standing was m ade
a Division, the director of which was responsible to the Relief
Commission for collective relief program m es.
At the beginning of 1942 therefore, th e Relief Commission
had under its a u th o rity the Collective Relief Division and the
Individual Relief Section.
On the other hand, the Service
un d er th e Relief Division which, u n til June 1942, had handled
technical problem s of tra n sp o rt and com m unications, was
transform ed into an independent Division for T ransport and
C om m unications, and placed under a T ransport Commission.
The la tte r was the co u n terp art of the Relief Commission and
worked closely w ith it.
The Relief Commission m et according to requirem ents.
The large num ber of problem s in the general field of relief
required a close liaison betw een all the C om m ittees d epartm ents
dealing w ith relief 2 and a branch of th e General Secretariat
of the ICRC, a ttach ed to the Chairm an of the Relief Commission,
ensured th a t liaison.
The m ain relief work of the ICRC consisted in the tra n s
mission of foodstuffs, tobacco, clothing and m edicam ents in
stan d ard parcels or in bulk. It was decided to assign this work
to the Relief Division, whereas individual relief work would
rem ain the concern of an independent section under the Relief
Commission. Likewise, intellectual aid and educational supplies
were handled by an independent Section. M atters of principle
1 This Relief Commission had been active since the autum n of 1940
as an unofficial advisory body and was presided over by a member of
the ICRC. Its function was then m ainly to coordinate relief work for
PW and civilian populations.
2 R elief D ivision, Individual Relief Section, Pharm aceutical Section,
Join t Relief Commission of the International Red Cross, Special Aid
D ivision and, on the technical side, the Transport and Comm unications
D ivision.

275

regarding pharm aceutical supplies rem ained the concern of

th e P harm aceutical Section of the J o in t Relief Commission 1.
A t th e beginning of 1944, p harm aceutical relief work grew on
such a scale th a t it becam e necessary to create a Pharm aceutical
Division 2.
Thus, after various phases of ad ap tatio n , the final stru c tu re
of th e Relief Division was as follows :

T echnical an d A dm inistrative
M anagem ent

Personnel
Office

N ational Services
Shipping o f goods

Incom
Supplies

W are
housing
Section

S ecretariat
Q uestions of principle

Deshouses

Receipts

Ac
counts

S tatistics

Relief Division.
The Relief Division, which was m ainly concerned w ith
th e receipt, handling, w arehousing, forw arding, inspection and
ad m in istratio n of supplies, was, although non-profit-m aking,
necessarily organized as an o rdinary business undertaking.
In the course of th e w ar it was to become th e largest private
shipping concern in E urope. To perform its task efficiently,
it h ad to engage expert business personnel. The la tte r were
largely independent ; the Relief Division was responsible only
for the technical aspect of relief work for PW and civilian
1 Standardized shipm ents of m edicam ents (medical kits, etc.) were
however dealt w ith by the Relief D ivision, which forwarded these parcels
to PW cam ps according to instructions received from the donors.
2 See p. 278.

276

internees ; all questions of principle had to be su b m itted to

th e Relief Commission.
The Division was under the charge of a Director and an
Assistant Director 1. They m anaged, coordinated, supervised
and organized the work of all the sections of th e Division, in
all technical and ad m inistrative details.
The Personnel Office dealt w ith all m atte rs relating to the
staff, b o th clerical and m anual, i.e. engagem ents, dismissals,
salaries and social insurance. W hen relief w ork was a t its
peak, the staff com prised ab o u t 300 clerks and 400 workm en.
The Secretariat had to deal w ith all questions of principle
relating to relief w ork ; th is involved correspondence and
negotiations w ith the civil and m ilitary authorities in Sw itzer
land and abroad, the N ational R ed Cross Societies and th eir
representatives in Sw itzerland, and so forth.
There were six N ational Sections: A m erican, British, French,
G erm an, Ita lia n and Allied, th e last com prising the following
nationalities: Belgian, Czechoslovak, Greek, Jugoslav, Norwegian,
Polish, R ussian and others.
The comm on task of the Sections was to forw ard supplies,
to keep an account of stocks and to m ake out the shipping
orders. They handled in a sim ilar fashion the supplies delivered
to the Relief Division by th e Purchasing Section 2.
The Incom ing Supplies Service notified th e N ational Sections
and the W arehousing Service of an ticipated arrivals of supplies,
announced by airborne advance copies of the bills of lading,
and other docum ents. The N ational Sections could th u s arrange
for d istribution to the PW , whilst the W arehousing Service
prepared th e necessary storage space. The Incom ing Supplies
Service m ade out a report of th e missing goods.
The Warehousing Service supervised th e erection and
equipm ent of the warehouses under the m anagem ent of th e
Relief Division, dealt w ith th e m anagem ent of the bonded
warehouses, allotted incom ing goods to th e warehouses, and
negotiated w ith the Swiss Customs.
1 The latter resigned as on March 1, 1946.
1 See pp. 225-227.

277

The Sh ip p in g Office drew up the accom panying docum ents

for the consignm ents sent by the Relief Division (such as th e
Swiss and intern atio n al way-bills), m arked the railw ay wagons,
and m ade out despatch notices for the spokesm en and th e
receipt forms which th ey were to sign. In addition, it m ain
tain ed relations w ith the Swiss and foreign railw ays th rough
its statio n representatives a t Geneva, Basle, Schaffhausen,
St. M argarethen, Buchs and Chiasso.
The Receipts Office sorted the receipts which came back from
the cam ps, checked them and sent a copy to the donors. It had
also to search for missing receipts and m ake out duplicates.
The Accounts Service calculated the costs of the R elief
Division chargeable to the levy
In view of the scale of these
costs and their highly distinct character, the Service was not
subordinate to the General T reasury of the ICRC ; the la tte r
acted m erely as the Relief D ivisions banker.
The Statistical Service kept statistics by m eans of W atson
Business M achine cards, on incom ing and outgoing supplies 2,
on all aspects of the Relief D ivisions work and on the m ove
m ent of supplies which passed through its hands 3.
The organization described above was m aintained u n til
Ju n e 30, 1946. On th a t date the work of the various Services
of the Collective Relief Division had to be separated. One of
the Services dealt w ith the liquidation of the D ivision's w ar
activities 4, and another handled subsequent relief work accord
ing to an independent financing m ethod 5.
Pharmaceutical Division.
E arly
m ents of
th a t the
the basis

in 1944, the m edical and pharm aceutical require

PW of all nationalities increased to such a degree
Pharm aceutical Section had to be reorganized. On
of a scheme draw n up by the M anager of the J o in t

1 See p. 270.
2 See Vol. II, p. 112.
3 See exam ples in the Annexes.
4 See R eport on the Liquidation of the Levy, subm itted b y the ICRC
to the donors.
5 See Chapter 10, p. 99 and Chapter 11, p. 118.

278

Relief Commission, the ICRC decided on M arch 14, 1944,

to set up a P harm aceutical Division which would be inde
pendent of the Relief Division.
This new d e p a rtm e n t was
subsequently a tta ch e d to the Medical Division, itself founded
in Ja n u ary , 1946.
In 1942 there h ad been plans for a body which would fram e
purchasing program m es in Sw itzerland and solicit donations.
The efforts of this body caused a large influx of supplies to the
P harm aceutical Section, composed m ainly of relief in kind,
in the shape of drugs which could be stocked. Consequently,
th e Section required a large m easure of independence and
freedom to tak e em ergency action.
The nucleus of th e P harm aceutical Division was a staff of
eleven m em bers, which increased rapidly on account of the
swift expansion of the work.
In A ugust 1944, there were 24 staff m em bers and seven
packers ; in Ja n u a ry 1945, 39 staff m em bers and ten packers ;
in April 1945, th e staff reached its m axim um w ith 58 employees,
sixteen of whom were packers.
Through its specialized sections, the ICRC purchased
m edicam ents and general hospital stores am ounting to ab o u t
2,700,000 Swiss francs. I t m ade up, despatched or re-forw arded,
in all, m edical stores weighing some 1,900,000 kilogram s.
Intellectual A id Service.
The n atu re of these relief supplies, the fact th a t th e y could
not be standardized, and the relations required w ith welfare
agencies not affiliated to any N ational R ed Cross Society, gave
this Service an entirely distinct character.
Its constituent departm ents were briefly as follows :
(1)
A Secretariat, the m anaging body of th e Service, which
handled questions of principle, kept in touch w ith th e o th er
ICRC departm ents, in particu lar the Delegations, corresponded
w ith the N ational Red Cross Societies and authorities, and
supervised and allocated the work to be done. I t also rep re
sented th e ICRC on the A dvisory Com m itte' for the supply
of reading m a tte r to PW and internees ;
279

(2)
The National Sections, which received and answered
requests from PW . They corresponded w ith the latte r, as far
as possible, in th eir own language.
These Sections were in close contact w ith th e Library, th e
Card-Indexes, th e Purchasing Section and th e Dispatch Section.
In these d epartm ents, too, work was organised according to
the recipients nationality.
The In tellectual Aid Service also com prised the following
technical d ep artm en ts : Storekeepers and Packers, and Postal
and Railw ay S h ip p in g ; the la tte r was in practice a subdivision
of th e general Shipping Service, which handled all relief tra n s
ports.
E a rly in 1946, th e N ational Sections for Allied nationals
were entirely dissolved.
The organization of the Service
rem ained sim ilar to its w artim e structure, b u t the staff was
soon reduced to five m em bers only.

280

Chapter 2

Individual Relief

T hroughout th e war, a separate d epartm ent, the Individual

Relief Service, was responsible for th e despatch, transm ission
and receipt of the parcels addressed to individual PW . M atters
which concerned b o th collective and individual relief con
signm ents, such as th e blockade, the purchase of supplies,
lan d and sea tra n sp o rt, and distribution by cam p leaders were
of course dealt w ith sim ultaneously.
The present chapter describes only th e problem s connected
w ith individual relief.
(1). Labels
In order to restrict the despatch of individual parcels,
especially those sent to Polish PW from occupied Poland, th e
G erm an authorities introduced a system of labels.
These
were issued by th e cam p com m andants to th e PW , w ith in
structions to send them to th eir relatives and friends for use when
despatching parcels. Only parcels bearing these official labels
were accepted.
A fter th e Franco-G erm an arm istice, the French G overnm ent
agreed to a sim ilar system for next of kin parcels addressed
to French PW in Germ any. The num ber of such parcels was
a rule lim ited to two a m an each m onth ; three were excep
tionally allowed. The G erm an authorities who, a t the request
of th e ICRC, h ad ceased applying the label system to parcels
281

sent to Polish P W from countries other th an Poland, then

m ade th e system com pulsory for parcels from all countries,
and late r applied it in respect of all Allied prisoners except
th e B ritish and Am erican.
The next of kin of a great m any PW , who lived overseas,
received th eir official labels only after great delay. This was
true for French next of kin in N orth Africa, Belgians in the
Cdngo, Poles, Jugoslavs and Greeks in various continents, as
well as the fam ilies of m en whose home tow ns were in A ustralia,
New Zealand, L atin Am erica and South Africa. The label
system , introduced to regulate the parcel traffic betw een
neighbouring countries, becam e a serious obstacle when applied
to oversea countries.
H aving unsuccessfully opposed this system , the ICRC
tried to lim it its ill-effects in p articu lar cases and instructed
senders and recipients who were not clear as to the procedure.
At the suggestion of the B ritish Red Cross, the Com m ittee
requested the Germ an authorities to allow relatives in G reat
B ritain to send parcels to P W w ithout special labels. This
request was not m et, b u t the Germ an authorities agreed th a t
parcels should be distributed, w ithout labels, to French and
Belgian PW whose families resided overseas.
In Septem ber 1942, it was rum oured th a t special labels
were no longer required for parcels to D utch prisoners. A
decision to this effect had been m ade by the Germ an m ilitary
authorities in H olland, who wished to place the despatch of
parcels to D utch P W in the hands of th e N etherland Red
Cross, which was under their control. This decision was however
repudiated by the G erm an m ilitary authorities in Berlin in
Ju ly 1943 ; some confusion resulted, since in certain cam ps
the com m andants had ceased issuing the labels, whilst prisoners
could not receive parcels w ithout them , and certain families
h ad been m isinformed.
A sim ilar m isapprehension occurred w ith regard to Polish
PW , who continued to send th eir labels regularly to the Polish
Red Cross Com m ittee in W arsaw, although this body had been
suspended by the G erm an m ilitary authorities early in
1942.
282

On Septem ber 27, 1943, individual parcels to Allied PW

were placed under fu rth er restrictions by th e G erm an authorities
prohibiting postal com m unication betw een Polish PW and
th eir relatives in G reat B ritain.
This m easure covered the
despatch of labels and was la te r extended to Jugoslav prisoners.
I t did not however apply to Polish PW who h ad fought w ith
the French forces (Westpolen) ; these, like the French PW ,
were still allowed to send correspondence an d labels to G reat
B ritain. The ICRC was no longer able, in these circum stances,
to send on the labels received from certain categories of p ri
soners. They were used on the parcels which th e ICRC was
able to supply, although these were few in proportion to the
num ber of requests received.
A bout the same tim e, the ICRC was inform ed of an illicit
tra d e in labels in the camps. In order to d istrib u te th e few
parcels th en available as fairly as possible, the C om m ittee
sent a circular to cam p leaders asking them to collect labels
and send them to Geneva, after signing them . They also
requested th a t the num ber of labels sent should not exceed
10% of the cam p strength, and th a t p rio rity should be given
to the sick or disabled. Finally, the ICRC obtained a u th o rity
to send the labels for Jugoslav PW to the B ritish Red Cross
in London, which to some ex ten t counteracted the effects of
th e stoppage in direct postal com m unications.
Difficulties of a sim ilar n a tu re arose after the liberation
of France, when a great m any G erm an servicem en were held
in th a t country. The F rench authorities, -doubtless fearing a
great influx of fam ily parcels, decided to adopt the sam e system
of labels for individual parcels to PW in th eir hands. The
Com m ittee, which had never condoned th e G erm an m ilitary
au th o rities decision to restrict the num ber of parcels sent to
PW , requested the French authorities to w ithdraw the system ,
and the la tte r agreed. W hen th e parcel post was resum ed
betw een G erm any and France, a t least from the W estern
occupation zones, the Germ an authorities lim ited exports by
placing parcel consignm ents under the supervision of local
welfare organizations in G erm any ; this procedure satisfied all
concerned.
283

(2).

D espatch

Individual parcels were sent by post and were of three types,

(a) Parcels sent from neutral to belligerent countries.
These were sent as soon as regulations on m axim um weight,
prohibited articles and packing were a v a ilab le 1. They involved
a great deal of work, as an export perm it was required in each
case.
B y th e end of 1940, exports had already been considerably
reduced. E a rly in 1941, the ICRC for the last tim e obtained
an extension of the export licence for individual parcels sent
by relatives or friends in Sw itzerland ; shortly afterw ards,
th e export of foodstuffs and m ost articles of clothing was
prohibited. Before this regulation came into force, the Com
m ittee was able to m ake purchases abroad and to place a
reserve stock of individual parcels in its warehouses. In Ju ly ,
G eneva received 5,000 clothing and 5,000 food parcels from
th e Am erican R ed Cross. These stocks were draw n upon by
donors in Sw itzerland who were relatives or friends of Allied
prisoners, and were rapidly exhausted.
F u rth e r orders for
9,000 parcels in all were placed w ith th e Am erican R ed Cross
in 1941 and 1942. In N ovem ber 1942, the Am erican R ed Cross
stipulated th a t the parcels should be sent only to Allied prisoners,
excluding those from Axis States. In agreem ent w ith Allied
donors, the ICRC abandoned this work a t the end of 1942,
when th e volume of collective supplies was sufficient to ensure
regular issues to nearly all Allied prisoners.
As G eneva continued to receive requests from relatives
and friends in Sw itzerland of PW belonging to both belligerent
p arties, it sought, in addition to its collective relief activities,
to set up reserve stocks of parcels for th a t purpose. Here the
ICRC did work sim ilar to th a t of several private organizations
in Sw itzerland, such as th e French PW Relief Com m ittee a t
Berne, the French W elfare Centre a t Geneva, and the Relief
Com m ittee for PW and Civilian Internees a t Lausanne.
1 See p p . 9 e t seq.
284

In the sum m er of 1943, th e ICRC ordered 2,000 sta n d a rd

food parcels from H ungary ; on their arrival, 1,500 were handed
to the dep artm en t th a t had m eanwhile begun to send relief
to the concentration cam ps 1. The rem aining five hundred
were a t once despatched. In May 1944, 3,000 more parcels
were obtained, b u t a subsequent order for 3,000 was never
delivered, owing to m ilitary events.
Individual parcels could be exported from E gypt, and th e
ICRC arranged through its Cairo delegation for residents in
Sw itzerland to order parcels for Italian , G erm an and Japanese
PW and civilian internees in Africa, Palestine and B ritish
India. M onthly lists were sent to Cairo, when the m oney orders
had been received and checked in Geneva. The parcels des
patched in 1944 and 1945 were m ostly intended for Ita lia n and
G erm an PW in N orth Africa ; th ey ceased in Ju n e 1945, when
the E gyptian authorities placed a ban on such exports. C ertain
articles, such as watches, could only be sent individually.
The ICRC got in touch w ith Swiss w atchm akers and tried to
m eet requests from doctors, orderlies, chaplains, cam p leaders
and cam p teachers. From 1942 to 1945, 250 w atches were th u s
forw arded ; quantities of spare p a rts and w atchm aking tools
were also supplied. In addition, Braille w atches were sent
to the blind. The first step in this regard was tak e n by th e
B ritish Red Cross, which ordered 126 Braille w atches from
Swiss m akers, directing th a t 106 should be despatched, and
th a t tw en ty should be held a t Geneva for issue, when required,
to Allied PW in G erm any. In 1942, the ICRC also supplied
24 Braille w atches to the A ustralian Red Cross. In October
1942, a Geneva firm presented the Com m ittee w ith 72 Braille
watches, for equal distribution am ong Germ an, Am erican
and B ritish PW ; 48 could not be delivered, as the Germ ans
and Am ericans for whom th ey were intended had been re p a t
riated. The ICRC suggested th a t the 24 w atches destined for
Am erican PW should be handed to rep a tria te d F rench PW .
These w atches were then d istributed by th e French Red Cross
in Paris ; the rem aining 23 w atches were handed to the G erm an
R ed Cross in Berlin.
1 See pp. 73 e t seq.

285

(b) Parcels despatched between belligerent countries in transit

through Switzerland.
At the beginning of the war, the ICRC set up a tra n sit
postal service 1. D uring the hostilities, this service handled
70,887 individual postal parcels, of which about 75% were
repacked and usually reconditioned. M any of them bore ina
dequate, incorrect or out-d ated labels ; m any had no labels
a t all. All this involved m uch labour.

(3). Sorting

of individual parcels
Switzerland

sent

by

post through

On the Ita lia n arm istice, a great m any individual parcels

for Allied PW in Ita ly were on the way. All Allied PW still
in the hands of the Germ an forces in Ita ly or of the N eo-Facist
Republic were transferred to Germ any.
The Swiss postal
authorities undertook to sort and assem ble parcels held up
in Sw itzerland, and to correct the addresses as soon as Geneva
was notified of th e transfers m ade. This concerned especially
the parcels despatched by the General Post Office in London.
The sorting and change of addresses were done a t the Basle
P ost Office, w ith the assistance of a num ber of experts sent
by the Com m ittee. In the period until the end of 1943, only
12,414 new addresses were discovered ; in F eb ru ary 1944,
19,636 parcels were sent, and by the end of April 73,000 had
been despatched. In Ju ly , 50,000 parcels rem ained ; as they
could not be stored indefinitely, the ICRC suggested to the
B ritish Red Cross th a t th ey should be forw arded as collective
consignm ents. The General Post Office regulations however
still required th a t all undelivered parcels should be retu rn ed
to the senders, and the B ritish Red Cross asked the ICRC to
send them back, w ith the exception of the small tobacco parcels.
B y the end of 1944, despatch figures were as follows :
1 See p. 11.
286

Parcels sent to PW and civilians in G erm any, both as

collective and individual consignm ents...........................143,767
Parcels issued to B ritish m ilitary internees in Switz e r l a n d ..........................
......................
9,337
Parcels returned to senders
......................
396
T otal . . . 153,500
T hroughout the war, the ICRC had to forw ard individual
parcels coming from overseas. This form of consignm ent was
given up by th e larger donor organizations, b u t was continued,
in particular, by foreign private organizations in E gypt, and
by various com m ittees in th e E a st and in Africa. These donors
required the assistance of the ICRC, especially in obtaining
labels. Individual parcels were sent to Geneva by the Polish
and Jugoslav Relief Com m ittees in Cairo, the French Relief
F und and the French Club in Cairo, the French R ed Cross
in P ort Said, B eyrout, Tunisia and Algeria, the Moroccan
W ar Fellowship, the Colonial W om ens Unions a t Jadotville,
Elisabethville and Albertville, the Kilo-Moto Gold Mine Com
pany, and various other organizations. To forw ard the parcels,
the ICRC had to ascertain addresses, check w ith the help of the
Agencys card-index (on account of frequent transfers) and,
above all, to act w ith speed. The despatch of parcels when
ready was often delayed for various reasons ; thus, individual
parcels assem bled in the Congo betw een D ecem ber 1943 and
March 1944, were held up a t Lobito until J a n u a ry 1945, only
reaching Sw itzerland the following m onth, when the forw arding
of individual parcels to G erm any had ceased.
They were,
w ith the donors consent, sent to the Belgian G overnm ent,
then reinstalled in Brussels, which handed the parcels to the
N ational E x-Servicem ens Relief Bureau.

287

Chapter

Intellectual Aid 1

The relief afforded by the ICRC to prisoners and internees

extended also to th e spiritual, educational and m oral spheres.
The Com m ittee th u s m aintained close relations w ith the welfare
associations concerned in this kind of work. This relief included
devotional articles for all faiths (Bibles, New T estam ents,
prayer-books, K orans), furtherm ore books and periodicals
of all kinds, text-books for a rt students, musical in stru m en ts
a n d scores, games and sports gear, and so forth. The C om m ittee
also induced th e responsible authorities to g rant official
recognition to th e studies pursued in cam ps, and sought to
relieve the tedium of cam p life by organizing libraries and
stu d y groups. In this connection, the Com m ittee was always
careful to fall in w ith the initiatives taken by the D etaining
Powers them selves 2.
The necessary reading m atte r was co n trib u ted by various
bodies, in particu lar by the N ational Red Cross Societies, which
in tu rn collected books and funds for purchases in their res
pective countries.
The donors included public and priv ate
libraries, and m any priv ate individuals m ade su b stan tial
contributions in m oney. By 1940, six im p o rta n t welfare orga
nizations w ith headquarters in Sw itzerland set up in Geneva,
under the chairm anship of the ICRC, an Advisory Com m ittee
for th e supply of reading m aterial to prisoners of war and
internees.
These organizations were :
1 Called " In tellec tu a l R e lie f during the war.
2 See Vol. I, pp. 273-280.
288

(1) The W orld Alliance of Y MCA ;

(2) The In te rn atio n a l E ducation B ureau ;
(3) The E uropean S tu d e n ts Relief F u n d ;
(4) The In te rn atio n a l F ederation of L ib rarian s Associations ;
(5) The W orld Commission for Spiritual Aid to Prisoners
of W a r;
(6) The Swiss Catholic Mission for Prisoners of W ar.
In 1943, th e Advisory Com m ittee carried th rough a largescale collection in Sw itzerland, th e yield being divided betw een
th e above organizations and th e In te rn atio n a l C om m ittees
In tellectu al Aid Section.
A v ast lib rary adequate for th e
varied needs of cam ps and individual PW was built up a t
G eneva. I t contained scientific and m edical books, text-books
for students, light reading m a tte r and books for th e blind.
G eneva also sent individual book parcels m ade up by N ational
R ed Cross Societies and private persons living in Sw itzerland
or abroad.
Consignments of books were selected from th e stocks of the
library, exam ined for m atte r inacceptable to the censorship
in the detaining countries, and then dispatched post-free all
over th e world, either in cases or by parcels not exceeding 5
kilos. C ontributions from N ational R ed Cross Societies enabled
th e ICRC to buy stationery in Sw itzerland, which allowed the
export of such articles. A rtists m aterials and m usical in stru
m ents were supplied by the YMCA. E ach consignm ent, w hether
collective or individual, included a detailed list and a receipt
in duplicate, one copy of which was to be signed and retu rn ed
to Geneva, where each recipient was registered on an indexcard. M any tens of thousands of books, games and music
scores were sent in this way, and the statio n ery shipm ents
included well over a million item s.
E quitable allocation of these stores was ensured by the
cam p leaders. Co-operation by correspondence was of course
facilitated by th e visits of the C om m ittees delegates. The
PW were also allowed to apply personally to th e ICRC. By
the wide variety of their requests th e PW gave proof of a g reat
I II . ig

289

need of occupation, which only reading and intellectual pursuits

of every kind could satisfy. The men who experienced c a p tiv ity
are even b e tte r qualified th an those who tried to m ake it
bearable, to affirm th a t intellectual aid is an indispensable
a d ju n c t to all other form s of relief.
The ICRC and the other relief organizations aim ed espe
cially a t creating libraries in every cam p, and these very quickly
becam e a valuable stim ulus and a source of recreation. Those
m en who were unable to m ake personal application to the
librarians received the books which were sent in travelling
sets to labour detachm ents in the m ost out of the way places.
Chaplains of all faiths were able to m inister freely to these
com m unities.
The ICRC passed on requests for " spiritual
aid to th e religious organizations who were m em bers of th e
A dvisory Com m ittee. The PW of E astern religions were by
no m eans forgotten ; th ey received prayer books in such la n
guages as U rdu, H industani, Bengali and M aliratti.
A rts and crafts flourished in the camps, and the ICRC
supplied q u antities of m aterial to sculptors, draughtsm en,
a rtists and decorators. In one civilian internm ent cam p to
quote b u t a single exam ple a Fine A rts school was atten d ed
b y 89 pupils, including 48 children. In a PW cam p, a wellknown a rtist arranged a course of sketching and cartoondraw ing for his fellow-prisoners.
Reference should also be m ade to the cam p newspapers
w hich were a link betw een PW of the same nationality, and
som etim es also w ith those of other nationalities. The cam p
leader or his assistants contributed inform ation of general
in te rest for publication. For this reason the Com m ittee included
in its consignm ents of m aterial for intellectual aid everything
which directly or indirectly furthered th e publication of such
new spapers.
D ram atics and music were the favourite entertain m en t of
prisoners and internees, and the Com m ittee sent hundreds
of scripts of comedies, one-act plays, sketches, monologues,
music scores and so on 1. M aterial for scenery, m asks and
1 Musical instrum ents were sent m ainly b y the YMCA.

290

costum es were occasionally sent. E xcellent th eatrical com panies

were thus formed, assisted by decorators, stage-m anagers,
carpenters, w ardrobe-keepers and m any other professional
or extem pore artisans.
Sports and indoor games were an especially valuable form
of recreation, as th ey helped to keep the m en in good h ealth,
despite conditions of cap tiv ity . The Com m ittee sent indoor
games as a rule, whilst the YMCA devoted itself m ore p a rti
cularly to sports gear.
The blind were not forgotten ; m any games, such as dominoes,
chess, draughts and cards, which develop th e sense of touch
th a t is th eir param o u n t resource, were sent to them .
One can easily im agine the field th u s opened to th e relief
organizations. The obligations of the D etaining Powers, clearly
defined in th e 1929 Convention, were as a rule observed. B ut
as the w ar progressed and extended, these obligations grew
increasingly onerous. The role of the In te rn atio n a l Com m ittee
became more definite, and as far as intellectual aid was con
cerned, it was clearly required to collect m aterial, facilitate
intern atio n al shipm ents, extend Red Cross protection to the
auxiliary welfare organizations duly recognized by the belli
gerents, and to safeguard PW p ro p erty used in intellectual
pursuits. In a word, the ICRC had to protect, directly and
by all m eans approved by th e belligerents, th e intellectual
and m oral h ealth of PW and civilian internees.
In the interests of n e u tra lity in all intellectual, cultural
and religious m atters, th e ICRC endeavoured to provide the
reading m aterial, cu ltu ral resources and devotional articles
required by all th e nationalities, languages and faiths of the
captives. The common desire of the ICRC and th e auxiliary
welfare organizations was to ensure to each m an th e intellectual
aid corresponding to his needs, aptitu d es and convictions.
A rem arkable co-operative effort was th u s m ade in th e religious
sphere, each organization concerned knowing th e com fort
and m oral stren g th th a t can be found in the norm al practice
of religion.

291

A id to German Prisoners.
The G erm an Red Cross sent books, prints, reproductions
of works of art, m usical instrum ents, gram ophone records and
plays to the cam ps in Africa, A ustralia, Canada, E gypt, India,
th e A rgentine and G reat B ritain.
The Germ an authorities
paid great a tte n tio n to the education of their nationals in
c ap tivity, especially of the women and children in the civilian
in tern m en t camps. The prisoners benefited very greatly by
this assistance, perfecting them selves in their trad es and
im proving their knowdedge.
B y the spring of 1941, questionnaires were sent to G erm an
PW cam ps. The leaders supplied precise details of the various
professions and trades represented in the camps. These ques
tionnaires were also issued to women internees. An exam ination
of these docum ents m ade it possible to classify the captives
according to th eir trad e, profession and aptitudes, and to
organize a proper d istribution of the m aterial for intellectual
aid com ing from Germ any.
Prisoners and internees were sent courses of instruction
in series known as Soldat enbriefe (Soldiers correspondence
courses). B y this means, curricula were standardized, and the
Germ an G overnm ent was able to recognize these studies and
the final exam inations, provided, however, th a t the E xam ining
Boards who sat in the cam ps were approved by the Germ an
M inistry of E ducation. Only the final university exam inations
could not be tak en in the camps.
A fter the Germ an surrender, th e ICRC was confronted by all
the problem s of pursuing the work of assisting PW who had no
G overnm ent or N ational R ed Cross to represent their interests.
A fter 1940, the ICRC directed its efforts m ainly to collecting
relief m aterial. I t began to count more and more on the auxiliary
organizations which, since the arm istice, had rapidly regained
th eir freedom of action.
These organizations, p articularly
th e YMCA, co n trib u ted in a very large m easure tow ards the
creation of stu d y centres in the new camps.
The ICRC decided to allocate a p a rt of the relief funds to
intellectual aid. To m ake the donations of books as effectual
292

as possible it adopted the system of " General In terest

A PW teacher was sent text-books for use by th e whole group
of students ; subscriptions for scientific, literary, artistic,
technical and other reviews were paid, th u s enabling all the
groups to keep abreast of current events in th eir own subjects ;
docum entation was collected for PW doctors.
A bout 1,500 sta n d a rd works, weighing in all 1,330 kilos,
were th u s d istrib u ted b y the delegations in France, N orth
Africa, Poland, Ita ly , Belgium, G erm any and E g y p t ; 435
subscriptions were paid for Swiss m edical journals, which
contained valuable inform ation on medicine, pharm acy and
dentistry. Subscriptions were as a rule tak en out in the nam e
of the cam ps or hospitals and the copies circulated. In 1947,
8,350 of these periodicals were sent out to the different countries.
I t was even possible to supplem ent the Swiss m edical journals
w ith some reviews published in Germ any, which were given
to the C om m ittees delegations a t Munich and Vlotho, and
in tu rn forw arded to Geneva. The doctors, who in m any cases
h ad been deprived of all scientific inform ation for several
years, th u s learned of medical and therapeutical developm ents.
In this way, th ey not only refreshed and increased th eir know
ledge, b u t, above all, rvere able to prepare them selves for an
im m ediate resum ption of their professional duties on their
retu rn to civil life.
Relief for Italian Prisoners.
In 1941, the Ita lia n Red Cross established a stock of books
in Geneva to enable the ICRC to m eet the requests it received
direct. As Ita lia n PW were often interned in countries far
d ista n t from home, the ICRC suggested th a t its delegations
be comm issioned to purchase books on the spot. The Italian
Red Cross, however, did not agree to this suggestion and was
th ereafter confronted by the blockade.
Only the cam ps in
the Middle E ast and South Africa seem to have had sufficient
m aterial for th e purpose of stu d y and recreation.
The Italian PW in E ngland were provided w ith text-books
through the YMCA. A bout 1,500 volum es thus passed through
the ICRC delegation in London.
293

The H oly See and the N ational Catholic W elfare Conference

in the U nited S tates sent the ICRC a very large num ber of
prayer-books and religious works. Books in Ita lia n were also
collected in Sw itzerland and were m ade over to the Italian
m ilitary internees in th a t country.
The C om m ittees intellectual aid to Italian prisoners and
internees was on the whole lim ited, on account of the work
done by the Ita lia n Red Cross itself.
A id to French Prisoners.
D uring the G erm an occupation, it was decided th a t occupied
France should organize intellectual aid for the cam ps in France
itself, whilst the French PW cam ps in G erm any would be
helped by non-occupied France.
In th e free zone, the Centre de ramassage dn livre worked
in conjunction w ith the official censors office and sent its
collections of books to Geneva in accordance w ith instructions
from the French Red Cross. The A dvisory Com m ittee notified
th a t Society of the prisoners requirem ents.
Consignments
were also sent direct from France to Germany.
In 1941, 90% of the A dvisory C om m ittees activities were
devoted to the French prisoners. The YMCA played the most
prom inent p a rt in this Com m ittee, whilst the ICRC dealt
m ainly w ith the adm inistrative form alities involved.
The
cam p leaders and th e F rench PW were in direct com m unication
w ith the ICRC and kept it inform ed of the intellectual activities
in their respective camps. This was done not m erely for inform a
tion purposes, b u t to provide supporting m aterial for pos
sible representations to the D etaining Power. The ICRC drew
generously on its stock of French books for the French PW .
These consignm ents increased especially in the last two years
of the war. They were the more keenly appreciated as relief
from France dwindled.
A id to British P W .
The B ritish Red Cross kept in close touch w ith the PW
camps, and the task of the" ICRC was m uch ra th e r to ensure
294

the transm ission of m aterial sent via Geneva, th a n to provide

intellectual aid itself.
The Indian R ed Cross and the E g y p tian R ed Crescent
co n trib u ted the religious literatu re required by the H indu
and Moslem prisoners.
A id to Am erican P W .
The Com m ittee provided little intellectual aid to Am erican
prisoners, since, under a special arrangem ent, the W orld Alliance
of the YMCA itself arranged and directed this work.
N evertheless in organizing the prisoners studies, religious
devotions and recreations, th e C om m ittees delegates gave
th e same a tte n tio n to Am erican PW as to the others.
A id to P W of other nationalities.
The Polish, Jugoslav, D utch, Greek and R ussian PW
received supplies of stan d ard literatu re and text-books from
th e stocks built up by collections in Sw itzerland or donations
from N ational R ed Cross Societies. P articu lar help was given
by th e Polish Red Cross. The ICRC had some difficulty in
collecting books in Russian, Serb, Greek, D utch and Norwegian,
b u t m et a large num ber of requests through appeals to the
auxiliary organizations and to foreign residents in Sw itzerland.
The B ritish Red Cross was also m ost generous tow ards PW who
were not B ritish, b u t were a ttach ed in any w ay to the B ritish
forces. They authorized the ICRC to d istribute books from
their stocks, in p articular to m en who were anxious to pursue
their university studies.

295

Chapter 4

Medical Aid

i . M e d ic a l

and

P h a r m a c e u t ic a l A id

U nder A rticle 14 of the 1929 Convention, every cam p m ust

have an infirm ary capable of supplying any form of m edical
a tte n tio n required by the prisoners.
As far as circum stances perm itted, this provision was
generally observed by the belligerents. The cam p infirm aries
could not, however, alw ays have adequate supplies of all m edi
cam ents or hospital equipm ent th ey needed. The ICRC then
undertook to m eet these shortages by suitable consignm ents,
the allocation of which was, as usual, carried out in conform ity
w ith Red Cross principles.
(A) Allied Prisoners of War
1. R equirem ents

D uring the first two years of the war, inform ation reach
ing G eneva on the sta te of health of Allied PW showed th a t
the m edicam ents and m edical stores issued by the D etaining
Pow er were adequate. Tow ards the close of 1941, however,
th e situation changed. The dim inution of food rations, the
decline in living and working conditions, and the lowering
m orale am ongst PW all helped to sap their powers of resistance,
and requests for m edical stores began to m ultiply. F u rth e r
more, the am ount of m edicam ents and m edical stores m ade
available to PW diminished. C ertain N ational Societies had,
296

up to the close of 1941, been able to send their PW appreciable

q u antities of m edical stores, b u t now m et w ith increasing diffi
culties in sending them direct ; a neu tral interm ediary th u s
becam e indispensable, and the ICRC- was asked to assist.
Judging by the applications received from cam p doctors
the needs were ap p arently very sim ilar in all cam ps for Allied
prisoners. The principal shortages appeared to be in vitam in
tablets, tonics, especially for cases of anaem ia and heart trouble,
sulpham ides and, during cold w eather, all forms of expecto
ran ts and resolvents. The cam ps also required dressings in
bulk, disinfectants and insecticides and, for sick quarters,
m inor surgical instrum ents, syringes and hospital stores.
As the living conditions in German cam ps grew worse,
applications becam e more urgent and num erous, and covered
every branch of medicine and pharm aceutics. P redom inant
am ong these were requests for specialities not included in
stan d ard kits, m ost of which came from the U nited S tates or
G reat B ritain and were available in alm ost all camps. Thus,
large quantities of sera and vaccines were needed for the tre a t
m ent of infectious disease and som etim es for the prevention of
possible epidemics, such as ' dysentery, typhoid, exanthem atic typhus, and so on.
A lthough the needs were strikingly sim ilar, some categories
of PW nevertheless were particularly prone to certain diseases ;
thus, tuberculosis was rife am ong th e Jugoslavs, despite the
fact th a t th ey were given the same food parcels as certain other
nationalities. This was ap p aren tly due to the fact th a t these
men were more sensitive to changes of clim ate. The ICRC m ade
special efforts to supply them w ith the m edicam ents and tonics
th ey lacked. The Am erican PW appeared to suffer chiefly
from digestive trouble (gastritis, ulcers, etc.). The requests
sent to Geneva by the Am erican doctors bore m ainly on sul
pham ides and m edicam ents for the digestive system .
2. Collective Aid in Money

Considerable sum s were en tru sted to the ICRC for the

purchase of medical stores for PW of certain nationalities.
They were contributed by N ational Red Cross Societies (in
297

p articu lar the Am erican, B ritish, D utch, Jugoslav and Polish

Red Cross), by G overnm ents (Belgium, France, Greece and
Jugoslavia), or by various relief organizations such as the
A ide aux prisonniers et interns belges.
F urtherm ore, a certain num ber of Red Cross Societies (in
p a rticu la r the Am erican and Canadian Societies), private insti
tu tio n s and individuals gave the ICRC m oney for medical
aid to PW and political deportees, regardless of th eir nationality.
3. Collective Aid in Kind

(a) Reserve stocks.

Reserve stocks m eant the accum ulation of q u antities
of m edical and pharm aceutical products for repacking, in
com pliance w ith individual requests. These reserves gave the
ICRC full freedom to despatch relatively large and urgent
consignm ents a t any tim e.
Am erican P W . The A m erican Red Cross was the first
to build up stocks in Geneva, which were originally intended
for PW . These reserves derived from consignm ents arriving
in Geneva from March to N ovem ber 1944 and am ounted to
31 tons of m edicam ents ; of these, twelve tons only were issued
to Am erican PW . The A. R. C. fairly soon decided to give PW
of other nationalities the benefit of these stores, and from May
to D ecem ber 1944 num erous issues were m ade in cam ps for
Belgian, D utch, French, Jugoslav, Polish and o ther prisoners
of war.
The initial stocks were replenished in 1945 by shipm ents
com prising one ton of various m edicam ents and 100 special
assortm ents, totalling 33 tons, called " Mens Medical K its .
E ach of these included 15 parcels. These assortm ents could
be despatched direct to cam ps, w ithout re-packing.
British P W . T ransport of m edical relief to B ritish PW ,
from G reat B ritain to G erm any, becam e increasingly difficult,
and the ICRC recognised the fact th a t the tra n sit system no
298

longer came up to expectations. Too m uch tim e now elapsed

betw een the transm ission of a request and the arrival of stocks
in cam p. The ICRC then suggested th a t the B ritish Red Cross
should build up stocks in Geneva for B ritish PW only. London
agreed and from O ctober 1944 to N ovem ber 1945, sent over
77 tons of m edical stores to Geneva, including 14 tons of coclliver oil 1 and three tons of insecticide. Some 15 tons of various
products were issued to B ritish PW , in cam ps or rep atriatio n
centres, or on the m arch. The rapid sequence of events in
G erm any alone prevented the full use of these stocks ; th ey
served however to c arry through extensive relief operations.
Other Allied P W . A certain waste of labour was inherent
in working by nationalities. A plan for creating a pharm aceu
tical pool in Geneva for PW of all Allied S tates consequently
soon took shape. In F eb ru ary 1944, the ICRC su b m itted prac
tical proposals to interested N ational Societies, together w ith a
schedule of the products likely to be required. The Com m ittee
stressed the need prom ptly to m ake up deficiencies in p h a r
m aceutical products and m edical stores, b u t added th a t the De
tain in g Pow er should not th ereb y be relieved of its obligations ;
recognition should m erely be given to th a t Pow ers inability,
due to lim ited means, to care for all the wounded and sick
in its charge.
The N ational Societies, and the A m erican R ed Cross in
particular, were greatly interested by this plan and agreed to
its im m ediate inception. This m eant the creation at Geneva,
under the C om m ittees supervision, of a large stock of m edica
m ents, surgical instrum ents, hospital stores and dressings,
1 The British Red Cross gave exact instructions for the proper issue
of m alted cod-liver oil, as follows :
Monthly dose per man :
For TB sanatoria : 4,550 grams ;
General H ospitals
and Infirmaries :
1,850
The other British nationals interned in Germany (PW and civilians),
who were assessed at som e 160,000, received an average m onthly ration
of 10 grams per head.
The arm istice prevented the com pletion of this schem e, w hich was
to cover a six m onths period.

299

upon which it could draw for all Allied PW . P harm aceutical

products and surgical in stru m en ts were to be sent according
to requirem ents to th e head physicians of infirm aries and to
PW cam p hospitals in G erm any and in countries occupied by
th e G erm an and Ita lia n forces. The above supplies were to be
em ployed for all PW w ithout distinction of nationality.
The countries which agreed to a scheme for financing the
pool were : Belgium, France, Greece, H olland, Jugoslavia,
N orway, Poland and th e U nited States. The B ritish Red Cross,
which had ju st built up its own stock a t Geneva, elected not
to particip ate. The A m erican R ed Cross fu rth er presented to the
Com m ittee a sum of 100,000 dollars ; converted into Swiss francs,
these funds allowed certain consignm ents to be com pleted.
The pool was form ed by two series of shipm ents. The first
took place betw een October 1944 and M arch 1945, and the
second betw een J a n u a ry and August 1945. The to ta l weight
of these shipm ents exceeded 1,400 tons.
In the spring of 1945, 70% of these goods were ready for
im m ediate dispatch and issue to PW cam ps ; 30% was to
rem ain in Geneva for routine indents. The tre n d of events in
G erm any however com pletely upset this plan ; from March
onwards, increasing use had to be m ade of block-trains and
road convoys, so th a t the largest stocks possible m ight be sent
to the cam ps th a t were still accessible. In all, some 100 tons
of m edicines were dispatched during March, April and May
1945, to perm anent and assem bly cam ps in Southern
G erm any and A ustria. These stores included m ainly specific
rem edies against dysentery, diphtheria, tuberculosis, affections
of the digestive tra c t and derm atosis.
S hortly after the Arm istice the Am erican Red Cross re
quested the ICRC to m ake no fu rth e r call on the pool w ithout
fresh instructions .
(b) Relief in transit.
A clear distinction m ust first be draw n betw een relief in
" direct tra n sit and relief in indirect transit.
1 See p. 304 for final disposal of pooled stocks.

300

Direct transit was the passage th ro u g h th e C om m ittee's

hands of parcels bearing an exact address. Indirect transit was
th e m ovem ent of stan d ard parcels placed a t th e C om m ittees
free disposal, which arrived a t Geneva already packed and ready
for dispatch. These parcels did not arise from specific requests ;
th e y were an addition to sta n d a rd foodstuff and clothing con
signm ents, m ade in proportion to the cam p stren g th . Thus
the various types of parcels in indirect tra n sit, i. e. the
medical, surgical and invalid com fort parcels of the B ritish
Red Cross and the m edical kits of th e Am erican R ed Cross
were handled in the same w ay as th e sta n d a rd parcels of all
other types 1.
From 1942 onwards, th e ICRC forw arded small consign
m ents of parcels in tra n sit for G erm any which donors were
unable to send direct : th ey included gifts from the B ritish
R ed Cross for B ritish nationals, and from the A m erican R ed
Cross for Belgian PW . A fter 1944, the volume of parcels en tru s
ted to the ICRC in tra n sit, particu larly for B ritish, Belgian
a n d French PW -, increased considerably.
Though the direct tra n sit system was, as a general rule,
a practical m eans of sending PW the exact relief th ey asked
for, it clearly had m any draw backs. Owing to th e progressive
destruction of m eans of tran sp o rt, th e period of tim e for a
parcel to reach its destination steadily increased. The disband
m ent or the evacuation of a large num ber of cam ps still fu rth e r
com plicated m atters ; parcels frequently arrived only a fte r
several weeks, or even m onths ; m any could not be delivered
and were retu rn ed to Geneva.

1 See pp. 207 et seq.

2 British transit parcels which arrived in Geneva totalled 29 tons,
French transit parcels 14 tons and Belgian tran sit parcels 39 tons.
M ilitary events prevented the dispatch of all these consignm ents. Such
shipm ents as the ICRC found possible were carried out betw een N ovem
ber 1944 and May 1945, and w ent to PW of the above n ation alities ;
after the close of hostilities, som e consignm ents also reached repatria
tion centres.
The use to w hich the balance of these transit supplies were put is
explained below, p. 304.

301

(c) Gifts in kind.

Besides the goods supplied
G overnm ents or N ational
R ed Cross Societies for th eir own nationals or those of th eir
Allies, the ICRC received m any donations from Red Cross
Societies, priv ate welfare organizations and private individuals.
Donors either specified the recipients, or asked the ICRC to
use the gifts in its general medical relief schemes for PW and
political deportees.
The chief donors were the South African Red Cross (which
sent large q u antities of fish-liver oilprincipally for consum p
tive P W num erous sera and vaccines), the C anadian Red
Cross (vitam inised products, insulin, sera, vaccines and sundry
m edicam ents), th e Am erican, Argentine, Brazilian, British,
R um anian and U ruguayan R ed Cross Societies, and the French
residents and th e Pro H ollanda Com m ittee in Buenos
Ayres. M any Swiss chemical and pharm aceutical m anufacturers
also co n trib u ted gifts in kind for all categories of PW .

(d) Purchases.
The funds given to the ICRC for m edical relief work were
used for purchases in Sw itzerland and abroad.
Purchases in Switzerland. These far exceeded those m ade
abroad. The products bought by the Com m ittee from th e Swiss
m anufacturers were m ainly intended to supplem ent consign
m ents from abroad. The purchase of any kind of m edicam ent
in w hatever q u a n tity was, however, beset b y num erous diffi
culties. The o u tp u t of m any products fell during the war,,
and owing to th e fear of a shortage, the export of m edicam ents
was forbidden.
N evertheless, the Swiss Federal authorities
gran ted the ICRC all possible facilities and showed respect for
the C om m ittees peculiar situation. A fter the arm istice th e
restrictions on exports were gradually lifted and it becam e
possible to export all th e products m ade in Sw itzerland, though
delays were som etim es protracted.
302

W hen m aking such purchases th e ICRC generally gave

preference to branded goods ; though more expensive, these
could be relied on for p u rity and careful m anufacture. M any
Swiss chemical firms g ran ted su b stan tial rebates.
Purchases abroad. D uring the war, the ICRC alm ost
entirely gave up buying abroad, as deliveries took far too long
and adm inistrative and tra n sp o rt difficulties were excessive.
As soon as hostilities were over, however, th e ICRC used every
o p p o rtu n ity to buy th e largest possible q u a n tity of m edica
m ents in the foreign m arket, provided rates were satisfactory.
These purchases, particu larly those m ade in th e U nited S tates,
had th e advantage of not requiring exchange operations. W hen
buying from Am erican A rm y surplus stocks th e ICRC was
given prio rity and enjoyed other concessions.
Narcotics. The export of narcotics being subject to in te r
national regulations, after various negotiations th e ICRC was
allowed, under Federal regulations, to buy, forw ard and export
th e narcotics required. Similarly, the foreign countries con
cerned granted th e necessary perm its for the im port of such
drugs. Thus, th e m any applications and form alities involved
in the purchase and issue of narcotics were reduced to a m ini
mum.
To avoid the loss of tim e due to belated delivery, the ICRC
established in G eneva a stock of its purchases in Sw itzerland,
including essential m edicam ents and d en tists supplies ; th is
so-called Specialities Stock , enabled th e ICRC to m ake
large consignm ents, som etim es two or three days only a fter
receiving th e indent.
Epidemics. The ICRC also b uilt up a large stock for
use in the event of epidemics. This reserve of disinfectants,
sera, vaccines, cardiacs, etc., valued a t some 500,000 Swiss
francs, allowed of rapid action to prevent epidemics of exanthem atic disease in R um ania and H ungary, and of other epi
demics in G erm any and H olland.
F o rtu n ately , it was not
found necessary to draw upon th e whole of this reserve, since
those epidemics th a t occurred in E urope were, as a rule, less
303

severe th a n m ight have been feared. At the close of the war,

th e balance of this reserve was taken over by the Don Suisse
(Swiss Relief Fund).
(e) Individual Relief.
A pplications for m edical and pharm aceutical relief m ade
by individual P W should, under the general rule, have been dealt
w ith by the Individual Relief Section ; th e y were however
referred to the Pharm aceutical Section, which was b e tte r equip
ped to select and purchase the specialities form ing the bulk of
the requirem ents.
The num ber of parcels sent in response to individual appli
cations was com paratively large. A great deal of work was
involved in th eir purchase, packing and checking, and in a tte n
d a n t form alities, b u t th e parcels were often invaluable to PW
suffering from serious or little-know n diseases, whom the cam p
doctors were unable to tre a t w ith the cam p m edical resources.
(f) Warehouses.
The handling of the m edicam ents and the m anual work
generally was done in several warehouses, the chief of which
were the bonded warehouses a t Cornavin and Plainpalais,
both in Geneva. These stores housed large stocks, as m entioned
above, for which the Pharm aceutical Section was responsible
to the Allied donors. A few m onths before the arm istice, the
supplies for Axis PW were lodged in the sam e warehouses.
P roducts bought in Sw itzerland were kept a p a rt in other
premises.
(g) Liquidation of stocks and of supplies in transit.
The fact a t first sight surprisingth a t G eneva still had
considerable quan tities of m edicam ents a t the close of the w ar
was due to late deliveries and arrivals in tran sit.
The stocks of th e B ritish R ed Cross, for instance, were still
very large. In October, responding to the C om m ittees request,
th a t Society m ade th e whole am ount available to the ICRC,
w ith the proviso th a t p rio rity should be given to the needs of
304

the Polish Red Cross in Poland (which received 30 tons of

supplies), and of B ritish nationals in B udapest, Prague, W arsaw
and Vienna. F rom O ctober 1945 u n til Ju n e 30, 1947, the ICRC
was fu rth er able to send some 32 tons of B ritish supplies to
Displaced Persons.
The stocks of the Am erican R ed Cross, in Septem ber 1946,
still included 100 sta n d a rd assortm ents of fifteen parcels each
(" Mens Medical K its ), i. e. some 33 tons of supplies. These
were m ade over by the Am erican Red Cross to th e League.
The la tte r requested the ICRC to allocate these stocks betw een
certain N ational R ed Cross Societies, including those of A ustria,
H ungary, P oland and R um ania.
The relief shipm ents in tra n sit which could not be forw arded
to PW cam ps were allocated as follows : 38 tons belonging
to the Belgian G overnm ent were, on its request, retu rn ed to
Belgium, less fifteen tons which were issued to Belgian n a tio
nals. The balance of F rench supplies in tra n sit was sent to
th e sanatoria in the Black F orest where French form er PW
an d deportees were undergoing treatm en t.
The ICRC warehouses also contained, at the close of the
war, a large p a rt of the stocks form ing the " pool , m entioned
above. Some consignm ents did not reach Geneva till after the
arm istice.
I t was not until F ebruary, 1946, th a t the ICRC
received final instructions as to the disposal of these stocks.
They were divided as follows :
P oland received 366 t o n s ......................................
= 28 %
U N R R A purchased close on 657 tons (for
A ustria and I t a l y ) ...............................................
= 50,5%
The Am erican Jo in t D istribution Com m ittee
bought 51 tons (handed to the Jo in t Relief
Commission for distribution)
............................=
4 %
Belgium received about 55 t o n s ............................=
4,3%
N etherlands received about 13 tons . . . .
=
1 %
The dressings (146 tons) included in the stocks belonged
to the Am erican Red Cross and were given by th a t Society
to the' Swiss R ed Cross, which issued them to various Swiss
hospitals.
h i . 20

305

(h )

A llotm ent of costs.

D uring the w ar all th e m edical and pharm aceutical relief

given to Allied PW was financed by the Allied Levy 1.
A fter the arm istice, a new system of financing was in tro
duced. Five per cent of all funds placed a t the disposal of the
P harm aceutical Section was set aside for overhead costs, and a
fu rth e r 15% was held in reserve. T ransit, insurance, and other
expenses were m et out of this reserve, and any credit balance
was paid into the C om m ittees general relief funds.
(B). German and A ustrian Prisoners of War
Up to the end of 1944, applications for m edical and p h arm a
ceutical aid received by th e ICRC from G erm an PW or civilian
internees in N orth and South Africa, New Zealand, A ustralia,
In d ia and G reat B ritain were forw arded direct to the Germ an
R ed Cross. T h a t Society then sent the required supplies and
the ICRC despatched them to the applicants. At th a t tim e,
h ealth conditions am ong th e G erm an PW were still satisfactory
and com paratively little assistance was needed.
A fter the end of 1944, however, the position underw ent a
sudden change : very large num bers of Germ ans were taken
prisoner and certain D etaining Powers were ab ru p tly faced
w ith extrem ely difficult problem s. The situation of the German
PW soon deteriorated, both as regards food and their state of
health. In France particularly, the requirem ents reported by
th e C om m ittees delegates and by the G erm an cam p doctors
soon becam e very extensive.
The ICRC a t once approached the G erm an Red Cross and,
in Ja n u a ry 1945, laid the following proposals before th a t Society :
(x) The G erm an Red Cross should a t once prepare s ta n
d ard kits containing m edicam ents, dressings and medical neces
sities as the basis of em ergency supplies, for all G erm an PW
cam ps in France and N orth Africa. In the light of inform ation
1 See p. 270.
306

received and of its form er experience, the ICRC subm itted

a model for a stan d ard parcel suited to this p articu lar purpose.
(2)
A stock of m edicam ents supplied by the G erm an Red
Cross should be stored in bond in Geneva, th u s enabling the
ICRC to give im m ediate effect to the applications th a t were
reaching it from all quarters.
The ICRC also proposed a su b stan tial increase of the relief
supplies sent in tra n sit, and stressed th a t tra n sp o rt difficul
ties seemed likely to increase still fu rth e r and th a t very long
delays would no doubt elapse betw een the applications for
relief and the delivery of the supplies.
D espite several letters of rem inder, m ainly asking the
Germ an R ed Cross to rem it funds for the purchase in Sw itzer
land by the ICRC of the m ost urgently required m edicam ents,
no affirm ative reply reached Geneva by the arm istice. The
G erm an R ed Cross could no more th a n despatch five railw ay
wagons, notified in April 1945, and containing m edical relief
stores am ong other articles. These wagons, however, never
reached Geneva.
At the same tim e, the ICRC itself endeavoured to relieve
the G erm an PW and a t once set about collecting funds. At the
close of 1944 a first contribution of 10,000 Swiss francs was paid
to the P harm aceutical Section, which was able to issue m edica
m ents to the G erm an PW who were detained in French te rri
to ry near Geneva. In all, and up to April 30, 1945, the P h a rm a
ceutical Section received 41,000 Swiss francs ; it was th u s
able, on the stren g th of lists of patien ts received, to buy the
necessary m edicam ents in Sw itzerland and despatch th em to
cam ps and hospitals in France, Corsica and N orth Africa.
F urtherm ore, in April 1945, stan d ard assortm ents of essential
medicines, dressings and disinfectants, were sent to the ICRC
delegations in Paris and in Lyons, for issue to cam ps and
hospitals.
France. A fter the arm istice the situation of G erm an
PW in France generally becam e critical. This was ap p aren tly
307

due to tra n sp o rt and food difficulties, which were accentuated

b y th e m ass transfers of prisoners to the French by the Am erican
m ilita ry com m and.
Some of the cam ps lacked even the barest necessities ; to
m eet this em ergency the C om m ittee sent m edical kits contain
ing m inor surgical instrum ents, dressings, anaesthetics an d
disinfectants. L ater on, a q u a n tity of assorted medicines were
h an d ed to the Paris delegation for distribution.
This initial scheme was, however, inadequate, and the pris
oners' sta te of health becam e steadily worse. Loss of weight,
sta rv a tio n oedema, bone diseases, hypovitam inosis, intestinal
affections and various com plaints due to m alnutrition were
reported.
Proper m edical tre a tm e n t was urgently required.
The shortage of soap and disinfectants gave rise to all kinds
of skin diseases and facilitated the spread of verm in.
The ICRC thereupon m ade an urgent appeal to the A m eri
can m ilitary authorities, who agreed to supply the ICRC w ith
a large q u a n tity of m edical stores. It was decided th a t each
G erm an PW cam p holding 3,500 men or more, should have a
sta n d a rd assortm ent (described as CAD Basic Medical U nit )
com prising four tons of pharm aceutical products, dressings and
instrum ents. These assortm ents were sim ilar to those provided
for the relief of the civilian population of the liberated countries
in Europe.
The following figures give some idea of the quan tities of
m edical and pharm aceutical stores handed over to the ICRC
by the A m erican m ilitary authorities :
Pharm aceutical products, dressings, and disin
fectants
(issued to 69 G erm an PW centres in France,
and four centres in the French occupation
zone)
S o a p ..........................................................................
D D T p o w d e r .........................................................

296 to n s

363
89

,,
,,

The scheme was abandoned before each cam p had received

its allo tted share ; the ICRC was then obliged to divide the

to ta l am ount and share out a certain num ber of assortm ents

to each cam p and centre. Thus, all th e large P W centres received
substantial quantities, betw een O ctober and D ecem ber 1945.
The hap p y effects of this extensive scheme were soon observ
ed ; after the end of 1945 and during the early m onths of
1946, the fortn ig h tly reports furnished to the ICRC b y th e
spokesm en showed th a t th e health situation was a t first sta b i
lised, and th en rapidly im proved. In one centre, for instance,
cases of w asting and debility fell b y 75% betw een O ctober 1945
and D ecem ber 1946, and deficiency diseases disappeared.
The A m erican assortm ents contained an excess of certain
medicines, whilst others were inadequate or entirely absent.
The C om m ittee had to m ake the best use of excess products
and m ake up for deficiencies.
In th e sm all labour detachm ents the health of the men
rem ained poor ; dressings and th e m ost essential m edicines
were still short. Between N ovem ber 1945 and Ju n e 1947, the
ICRC supplied th em w ith 2,000 sm all m edical kits w ith appro
priate contents.
The ICRC fu rth er decided to build up stocks a t th eir various
D elegations in France, particu larly in P aris and Lyons, to
allow shortages in regular consignm ents from G eneva to be
rapidly m ade up. This was an expert m atter, and a qualified
dispensing chem ist was appointed a t th e Paris delegation, to
co-ordinate all m edical and pharm aceutical relief schemes in
France. His dep artm en t kept in touch w ith th e cam p doctors
and dispensers and could th u s inform the ICRC of c u rren t
requirem ents.
D uring 1946, th e ICRC also provided Germ an PW doctors
w ith some 650 surgical sets, enabling them to perform m inor
operations them selves and th u s avoid sending th e p atien ts to
a central infirm ary or district hospital. H ospitals and p e rm a
nent infirm aries for G erm an PW also received equipm ent, such
as blood-pressure gauges, sedim entation ap p aratu s, surgical
instrum ents, and so on.
North Africa. Corsica. The ICRC also supplied m edical
stores to PW cam ps in these areas. The consignm ents included
309

sta n d a rd assortm ents of anaesthetics, disinfectants and dres

sings and, later, collections of medicines. In addition, m edical
parcels were sent direct in reply to specific requests.
Jugoslavia. D uring the sum m er of 1945, the h ealth of
G erm an PW in this co u n try was affected by two circum stances :
first, the danger of an exanthem atic epidemic, and secondly,
the appearance of a new disease, found only am ong these men,
and th en called " G erm an nephritis . The chief sym ptom s
were diarrhoea and oedema, together w ith album inuria and
blood pressure. On occasion it took the proportions of an epi
demic, though its infectious natu re was never established.
I t was a p p a re n tly due p a rtly to vitam in B deficiency, in con
junction w ith a lack of m ineral salts. The PW also suffered
from bacillary dysentery, which was very w idespread owing
to recent events in this country.
The first consignm ents sent to Jugoslavia from Geneva in
th e au tu m n of 1945 were com plete assortm ents which furnished
hospitals and the chief PW cam ps w ith first-aid equipm ent and
essential m edical requirem ents. More detailed inform ation on
conditions in Jugoslavia th ere after reached Geneva, and the
C om m ittees delegation in Belgrade, in agreem ent w ith the
Jugoslav Red Cross and the authorities, m ade issues of insecti
cides, ty p h u s vaccines, anti-diarrhoeics, cardiacs and vitam in
products. In J u ly 1946 fu rth er sta n d a rd assortm ents were sent
to PW hospitals and camps.
A ltogether, the ICRC supplied G erm an PW in Jugoslavia
w ith 334 parcels weighing 16,865 kilogram s and valued at
161,488 Swiss francs.
A ustria. The m edical and pharm aceutical stores sent
by the ICRC to th e sm all num ber of Germ an PW detained in
A ustria consisted a t first of distributions m ade from December
1945 onw ards in the V orarlberg and in the Tyrol ; sim ilar issues
were la te r on m ade in the cam ps of the Am erican and B ritish
Zones. On learning th a t rep a tria te d PW were due to arrive from
R ussia an d Jugoslavia, the ICRC despatched large q u antities of
supplies to the m ain reception centres a t Innsbruck and Linz
310

in particular. H ospital tra in s sent to Jugoslavia to fetch sick

PW were also provided w ith m edical stores.
The consignm ents sent to A ustria th ro u g h o u t 1946 and
during the early m onths of 1947 am ounted in all to 238 parcels,
weighing 8,350 kilos and valued a t 71,095 Swiss francs.

Occupation Zones in Germany. A certain num ber of

Germ an ex-servicem en were detained in the occupation zones
of G erm any, in cam ps and labour detachm ents, or in the
prohibited a re a s . F rom N ovem ber 1945 to M arch 1946, th e
ICRC provided th e cam ps w ith sta n d a rd assortm ents, medicines,
insecticides and dressings.
The ICRC also gave m edical aid to PW rep a tria te d from
France, Jugoslavia and Russia, largely w ith the 16 tons of m edi
cal stores supplied by th e A m ericans for th e relief of th e PW
in French hands, as m entioned above. On th e request of the
French authorities, th e C om m ittee also sent sim ilar stores to
the Strom berg sanatorium for the tre a tm e n t of rep a tria te d
G erm an PW .
In Ju n e 1947, th e C om m ittee sent th eir Berlin D elegation
over six tons of pharm aceutical and m edical stores for G erm an
PW rep a tria te d to th e Soviet Zone, p articu larly for th e rep a
tria tio n centre a t F rankfort-on-the-O der.
The consignm ents sent to G erm any to ta lle d some 30 tons,
of which 11,650 kilogram s were for PW detained in cam ps and
11,850 kilogram s for rep a tria te s to the Soviet zone.

Belgium . The G erm an PW in Belgium, m ost of whom

worked in th e mines, suffered for a tim e from th e shortage of
dressings and disinfectants. The Belgian authorities endea
voured, from th e outset, to im prove th eir situation. The ICRC
was th u s only called upon to contribute a few consignm ents,
p articularly by first-aid kits and products which were in short
supply. Tow ards th e m iddle of 1946 this relief discontinued, as
Belgium was able to m eet all the requirem ents of such PW as
has not been rep atriated .
SU

Poland. H ere, the C om m ittee began, in Septem ber 1946,

by sending supplies to th e cam p a t Jaw orzno, which held a
great n um ber of sick a n d disabled Germ ans. L a ter reports
s ta te d th a t th is consignm ent h ad g rea tly im proved th e m ens
s ta te of health. A ssortm ents of m edicines, dressings and su r
gical in stru m en ts were issued to th e PW working in th e Silesian
coalm ines, as soon as th e ICRC received perm ission to visit th eir
camps. Two h u n d red sm all sta n d a rd m edicine chests were also
given to labour detachm ents.
L ater, th e W arsaw D elegation built up a stock which was
regularly replenished for use in emergencies.
In all, 575 packages weighing 18 tons and valued a t 107,767
Swiss francs were sent to G erm an PW in Poland.
Other countries. Medical and pharm aceutical supplies to
th e value of some 10,000 Swiss francs were also sent to G erm an
P W in o ther countries, p articu larly Ita ly , th e Middle E a st and
th e N etherlands, as also to G erm an civilians in tern ed in South
Am erica, A rabia an d A ustralia.
(C). Italian Prisoners of W ar and M ilitary Internees
The cam ps in which Ita lia n PW and m ilitary internees
were detained during th e w ar, were scattered thro u g h o u t several
countries, and even different continents. The a tte m p ts m ade by
th e Com m ittee to give these men m edical and pharm aceutical
relief therefore could not, as in other cases m entioned above,
be carried out along uniform and regular lines.
India. In 1942, th e Com m ittee d istrib u ted in PW cam ps
ab o u t one ton of m edicam ents received from th e Ita lia n Red
Cross.
North Africa. From 1942 to 1945, several consignm ents
were d istributed, including large q u antities of insecticide a n d a
num ber of surgical in stru m en ts in Algeria. F rom Septem ber
1945 onw ards, a fairly large num ber of m ixed m edical consign
m ents were issued in th a t area.
312

France and Corsica M any individual applications reached

Geneva and were given a tte n tio n
From Ju n e 1944 to Ju ly
1945, sim ilar requests from Ita lia n m ilitary internees in Sw itzer
lan d were m et.
These activities were financed by th e Ita lia n Red Cross
a n d b y gifts from Ita lia n m ilitary internees in Sw itzerland ;
Ita lia n s detained in G erm any and Jugoslavia were th e chief
beneficiaries.
Germany. Ita lia n m ilitary internees in G erm any were not
considered as P W 1, and th e ICRC was consequently denied
access to th eir cam ps. Supplies could not therefore be sent to
them direct, b u t were forw arded th rough th e Apostolic Nuncio
in Berlin, who h ad a u th o rity to distrib u te th e m edical stores
sent from Geneva. In this m anner, 40 sta n d a rd assortm ents,
chiefly for the tre a tm e n t of m alaria, to which th e Ita lia n forces
in Greece, th e B alkans and Africa were prone, were bought and
distrib u ted in A ugust 1944 w ith contributions m ade by the
Relief C om m ittee for Ita lia n Internees, in L ausanne. A nother
rem ittance from th e same body, added to a sum of 15,000
Swiss francs draw n from the IC R C s own funds, enabled dis
patches to be m ade to these Italian s u n til th e arm istice.
Jugoslavia. From th e au tu m n of 1945, th e C om m ittees
efforts were directed chiefly to th e provision of m edical relief
for Ita lia n PW detained in Jugoslavia. In O ctober 1945, sta n d
a rd parcels, dressings and o ther articles were issued in nine
hospitals. A m o n th later, a fu rth e r seven m ixed consignm ents
were despatched to Jugoslavia ; th eir contents h a d been pres
cribed b y th e C om m ittees delegate in Belgrade and the Italian
R ed Cross delegate in Geneva, an d com prised chiefly m edicines
for cases of ex an th em atic ty p h u s, specialities for nephritis and
calcium tonics for consum ptives.
In th e au tu m n of 1945 fu rth e r assortm ents were sent to
th e Ita lia n R ed Cross delegates in Czechoslovakia, P oland and
A ustria (medicines, dressings, ty p h u s vaccine and insecticides)
for the Italian s still detained in those countries.
1 See Vol. I, p. 535.

313

D istribution Schedule
Purchase value
(in Swiss francs)

Ita lia n M ilitary Internees in S w itzerland. . .

Ita lia n
PW in N orth A f r i c a ..........................
F rance and C o r s i c a ..................
G e r m a n y ........................................
Ju g o sla v ia .......................................
A u s t r i a ............................................
C zechoslovakia...............................
P o l a n d ............................................
o ther C o u n t r i e s ..........................
rep a tria te d to I ta l y ..........................

1,373
11,210
1,075
36,332
17,726
4,453
1,050
8,753
1,137
12,491

T otal . . .
Gifts in kind (Swiss m e d ic a m e n ts ) ......................

95,600
17,350

T otal value (all m edicam ents purchased in

S w itz e r la n d ) .........................................................

112,950

(D). Civilian Internees

The ICRC seized every possible o p p o rtu n ity to provide
civilian internees w ith m edical and pharm aceutical relief.
Parcels of m edical supplies were issued in large quan tities to
cam ps for B ritish, Norwegian, R ussian and Jugoslav internees
in G erm any an d Ita ly . L ater on, especially a fter th e autum n
of 1945, sim ilar supplies were sent to G erm an civilians interned
in France.
As a general rule, these consignm ents were subject to the
sam e difficulties as the supplies for PW , and were handled as
described in previous chapters.
(E). Displaced Persons
1.

Needs

H ealth conditions am ongst the D isplaced Persons were

an im m ediate source of concern to the ICRC, and inform ation
on th e subject was sought im m ediately a fter th e arm istice,
p articu larly in G erm any and A ustria.

314

From the close of Ju n e, requests for m edical relief supplies

reached the ICRC direct from cam p doctors and U N R R A team s.
In every case an alm ost com plete lack of m edicam ents was
reported. Some doctors even travelled to G eneva to ask for
indispensable supplies. The C om m ittees delegates were, for
th eir p a rt, gathering all available inform ation. The ICRC then
decided to send a mission to G erm any and an o th er to A ustria.
The object of the first mission, which w ent to B avaria, was to
ob tain first-hand inform ation and to m ake im m ediate issues
of the medical supplies th a t had already arrived there.
In A ugust a n d Septem ber 1945, fu rth e r m edical missions,
organised jo in tly b y th e ICRC and th e Swiss Red Cross, w ent to
G erm any, to deal w ith the h ealth in general of displaced persons,
and to establish local co-ordination betw een th e ICRC, the
Swiss Relief F und and th e Swiss R ed Cross. On the strength of
inform ation supplied by these missions, fu rth e r issues were m ade
by the ICRC during th e au tu m n of 1945, p articu la rly in the
B ay reu th area of th e A m erican Zone.
Several pharm aceutical missions were also sent to A ustria,
a fte r O ctober 1945, and d istrib u ted quan tities of stores in the
cam ps for displaced persons.
H ealth conditions am ongst displaced persons in G erm any
were gradually brought under control ; this was due in p articu lar
to the large relief supplies d istrib u ted by U N R R A , especially
in th e Am erican Zone. Consequently, the ICRC reserved the
g rea ter p a rt of its m edical supplies for displaced persons in
A ustria and Italy .
2. Gifts in kind

From Ju n e 1945 onwards, Allied PW and deportees were

rep a tria te d w ith great rap id ity ; the ICRC consequently decided
to divert to displaced persons stores which had been originally
built up for PW . On being consulted, the B ritish Red Cross
agreed th a t th e m edical supplies stocked in Geneva for B ritish
PW should, as from O ctober 1945, be em ployed p a rtly for the
Polish civilian population, b u t chiefly for displaced persons of
Allied nationality. These stocks included over 32 tons of p h a r
m aceutical products, dressings, and so forth.
315

O ther m edical stores held by th e ICRC abroad, particu larly in

S outhern G erm any and U pper A ustria, were quickly disposed
of during th e sum m er of 1945, as first aid to displaced persons.
The first d istributions took place in th e Am erican Zones of
G erm any and A ustria, and were la te r extended to the B ritish
and French Zones in these countries.
3. Cash donations

The ICRC also devoted to th e relief of displaced persons

of various nationalities a sum of ab o u t 105,000 Swiss francs,
originally in tended for th e purchase of relief supplies for Allied
PW . These funds consisted of a gift of 47,000 Swiss francs from
th e S a n tista Mills, a t Sao Paulo, p a rt of which had been pre
viously utilised for Allied PW , and a sum of about 22,000 Swiss
francs deriving from a collection m ade by G erm an P W in th e
U n ited S tates, who h a d requested th a t p a rt of th e proceeds
should be used for displaced persons. W ith this m oney th e ICRC
purchased m edicam ents in Sw itzerland, which were a useful
addition to th e m edical stores draw n from stocks abroad.
The ICRC was also called upon to assist p a rticu la r categories
of displaced persons, and for this purpose received 85,000 Swiss
francs from th e E sth o n ian D elegation in th e U nited S tates, to
provide m edical relief for E sthonian displaced persons in Ger
m any and A ustria. A fu rth e r 34,000 Swiss francs was presented
b y th e L atv ian D elegation for relief to displaced persons of th a t
n atio n ality . L astly 11,000 Swiss francs, handed to the ICRC
b y th e U nited U krainian Relief C om m ittee in th e U nited States,
helped to give m edical relief (dental supplies in particular) to
displaced U krainians. Seven tons of m edical and p h arm aceuti
cal stores were also given by th e U krainian Canadian Relief
Fund.
4. R elief operations

In all areas where th e ICRC issued m edical supplies, close

cooperation was m aintained w ith U N R R A , th e m ilitary occu
patio n au th o rities and th e N ational R ed Cross Societies, espe
cially w ith th e B ritish R ed Cross.
316

Germany. In the Am erican Zone, th e issue of m edical

supplies from th e stocks set up locally b y th e ICRC was quickly
p u t th ro u g h in th e early sum m er of 1945 ; th e supplies were
collected by U N R R A lorries from th e ICRC stock. In the
B ritish Zone, distribu tions s ta rte d a t th e beginning of Septem
b er 1945. th rough th e C om m ittees delegations a t Liibeck and
V lotho, an d were continued th rough th e B ritish R ed Cross H.Q.
a n d U N R R A . In th e French Zone, th e ICRC sent consignm ents
direct to th e cam ps, and established a stock a t the R a s ta tt
C entral D epot, which was under th e Direction centrale des
personnes dplaces of th e H ealth D ep artm en t of th e French
M ilitary G overnm ent. An agreem ent was subsequently reached
w ith th e French occupation authorities, providing th a t requests
for m edicines received from D P cam ps which could be m et
n eith er by purchases on th e local m ark et, nor by th e R a s ta tt
D epot, should be referred to th e ICRC. The la tte r was th u s
able to supply m edicam ents and pharm aceutical products th a t
were not otherw ise available.
Austria. D istributions in A ustria were carried out by the
C om m ittee's delegations, in close cooperation w ith th e m ilitary
au th o rities of the three zones, th e B ritish R ed Cross and the
P D R (Prisoners, D eportees, Refugees) Section of th e French
M ilitary G overnm ent.
Italy. Some consignm ents were issued by the C om m ittees
delegations in N o rth and S outh Ita ly to cam ps for displaced
persons of various nationalities.
5. Exam ple of R elief W ork

T he delegation a t Linz (U pper A ustria) was stationed

in an area which contained a p articu larly large num ber of
D Ps C Its work can be tak e n as typical.
1 In June 1945, their num ber represented one-fifth of the entire
population of Upper Austria.

317

Fifteen tons of m edicam ents, restoratives, dressings, disin

fectants, etc., were issued in th e period up to the au tu m n of
1945. T hereafter, th e Com m ittee replenished th e delegations
stocks a t regular intervals, supplying 24 tons in all. The dele
gation was th u s able to assist the displaced person in cam ps,
infirm aries and hospitals, and to issue m edical stores to the
convoys of D Ps travelling th rough Linz tow ards the W est.
Several qualified chem ists were sent to Linz, to share out the
stocks. In A ugust 1946, a first-aid post was set up a t E nns, on
th e frontier betw een th e A m erican and R ussian zones, to assist
the train-loads of rep a tria te s passing th rough th a t town.
The h ealth of m any children was im proved by regular
doses of cod-liver oil ; concentrated vitam in-D tab le ts for
infants in arm s did m uch to prevent cases of rickets.
F rom M ay 1945 u n til M arch 1947, when th e delegation
was w ithdraw n, 589 issues of m edical stores were m ade to D Ps,
as follows :
Issues to
,,
,,
,,
,,

c a m p s ..............................................................
438
hospitals and cam p in fir m a r ie s ...........
42
national and regional C o m m itte e s........
60
sundry N ational Red Cross Branches . . . .
repatriation co n v o y s..................................
24
Total . .

25
589

In addition to collective aid, the delegation also m ade

up individual prescription for over 4,000 DPs.

2.

r t if ic ia l

im b s ,

S u r g ic a l A

p pl ia n c e s

etc

The m edical aid provided by the ICRC for PW and in te r

nees was not confined to consignm ents of m edical stores, b u t
also included artificial lim bs, surgical appliances, dentures,
spectacles, and so on. Article 14 of the 1929 PW Convention
stipulates th a t tem p o rary rem edial a p p a ra tu s shall be sup
plied to PW by the D etaining Power. This general provision
318

was in te rp re te d in various ways, and PW were often given

appliances in no w ay suitable for several m onths or years of
captivity .
In these circum stances, the ICRC first a tte m p te d to induce
th e D etaining Powers to apply A rticle 14 in a m ore generous
spirit,, and in p a rticu la r to replace in ad eq u ate tem p o rary ap p a
ra tu s by provisional prostheses th a t m ight be regarded as semi
perm anent. W here such steps were unavailing, the ICRC had
to satisfy th e m ost urgent needs by relief supplies.
A lthough th is class of supplies was of m inor im portance
in com parison to o ther consignm ents, the subject deserves close
consideration, for th is branch of th e C om m ittees undertakings
was especially com plex and called for special organization.
The surgical appliances required m ay be divided into four
classes :
(1) D entures.
(2) Artificial limbs.
(3) Artificial eyes.
(4) H ernia trusses and o ther surgical ap p aratu s.

(a) Allied Prisoners of War.

A rticle 14 of th e Convention states th a t PW cam ps shall
have infirm aries where th e y m ay receive a tte n tio n of any kind,
a t the expense of the D etaining Power. This a tte n tio n therefore
includes d en tal tre a tm e n t and artificial lim bs. A rticle 14 th u s
implies th e presence of a staff of dentists, in addition to surge
ries and workshops adequate in proportion to the num ber of
PW and dentists, to g eth er w ith am ple and regular issues of
dental m aterial and supplies of all kinds.
The provision regarding " tem p o rary a p p a ra tu s is certainly
unsatisfactory. T em porary dentures are obviously of no value
to men whose detention is prolonged ; prostheses of this kind
can be of service for a few days, or a few weeks a t th e outside,
while the gum s are being tre a te d and perm anent dentures m ade.
Such w ant of precision cannot how ever explain th e non-obser319

vanee of A rticle 14 by G erm any, and by Ita ly in p articular. The

following seem to have been th e chief reasons for lack of dental
care :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Scarcity of den tists and d en tal mechanics.

In ad e q u a te installations.
Shortage of essential stores.
Mass arrival of PW in cam ps.

The ICRC soon discovered th a t in th e tw o countries m en

tioned th e steadily increasing num ber of p atien ts compelled the
den tists to confine tre a tm e n t to th e relief of actual pain an d the
som etim es quite unnecessary ex tractio n of decayed teeth.
The num ber of m en w ithout te e th quickly rose and led to
a corresponding increase of gastric affections. The workshops
were soon overwhelm ed, and to relieve the pressure of work the
dentists a p p a re n tly kept as strictly as possible to the le tte r of
A rticle 14.
One of th e C om m ittees first tasks was to determ ine the
lowest degree of m asticato ry capacity below which th e D etain
ing Powers should be obliged to supply dentures to PW . The
C om m ittees representations led to no appreciable results, the
belligerents objecting th a t th ey could not give PW in th eir
h ands th e d en tal tre a tm e n t an d dentures which were denied to
th eir own arm ed forces. Thus, PW tak e n by arm ed forces in
which d en tal tre a tm e n t was confined to the m ost urgent cases
were a t a disadvantage ; this was the case in p articu lar for Allied
prisoners in G erm any.
The C om m ittee received a great m any appeals from PW who
were not given conservative tre a tm e n t and whose te e th were
p ro m p tly extracted, although the D etaining Pow er declined to
bear th e costs of even tem p o rary dentures.
These appeals were p a rtly m et, in so far as the ICRC was
able to send individual and collective relief parcels to the PW
camps.
Individual relief in cash.
In individual cases, civilian dentists em ployed by th e cam p
were reim bursed th e cost of dentures m ade for Allied PW .
320

Means h ad to be found of checking such supplies of dentures,

and th is involved more office work. E a rly in 1942, th e interested
R ed Cross Societies agreed to th e C om m ittees opening separate
accounts for this purpose, and gave credits over which the
C om m ittee h ad autonom ous control.
E ach case h ad to be carefully exam ined in order to apportion
costs betw een th e D etaining Pow er an d th e N ational R ed
Cross ; to this effect, the Com m ittee engaged a qualified d entist
to assess each case in th e light of th e reports which th e cam p
doctor, or th e d en tist in atten d an ce was asked to supply.
This w ork involved extensive correspondence. On receiving
an application, th e ICRC in v ited the cam p doctor to subm it
an estim ate of costs, w hich was th en exam ined and passed.
In stru ctio n s for tre a tm e n t were th en issued to th e doctor in
charge, w ith a request for an invoice. A fter th e tre a tm e n t had
been given, th e invoice was countersigned by th e p a tie n t and
forw arded to G eneva ; if the bill was passed, the claim was
paid to the cam p doctor. M atters were still m ore com plicated
when th e tre a tm e n t was given by a civilian d en tist not resident
in the cam p.
This m ethod was ham pered by the dilato ry procedure
required and th e insufficient funds placed a t th e C om m ittees
disposal by th e R ed Cross Societies. From 1942 to 1945, Geneva
never h ad enough m oney to assist even th e m ost severe cases,
not to m ention those whose condition was daily becoming
worse. F unds allocated for th e purpose were a t once discovered
to be insufficient to cover even some proportion of th e cases
aw aiting tre a tm e n t.
The ICRC trie d to m eet the situation, which caused them
great concern, by increasing th e supplies of relief in kind.

Individual relief in kind.

Such relief, in th e shape of raw m aterial for th e m anufacture
of dentures or false teeth , was only provided in a very few cases,
th e risk of loss being too great in tim e of war.
i n .

21

321

Collective relief.
Collective supplies were alw ays sent in the shape of stores
and m aterial, b u t in no case in cash.
At the exact m om ent when th e ICRC was engaged in organiz
ing a collective relief scheme, appeals from help suddenly began
to arrive from all qu arters, in p a rticu la r from G erm any. G eneva
was subm erged b y a flood of applications, and the position was
rendered m ore acute b y th e general shortage of dental supplies,
b o th in Sw itzerland and abroad.
R equests cam e direct from PW dentists and cam p leaders,
still m ore frequently from the C om m ittees own delegates or
those of th e YMCA, and from Red Cross Societies.
The ICRC h ad three sources of d en tal supplies : (i) gifts
in kind from Allied R ed Cross Societies, (2) collections in Sw it
zerland and (3) purchases of raw m aterial in Sw itzerland w ith
funds subscribed by various donors.
In 1943, th e B ritish R ed Cross sent to G eneva a num ber
of parcels of various types, called D ental U nits
T hey were
packed in such a m anner th a t direct transm ission was im pos
sible ; th e ICRC thereupon suggested, an d the B ritish R ed Cross
agreed, th a t a stock of m aterial from G reat B ritain should be
held in bond a t Geneva. The D ental U nits were unpacked and
served to m ake up ap p ro p riate parcels for th e cam p dentists.
F u rth e r, th e ICRC and th e Jo in t Relief Commission m ade
a collection of dental m aterial in Sw itzerland and shared the
proceeds.
The ICRC also opened a w orkshop in th eir D ental Section,
where disused dentures were broken up and cleaned, a n d a rti
ficial te e th assem bled in sets. Gold or platinum clips and rivets
were rem oved from unserviceable teeth. In all, the w orkshop
recovered 180,000 artificial tee th , and gold and p latinum to
th e value of 2,000 Swiss francs.
Purchases were m ade under the direction of a qualified
dentist, and were closely checked for q u a lity and price, both
generally very unstable in th is branch of trade.
The stocks com prised th ree categories : (1) purchases in
Sw itzerland, (2) th e proceeds of collections, (3) supplies from
322

abroad and in bond. The Com m ittee freq u en tly drew upon all
three stocks to m ake up com plete sets to m eet th e needs of th e
camps. Custom s an d export operations ham pered th e work,
although th e ICRC was given every facility b y th e au th o rities.
From 1943 to 1944, th e parcels were sent b y post, b u t th e
insurance com panies ev entually refused to cover a n y fu rth e r
w ar risks, and th e ICRC despatched collective consignm ents
b y rail. This m ethod, though slow, ensured safe arrival.
(b) German Prisoners of War.
The ICRC was soon inform ed th a t G erm an P W in F ran ce
a n d elsewhere stood in urgent need of den tal tre a tm e n t, and
th a t th e h e a lth of a g reat m any was seriously th reaten ed , owing
to insufficient m astication and consequent m alnutrition.
An in itial scheme aim ed a t opening d e n ta l surgeries, to
deal w ith th e m ost urgent first or second degree p atien ts.
S ta n d ard kits were m ade up a n d 56 were sent to France, two
to P oland and one to Belgium.
The G erm an PW dentists in charge of th e surgeries th u s
established in France, N o rth Africa and Corsica were given
perm ission to m ake regular visits to th e cam ps and larger
labour d etachm ents in th eir areas. Prisoners were also allowed
to tra v e l to th e centres where den tal surgeries h ad been opened.
The Com m ittee did not confine itself to th e opening of such
centres ; it ensured a regular supply of stores of every kind :
in stru m en ts, am algam , den tal cem ent, m edicam ents and so on.
A shortage of certain supplies only could bring all d en tal tr e a t
m ent in a centre to a standstill. Anxious to respond p ro m p tly
to requests from cam p dentists, th e Com m ittee decided to
centralize all dem ands a t th eir Paris D elegation ; here large
stocks were b u ilt up, from which th e required stores could be
a t once tak e n a n d despatched.
W ith th e help th u s provided b y th e ICRC, th e G erm an
dentists in F rance were, during 1947, able to tre a t some 50,000
p atien ts m onthly. In one centre, for instance, a single d entist,
assisted by a d en tal m echanic, tre a te d 14,280 G erm an P W in
th e space of fifteen m onths.
323

A dditional deliveries were m ade to G erm an PW cam ps in

France, G erm any, A ustria, Belgium, Ita ly and Poland, to
com plete or replenish th e equipm ent of existing centres.
A nother scheme in this connexion was th e opening of repair
w orkshops in each of th e ten m ilitary regions in France. German
P W in need of dentures were sent for tre a tm e n t to the hospitals
where these w orkshops were installed. The la tte r were regularly
supplied in raw m aterial and in stru m en ts by Geneva, or direct
by the Paris delegation. Six hundred new dentures were th u s
m ade each m onth, a p a rt from num erous repairs.
The to ta l supplies sent to G erm an PW in F rance included
635 parcels of den tal an d surgical m aterial, weighing about
12 tons and valued a t about 350,000 Swiss francs.
2. Artificial Limbs

F rom 1940 onw ards, th e Com m ittee paid close a tte n tio n
to th e situ atio n of am putee or seriously w ounded PW . As
th e w ar lengthened, endeavours were m ade to keep a record
of th eir num bers and nam es, and to ascertain th e care they
received, p a rticu larly as regards th e supply of artificial lim bs.
I t was ap p a re n t from th e outset th a t, unless rep a tria tio n could
be effected as soon as th e healing of th e p a tie n ts stum ps m ade
this possible, stric t application of Article 14 becam e an obstacle
to an y m odern m ethods of reh ab ilitatin g the w ar-disabled.
The w earing of tem p o rary appliances such as th e D etaining
Pow er is bound to supply, can in m ost cases only be prejudicial
to th e functional re-education which is required, if the p a tie n t
is to use an a rticu lated artificial lim b. Since th e obligation
of th e D etaining Pow er stopped a t the supply of peg-legs or
sem i-articulated lim bs, am putees not eligible for rep atriatio n
could not have th e individualized m edical gym nastics which
are practised in special institutions.
The C om m ittee m ade its chief efforts therefore to secure
th e early release of am putees and to induce the belligerents
to conclude agreem ents to th a t effect.
In May 1941, negotiations for th e exchange of seriously
w ounded betw een G erm any and G reat B ritain failed, and the
324

ICRC was called upon to c arry out special relief schemes.

As a prelim inary m easure, th e belligerents were asked for
exact inform ation regarding th e num ber of PW am putees, the
care th ey were given and the degree of cooperation which the
ICRC m ight expect.
D uring hostilities, artificial lim bs were alm ost exclusively
supplied to Allied PW . R equests from Axis PW were few in
num ber and could alw ays be su itab ly satisfied, either b y the
D etaining Powers them selves or b y th e C om m ittees delegations,
which used funds provided b y the G erm an R ed Cross for this
purpose.
Artificial lim bs were especially required for B ritish, Am erican
and Polish a m p u ta te d PW in G erm any ; th e seriously w ounded
of other nationalities, and th e Allied am putees detained in
Ita ly were sent hom e before assistance of th is n a tu re was
initiated.
Two courses were adopted : (i) th e raw m aterials required
for th e m anufacture of prostheses were furnished to th e D etain
ing Power, or (2) experts were in stru cted to m ake p laster casts
and take m easurem ents, while th e lim bs were m ade in n eutral
countries.
C om paratively few consignm ents of m aterial were m ade,
as th e m anufacture of lim bs in cam ps was difficult owing to
th e lack of tra in ed labour and workshops. The cost of the
consignm ents was borne by th e R ed Cross Societies concerned 1.
More extensive assistance was given by a Swiss orthopaedic
mission for B ritish and Polish PW in G erm any. H aving secured
the belligerents consent to this undertaking, the ICRC first
established a list of B ritish and Polish am putees in German
hands, w ith particulars of their condition and present location ;
an estim ate was m ade of the m aterials required and the itin era ry
and d uration of th e mission fixed. The B ritish authorities
were then given the approxim ate costs of the mission itself
and of the appliances required.

1 The first m ethod of aid was particularly useful after the arm istice
for the R elief of German PW am putees held in the American Zone of
Germany.

325

Through the Com m ittee, it was agreed betw een th e B ritish

a n d Swiss G overnm ents th a t Sw itzerland should supply th e
necessary m aterial while G reat B ritain would replace th e leather,
brass, lacquer, cotton and wool, b u t not th e alum inium used.
The G erm an G overnm ent agreed to have th e am putees assem bled
in six hospitals and g ran te d th e necessary visas and special
p erm its to th e Swiss experts.
The B ritish G overnm ent having furnished the required
funds for general expenses, the scheme was carried out as
follows :
(1) F irst mission. The Swiss experts visited th e six assem bly
centres, took m easurem ents and m ade the casts for the m anu
facture of the appliances in Sw itzerland.
(2) M anufacture of appliances. This was done in five
Swiss workshops and was a m a tte r of some difficulty, as the
w ork had to be done w ithout tria l fittings, which are usually
frequent.
(3) Second mission. The Swiss experts m ade a second
jo u rn ey to th e assem bly centres to fit and ad ju st the lim bs which
were alm ost com pleted. A t th e same tim e th ey took new
m easurem ents and m ade fresh casts for other am putees.
(4) Despatch of appliances. The first three stages were
som ew hat p ro tra c te d an d the G erm an au thorities m eanw hile
arranged for th e re p a tria tio n of th e am putees, who received
th eir artificial lim bs ju st before leaving G erm any.
3. O phthalm ic R elief

The supply of glass eyes and spectacles to PW was known

as " O phthalm ic R e lie f .
As a rule, the provision of glass eyes by the D etaining
Pow er encountered little or no difficulties, especially in the
case of accidents occurring during cap tiv ity . Spectacles were
often refused ; the belligerents did not, for instance, consider
them selves bound to replace spectacles worn by PW prior to
c a p tiv ity .
326

Collective relief in th is sphere was confined to providing

sun glasses for PW in an African cam p.
In d iv id u al cases were dealt w ith in agreem ent w ith the
J o in t Relief Commission. The la tte r h ad a large stock of lenses
a n d fram es, th e result of a collection in Sw itzerland for PW
a n d civilian victim s of th e war. The lenses were sorted by
e x perts and sent free of charge to applicants. From J a n u a ry i,
1942, to D ecem ber 31,1945, 25,100 pairs of spectacles were sent
to Allied PW . From early Decem ber 1944 u n til Ju n e 30, 1947,
Axis P W received 3,375 pairs. E ach pair was sent in response
to an individual request, usually accom panied b y an oculists
prescription.
The ICRC h ad som etim es to satisfy special dem ands,
p articu larly for cylindrical lenses which th Jo in t Relief Com
mission did not stock. Such prescriptions were handed to a
Swiss optician, who su b m itted a prelim inary estim ate. The
costs were m et from th e fund for surgical appliances contributed
by N ational Societies.
4. H ernia Trusses and other Surgical Appliances

A great m any PW , especially in G erm any, com plained th a t

th e y could n ot obtain surgical belts, or elastic knee and other
bandages which th ey required. This applied p a rticu larly to
P W who had undergone abdom inal operations before or after
cap tiv ity .
R equests were also received for invalid carriagesthese
could u n fo rtu n ately not be satisfiedand for special surgical
appliances for perm anent wear, which could not be classed as
tem p o rary ap p aratu s.
F or all these requests the ICRC w rote to th e cam p doctor
a n d the applicant, asking for exact m easurem ents, prescriptions,
or other details. The articles were th en ordered from Swiss
m anufacturers and despatched.

327

Chapter

Relief for Civilian Internees

Civilian internees having been placed in all respects, including

relief supplies, on th e same footing as prisoners of war, there
is no need to repeat here w hat has been already said on the
subject. We shall m erely draw a tte n tio n to the peculiar
features of civilian relief.
(1). Absence of M ilitary D iscipline
On enlistm ent in th e forces, w ith the a tte n d a n t m ilitary
discipline, m en rapidly lose th e sense of social distinctions.
This applies p articu larly to prisoners of war. The idea of w ealth
and po v erty could only play a sm all p a rt in their lives. At
th e m ost, certain PW received frequent parcels from home,
w hilst others, who were in poorer circum stances or who had
no relatives, could expect nothing.
In civilian cam ps, on th e contrary, social distinctions were
very m arked and created m uch ill-feeling. The consequent
strain ed relations often m ade th e choice of a cam p leader a
m a tte r of no slight difficulty. In such cases the internees
appointed a com m ittee of three to five persons, selected from
th e various elem ents in the cam p, to represent them w ith the
cam p adm inistration or th e welfare organizations. Such diffi
culties m ost often occurred in the early periods of c ap tiv ity
or during an em ergency caused by aerial bom bardm ents,
transfers or sim ilar incidents, w hilst th ey subsided a t calm er
junctures, or when the internees h ad grown accustom ed to
th eir new w ay of life.
328

No p a rticu la r com plaints were voiced by th e internees as

regards th e q u a n tity or q u a lity of th eir food, since all donors
stip u lated th a t th is should be th e same as th a t for PW . Free
collective consignm ents of foodstuffs, clothing and footw ear
were greeted quite differently, however, by civilian internees
th an by prisoners. M embers of the forces, w hether PW or
not, were accustom ed to receiving th eir rations a n d equipm ent
and, in a general way, w hatever necessaries m ight im prove
their living conditions. Civilians, on the contrary, who had
alw ays lived on th eir own resources, felt th ey were now a
charge on welfare societies. Time and h a b it usually helped
them to overcom e this feeling.
R egular work, which was introduced in m ost cam ps, had
an excellent effect. W here work was n o t possible, e.g. in
tropical countries, th e books, gam es and educational supplies
given as a form of relief were genuinely beneficial.
(2). Lack of P ay and Wages
W hereas p ay or wages g ran ted by th e D etaining Powers
enabled prisoners of w ar to buy essentials in the canteens
open to them , the lack of pocket m oney created m uch dis
com fort am ong civilian internees, from 1939 onwards. The
R ed Cross Societies and hom e governm ents realised th a t it was
indispensable to m ake internees m onthly allowances in lieu
of pay. The issue of these allowances was th e concern of the
Protecting Powers, and th e ICRC was called upon only if
these Powers were unable to c arry out this task. This was so,
generally, where small parties detained in outlying cam ps
were involved. Donors reported such cam ps requirem ents
and requested th a t th e nearest delegate should m ake the p a y
m ents, in place of th e P rotecting Power. Instances of this
were th e G erm an internees in French E q u ato rial Africa, the
Belgian Congo, South Africa, th e Portuguese colony of Goa
(India), Jam aica and T ahiti, the Ita lia n internees in th e Belgian
Congo, B ulgarian, R um anian, Ita lia n and G erm an families
residing in Ira n and Ira q in conditions n o t unlike internm ent,
and lastly certain Allied nationals interned in th e F a r E ast.
329

The belligerents agreed to the tran sfer of this pocket m oney

an d no difficulty arose in th is respect. Com plications were
caused, however, b y th e dem and of th e G erm an R ed Cross
th a t G erm an G overnm ent funds should be issued only to G erm an
internees who had signed a declaration of lo y alty to th e Reich
(Reichstreue) a n d to its head. M any internees who had lived
for years overseas h a d to some ex ten t lost touch w ith th eir
hom e co u n try an d were not, like others, organized on a poli
tical basis ; th e above condition was therefore a frequent
cause of m isapprehension and ill-feeling, in th e cam ps, creating
differences betw een the internees and th eir spokesm en, and
m aking the ta sk b o th of th e ICRC and of the P rotecting Power
m ore difficult. D espite th e extrem e delicacy of the question,
th e ICRC finally induced th e Germ an Red Cross to allow
spokem en to give the lo y alty clause the widest possible in te r
pretatio n .
Occasionally, th e forw arding of m oney was delayed by the
sam e lack of com m unications th a t h ad prevented the P ro
tectin g Pow er itself from carrying out paym ents. F or exam ple,
funds for K ingston Camp, Jam aica, h ad to be handled both
b y th e ICRC and th e Protecting Pow er : G eneva sent the
funds to the London delegation, which forw arded them to
th e Swiss Vice-Consul in Jam aica. The m oney for th e 29
G erm an internees in T ah iti h ad to be sent direct to th e spokes
m an, as neither th e ICRC nor th e P rotecting Pow er had repre
sentatives on th e island. Small parties of internees detained
in tra n sit in Ceylon, th e Fijis and other Pacific islands, Aden,
Cyprus and the B erm udas were in a sim ilar position.
Allowances were paid m onthly in p articu lar cam ps, accord
ing to a schedule draw n up by the donors. Special relief h ad to
provide for th e internees not covered by this schedule, such
as those in tra n sit and new arrivals, who often lacked the
barest necessities.
Thus, in 1942, th e ICRC was called upon to send individual
relief to some 8,000 in h a b ita n ts of th e Channel Islands whom
th e occupying au thorities had deported to G erm any. This was
n o t a case of m ere intern m en t, com parable w ith th a t of th e
B ritish women held in the V ittel and Liebenau cam ps, b u t a
330

wholesale tran sfer of population. Sim ilar situ atio n arose when
nationals of th e Axis countries were first assem bled and th en
in tern ed in various p a rts of the Com m onwealth. Relief for
Allied civilians in tern ed in G erm any consisted in th e dispatch
of foodstuffs, clothing and m edicam ents, whereas assistance to
n atio n als of Axis countries usually took th e shape of funds
sent to a local delegate, who m ade th e m ost urgent purchases
on th e spot.
An exam ple of such relief work was th e help given to the
crews of three G erm an m erchantm en in tern ed in M ormugao,
in Portuguese territo ry . The geographical isolation of this
non-belligerent colony required th e services of an ICRC delegate
sent from Simla. H aving noted th e m ens needs and handed
funds to th eir spokesm an, th e delegate, acting in agreem ent
w ith th e B ritish authorities, provided th e m en w ith articles
of daily use purchased locally.

(3). Camps for Women and Children F am ily Camps

As th e donating agencies and th e ICRC discovered, interned
wom en and children required m ore varied food supplies than
prisoners of war. This was p articu larly so in fam ily cam ps,
containing as th ey did persons of b o th sexes, a n d of all ages
a n d conditions. Relief supplies could only be sent on specific
dem and. U n c e rta in ty as to th e internees real needs still
fu rth e r com plicated m atters. Goods from overseas were four
to six m onths under way. Thus it was difficult to foresee so
far ahead th e num ber of lay ettes th a t would be required for
babies born in th e cam ps, or th e num ber of garm ents necessary
for children of different ages. N ot u n til th e close of 1942 was
it possible to set up a d ep artm en t for th e issue of clothing and
o th er articles, draw n from th e stocks c o n stitu ted in Sw itzer
land, on th e grounds of th e inform ation furnished by cam p
representatives an d cam p authorities.
Difficulties also arose regarding food. The principal donors
m ade up separate parcels for children. T hroughout th e war,
it was, however, no easy m a tte r to satisfy requests for special
33 1

foods, such as diets in particu lar. In th e sam e way, th e supply

of cigarette and tobacco was not alw ays simple. Some women
internees th o u g h t th ey were en titled to e x tra food-rations
instead of tobacco, and certain cam p com m andants tried to
win over th e ICRC and, indirectly, th e donors to this view.
O ther women internees, on th e contrary, insisted on th eir
share of tobacco so as to be able to b a rte r it for eggs or fresh
vegetables. Most fam ily cam ps also needed equipm ent for a
kindergarten and teaching m aterial for ad u lt and childrens
classes. W orkshops also h ad to be set up. One of the m ost
successful cam ps in this p articu lar connexion was th a t of
Salisbury, in Southern Rhodesia.
A fter several years experience, the B ritish R ed Cross decided
to provide weekly food parcels for men and women, and fo rt
nightly parcels for children under ten. O ther Societies, which
were unable to issue more th a n one or two parcels a m onth,
introduced sta n d a rd rations for children. In 1941, the B ritish
R ed Cross a tte m p te d to m ake issues of clothing, subject to
prom ises of reim bursem enta condition which proved in
applicable, and which was rescinded in O ctober 1943, after
which date all relief was given free. W hen th e U nited S tates
entered th e war, the A m erican Red Cross a t once ad o p ted the
sam e principle in its relief w ork for Am erican civil internees.
The Germ an and Ita lia n R ed Cross Societies sent alm ost
no civilian clothing to th eir internees.
Civilians were n ot alw ays subjected to the sam e forms
of internm ent. Some m erely had assigned residence ( Parole
Centres in India).
Small parties of Am erican or other
diplom ats were assigned residence in requisitioned hotels a t
Baden-B aden, Bad-G odesberg and elsewhere. At Bad-Godesberg, no less th an seventeen different nationalities were
represented.
A large proportion of civil internees in Ita ly were con
fint! or isolati , a peculiar system of internm ent which
placed severe difficulties on the supply of food, b o th because
the delegates were barely able to exercise effective supervision
of ration issues, and because th e blockade authorities imposed
p recautionary restrictions.
332

Some 135 tons of foodstuffs were dispatched to sm all parties

of civilian internees in A lbania, Belgium, D enm ark, Greece,
H olland and H ungary.

(4). Relief Schemes for Japanese Civilian Internees

E a rly in J a n u a ry 1945 th e Japanese R ed Cross requested
th e ICRC to issue financial relief to Japanese civilian internees
in A ustralia, C anada and India. No m easures of this kind
were contem plated for prisoners of w a r 1. The ICRC felt
obliged to ask th a t Japanese PW should share in th e relief
funds supplied by th e Japanese R ed Cross and su b m itted an
estim ate of th e am ount likely to be required for this additional
relief up to th e close of 1945. In its reply the Japanese Red
Cross, while agreeing th a t PW should benefit by these funds,
would m ake no explicit request to this effect.
The funds were used as follows :
Australia. In obedience to Japanese wishes, a sm all
proportion of th e monies allo tted for relief work in A ustralia
was divided betw een Japanese children in th e cam ps. The
balance was to be used th u s : one-fifth to co n trib u te tow ards
an educational fund, an d four-fifths to be shared betw een the
2,800 internees detained in A ustralia. The children having
been given th eir share and th e educational fund set up, the
internees th o u g h t the balance could m ost usefully be en tru sted
to th e C om m ittees delegate for the purchase of goods wholesale.
The donors agreed, and th e said p a rt of the gift becam e the
General F u n d ; the ICRC delegate was comm issioned by the
internees them selves to buy various relief supplies. From
J u ly 1945 onwards, th e Japanese PW also profited by b o th
these funds, which were draw n upon u n til th e rep a tria tio n of
th e m ajority of Japanese during th e first half of 1946. In the
au tu m n of th a t year the delegate fu rth er drew upon the funds
to dispatch large quan tities of relief to the Japanese who had
1 See Vol. I, pp. 437 e t seq.

333

surrendered or been tak e n prisoner, and whom he had recently

v isited a t R abaul. As all Jap an ese h ad left A ustralia b y th e
end of 1946, th e funds still available were retu rn ed to Geneva
for th e purchase of relief supplies for Japanese PW in B urm a.
Canada and In d ia . In conform ity w ith th e in stru ctio n s
of th e Japanese R ed Cross, th e funds were shared out betw een
th e internees ; th u s th e C om m ittees delegates m erely had to
tra n sm it funds and collect receipts. Only a sm all balance was
left in Canada.

334

C hapter 6

Relief to Civilian Detainees and Deportees

(i). Extent of Supplies
A sta te m e n t of the various stages of th e w ork undertaken
by th e C om m ittee for detained and deported civilians, u npro
tected through th eir lack of any definite sta tu s \ will give a
ju st idea of th e constant a tte m p ts m ade to send relief supplies
to th e prisons, concentration cam ps, and ghettos converted into
closed camps. The results obtained, m eagre enough in relation
to th e num bers to be sustained, were by no m eans proportionate
to th e efforts m ade, which were beset w ith great and som etim es
insuperable difficulties. These were such th a t relief action
could only effectively begin in th e sum m er of 1943. A lthough
in 1942 fam ily parcels were allowed in a few concentration
cam ps, individual parcels from th e ICRC and R ed Cross Societies
were only accepted in 1943. F rom the sum m er of 1944 onw ards,
th e ICRC was a t last able to despatch collective relief consign
ments to concentration camps.
D uring the second W orld W ar, th e C om m ittee sent to
detained and deported civilians in G erm an concentration cam ps
6,836 tons of supplies in all, representing 1,631,000 relief parcels
issued to th e F rench, Belgian, Norwegian, Polish, D utch,
Jugoslav, Czech and Greek detainees 2. F rom Nov. 1943 to
May 1945, 1,112,000 parcels were despatched, chiefly containing
1 See above, pp. 73 et seq.
2 For distribution according to nationalities, see Annexes.

335

foodstuffs, and also underclothing and pharm aceutical products.

Foodstuffs were sent in the shape of sta n d a rd parcels, weighing
from 2 to 4.5 kilogram s, according to th e supplies available
and th e regulations laid down by th e D etaining A uthorities.
The parcels were nearly all m ade up in Geneva. Twelve th o u
sand parcels of underclothing, weighing ab o u t 2 kilogram s
each were packed in Sw itzerland. They contained one undervest
and one p air of p a n ts for men, and one undervest and one pair
of knickers for women. S tan d ard pharm aceutical parcels, each
weighing 650 gram s and containing disinfectants, sulpham ides
v itam in p reparations an d dressings, were also m ade up in
Sw itzerland ; these to talled 19,250 1. F rom th e au tu m n of
1944 onw ards, th e W ar Refugee B oard in W ashington handed
th e ICRC a to ta l of 260,000 parcels for its relief action in Germ an
concentration cam ps. A first consignm ent of 15,000 food
parcels (50,000 kilograms) was sent to G othenburg in Sweden,
and forw arded direct to concentration cam ps in N orth Germ any.
A second shipm ent of 224,328 food parcels (747,760 kilograms)
reached G othenburg a t the end of 1944 ; of these, 39,325 were
presented to th e W orld Jew ish Congress in Stockholm , and the
balance of 185,005 parcels was sent to th e C om m ittees delegate
a t Liibeck, who d istrib u ted them a fter the G erm an surrender
to detained an d deported civilians of all nationalities in N orth
G erm an cam ps. A th ird consignm ent of 60,626 food parcels
was m ade over to the Com m ittee, early in 1945, in th e port
of Toulon ; these were sent by rail or road th rough Sw itzerland
to G erm any, A ustria and H ungary. The Jew ish detainees in
V ienna and Terezin (Theresienstadt) were given several th o u s
ands of these parcels.
In addition to these supplies, the Am erican, B ritish and Cana
dian R ed Cross Societies handed to th e ICRC in Septem ber 1944,
for issue to deportees of all categories, th e sta n d a rd parcels for
prisoners of w ar salvaged from th e S. S. Christina, which had
been sunk in th e M editerranean. The cargo was sorted and
checked under expert advice before being dispatched to the
concentration cam ps. In this m anner, the C om m ittee was
1 See pp. 82-83.
336

able to forw ard to these cam ps a fu rth e r 25,600 food parcels

(54,756 kilogram s), which were d istrib u ted as follows.

F rench . . . .
Belgians . .
Poles
. . . .
N orwegians .
D u tch . . . .
Czechs . . . .
Greeks . . . .
Jugoslavs . .
S paniards
.
Ita lia n s
. .

.
.
.

. . .
.
. . .

8,586 parcels
4,304

4,220
3,615

2,866

800
409
"
400
300
100

The ICRC also forw arded large quan tities of supplies sent
in bulk from F rance and Belgium, which were placed in bond
in G eneva and m ade up in to sta n d a rd parcels for despatch to
G erm any. F u rth e r gifts were handed to th e Com m ittee b y
Jew ish organizations for th e relief of Jew ish detainees and
deportees in concentration cam ps and ghettos. The ICRC
despatched from Sw itzerland 72,200 food parcels and 4,440
parcels of pharm aceutical products on behalf of th e three
m ost im p o rta n t Jew ish welfare organizations, in particu lar
th e Am erican J o in t D istribution C om m ittee in New Y ork C
From D ecem ber 1944 to May 1945, this organizations repre
sentative in Sw itzerland paid in 333,000 Swiss francs, allowing
33,326 food parcels to be sent to some tw e n ty cam ps, m ainly
to Landsberg-am -Lech, Bergen-Belsen and Terezin (Theresienstadt).
From th e arm istice and u n til the au tu m n of 1945, th e ICRC
also sent by road convoy about 1,800 tons of supplies to D achau,
Munich, M authausen, Linz, Innsbruck, Lbeck, B ayreuth,
Salzburg, Leipzig, Prague, Pilsen and other cam ps where form er
detainees and deportees were still to be found.

1 See below p. 516.

ill. 2 2

337

(2).

In tern a l O rganization

S pecia l Relief D iv is io n

F rom 1942 onw ards, th e Individual Relief Service a t G eneva

forw arded parcels in tended for civilian detainees and deportees
by next of kin resident in countries a t w ar w ith G erm any.
A fter p ro tra cte d and laborious negotiations the C om m ittee
secured th e G erm an a u th o rities consent to yet larger shipm ents
of individual a n d collective parcels. Relief work for Germ an
concentration cam ps and prisons grew to such proportions and
becam e so in tric a te th a t a separate d ep artm en t had to be
opened.
This d ep artm en t becam e, early in 1944, the Special Relief
D ivision, which dealt w ith relief to civilian detainees and
deportees in prisons, concentration cam ps, labour detachm ents
and ghettos converted into closed cam ps, in G erm any and in
the occupied territories. L ater, this Division absorbed the
C oncentration Camp Parcels Service (form erly p a rt of the
Relief Division) and the Civilian W orkers Service set up in
th e a u tu m n of 1944. The Special Relief Division dealt both
w ith the d etain ed and deported civilians (including refugees,
internees and civilian workers who had no legal protection),
and w ith Jew s who were under arrest or the subject of per
secution. The D ivisions m ain purpose was to give the m ost
effective m aterial relief possible to certain categories of w ar
victim s, while observing as far as possible th e wishes of the
donors. The Special Relief Division was th e co u n terp art of
th e Relief Division 1 which dealt exclusively w ith relief to
PW and civilian internees who were classed w ith prisoners
of war, and who alone had a definite legal sta tu s recognised
under tre a ty law.
The practical details of these relief shipm ents were usually
handled by the J o in t Relief Commission 2 ; this body purchased
and despatched supplies according to instructions from the
Special Division, which m et th e costs. The ICRC negotiated
w ith the Allied blockade authorities, the donor organizations,
and the D etaining Powers. B y this co-ordination of inter1 See above p. 276.
2 See below p. 363.

338

n ational relief activities, th e Jo in t Relief Commission becam e

th e C om m ittees executive agent for th e despatch of supplies
to m any categories of detainees in enem y states ; these activities
th u s fell w ithin th e scope of th e C om m ittees h u m an itarian
tasks. A cting on th e C om m ittees behalf, th e J o in t Relief
Commission dealt w ith th e tra n sit, despatch, w arehousing and
sorting of th e extensive bulk supplies sent to Geneva.
The organization of the relief shipm ents was th e sole res
ponsibility of th e first section of th e Special Relief Division,
i.e. th e C oncentration Camp Parcels Section (called th e CCC
= Colis pour camps de concentration). This Service was sta rte d
in 1943 and grew to considerable proportions. Its books were
kept separate, an account being opened for each donor who
wished to send parcels to civilian detainees or deportees. The
work becam e steadily more in tricate, as donors sent th eir parcels
a t irregular intervals and consignm ent cost varied, according
to th e contents of each parcel. S eparate estim ates h a d to be
m ade and su b m itted to th e chief donorsi.e. th e G overnm ents,
R ed Cross Societies and priv ate relief organizations. O ver a
th o u san d accounts for individual gifts and collective donations
were opened. Balance sheets were issued m onthly ; regular
statistics were kept, to allow an estim ate of daily shipm ents
and fair d istribution b y nationalities a n d cam ps. The Ac
c o u n ta n ts Section was in daily contact w ith the Jo in t Relief
Commission w ith regard to all questions concerning th e orders
for parcels placed by th e CCC Section.
The la tte r also com prised a secretariat for th e correspondence
w ith donors, who frequently asked for changes in th e sta n d a rd
parcels m ade up by th e Jo in t Relief Commission. All parcels,
b o th individual and collective, despatched b y th e CCC Section
contained acknow ledgem ent form s for signature by th e reci
pients. As in all dep artm en ts of th e C entral Prisoners of W ar
Agency, th e Section had a card-index, w here th e nam es of
detainees and deportees were recorded when th e signed receipts
reached Geneva. The receipts were num bered and d ated, and
handed to th e Business Machines Section, which m ade out
perforated cards showing th e cost of th e parcels, th e num ber
despatched, th e num ber of receipts a n d o ther details.
339

The acknow ledgm ents provided invaluable evidence. W hen

a detainee was released or tran sferred to an o th er cam p, his
parcel was sent on by the G erm an post office. The receipts
therefore showed new addresses, and by this m eans o th er
concentration cam ps were often discovered.
The second section of th e Special Relief Division know n
as the Civilian W orkers Section " was set up when the despatch
of relief supplies to w orkers 1 was facilitated through concessions
m ade b y the G erm an authorities. These concessions perm itted
th e supervision by th e ICRC of supplies issued to alien w orkers
deported into G erm any during th e last period of the war.
Furtherm ore, a large num ber of n ex t of kin parcels for
civilian w orkers h ad been forw arded from F rance to Geneva,
and were checked by th e CCC Section. Difficulties in rail
tra n sp o rt tow ards th e end of hostilities u n fo rtu n a te ly precluded
a n y such large-scale relief scheme, and by agreem ent w ith the
F rench G overnm ent 43 w agonloads of foodstuffs and p h a rm a
ceutical products sent to G eneva were retu rn ed to F rance during
che sum m er of 1945.

1 D espatches of this nature were debarred from 1940 to 1943 owing

to the rules im posed by the Blockade A uthorities.

340

Chapter

Special Cases

i.

R e l ie f

to

W a r - D is a b l e d

after the

A r m is t ic e 1

General Remarks
F or some tim e past, individual and collective appeals
received in Geneva, reports from th e C om m ittees delegates
a n d other inform ation h ad m ade it clear th a t th e w ar-disabled
would, in some countries, con stitu te a difficult problem a fter the
w ar. The C om m ittees w ork in Greece in 1941, for instance, has
exemplified th e valuable assistance th a t could be given b y a neu
tra l organization to th e w ar-disabled of an occupied country 2.
A lthough relief to w ar-disabled was the concern of the n a tio T
nal authorities, it becam e evident th a t outside help would be
required in the countries which had p articu larly suffered during
th e war. In some countries th e pensions granted to th e disabled
did not cover th eir m ost essential needs ; furtherm ore, as civi
lian w ar-victim s were not by rights en titled to com pensation,
n eith er displaced persons nor refugees were eligible. However,
national and in tern atio n al associations could not assum e the
responsibility of th e com petent governm ent authorities for
adequate com pensation; only gifts in kind could be considered.
1 B y reason of the circum stances th at attend total warfare, the
notion of war-disablem ent has been extended to other disabled besides
m embers of the forces.
2 See below, pp. 451 et seq.
341

Relief A ction

The C om m ittees activities were based on two criteria :

th e category of th e beneficiaries, and th e n a tu re of th e relief.
These, however, were not as simple as th ey m ay appear. In
practice, each action h ad to be exam ined separately.
The category of the beneficiaries depended not only on their
n atio n ality , b u t also on th eir sta tu s and the n a tu re of their
disablem ent.
The disabled, either singly or in groups, were of varying
s ta tu s ; th ey included prisoners of war, rep atriates, ex-prisoners
of w ar (either a t home, or in a convalescence or rehabilitation
centres), dem obilised arm y personnel, civilians, displaced or
stateless persons, evacuees (for instance Sudeten Germans),
migrs (such as Spanish Republicans), and political dissidents
who received relief neither from th eir country of origin, nor in
th e ir place of residence.
D isabilities fell into th e following classes :
(1) A m putees an d paralytics.
(2) Blind and deaf.
(3) Facial disfigurem ent ; nervous and m ental cases ;
loss of m em ory.
(4) T ubercular cases (bone and pulm onary).
(5) H eart cases ; chronic diseases.
The m ost im p o rta n t distinction was th a t of n ationality.
The Com m ittee have no funds for th e use of th e disabled in
general and m ust draw w hatever sum s are required from funds
restricted to definite categories of persons. Most of th e funds
used by th e ICRC for th e disabled are in fact earm arked, consist
ing of balances rem aining after th e arm istice from sum s reserved
for prisoners of certain nationalities, from the collections m ade
am ongst G erm an and A ustrian PW , or from certain donations.
The nature of the relief depends upon th e kind of disability
a n d th e needs of th e area where th e disabled reside. Relief
supplies include th e following :
342

(a) A rtificial lim bs, or raw m aterial for their m anufacture.

(b) Special appliances (crutches, Braille w atches, aids
for th e deaf, orthopaedic or surgical ap p aratu s).
(c) F u rn itu re and bedding for convalescent or reh ab ilita
tion centres.
(d) Foodstuffs an d clothing.
(e) M edicam ents and restoratives.

Prisoners of war
I t has been seen 1 th a t th e ICRC provided artificial lim bs,
surgical a p p aratu s, special appliances for a m p u ta te d and blind
PW during the war. A fter the arm istice, the C om m ittee con
tin u ed its work for G erm an disabled PW , p a rticu larly in
France. Individual cases were reported by its delegates after
cam p visits.
A collective scheme was organized for G erm an PW am pu
tes, a t th e R im ini-M iram are Camp in Ita ly .
Artificial legs
draw n from the stocks in G eneva were fitted in th e cam p ; these
h a d not been m ade to m easure and were suitable as provisional
appliances. F unds a t the disposal of th e C om m ittees W ashington
delegation were used to supply this cam p w ith artificial arm s
m ade in America.
Crutches were also issued to am putees in a dem obilisation
centre in S outhern G erm any. R ep atriates who lacked even
these appliances, h ad to drag them selves along on th eir stum ps,
or be carried by th eir com rades to th e d ep artu re station. The
Com m ittee obtained crutches th rough an appeal to th e A u stra
lian Red Cross and to Swiss m akers.

Demobilised army personnel and civilians

As soon as hostilities ceased, the ICRC tu rn e d to the ques
tion of relief for the disabled in countries which h ad suffered
1 See Vol. I, pp. 265-266, a n d ab o v e pp. 318 e t seq.

343

m ost during th e war, and for displaced persons of all n a tio n a

lities in G erm any, A ustria, Ita ly and E ast E uropean countries.
Conditions were such th a t m any m onths elapsed before details
sufficient for a stu d y of th e problem and for th e organization
of relief action could be gathered. To supplem ent the inform a
tio n given by its delegations and by national relief com m ittees,
th e ICRC several tim es sent a m edical specialist to G erm any
to ascertain the m ost urgent needs. A concerted program m e,
requiring long p rep aratio n in view of the m anifold difficulties,
was draw n up for G erm an and A ustrian disabled. This w ork was
financed w ith p a rt of the proceeds from the collections am ongst
Germ an and A ustrian PW in the U nited States. A sum of
200,000 Swiss francs was allocated for the above purpose.
In the French Zone of G erm any th e production of artificial
lim bs was seriously ham pered by the requisitioning of raw
m aterials, such as wood, leath er and m etal, and by the lack of
com ponents, e.g. screws, bolts, belting, straps, hooks and so
on. The ICRC was able to help the am putees by inducing the
occupation authorities to release the required m aterial, and by
supplying essential p a rts to the w orkshops through the regional
relief com m ittees, under the supervision of the delegation in
B aden-Baden.
Aid for the disabled in the B ritish Zone consisted chiefly
in th e opening of a vocational training centre. Five w ork
shops were set up in B ad-P yrm ont ; in each of these ten men
were tra in ed as w atchm akers, tailors, cobblers, carpenters and
draughtsm en. This scheme was carried out in collaboration
w ith the B ritish Red Cross, which undertook to find th e neces
sary in stru cto rs in G reat B ritain.
In A ustria, jo in t assistance was given to the am putees
and the blind by the ICRC, the Swiss Relief F und (Don Suisse)
and th e Swiss Red Cross. The blind were furnished w ith Braille
w atches and equipm ent for vocational training (e.g. typew riters,
m aterial for th e m aking of baskets, brushes and netting). Some
raw m aterial for th e m anufacture of artificial lim bs was also
provided.
Sm aller schemes were intended for the disabled in Finland
(m edicam ents sent direct from the U.S.A.), Ita ly (similar
344

consignm ents sent direct to the N ational Office for W arDisabled), F rance (clothing and carp en ters tools sent to a TB
sanatorium in U pper Savoy), J a v a (two artificial legs m ade
in Geneva), R um ania (surgical appliances for paralytics), and
so on.
Displaced Persons
Relief work for disabled D isplaced Persons is an extrem ely
delicate m a tte r and requires careful planning. Thus, it took
the ICRC eighteen m onths constant efforts to secure appliances
for 35 am putees in Ita ly . In F eb ru ary 1946, th e N aples dele
gation h ad found th e m oney for supplying these m en w ith
artificial limbs, which were ready for despatch in April 1947.
Meanwhile, the am putees h ad been m oved from Ita ly to the
B ritish Zone in G erm any, and h a d been dispersed. The Com
m itte e s delegate in th a t zone first had to discover th eir w here
abouts, and ensure th eir tran sfer to th e same hospital. T here
after, he h ad to secure com petent m edical advice and expert
workm en, before the lim bs could be fitted.
In another instance, a p a rty of Polish am putees in the
French Zone of G erm any were given artificial lim bs m ade in
G eneva and fitted under the supervision of the delegate, the
costs being m et by a Polish com m ittee. Two parties of disabled
Spanish R epublicans, one in N orth Africa, the other in the
South of France, were twice given relief in the shape of clothing,
foodstuffs, restoratives and medicines. Supplies were also sent
to assist L atvian disabled in various p a rts of Belgium and Ger
m any ; th e costs were m et w ith funds subscribed for th a t purpose.
The ICRC som etim es received gifts in kind for distribution
as it though fit. Thus, a gift of several th ousand pairs of crutches
from th e A ustralian Red Cross was shared out by the Jo in t
Relief Commission and th e ICRC am ong civilian an d m ilitary
disabled in th e countries th a t h ad suffered m ost severely during
the war. In some instances, the Com m ittee worked in conjunc
tion w ith both the Swiss Red Cross and th e Swiss Relief Fund,
or w ith one of these organizations, w ithout abandoning its own
autonom y.
345

The experience of the ICRC has testified to the distress

in which th e disabled in a defeated co u n try find them selves. In
th is connection, a useful com parison can be m ade betw een
Greece in 1 9 4 1 and G erm any in 1 9 4 5 . From May 1 9 4 5 onwards,
th e G erm an disabled, w hether m ilitary or civilian, found th em
selves resourceless. There were too few hospitals ; com pensa
tion was quite uncertain ; m aterial for the m anufacture of
artificial lim bs, surgical appliances, food, clothing, medicines
and restoratives were all lacking. H aving regard to the m en's
needs and the regulations issued by the occupation authorities,
th e ICRC felt obliged to tak e independent action and to s ta rt
relief schem es along custom ary lines, despite the absence of
any explicit m andate to th a t effect.
2.

e l ie f

to

a r -d isa b l e d
in

and

Consum

p t iv e s

reece

The situ atio n of the m any disabled ex-servicem en in various

p a rts of Greece raised a difficult problem from the very outset
of th e G erm an and Ita lia n occupation. This category of sick
and w ounded were in p a rticu la r need of help, b u t com m uni
cations having broken down th roughout th e country, it was
no easy m a tte r to secure inform ation about them .
According to d a ta available in Geneva in the late sum m er
of 1 9 4 1 , about 5 , 0 0 0 seriously w ounded Greek soldiers were
eith er in hospital a t A thens, or had been discharged shortly
before. A lthough all w ar-disabled were en titled to com pensa
tion, very m any of them were in acute poverty, or were even
homeless. The A thens d istrict alone counted 1 , 8 0 0 w ar-disabled
and 1 , 0 0 0 consum ptive ex-servicem en who were not in hospital.
E a rly in M arch 1 9 4 3 , th e Greek Red Cross inform ed the Com
m ittee th a t th eir registers showed, for the whole of the country,
2 0 , 0 0 0 w ar-disabled, including 4 , 5 0 0 consum ptives.
(1). Negotiations and despatch of relief supplies
The ICRC planned, in agreem ent w ith the Greek Red
Cross and th e occupation authorities, to send food, medicines
34 f>

a n d clothing to th eir delegation a t A thens for d istribution

to th e Greek m ilitary disabled. I t was then discovered th a t
only a fraction of the necessary supplies were available in
E urope. G eneva thereupon advised the donors of th e position
a n d asked th e Allies, in A ugust 1941, to g ran t these disabled the
same facilities as for PW , w ith special reference to navicerts.
At the end of A ugust 1941, the ICRC received broad perm ission
to give Greek disabled in hospital a share in th e collective
overseas consignm ents and the same advantages as Allied PW .
The C om m ittee was held responsible for distrib u tio n and had
to provide donors w ith m onthly statem en ts on the num ber of
m en tre a te d in hospital, and th e issues m ade. This a u th o rity
was confirm ed in D ecem ber 1941, and navicerts in respect
of parcels intended for Greek disabled in hospital were granted
from M arch 1942 onwards.
Geneva was th u s in a position to give useful assistance
to th e Greek disabled, even when hostilities had ceased, in the
period up to the end of Septem ber 1945. Before th e overseas
supplies reached A thens, the delegation was able to give the
recipients p a rt of the supplies purchased by th e T urkish Red
Crescent for th e account of Greek donors and shipped from
T urkey to the Piraeus, betw een O ctober 1941 and A ugust 1942,
by th e steam ers K urtulus and D um lupinar 1.
A pplication for relief supplies was also m ade also to the
B ritish, Canadian and Am erican R ed Cross Societies, who
authorised th e ICRC to hand out to Greek disabled in hospital,
during the sum m er of 1942, a first issue of 10,500 sta n d a rd food
parcels, p a rtly given by th e Greek W ar Relief in W ashington,
an d draw n from shipm ents unloaded a t Lisbon. A t th e end of
A ugust 1942, th e A thens delegation received the first two
w agonloads of food parcels ; others followed in N ovem ber
and Decem ber, b u t tra n sp o rt overland from G eneva soon
encountered great difficulties. The ICRC then obtained a u th o r
ity for overseas supplies for the disabled to be conveyed by the
Swedish vessels which, from Septem ber 1942 onw ards, were on

1 See below, p. 452.

347

sh u ttle service betw een C anada and the Piraeus, to carry w heat
to th e Greek civil population l.
The C om m ittee sought perm ission from the Allied authorities
to extend th eir aid to the disabled who had not been ad m itted
to hospital for w ant of accom m odation. E a rly in 1942, the
C om m ittee was able to help a lim ited num ber of men belonging
to this category, and a fter fu rth er applications, was in April
1943, tem porarily allowed to m ake distributions as it wished.
The num ber of parcels intended for disabled not in hospital
was la te r reduced on several occasions, and this led the ICRC
to tak e th e m a tte r up in London, in Ju n e 1943.
In F eb ru ary 1943, th e Ita lia n authorities consented to
the C om m ittees issuing Allied uniform s to Greek disabled,
on condition th a t all m ilitary badges were rem oved ; the Ger
m an authorities would not however agree, and the scheme had
to be abandoned.
A fu rth er scheme for the hospitalization in Sw itzerland
of a num ber of consum ptive Greek disabled was approved by
the G erm an authorities, b u t had to be given up, owing to
insuperable tra n sp o rt difficulties.
A fter the spring of 1943, supplies from E urope ceased,
and the A thens delegation could only count on direct shipm ents
for Greek disabled from the U nited S tates and Canada. A
m onthly average of 20,000 parcels was th u s conveyed by
Swedish vessels. In all, the delegation received some 300,000
sta n d a rd five kilo parcels, despatched by th e A m erican and
C anadian R ed Cross, on behalf of the Greek W ar Relief and
the Greek Red Cross in London. F u rth e r consignm ents were
received from the A rgentine R ed Cross.
The donors continued to specify, however, th a t these parcels
should go only to the disabled in hospital. F urtherm ore, the
Am erican au thorities held th a t disabled not in hospital should
be regarded as civilians, and th u s be entitled solely to the over
seas relief d istrib u ted to the population by the M anaging
Commission. The separate service for the disabled set up by
th a t Commission could however not m eet all their needs. This
1 See below, pp. 472 e t seq.

348

ruling, based on a theoretical view of th e case, was m ost unfair

in practice, since th e disabled in hospital, who were a m inority,
alone received special relief, of which th ey really stood less in
need th a n the others. The disabled who were left w ithout
assistance, supported b y th e Greek R ed Cross, objected to the
ruling ; on th e other hand, the delegates discovered th a t hospi
talizatio n did n ot facilitate th e task of checking issues an d th a t
it was b y no m eans easy to prevent misuse by th e recipients
them selves. E a rly in D ecem ber 1943, th e ICRC su b m itted a
detailed report on the subject to the donors, showing th a t the
safeguards a t its delegations disposal were th e same, w hether
th e disabled concerned were in hospital or not. A t th e end of
J a n u a ry 1944, th e Allied authorities, while m aintaining th e
lim it of 20,000 parcels, gave the ICRC general a u th o rity to
extend th e d istribution on its own responsibility, to disabled
who were not in hospital.
In early March 1944, the C om m ittees delegation endea
voured to set up a m edical service for disabled who were not in
hospital.
The Greek R ed Cross, acting in agreem ent w ith
Geneva, asked th a t no new m edical exam inations should be
m ade and th a t decisions should be based on th e m edical cer
tificates issued by th e m ilitary authorities. T hey also urged
th a t th e parcels which were accum ulating in warehouses and
were liable to spoil, should be d istrib u ted to all disabled, includ
ing those of previous conflicts.
A fter fu rth e r negotiations, th e delegation was definitely
authorised, a t th e end of Ju n e 1944, to d istrib u te relief to the
following categories :
(1) D isabled in hospital.
(2) D isabled not in hospital th rough lack of room , b u t
a tte n d e d regularly in th eir hom es b y special m edical
officers.
(3) D isabled certified as consum ptive, n o t in hospital,
and not visited in th eir hom es by a m edical officer.
(4) D isabled not in hospital and n o t consum ptive, b u t
w ith more th a n 50% incapacity.
349

The Allied blockade au thorities consented to th e Com

m itte e s scheme, on condition th a t th e supplies were issued
according to th e instructions and on th e responsibility of the
A thens delegation.
(2). M edical premises and equipment
In view of th e distressing circum stances of th e disabled not
in hospital, and in p a rticu la r of T.B. cases, th e ICRC m ade
strenuous a tte m p ts, in th e w inter of 1941, to ensure th eir
proper m edical tre a tm e n t and adm ission to hospital, or a t least,
to tem p o rary q u arters. These efforts m et w ith such co n stan t
and in m ost cases insuperable difficulties th a t very poor
results were obtained.
The seven hospitals and th e ten w ards in civilian san ato ria
reserved for disabled a t th a t tim e w7ere wholly inadequate,
and th e ICRC a t first planned to send prefabricated h u tm en ts
from Sw itzerland for th e accom m odation of the T.B. cases.
The Ita lia n G overnm ent h ad given form al assurances th a t these
prem ises would not be requisitioned, on condition th a t th ey
were under the sole responsibility of th e C om m ittees delega
tion and erected w ith local labour under th e supervision of
th e m ilitary occupation authorities. The ICRC applied for
funds to various Allied and n eu tral Red Cross Societies. Before
th e difficult problem of tra n sp o rt was solved, the Greek R ed
Cross announced th a t it had found prem ises, nam ely, th e sana
torium owned by the Dionysos Society a t Papanicolos, and the
Jeram oni and P etras sanatoria. The Red Cross therefore advised
Geneva to send, instead of h u tm en ts, th e equipm ent required
for these buildings. W ith the 100,000 Swiss francs subscribed
for th e purchase of huts, th e ICRC bought hospital equipm ent
an d m edicam ents. A fu rth er appeal was m ade in F eb ru ary
1943 to th e Am erican, C anadian and B ritish Red Cross, to the
T urkish Red Crescent and to Greek residents in E g y p t. As a
result, large q u antities of supplies, including m attresses, sheets,
blankets, and surgical in stru m en ts were furnished by welfare
organizations in London, th e Am erican Red Cross, Greek relief
com m ittees in the U nited S tates, and Greek residents in E g y p t,
350

an d were delivered in A thens.

It then tran sp ired th a t no
fu rth e r prem ises for the disabled could be secured.
A schem e sponsored by the Greek R ed Cross in London for
the accom m odation of 400 m en in a large hospital in Tripoli,
h ad to be abandoned, as also o th er suggestions for th e housing
in m ilitary hospitals of 100 w ar-invalids, who h ad been released
after four m onths im prisonm ent, and for using a wing of the
form er M ilitary H ospital No. 3 for cases of T.B. A p a rt of the
stores was used to furnish the quarters set aside for the disabled ;
th e rem ainder was w arehoused in th e P iraeus by the delegation,
in conform ity w ith fresh instructions from th e donors, who did
not wish th eir gifts to be h anded over to local organisations
u n til the question of prem ises h ad been settled.
Most of these stores were u n fo rtu n ately destroyed by air
bom bardm ent a few m onths later. The stores salvaged, am ong
them 87 beds and 66 m attresses, were handed a t th e donors
request to th e Greek Red Cross, a fter the liberation of the coun
try in May 1945. The ICRC also presented this Society w ith
tw o relief consignm ents : (1) in Ju n e 1945, 7,500 Allied m ilitary
garm ents, th e issue of which had been forbidden by th e Ger
m an ; (2) in Septem ber, 234 cases and bales of hospital stores
and a few cases of clothing received from the B ritish R ed
Cross, acting on behalf of the Greek R ed Cross in London.
3.

elief

to

urses

in

Camps

A fter th e arm istice th e ICRC tu rn e d to th e problem of

th e G erm an nurses detained in P W cam ps in order to care for
th e wounded and sick.
D uring th e sum m er of 1945, th e C om m ittee sent lay ettes
and clothing on several occasions to Germ an Red Cross nurses in
G erm an PW cam ps in France who were expecting babies.
In the autum n, clothing was collected am ong the P ro te sta n t
and Catholic nurses associations in Sw itzerland, on behalf
of the eighty G erm an R ed Cross nurses who were a tten d in g
seriously wounded G erm an PW in th e Hedw igenkoog H ospital,
on the N orth Sea. Two hundred kilos were th u s d istrib u ted by
th e delegation in th e B ritish Zone. This gift was followed, in
351

1946, by parcels of underclothing and k n ittin g wool for the

nurses of th e M unsterlager, in th e same zone.
New an d worn underclothing, m aterial and sewing requi
sites for m aking nurses overalls were sent in 1947 to the Ger
m an nurses w ith the S E P 1 H ospitals in A ustria.
These gifts of wool and m aterial enabled the ICRC to m ake
th e best use of th e lim ited funds available, and gave the nurses
occupation for th eir leisure tim e.

4.

elief

to

nternees

in

eutral

Co un tries

The m ilitary personnel, PW and civilian refugees in te r

ned in n e u tra l countries usually received relief from th eir
legations or consulates. The ICRC took action only in p a rticu la r
circum stances. Thus, 125 cases containing about four tons of
cigarettes from th e Am erican and B ritish Red Cross were sent
to Sweden for the Polish internees and the Am erican airm en
brought down in Swedish territo ry . These supplies, addressed
to th e Swedish Red Cross, and a consignm ent of 305 kilos of
clothing for L atv ian children, were exem pt from carriage and
custom s charges.
Three G erm an vessels, w ith a to ta l crew of 98, took refuge
a t the o u tb reak of hostilities in Mormugao, th e p ort of the
Portuguese colony of Goa. As com m unications betw een th is
co u n try and G erm any were ordinarily very bad, and one-half
of th e supplies sent direct th ro u g h th e post by th e G erm an Red
Cross were spoilt"in tra n sit, th e C om m ittee in stru cted the dele
gations in In d ia to send these men gifts in cash and in kind.
F or sim ilar reasons, relief supplies of th e G erm an seam en
in tern ed in Saudi A rabia were despatched by th e C om m ittees
delegation in E g y p t. However, this procedure was less convenient
in th e case of seven G erm an seam en interned in th e Yemen,
a fter shipw reck. This co u n try had no diplom atic relations w ith
certain S tates ; th e ICRC was unable to obtain th e necessary
1 = Surrendered E nem y Personnel.

352

perm its, and could only send a few parcels of m edicam ents
th rough a resident in the Yemen.
A num ber of Polish m ilitary refugees who had fled to H ungary
a fte r th e Polish Cam paign in 1939 were helped by the H ungarian
R ed Cross w ith funds received from the Polish G overnm ent in
London. A fter th e occupation of H ungary by th e Germ ans,
these men were in danger of being deported to G erm any. In
agreem ent w ith th e H ungarian authorities, th e C om m ittees
delegate supplied them w ith relief in m oney and in kind, and
continued to do so u n til of the B attle of B udapest, when all
com m unications betw een the internees and th e delegate were cut.
S p a in : M iranda de Ebro Camp
More extensive efforts were m ade in Spain where, on the
o utbreak of w ar, a large num ber of civilians and m ilitary
personnel were interned in th e Spanish cam p of M iranda de
Ebro.
They com prised, besides stateless persons, nationals
of 27 different countries : A ustrians, Belgians, B ritish, D utch,
Germans, Poles, Spaniards, and also some Jews. The m ajority
were m ilitary personnel from F rance arrested by the m ilitary
police. The ICRC delegate was authorised to visit the cam p and
was given sufficient supervisory powers to allow of th e dis
trib u tio n of supplies from overseas. The dem oralising condi
tions of this cam p, which was already overcrow ded before the
extensive evacuations of 1943, can easily be im agined. In spite
of th e Spanish au th o rities efforts to im prove living conditions,
the internees were short of clothing, p articu larly undergarm ents,
and the food rations were inadequate.
The first direct appeals reached Geneva early in 1941, from
stateless persons and A rgentines who, together w ith Germ ans
and A ustrians, were dependent on th eir own resources. Recog
nizing the urgency of their case, th e ICRC inform ed several
welfare organizations of the difficult circum stances in which
these internees were placed. In th e a u tu m n of 1941 th e first
consignm ent of m edicam ents was m ade by th e Polish Red
Cross, which requested the Com m ittee to draw 200 food parcels
from its stock of sta n d a rd A m erican parcels in Geneva. E arly
III. 3

353

in th e following year, the B ritish and A m erican R ed Cross

decided to send relief to Allied internees in M iranda, and it
was agreed th a t supplies should be draw n from the cargoes
of vessels calling a t Lisbon, an d forw arded by th e C om m ittees
delegate ; th e Spanish R ed Cross, th e A m erican A m bassador
and th e ICRC delegation w ould th en jo in tly d istrib u te th e
gifts in th e cam ps. As th e result of custom s and tra n sp o rt
difficulties, th e following rules were found necessary.
(1) A t th e suggestion of th e Spanish R ed Cross, it was
decided th a t th e supplies should be sent custom s free to th e
M iranda B ranch of th a t Society, which would a tte n d to th e
forw arding and d istribution in th e cam p.
(2) Besides exem ption from custom s, freight charges on
th e Spanish R ailw ays (in p riv ate ownership) would be reduced
b y one-half.
(3) The Spanish au th o rities agreed to the C om m ittees
delegate in M adrid visiting M iranda Camp, in order to verify
th e safe arrival and proper distrib u tio n of supplies.
This agreem ent enabled all consignm ents obtained by th e
C om m ittee efforts to be d istrib u ted w ithout difficulty.
The following is a schedule of the consignm ents m ade :
1940

1941

1942

354

i case surgical instrum ents (60 kilos).

3 cases containing radiographic apparatus (106 kilos).
3 cases of pharm aceutical products (the balance of a gift
from the German Government, sent to Geneva for
the Spanish Red Cross),
i parcel of surgical appliances (5 probangs).
Gifts for the Polish internees in Miranda :
3 bales of clothing, from the British Red Cross.
4 consignm ents of pharm aceutical products, from the
Polish Legation, Berne.
200 A.R.C. standard parcels, drawn from the Polish stocks
in Geneva.
200 ditto.
i case of secondhand French books, for Polish officers.
27 individual food parcels, from the Polish Relief Com
m ittee, Indian Orchard (Mass.).
21 A.R.C. standard food parcels, drawn from stocks in
Geneva.
400 Canadian Red Cross food parcels.

500 A.R.C. standard food parcels, drawn from Allied

stocks in Geneva.
1,500 A.R.C. standard food parcels, from the Polish-Am erican
Council, Chicago.
400 Canadian Red Cross food parcels.
500 A.R.C. food parcels, drawn from Allied stocks in Geneva.
1943
500 A.R.C. standard food parcels, from the P olish Council,
Chicago.
2 boxes of Sandoz vials and surgical instrum ents (request
of the Spanish Red Cross to Geneva).
900 pounds sterling private gift (The Spanish Red Cross
requested the ICRC to rem it these funds for the German
internees).
1944 2,500 A.R.C. standard food parcels, drawn from Polish stocks.
1,000 A.R.C. standard food parcels for American m ilitary
internees.

Switzerland
The problem of assistance, th rough the ICRC, to escaped PW
or refugees interned in Sw itzerland, did not arise u n til after
th e Ita lia n arm istice in 1943. A very large num ber of B ritish PW
and internees succeeded in escaping from Ita lia n cam ps and
tak in g refuge in Sw itzerland.
Ita lia n soldiers and civilians
followed suit. The m ajority of these refugees arrived com pletely
d estitu te, after a hazardous an d exhausting journey. A pplica
tions for help poured in to Geneva. The Swiss au th o rities and
R ed Cross, who up to th en had provided for all refugees, could
n ot m eet all th e requirem ents of over 70,000 internees. The
g reatest need was for clothing, blankets and footw ear, all of
which were severely ratio n ed in Sw itzerland and could not
be im ported, owing to th e qu o ta system im posed by th e econo
mic blockade.
F or th e m ost urgent cases th e ICRC suggested draw ing on
reserves in Sw itzerland intended for Allied PW in G erm any.
The donors were first consulted, and when b oth th eir approval
and th a t of th e blockade authorities has been obtained, the
ICRC equipped th e B ritish and A m erican escaped PW and
2,000 form er PW and civilian internees of Allied countries,
such as Greeks, Russians, and Jugoslavs, w ith a com plete set

of clothing draw n from these stocks and com prising : i b a ttle

blouse, i pair of trousers, i greatcoat, i pullover, 2 shirts, 2 sets
of underw ear, 3 pairs of socks and 3 handkerchiefs. This issue
proved inadequate, and th e Com m ittee again appealed to the
A m erican R ed Cross, which then gave a u th o rity for th e d istri
b ution of a fu rth e r 5,400 sets. The A.R.C. acted as a shipping
agent, and th e goods were paid for by various donors, such as
th e Greek W ar Relief Association, the Com m ittee for Aid to
Russians, in New York, and the Jugoslav Relief F und Associa
tion, in Chicago. The uvre de secours aux ouvriers, in Geneva,
sim ilarly supplied clothing and various necessities for R ussian
ex-PW . The B ritish R ed Cross provided the Polish internees
w ith sets of clothing. The French were given uniform s and
clothing draw n from the stocks m ade over to the ICRC by the
F rench Red Cross. The C om m ittee inform ed the authorities and
th e internees them selves th a t the uniform s had been intended
for P W detained in Axis countries and had therefore been
tra n sp o rte d under a safe-conduct from b o th belligerents ; in
110 circum stances, therefore, could th ey be worn by ex-P W on
th eir retu rn in g to their units or to a te rrito ry occupied by their
forces. I t was agreed th a t the uniform s should be surrendered
by ex-P W on th eir leaving Sw itzerland and retu rn ed to the
ICRC w arehouses.
The Swiss au th o rities were of opinion th a t R ed Cross food
parcels were not required, as th e internees rations were equiva
lent to those of the Swiss forces, and often higher th a n those
of th e civilian population. The ICRC endorsed this view, and
th e parcels were found extrem ely useful as additional rations
for PW in belligerent countries. An exception was m ade for
In d ian ex-PW , who were accustom ed to have th eir own diet,
and the B ritish R ed Cross provided them w ith th e ap p ro p riate
parcels. Food parcels were also sent to sick internees under
tre a tm e n t in Swiss sanatoria.
The responsible Swiss au th o rities issued the relief supplies,
and th e ICRC delegates, who could visit all in tern m en t cam ps
in Swiss territo ry , had full supervisory powers.
The endeavours m ade by G eneva since 1943 to find supplies
for a large num ber of Ita lia n internees and refugees bore fruit

356

only after the arm istice in E urope, when funds from th e Argen
tine allowed of various purchases.
F u rth e r, A.R.C. parcels
were m ade available for Ita lia n internees.
The ICRC was thro u g h o u t able to m eet th e num erous indi
vidual requests for m edicines m ade b y this class of internees.
Finally, the C om m ittee undertook, in conjunction w ith the
Swiss Federal m ilitary authorities and the Swiss R ed Cross,
to provide den tal tre a tm e n t for all internees in Sw itzerland.
The Swiss authorities, while p a rticu larly concerned about
dental care, were not in a position to give b e tte r tre a tm e n t to
foreign m ilitary personnel th a n th a t prescribed for th e Swiss
Army. The ICRC th en assum ed responsibility for all fees not
payable by th e Swiss m ilitary authorities, and to this effect
set aside a D enture F und, w ith th e co-operation of the N ational
Red Cross Societies concerned. Steps h ad to be tak e n to ensure
speedy and well-organized relief, as dem ands were becoming
increasingly num erous. One such expedient was to transform
a railw ay re sta u ra n t car into a d en tal surgery and workshop.
Expenses were allocated, according to an exact schedule, to the
Red Cross Societies, to some of th e internees, to th e Swiss R ed
Cross, the Swiss A rm y Medical Service and th e ICRC.
This mobile dental surgery, which was in operation from
D ecem ber 18, 1944, to Ju ly 18, 1946, was a tte n d e d by 3,034
internees in the space of seven m onths. Allowing for holidays
and travelling tim e, an average of 25 to 30 p a tie n ts a day was
m aintained.
This experim ent was m ost successful, since it
proved the u tility of travelling dental surgeries. Camps are
th u s saved th e expense of perm anent installations. Checking is
simple and thorough, so th a t a very inexpensive system m ay be
used. The dental car, which was tak en over by the Swiss Relief
F und on behalf of the In te rn atio n a l D ental Relief scheme, was
la te r slightly modified and sent to Poland, where it was used,
in particular, for the tre a tm e n t of th e W arsaw child population.

357

PART IV

R E L IE F TO C IV IL IA N PO PU L A T IO N S

Chapter i

Extension of Relief Work to Refugees, and to the Women,

Children, Aged and Sick of the Civilian Population
i . C r e a t io n

I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e d C r o ss
E x e c u t iv e

o f a s p e c ia l

W hereas th e experiences of th e F irst W orld W ar led to th e

revision an d extension of th e Conventions for th e p rotection
of w ounded co m b atan ts and prisoners of war, th ere were still no
in te rn atio n a l agreem ents, on th e ou tb reak of th e Second W orld
W ar, for th e protection of th e civilian populations, if no account
is tak e n of th e few in adequate an d obsolete clauses of the
R egulations annexed to th e IV th H ague Convention of 1907.
A D raft Convention for th e protection of civilians in enem y or
enem y-occupied territo ry , which h ad been prepared b y th e
ICRC, was approved b y th e X V th In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross
Conference a t Tokyo in 1934, and placed on th e agenda of
a D iplom atic Conference to be held in 1940, b u t which could
n ot be called on account of th e w ar 1.
T he ICRC therefore h ad no tre a ty basis upon which to
build up relief work for civilian populations. N evertheless, it
was resolved to m ake every effort to alleviate th eir distress,
in accordance w ith th e spirit of its own sta tu te s.
1 See Vol. I, p. 573.

359

This task has in any case been defined by several In te rn a

tio n al R ed Cross Conferences held betw een th e two W ars. In
1921, th e X th Conference (Geneva) voted a recom m endation
th a t G overnm ents should agree to provide for th e p artial
relaxation of th e economic blockade, in th e interests of the
sick and aged, a n d th e children.
At th e Conferences which followed (1925-1928), the ICRC
was invited to s tu d y w hat concessions m ight be m ade for
certain categories of th e civilian population, should Article 16
of th e League of N ations C ovenant (Sanctions) be im plem ented.
An im p o rta n t resolution to this effect was adopted by the
Brussels Conference (1930) ; it runs as follows :
The Conference,
Having approved the report laid before it by the First Commission
on the subject of Article XVI of the Covenant and Alleviation of
the Blockade .
I.
1. Warmly thanks the International Committee of the Red Cross
for the valuable report which it has presented on the questions dealt
with in the Tenth Resolution of the X V IIth Conference and the
Ninth Resolution of the X llth Conference, the said report having
greatly facilitated their work.
2. Notes that it would be desirable to create a suitable agency,
the function of which would be, as far as is possible, to spare from
certain categories of persons, such as children and the aged and sick,
the inevitable distress resulting from the application of Article XVI
of the League of Nations Covenant, or of a war blockade to their
State, in the resistance of which to such action they take no part.
II
3. Notes that under the terms of the resolutions of the Second
Session of the Assembly of the League of Nations, relations shall
be maintained for humanitarian purposes, should the economic
weapon of the League of Nations be applied in conformity with Article
VI of the Covenant of the League.
4. Considers that the humanitarian relations in question should
include assistance to certain categories of the population, by supplying
them with medicaments, hospital stores, food and clothing.
360

5- Invites the International Committee of the Red Cross to

consult, where necessary, with the appropriate departments of the
League of Nations on arrangements for possible alleviations in each
particular case.
6. Invites the International Committee to study the form which
such alleviations might take, on the basis of the Danish-Sw'edish and
the Bulgarian proposals referred to under the Ninth Resolution of
the X lllth Conference, reproduced in the annex.
Ill
7. Feels that the principle of maintaining humanitarian relations
should be extended to the case of blockades during declared war
fare ", and that the principle of the proposal made in Resolution VI
should therefore be adopted.
8. Invites the National Red Cross Societies to draw their Govern
ments attention to the preceding Resolution, with a view to securing,
if possible, their full or conditional adherence to the principle mentioned
in the said Resolution and to the proposals mentioned in Resolution
VI.
9. Invites the International Committee, if need be, to place
itself at the disposal of the parties concerned, including among others
the belligerents and Protecting Power, with a view to implementing
the said proposals.
U pon the outb reak of w ar in 1939, th e ICRC, acting on
th e above Resolution and on its right and d u ty to tak e th e lead,
in itiated various relief activities which will be described in
C hapter 2.
A t th e same tim e, th e League of R ed Cross Societies m oved
its h ead q u arters from Paris to Geneva. According to its sta tu te s,
revised in 1938, the League was also called upon (Art. 3, par. 3),
to un d ertak e relief work in co-operation w ith th e N ational
Societies. A lthough, in principle, intended for peace tim e, this
co-operation was continued th roughout th e w ar th e more
easily since the Secretariat of th e League, which now h ad its
offices in a n eu tral country, was able to rem ain in co n stan t and
direct touch w ith th e N ational Societies.
B oth being responsible for civilian relief, th e ICRC and the
League w orked independently during th e first weeks of the
war, an d th en jo in tly as soon as th e League settled in Geneva.
361

The S ta tu te s ad o p ted by the X H Ith In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross

Conference (The H ague, 1928) stip u lated under A rticle 9 th a t :
The In te rn atio n a l C om m ittee of th e Red Cross and
th e League of R ed Cross Societies shall cooperate in fields
which are com m on to b o th organizations, in p a rticu la r as
regards th e activities of relief associations in case of national
or in te rn atio n a l disaster.
In peace-tim e, th is Article cam e into force w henever m ajor
disasters occurred, such as earthquakes, floods and epidemics.
B u t it could also apply in th e case of arm ed conflicts. The ICRC
and th e League in an y case drew a u th o rity from it to prepare
im m ediate co-operation betw een the tw o organizations ; th ey
were encouraged to do so, m oreover, by a cable from th e Chair
m an of th e A m erican R ed Cross.
A t th e end of M ay 1940, th e first o p p o rtu n ity for joint action
occurred. In th eir flight before th e lightning advance of the
G erm an forces, millions of French, Belgian, D utch and L uxem
burg refugees were crow ding th e highw ays of France. The
French R ed Cross did w hat it could, b u t the task was over
whelming. I t tu rn e d for help to th e ICRC and th e League, who
decided to launch an appeal to all th e N ational R ed Cross
Societies of the non-belligerent and n e u tra l S tates. On May 29,
1940, these Societies were inform ed of th e situation and of
th e m ost urgent needs ; th ey were asked a t the same tim e to
send gifts direct to th e French R ed Cross.
Some declined, sta tin g th a t th ey already h ad to deal w ith
refugees in th eir own country. O thers m ade considerable gifts
in m oney and in kind. Thus, th e Jugoslav Red Cross sent
300,000 dinars to th e French R ed Cross, of which 50,000 were
in m oney and th e rem ainder in non-perishable foodstuffs ; the
Greek R ed Cross gave 50,000 francs, th e proceeds of a collection ;
the T urkish R ed Crescent offered 500 tons of w heat, carriage
free ; lastly, donations of 600 and 500 E gy p tian pounds were
handed to th e M inisters of France and Belgium in E g y p t, as
gifts from th e E g y p tian R ed Crescent. The Red Cross Societies
in L atin Am erica planned to help th e women and children,
th rough th e ICRC.
362

In addition to th e problem of civilian refugees, an o th er still

m ore urgent m a tte r arose, which was more in conform ity w ith
th e tra d itio n al work of th e ICRC. A large num ber of French
co m b atan ts had been surrounded in th e B elfort area and taken
prisoner b y th e G erm an forces. Food supplies could reach
th em only from Sw itzerland. The ICRC was inform ed of this
situ atio n by th e G erm an authorities, who despatched a dele
gate to Geneva to discuss the situation, and th e Com m ittee a t
once took steps to help these prisoners.
D uring th e sum m er of 1940, th e ICRC was again urged to help
th e refugees in France, p articu larly the women and children ; it
sent several trainloads of condensed and pow dered milk to Paris.
The ICRC and th e League soon realized, however, th a t such
in te rm itte n t and lim ited endeavours were in no w ay com m ensur
ate w ith needs, and th a t constant appeals would soon exhaust
th e goodwill of donors. As the representative of the ICRC
s ta te d a t the joint m eeting held on O ctober 28, 1940, th e only
practical solution was to set up a special relief agency for
civilian victim s of the war. I t was a t this m eeting th a t the
nam e " Jo in t Relief Commission was m entioned for the
first tim e.
In N ovem ber 1940, this Commission issued an appeal, on
behalf to th e ICRC and the League, to all G overnm ents and
R ed Cross Societies capable of giving aid. The appeal asked for
donations in kind and in m oney, and for export a n d warehousing
facilities. In particu lar, it asked th e L atin Am erican countries
to m ake available either funds or m edicam ents, th e la tte r being
allowed to pass through the B ritish blockade w ithout difficulty.
The donors were free to nam e th e co u n try or category of persons
who were to benefit ; th ey were, however, advised to assist
preferably in building up large stocks, which were essential
if im m ediate action was to be tak e n in u rgent cases.
Owing p a rtly to th e general political and economic situ a
tion, th e success of this appeal was u n fo rtu n a te ly less th a n
th a t issued in May 1940 for the refugees in F rance and Belgium.
Most of the replies were evasive, and the to ta l contributions
of the Am erican, D anish, E cuador and Japanese Red Cross
Societies, and of th e D anish and M exican G overnm ents, together
363

am ounted only to 120,000 francs. The T urkish Red Crescent

m ade a gift in kind, and some G overnm ents sta te d th eir
readiness to facilitate the export of certain products. D espite these
som ew hat disappointing results, the appeal of N ovem ber 1940
enabled the Jo in t Relief Commission of th e In te rn atio n a l
Red Cross to step forw ard as a legally co n stitu ted agency
a fact which was to be of great consequence.
The new ly-created Commission derived from the ICRC
and the League certain notew o rth y facilities. In addition to
its expert secretariat, whose task h ad been greatly reduced by
th e war, th e League was p a rticu larly well placed to procure
relief supplies, th ro u g h its close connection w ith m any N ational
R ed Cross Societies. M oreover, the C hairm an of th e League
was likewise C hairm an of th e Am erican Red Cross ; in this
la tte r capacity he had displayed great interest, before the
U nited S tates entered th e war, in relief work for the occupied
countries of E urope. A t his suggestion a sum of 70 million
dollars (50 million granted by th e U nited S tates G overnm ent
and 20 m illion collected by the Am erican Red Cross) had been
set aside for th is purpose.
On th e o ther hand, owing to the n a tu re of its m em bership,
th e League alone was unable to un d ertak e relief work for
civilian populations in countries a t war, since several of its
leading m em bers belonged to countries th a t were a t w ar w ith
th e Axis. B y th e sum m er of 1940, it was clear th a t the G erm an
G overnm ent w ould not sanction any action by th e League in
th e territo ries occupied by the Axis.
On th e other hand, th e ICRC was alm ost universally recog
nized ; it could act in m ost of the countries a t war, w ith the
full approval of th e authorities. This was its m ain asset. The
belligerents h ad absolute confidence in its im p artiality , and this
confidence was largely due to the perpetual n e u tra lity of Sw it
zerland, th e co u n try where its h ead q u arters are situ ated and
its m em bers recruited. In addition, it was obvious th a t, in
accordance w ith the tra d itio n al principles th a t guide the Com
m itte e s work, th e relief program m es u n d ertaken under its
auspices w ould serve no political ends, b u t would retain a
strictly h u m an itarian character.

The ICRC, m oreover, enjoyed num erous practical a d v a n

tages. In m any countries, it was represented w ith G overnm ents
a n d R ed Cross Societies by duly accredited delegates who were
able to appeal for donations, secure export perm its, find m eans
of tra n sp o rt, and receive and issue relief supplies. T hrough
the reports m ade out by these delegates, the donors were exactly
and im partially inform ed as to the result of the undertakings
to which th ey had contributed.
Subsequently, it has often been m aintained th a t the ICRC
should have m ade itself solely responsible for giving relief to war
victim s. I t was only after careful consideration th a t th e ICRC
abandoned this idea, since its lim ited resources would not have
borne th e costs of such a scheme. As the League was in a sim ilar
position, the two organizations were n a tu ra lly led to join
forces in an u ndertaking which th ey would have been unable to
accom plish separately.
I t was expected th a t the Jo in t Relief Commission, as such,
would have to carry out large-scale financial operations in which
neither the ICRC, nor th e League would be com m itted. I t had
therefore to be endowed w ith an independent legal sta tu s, and
was set up in conform ity w ith A rticles 60 seq. of th e Swiss
Civil Code, as a non-profit-m aking association, of which the
ICRC and the League were m em bers. This association was
entered in th e Commercial R egister ; its sta tu te s were adopted
on Ju ly 23, 1941.
The General Assembly, the legislative body of the associa
tion, included one representative of th e ICRC and one of the
League. I t set up a Council to direct th e work of the Jo in t
Commission, appointing tw o representatives of the ICRC, two
of th e League, and one m em ber chosen outside these two in sti
tutions. The m em bership of the Council was increased to seven
in October, 1943.
In the m inds of its founders, th e Jo in t Relief Commission
was intended m erely to fu rth er the joint action of the ICRC and
the League, w ithout in any w ay setting up a new and perm anent
In te rn atio n a l Red Cross body, since decisions of this kind are
the prerogative of th e In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross Conference. This
tem porary agency did not, m oreover, have a m onopoly of the
365

relief work und ertak en by th e ICRC and the League for civilian
populations. The ICRC, it will be recalled, first carried out its
w ork in Greece unaided, la te r w ith the assistance of the Swe
dish G overnm ent
To m eet th e initial overhead costs of the Jo in t Relief Com
mission, the ICRC an d th e League each advanced 1,000 dollars.
L ater, th e Commission was able to cover its own expenses for
prem ises, staff, checking and issue of supplies, convoy agents,
etc., by m eans of a levy of 2% on the value of th e goods for
w arded. The cost of tra n sp o rt, w arehousing and insurance were
generally borne by the donors, and som etim es by the benefi
ciaries. Such was th e m ethod finally adopted, in preference to
subsidies from G overnm ents and N ational R ed Cross Societies,
as was originally suggested.

2.

eneral

egotiations

w ith

the

elligerents

The relief schemes carried out by th e Jo in t Relief Commis

sion betw een 1941 and th e end of 1946, when it was wound up,
are too m any for enum eration here. The Final R eport of th a t
Commission (comprising th e joint report by the League and
the ICRC to the In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross Conference) gives m any
p articulars on th e subject. The present statem en t will therefore
be confined to the C om m ittees assistance to the work of the
Jo in t Relief Commission in th e belligerent countries.
Before giving legal sta tu s to the Jo in t Commission, it was
essential to know how the belligerents would greet its work for
civilian populations in th e occupied countries. M. C.J. Burckh a rd t, m em ber of th e ICRC and prom oter of the jo int activities,
conducted the principal diplom atic negotiations and took upon
him self th e work of liaison betw een the Jo in t Relief Commission
and th e belligerents.
G erm any was first consulted, as th e relief operations h ad to
begin in territo ries th a t were occupied by her forces. In th e
sum m er of 1940, during a mission to Berlin, the fu tu re Chairm an
1 See below pp. 450-479.

366

of the Jo in t Relief Commission succeeded in convincing the

Germ an civil and m ilitary authorities th a t th e proposed work
was indispensable and offered every pledge of goodwill. The
Germ an R ed Cross also prom ised th eir full support.
A fter th e appeal of N ovem ber 1940, th e ICRC and the
League officially asked th e G erm an G overnm ent to authorize
th e shipm ent of food supplies, clothing and m edicam ents for
women and children in th e occupied countries. The M inistry
for Foreign Affairs of the Reich replied on J a n u a ry 11, 1941,
b y a le tte r of prim ary im portance, which laid down the follow
ing rules :
(1) The G erm an G overnm ent agreed to th e principle of
relief shipm ents in kind and in funds to th e w ar-stricken popu
lations in the territories occupied by th e G erm an forces.
(2) The shipm ents were to be by collective consignm ents,
and not by isolated gifts for specific persons.
(3) The G erm an Red Cross would have to organize and
control th e issue of gifts.
(4) Relief consignm ents would be d u ty and carriage-free,
provided th ey were addressed to th e Germ an Red Cross.
(5) D istribution would be carried out by th e local welfare
agencies and in accordance w ith the wishes of th e donors.
(6) No requisitions would be m ade at any tim e for the
benefit of th e G erm an forces or officials.
(7) On application in each instance, representatives of the
donors would be allowed to en ter th e occupied territories to
satisfy them selves th a t the relief supplies had been carefully
and equitably distributed.
Of these clauses, the sixth was of especial im portance,
as it was an essential condition of any relief work for civilian
populations in territories occupied by th e Germ an Army.
Economic Warfare.
The second W orld W ar a t once assum ed th e character of
to ta l w arfare, since th e S tates engaged did not count only on
367

the force of arm s to defeat th e enem y. In particular, th ey had

planned beforehand th e m eans to strike a t his economic power,
and co n tra ry to w hat happened in 1914-1918, th e plans were
p u t into operation forthw ith. As soon as w ar broke out, trading
w ith enemy, or enem y-occupied countries was prohibited ;
it was strictly regulated w ith neu tral countries ; m any com m o
dities were classed as w ar c o n tra b an d and were liable to con
fiscation by th e belligerents.
According to th e G overnm ents concerned, th is policy, even
if it did tem porarily harm priv ate interests, was justified by
the necessity for th e earliest conclusion of the w ar and of the
suffering it inflicted on th e entire world. There was, however,
no doubt th a t it affected n eu trals as well as the enem y, and the
civilian population as well as th e co m b atan ts ; it was thus
difficult to reconcile w ith the h u m an itarian principles to which
civilized nations should conform in waging war. In particular,
th e belligerents were averse to the dispatch of relief supplies,
because th ey wished a t all costs to deprive the adversary of
any elem ent which could give him the slightest assistance in his
w ar effort b The 1CRC, which is by principle and trad itio n
bound to assist all w ar victim s, was therefore confronted by
very serious and som etim es insurm ountable difficulties.
(A).

The Blockade

Relief work was seriously ham pered by the strict blockade

which the Allies imposed upon the E uropean continent as soon
as w ar was declared, w ith the intention of econom ically isolating
the Axis countries. The ICRC had th u s no access to the great
overseas m arkets, and even in th e neutral countries of Europe,
for reasons which will be given later, it could not freely purchase
the necessary supplies.
To cover th eir requirem ents, the neu tral S tates signed
agreem ents w ith the Allies known as W ar T rade Agreem ents
or Blockade Agreem ents , which cut th eir exports both to
other n eu tral countries and to belligerent States. The agreem ent
1 See p. 28.

368

of April 25, 1940, for instance, subjected th e foreign tra d e of

Sw itzerland to very severe regulations.
To ensure th e application of these agreem ents and of those
of a sim ilar kind which she had been compelled to sign w ith the
Axis Powers owing to th e counter-blockade 1, Sw itzerland
herself controlled all her im ports and exports. U pon th eir
arrival in Swiss territo ry , all goods which th e Allies had per
m itted her to im port for her own requirem ents were tak e n over
by a Swiss com m ercial control body, whose d u ty it was to
prevent th eir being diverted from th eir ostensible purpose.
By v irtue of th e Blockade Agreem ent, Sw itzerland also agreed
to the creation of a S tanding Jo in t Commission 2, com prising
delegates of th e Swiss and Allied G overnm ents. This Com
mission, w ith h ead q u arters in Berne, dealt w ith all th e problem s
raised by th e application of th e Agreem ent. I t regularly received
from the Swiss G overnm ent th e necessary statistical inform ation
and docum ents, and all particulars which it deem ed appropriate.
Difficulties it could not solve itself were subm itted, th rough its
delegates, to th e G overnm ents concerned. The Allied delegates
received their instructions direct from th e blockade authorities ;
these were th e M inistry of Econom ic W arfare in London, the
M inistre du blocus in Paris, and, after th e U nited S tates entered
th e war, th e B oard of Econom ic W arfare in W ashington. An
In terallied Blockade Commission, accredited to th e M inistry
of Econom ic W arfare in London, coordinated th e work of these
M inistries and th e economic w arfare of the Allies. The Commis
sion also authorized th e passage of n eu tral goods th rough the
blockade. A fter th e occupation of F rance and th e e n try into the
war of th e U nited S tates, it becam e the Jo in t A m erican-British
Blockade Com m ittee.
W hile fairly m oderate a t th e outbreak of th e war, th e rules
im posed by th e blockade on neu tral countries becam e steadily
more stringent, as a result of reprisals against enem y trade.
The blockade authorities m ade exception, however, for certain
relief schemes. This was the case w ith a project u n d ertaken by
1 See p. 377.
2 N ot to be confused w ith the Joint Relief Commission itself.
ill.

24

369

an Am erican organization in occupied Poland.

Likewise,
through th e efforts of th e ICRC in London, several large food
consignm ents from L atin America, addressed to Poland and
even G erm any, were allowed through the blockade, for dis
trib u tio n by the G erm an Red Cross to th e wounded and sick.
The Allied regulations tightened, however, after the occupa
tion of the greater p a rt of E urope and the w estern seaboard
by th e Axis forces. On Ju ly 31, 1940, G reat B ritain in stitu ted a
new control procedure for ships and cargoes, known as the
navicert system . Inspection was carried out in the ports of
loadingconsequently before the shipm ent of the goods
and no longer in the Allied control ports in Europe. T hrough
th e B ritish or Allied diplom atic representatives in neu tral
countries, the blockade authorities in London received appli
cations for tra n sit ; when these were granted, th ey issued the
papers known as navicerts . Goods and ships not covered by
navicerts ran the risk of seizure by the sea patrols and other
Allied control bodies. In addition, ships wishing to take ad v a n
tage of certain facilities in Allied ports of call, such as repairs,
refuelling, provisions and so on, had to secure a ships w arrant,
in exchange for an und ertak in g not to convey goods other th an
those covered by a navicert, nor to render any service w hatever
to th e enemy.
The strictness of these stipulations took no account of
h u m an itarian considerations.
H enceforth, any supplies sent
to enem y territo ry were exposed to seizure, even if intended for
th e w ounded and sick. Aware of the grave harm th u s caused
to w ar-victim s, th e ICRC a t once began negotiations w ith the
blockade authorities and sent one of its m em bers to London to
plead its cause w ith th e M inistry of Econom ic W arfare.
Discussions first tu rn e d on relief for prisoners of war. The
M inistry agreed to individual parcels, which were expressly
provided for under A rticles 37 and 38 of the Geneva Convention.
The m a tte r of bulk consignm ents, w ithout which the prisoners
in G erm an hands would not have had the e x tra food rations
th a t were indispensable, was th e subject of p ro tracted discus
sions ; such consignm ents were authorised only after the ICRC
has supplied proof th a t it was able to check the issue of these
37

supplies to Allied w ar prisoners and civilian internees. I t was

still more difficult to obtain approval for bulk consignm ents
of overseas supplies for French prisoners ; th e Allies gave their
consent finally in 1942, and th en only for a lim ited tonnage >.
The C om m ittees mission to London thereupon broached the
very complex problem of assistance to civilian populations in
countries occupied by th e Axis forces. They recalled th e expe
rience of the w ar of 1914-1918, during which th e Belgian popu
lation had been supplied, despite th e blockade, th ro u g h an
Am erican com m ittee which h a d organized the supervision of
relief distribution on the spot. They also invoked several Reso
lutions adopted a t In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross Conferences betw een
1920 and 1938. According to these Resolutions, the ICRC was
to consider the p a rt to be played by the R ed Cross in the event
of economic blockade, and to consider how blockade regulations
m ight be relaxed in th e interests of specific categories of the
population in the countries concerned, and of the release of
certain supplies, such as m edicam ents and hospital equip
m ent. This enquiry was to form the basis of a possible in te r
national convention on the subject 2.
First Period (A ugust 1940 End of 1943).
The ICRC was u n fo rtu n ately unable to secure perm ission
to send relief from overseas to certain categories of w ar-victim s
in the blockade countries. In a le tte r d a te d Septem ber 14,
1940, the M inistry of Econom ic W arfare sta te d th a t, while
fully appreciating the value of th e C om m ittees hum an itarian
work, the B ritish G overnm ent were com pelled to refuse to
m odify in any way th e blockade policy defined by th e Prim e
M inister in his speech of A ugust 22, 1940. In their opinion,
the shipm ent of relief to occupied countries indirectly assisted
the enem y, who could devote p a rt of the local production
to the requirem ents of th e G erm an population, and even to the
m anufacture of war m aterial (for instance, th e m anufacture of
1 See pp. 30 et seq.
2 See R esolution X, Geneva Conference,
H ague Conference, 1928.

1925 ; R esolution

IX ,

371

explosives w ith fats, alcohol w ith potatoes, plastic m aterial

for aircraft w ith by-products of milk). I t would, moreover,
be impossible to ensure th a t th e enem y did not seize these
supplies for th eir own use. There was no reason to m ake an
exception even for certain categories of persons (e.g. children
and m others), because th e supply of food to th e civilian
population of an occupied co u n try as a whole m ust be the
responsibility of th e occupying Power.
The B ritish G overnm ent would countenance only the ship
m ent of m edicam ents earm arked exclusively for wounded and
sick in th e occupied countries. These m edicam ents, again,
were confined to pharm aceutical products, in the true sense,
and dressings ; th ey did not include foodstuffs not of a strictly
m edical n ature, such as vitam ins or cod-liver oil, nor blankets
and hospital equipm ent, as the B ritish G overnm ent considered
th a t enough of these were on th e E uropean continent and
should be furnished b y the occupying Power.
In practice, m edical stores were only given navicerts with
difficulty, particu larly those addressed to the civilian popula
tions of Belgium and Jugoslavia ; and th e list of authorized
products was frequently altered.
The economic blockade was accom panied by a financial
blockade, the object of which was to deprive the enem y of the
benefits of foreign currency. This becam e increasingly strict,
especially after th e U nited S tates entered the war, and also
greatly ham pered relief work.
Anxious, despite all these obstacles, to help women and
children, th e ICRC tu rn e d to the E uropean m arkets for the
food a n d clothing which th e Allied blockade prevented them
from procuring overseas. U nfortunately, th e resources of the
neu tral states and of th e B alkan countries, which were satellites
of th e Axis, were quickly exhausted, and it becam e more and
m ore difficult to m eet the applications th a t co nstantly came in.
To rem ain inactive in face of the increasing distress in the
d e v a sta te d areas would have been a dereliction of du ty . The
ICRC once more tried to convince the blockade authorities th a t
m ilitary necessities, however im perative, never com pletely
freed a belligerent from its m oral obligations, and th a t consc372

quently th e Allies could n ot rem ain indifferent to th e fate of

millions of hum an beings who were suffering from sta rv a tio n
and epidem ic disease. Sim ilar steps were often undertaken
at the express request of N ational R ed Cross Societies and
other relief organizations, whose representatives in London
supported the endeavours of the ICRC to th e fullest extent.
U ndeterred b y repeated refusals, th e ICRC took up the
m atte r once more, w henever a p articu larly critical situation
arose. Its perseverance was a t last rew arded ; a t th e request of
one of its m em bers, th en in London, th e blockade was relaxed
to enable food supplies to be tak e n into Greece, where fam ine was
m aking terrible inroads on th e population 1. B ut n either Bel
gium, nor Belgrade, nor any civilian population elsewhere was
able to benefit by sim ilar m easures ; only when th e E uropean
Continent was invaded by th e Allies in 1944 were th e regulations
lifted for H olland and th e Channel Islands.
Second Period (E n d of 1943 M ay 1945).
For th e above reasons, purchases by th e Jo in t Relief Com
mission had to be m ade in n eu tral countries, p articu larly in
Sw itzerland.
As th e w ar lengthened, supplies becam e increasingly scarce.
D espite th e generosity of th e G overnm ent tow ards th e Com m it
tees relief schemes, Sw itzerland had to bear in m ind her own
precarious situation. The agreem ents by which she was bound
to b o th parties, and which were co nstantly changing w ith the
m ilitary, political and economic situation, greatly restricted her
export possibilities. As a result of the victories gained in 1943
and 1944, the Allies increased th eir pressure on n eu tral countries,
to bring them to sever th eir com m ercial relations w ith th e Axis
Powers, and Sw itzerland was placed betw een th e blockade and
th e counter-blockade. A Swiss delegation was sent to London
to negotiate w ith the Anglo-Am erican delegation representing
the blockade authorities. U nder th e provisional agreem ents
of D ecem ber 19, 1943, and of A ugust 14, 1944, Sw itzerland
1 See p p . 452 an d 461.

373

procured navicerts for the indispensable overseas goods, b u t

in exchange her G overnm ent had to agree to cut down her
exports still further.
In London, th e Swiss delegation advocated, first and fore
m ost, th e vital interests of th e ir co u n try ; b u t as th e ICRC had
its h ead q u arters in Geneva, th ey agreed, a t th e C om m ittees
request, likewise to plead the cause of the Red Cross. The ICRC
was bound to c arry out its w ork w ithin the scope of the a rra n
gem ents to which th e Swiss authorities were com m itted by the
Allies, and th e quotas g ran ted to the form er were henceforth
too sm all to deduct a p a rt of them to serve as relief exports.
The Standing Jo in t Commission, m entioned earlier, could,
it is true, g ran t additional quotas. All the relief schemes of the
In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross were therefore su bm itted to them .
B u t th e y allowed only the shipm ent of supplies paid for w ith
Swiss funds. The ICRC could not agree to a distinction betw een
th e origin of the funds used ; it was precisely th rough the use of
foreign assets deposited in Sw itzerland th a t certain purchases
could be m ade, against the account of welfare organizations in
th e occupied countries. In addition, when the S tanding Jo in t
Commission were unable to decide controversial cases them selves,
th ey h ad to refer to the blockade authorities in London and
W ashington. Relief work was th u s subjected to very regrettable
delays, and its chances of success were correspondingly reduced.
The ICRC th en entered into direct negotiations, in Geneva
and Berne, w ith the Allied delegates of th e Commission. I t
m aintained th a t work of intern atio n al and purely hu m an itarian
character, such as it pursued, should not be subjected to the
sam e restrictions as tra d e exchanges, and th a t the ICRC was
en titled to special tre a tm e n t. Its claims were supported by
exam ples such as th e following : th e delegate of the ICRC in
Belgrade h ad wired to G eneva th a t, unless the 20 tons of p o ta
toes and 30 tons of m illet intended for th e school canteens
recently opened in Belgrade, and for which an export perm it
had been in abeyance for a long tim e, did not leave a t once, the
entire relief scheme would have to be abandoned.
The Allied representatives were im pressed by these argu
m ents and prom ised to give a wider in te rp re ta tio n to the
374

blockade regulations. They allowed th e J o in t Relief Commission

tem porarily to continue its w ork for civilian populations in
distress, whilst aw aiting th e response to th e M em orandum sent
by the ICRC to the G overnm ents in London and W ashington,
on Ju ly 3, 1944, and dealing w ith the problem as a whole.
In th is docum ent, th e ICRC had stressed the n e u tra lity ,
im p artiality and exclusively h u m an ita ria n purpose of its
work ; it added its conviction th a t it w ould be able, b y the
effective control of d istribution, to avoid any m isappropriation
of relief supplies which were intended for civilian populations.
I t concluded by asking th a t in th e negotiations w ith th e Swiss
delegation th en in progress in London th e blockade authorities
should consider g ranting th e two following privileges to exports
m ade from Sw itzerland by th e Jo in t Relief Commission, for
w ar-victim s who took no p a rt in th e w ar effort of th e Axis,
i.e. women, children and th e sick :
(1) Such exports to be under a special rgim e and no
longer considered as exports of the Swiss G overnm ent.
(2) Such exports to receive perm its by an em ergency
procedure, so th a t shipm ents should not be delayed.
H aving exam ined the M em orandum during the sum m er of
1944, th e blockade authorities recognized th a t th e wishes of the
ICRC were justified, and in large m easure fell in w ith them .
Meanwhile, F rance h ad been th e th e a tre of im p o rta n t
m ilitary operations and events pointed to G erm any being in
a sim ilar position in th e near future. The ICRC therefore, as
a neutral, im p artial and world-wide agency, had to be ready to
act not only in th e occupied countries, b u t in th e belligerent
countries them selves. This increase in the scope of relief work
led to fu rth e r negotiations w ith th e Allied representatives in
Sw itzerland, who adopted a m ost conciliatory a ttitu d e .
On April 5, 1945, a final agreem ent was concluded in Sw itzer
land betw een th e ICRC and a delegation representing th e
A m erican, B ritish an d French G overnm ents. I t dealt speci
fically w ith th e following points :
375

(a) Supplies im ported by th e In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross to

Sw itzerland under th e Allied control system m ight be re-expor
te d w ith th e consent of th e Allied representatives in Berne, to
a destination other th a n th a t indicated on th e navicerts ;
(b) E x p o rt of Swiss products by the In te rn atio n a l Red
Cross was subject to approval by the Allied representatives in
Berne, who would consider applications " in a spirit of com plete
understanding for th e h u m an itarian objectives of th e Red
Cross ", a n d w ould deal w ith th em " in th e least restrictive and
m ost expeditious m anner possible ;
(c) The B ritish a n d U nited S tates Legations in Berne were
g ran ted extrem ely wide powers to authorize relief exports ;
(d) In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross exports were n ot to be consi
dered as p a rt of th e export q u o ta of th e Swiss G overnm ent.
However, th ey were to be reduced, w henever the blockade a u th o r
ities deem ed it necessary ;
(e) M onthly statistics of exports by th e In te rn atio n a l Red
Cross were to be sent in by th e Swiss G overnm ent to the
B ritish a n d U nited S tates authorities.
Relief shipm ents for G erm any were the subject of a special
arrangem ent. The export of supplies which h ad entered under
a navicert was prohibited. E x p o rt of supplies of Swiss origin was
perm itted in behalf of th e disabled, m others and newly-born
infants, exp ectan t m others, children and persons who were
too old to co n trib u te to the w ar effort of G erm any, likewise
victim s of catastrophes such as epidemics, on condition th a t
full reports of each distribution were m ade to th e Allied G overn
m ents. The collapse of th e G erm an forces which took place
soon after, and th e occupation of th e Reich by the four Allied
Powers, m ade such shipm ents impossible.
The general agreem ent of April 5 enabled the Jo in t Relief
Commission greatly to ex ten d its activities, which had still
fu rth e r increased since it centralized applications for export
perm its and th e shipm ents of all relief agencies in Sw itzerland
W hen in O ctober 1944, it was decided not to subject Swiss
exports to lib erated F rance and Belgium to th e control of the
3/6

Allied representatives in Berne, th e blockade au th o rities greatly

simplified th e ta sk of th e ICRC. The C om m ittees delegates in
these countries were now able to obtain direct from th e local
m ilitary authorities th e im port perm its for relief supplies th ey
considered necessary. In Ja n u a ry 1945, this concession was
extended to th e liberated areas of th e N etherlands and AlsaceLorraine.
Third Period (Post-war -period).
A fter th e end of hostilities in Europe, th e m achinery of th e
blockade was m aintained to enable the Allies to ensure a fair
d istribution of goods. The B ritish G overnem ent, for instance,
asked to be notified of all In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross shipm ents
and th eir destination ; th ey could th u s deduct them from the
to ta l qu o ta which was allocated to each country.
T hrough its alm ost exclusive m onopoly in th is sphere, the
M inistry of Food in London was also able on very advantageous
term s to procure from th e A rgentine th e goods needed to
supply E urope. The M inistry therefore proposed th a t In te r
national R ed Cross purchases in th a t co u n try should go through
its hands, to preclude any rise in prices. A delegate of th e ICRC,
representing th e Jo in t Relief Commission in London, was
in stru cted to consider these questions, in agreem ent w ith the
Allied authorities.
(B). The Counter-Blockade
The blockade was m et by a counter-blockade, which also
lim ited relief shipm ents to occupied countries.
The Axis
Powers, who atta ch e d as m uch im portance as th e Allies to
economic w arfare, b y 1940 controlled th e foreign tra d e b o th of the
occupied and of th e n eu tral countries of E urope. All exports
from these countries had, consequently, to be accom panied b y a
Geleitschein or accom panying certificate. The same rule applied
to th e supplies which th e ICRC wished to send to th e civilian
populations. The requisite Geleitschein was inv ariab ly obtained,
b ut a t th e cost of delays which often held u p th e shipm ents.
377

Only relief for prisoners of war and civilian internees was free
from all restrictions.
In addition, the agreem ents concluded betw een th e Reich
and Sw itzerland stip u late d th a t Swiss exports should not
exceed a certain volum e. The ICRC asked th a t the supplies
which it sent to occupied F rance for hum an itarian purposes
should not be included in th e Swiss quota. In the sum m er
of 1941, the G erm an authorities gave a satisfactory answ er as
regards pharm aceutical products, b u t no exception was ever
m ade in th e case of foodstuffs and clothing.
Transfers of Funds.
The T rading w ith the E nem y Act of Septem ber 1939, under
which G reat B ritain prohibited commerce w ith enem y countries,
included m onetary provisions.
All transfers of funds from
G reat B ritain to n eu tral countries required the authorization
(license) of the B oard of T rade, and this license was gran ted
only for the paym ent of goods produced by the n eu tral countries
in excess of th eir own requirem ents and which, in addition,
did not contain more th a n 20% of raw m aterial coming from
Axis countries.
These provisions, and sim ilar m easures tak e n by the U nited
S tates even before their coming into the war, were a serious
handicap to the w ork of the Jo in t Relief Commission. As will
be seen from the la tte r s R eport, the Commission som etim es
had more difficulty in finding funds th a n supplies. On m any
occasions th ey were prev en ted from transferring to Geneva
th e sum s which donors abroad wished to contribute for the
purchase of relief.
Foreseeing these difficulties, the ICRC and the League, upon
beginning th eir jo in t a c tiv ity in N ovem ber 1940, a t once
approached the B ank of In te rn a tio n a l Settlem ents. A joint
account was opened, to which th e donations th a t came in res
ponse to the appeal of N ovem ber 1940 could be paid in all
countries.
This B ank, like all others, had to com ply w ith th e financial
controls established by th e Allies. I t was unable to m ake m any

378

transfers for th e account of th e In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross, as

the n eu tral countries produced only few com m odities in excess.
The Jo in t Relief Commission, to which th e m arkets in the
Axis satellite countries were still largely open, th en tu rn e d its
a tte n tio n chiefly to collecting funds w ithin th e blockade area.
B ut it was som etim es difficult to define the origin of such
funds. F or instance, were am ounts lent by Swiss banks to
relief agencies in occupied countries to be considered as subject
to the regulations of the T rading w ith the E nem y Act ? Or
could funds deposited in Swiss banks in the nam e of nationals of
occupied countries and released for use by the Jo in t Relief
Commission serve to m ake purchases in countries th a t were
subservient to th e Axis ? Persistent representations by th e
ICRC and the Jo in t Relief Commission enabled these funds
to be utilized, a t least partially, in E astern E urope 1.
The freezing of Swiss assets in th e U nited S tates caused no
less difficulties. Assets which were th e p ro p erty of th e ICRC
in th a t co u n try were tre a te d in exactly th e sam e w ay as those
belonging to Swiss citizens ; consequently, th ey could be tra n s
ferred solely through the Swiss N ational B ank, the only agency
which h ad a general license for dollar transfers.
D uring th e early years-of th e war, the expenses of th e ICRC
were m et for the m ost p a rt by donations from the Swiss G overn
m ent and people. B ut th e extension of th e war increased expen
d iture to such a degree th a t th e ICRC h ad to m ake greater
claims on the help of the G overnm ents and R ed Cross Societies
of th e belligerent countries. The funds which were paid to the
ICRC in th e Allied countries rem ained frozen in accounts
opened in G reat B ritain and the U nited S tates. The only way
in which these funds could be m ade available was to resort to
th e good offices of the Swiss N ational B ank, which accepted
frozen gold and credited th e Com m ittee w ith its equivalent in
Swiss francs. O perations of this kind som etim es exceeded the
financial capacity of Sw itzerland, for whom an accum ulation
of frozen gold in Allied countries presented certain risks.
1 For further particulars on this question, see the R eport of the Joint
R elief Commission.

379

W hen requesting the B ritish and U nited S tates G overnm ents

for a u th o rity to export supplies from Sw itzerland for hum ani
ta ria n purposes, the ICRC also raised th e question of transfers
of currency. Arguing th e im p artial an d disinterested natu re
of its activities, th e C om m ittee claim ed th e right to dispose
freely of its assets in th e Allied countries and to tran sfer them
to E urope according to requirem ents. I t em phasized th a t the
am ounts th u s transferred would serve not to purchase supplies,
b u t only to m eet th e overhead expenses of relief schemes and
o ther h u m an ita ria n work.
The Allied au th o rities received this application favourably,
and after negotiations, early in 1945, betw een their representa
tives and th e ICRC, th ey facilitated th e financial operations of
th e Com m ittee, in so far as th e legislation of th e Allied countries
and Sw itzerland p erm itted.

U N R R A and International Red Cross relief work.

D uring th e w ar, civilian populations were not aided solely
by th e ICRC, th e League and th e J o in t Relief Commission.
Supplies reached them also from various official or private
sources, such as G overnm ents in exile, nationals residing
overseas and religious associations.
The following Chapter,
which deals w ith h u m an itarian activities in th e various coun
tries, shows th a t these agencies very often asked for th e cooper
ation of th e ICRC and th eir delegates.
W hen th e Axis forces were g radually compelled to abandon
th e territo ries th e y had occupied, relief to civilian populations
grew to exceptional proportions and its g reatest agent was
U N R R A (U nited N ations Relief and R eh abilitation A dm inistra
tion). This body was set up b y forty-four Allied G overnm ents
on N ovem ber 9, 1943, in order to provide initial relief for the
lib erated Allied countries and to help to th eir recovery. The
present R eport cannot give any account of th e rem arkable
achievem ents of U N R R A during its three years of intense
activ ity . B u t a few words should be said of its connection
w ith th e In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross which, th ro u g h th e Jo in t
380

Relief Commission, was engaged in sim ilar work from 1941,

although w ith far sm aller resources.
In the sum m er of 1944, th e ICRC sent a delegate to the
U nited S tates to consult w ith the D irectors of U N R R A on
cooperation betw een th e tw o agencies. These talk s showed
th a t,' despite comm on features, the two organizations differed
on several essential points.
U N R R A was concerned, as a rule, solely w ith Allied coun
tries ; it was only from 1945 th a t it extended its help to certain
ex-enem y countries. Moreover, it handed over its gifts for the
G overnm ents to use as th ey saw fit ; in particular, th ey could
sell th e supplies to the public for th e benefit of the national
exchequer.
By reason of its universality an d strictly non-political
character, th e R ed Cross was on th e o th er han d bound to give
assistance w herever the need arose. I t was to be presum ed th a t
a fter having chiefly helped Allied nationals during the w ar, it
would late r have to act in th e same w ay in behalf of Axis
nationals. F u rth e r, th e n a tu re of Red Cross supplies is such
th a t th ey are issued direct an d free of charge to th e recipients.
Such were th e m ain reasons why th e ICRC could not give up its
own work for civilian populations, nor merge into the new organi
zation its own ad hoc agency for sim ilar work. The Com m ittee
could not, a t least officially and in its own nam e, m ake its
delegates in th e liberated countries available to U N RR A ,
although this would have been desirable in view of the services
th a t these experts in m atte rs of relief m ight th u s have been
able to render.
However, an observer of th e ICRC a tte n d e d th e m eetings
of th e U N R R A Council, and the la tte r organization h ad a
representative in Sw itzerland. Thus, although each worked
according to its own rules, the two organizations kept up
relations which enabled th em to exchange inform ations on
th e requirem ents of the w ar-stricken countries, and even on
m any occasions, to cooperate in a practical m anner. Thus, when
the U N R R A missions arrived in Greece and th e Dodecanese
to convey supplies to th e civilian population, th ey were assis
ted by the C om m ittees delegations, who had preceded them
38 i

in th is field. Likewise, distrib u tio n of parcels to Allied pri

soners of w ar who were liberated en masse after the re tre a t
of th e G erm an forces, was carried out jointly in G erm any b y
U N R R A team s and th e C om m ittees delegations.
E xcept for these special cases, the Jo in t Relief Commission
rem ained independent.
I t held itself, in particular, a t the
disposal of n e u tra l countries which were not m em bers of U N R R A
and of all donors who were anxious to relieve distress caused by
the war, according to R ed Cross principles, in disregard of any
political considerations. In consequence, the activities of the
Commission increased greatly during the im m ediate post-w ar
period.
D istribution of Relief.
As a rule and this was so m ainly after th e w ar in Poland,
Belgium , N orw ay and Jugoslavia the Red Cross Societies
d istrib u ted relief direct in each country. If th ey were not
approved by th e occupying Power, the work was done by
h u m an itarian organizations th a t were recognized by the occu
pying authorities. In certain cases where the national Red Cross
as such was n ot given perm ission to carry on its work, m eans
were nevertheless found, for instance in occupied Poland,
to enlist the services of its local branches.
The delegate of the ICRC or its agents in places where
110 regular delegate was a t work confined his duties as a
rule to tra n sm ittin g instructions from th e donors and from th e
Jo in t Relief Commission to the d istributing agencies. I t was
expressly stip u lated : (i) th a t all necessary precautions should
be tak en to prevent the recipients from selling relief supplies
on th e black m arket ; (2) th a t all civilians in the service of
th e occupying Power, who ought therefore to be supplied solely
by the la tte r, should be excluded from distributions. To ensure
th e application of these rules, the delegate carried out tests in th e
w arehouses, supervised d istribution and checked th e reports
m ade out by the receiving com m ittees. The reports were then
studied in G eneva by the Jo in t Relief Commission, and for
w arded to the donors.
382

Consignments of foodstuffs sent to the occupied countries

were, as a rule, provided firstly for children, and th en for
expectant and nursing m others. The children usually received
their rations in the day nurseries or school canteens ; meals
taken on the spot ruled out all possibility of illicit traffic.
W hen a whole population h ad to be fed (i. e. men, women
and children, w ith th e exception of persons working for the
occupying Power), relief was d istrib u ted to the food shops and
issued by these to the public against ration coupons. This
m ethod was adopted in Greece, th e Dodecanese, th e Channel
Islands, and the N etherlands during the fam ine of 1945, and
in the G erm an pockets of resistance on the A tlantic Coast. B ut
even in such cases th e delegate of the ICRC took care th a t the
supplies handed over to orphanages, day nurseries and hospitals
were allocated in full to children and the sick.
Clothing supplies were p articularly difficult to check. The
delegate supervised distribution, it is true, b u t to m ake sure
th a t th e recipients did n o t sell them afterw ards in order to
buy e x tra food, periodical tests would have been required. W hen
the B ritish authorities proposed to lay this down as a condition
to shipping clothes to the internee cam ps in the south of France,
the ICRC decided th a t such tests were practically impossible.
Civilians who are able to move about freely will clearly find it
even easier to sell illicitly the articles which th ey receive as
gifts for their personal use.
To keep m edicam ents out of the black m arket, these were
alm ost alw ays handed to hospitals, which had to keep a detailed
record of th eir use. To this system th e blockade authorities
raised no objection, since it had been agreed th a t th e whole
population of the occupied territories, and not only women
and children, could share in relief of this kind. Medical stores
allocated to chem ists were, as a rule, supplied direct to the
patien ts on a d octors prescription, m ostly free of charge ; if
paid for, the proceeds w ent to relief organizations.
The above rem arks give only a general picture. In practice,
the Jo in t Relief Commission and th e delegates of the ICRC
had to conform to stipulations which varied from one country
to another, and th ey were not alw ays able to carry out their

383

work in entirely satisfactory conditions. Delegates som etim es

had difficulty in gaining access to allocation schemes and,
especially, detailed reports, either because the responsible
associations were n o t yet properly organized, or because th ey
considered any request for inform ation as evidence of distrust.
The donors, on the other hand, were m ost anxious to have
exact inform ation about th e results of th e relief program m es
to which th ey had co n tributed, and showed signs of failing
in terest when th is very legitim ate wish was not m et. The
delegate of th e ICRC often had the difficult ta sk of sm oothing
over differences of this kind 1.

3.

T h e P o st - W

ar

P e r io d

A t th e close of hostilities in E urope, the ICRC itself decided

to liquidate the Jo in t Relief Commission, since this body
had been set up b y the ICRC and the League only for th e d u ra
tion of the war. The la tte r organisation agreed on this point
with the ICRC. I t was however settled th a t the Jo in t Relief
Commission should be allowed to finish its cu rren t undertakings.
I t was also planned to set up a sm all Office, on the m odel of th a t
which existed a t th e beginning of th e war, which would m ain
ta in liaison betw een th e ICRC and the League and coordinate
th e fu rth e r relief activities of th e N ational R ed Cross Societies
in behalf of civil populations. O ther h u m an itarian in stitu tio n s
still in need of a n eu tral interm ediary m ight have the service,
th e C om m ittee tho u g h t, of a foundation sim ilar to th e L ounda
tion for th e organization of R ed Cross T ransports, established
in 1942.
I t proved, however, im possible to c arry out this plan,
for two reasons. In th e first place, the liquidation of the Jo in t
Relief Commission and the continuatio n of its work by two
new organizations m et w ith difficulties of a legal n ature.
Secondly, th e liquidation wrould not have been opportune a t
th e tim e, since it would have discouraged donors who were
1 For fuller particulars about the allocation of relief, see the Report
of the Joint R elief Commission.

384

anxious to continue th eir help to w ar-victim s, and for whom

the nam e of th e Jo in t Relief Commission, know n thro u g h o u t
th e world, was a guarantee th a t th e schem e w ould be carried
out surely, com paratively quickly and a t sm all expense. The
Jo in t Relief Commission therefore continued to exist.
W ith a view to b e tte r co-operation betw een th e ICRC and
the League, the Council of th e Commission was replaced by an
E xecutive Com m ittee of three m em bers, two of whom repre
sented th e ICRC and th e League respectively, w hilst th e th ird
was chosen by th e two organizations. The decision of th e ICRC
and th e League to continue th eir jo in t activities in th is form
was sanctioned by an agreem ent signed b y th eir respective
Chairm en a t Paris, in N ovem ber 1945, as th e result of a dis
cussion in th e E xecutive C om m ittee of th e League. I t was
provided th a t th e J o in t Relief Commission should continue to
function as long as it received relief supplies in q u antities
sufficient to cover its overhead charges.
F or its p a rt, th e A dvisory Conference of N ational Red
Cross Societies, which was convened a t G eneva b y th e League
from O ctober 15 to N ovem ber 3, 1945, had recom m ended th a t
" the question of collaboration betw een th e League and the
ICRC should be placed on th e agenda of th e n e x t Session of
th e B oard of Governors and th a t, in th e interval, nothing should
be done which m ight hinder current relief activities .
This recom m endation of th e N ational R ed Cross Societies
and of th e executive of th eir F ederation, confirm ed th e ICRC
in its belief th a t, in the a u tu m n of 1945, it would have been
prem ature to in te rru p t m aterial relief work for civilian popu
lations. None th e less, th e question arose w hether it should
itself continue this work. This question had to be considered,
n o t only as regards th e possible liquidation of th e Jo in t Relief
Commission, b u t also in a general way, as soon as hostilities
came to a close. A rticle V II of the S ta tu tes of th e In te rn a tio n a l
R ed Cross in stru cts the ICRC to continue w ork in tim e of
peace for th e relief of the evils regarded as consequences of the
w ar
On the other hand, in order n ot to dissipate its energies,
and also to encourage the re-establishm ent of norm al relations,
b o th betw een th e N ational R ed Cross Societies and betw een the
i n .

25

385

peoples them selves, it is the policy of the ICRC to relinquish

its various activities as soon as th e victim s of th e w ar are no
longer in need of a n eu tral interm ediary, and as soon as other
n ational or in te rn atio n a l organizations are in a position to tak e
useful action C
As regards assistance to civil populations, th e conditions
prescribed in A rticle V II were undo u b ted ly to a large ex ten t
fulfilled. In 1945, however, th e necessity for a n eu tral in te r
m ediary was ju st as obvious. I t is tru e th a t there was nothing
to prevent th e victorious S tates in E urope from entering into
direct relations w ith th e m ore prosperous Allied countries,
or w ith n e u tra l States, and to appeal to th e generosity of each.
B u t such was th e disorganization of th e public services, of
tra n sp o rt facilities, and som etim es also of th e R ed Cross Socie
ties them selves, th a t it was impossible a t th e outset to dispense
w ith th e technical services either of th e Jo in t Relief Commis
sion or of the ICRC. The la tte r had already obtained, or was
ab o u t to obtain, free tra n sp o rt, p rio rity and other advantages
for th e m ovem ent of relief deliveries on th e territories of the
U nited N ations in W estern E urope and in th e n e u tra l countries.
T he populations of th e defeated countries, on th e o ther hand,
w ould have been deprived of th e b arest necessities, w ithout the
com paratively sm all gifts which th e ICRC and its delegates
could alone supply to them , despite m any obstacles, a t least
during the initial period of the occupation.
In th e a u tu m n of 1945, th e ICRC realised th a t the Red
Cross had a peculiarly im p o rta n t mission to fulfil and th a t, in
particu lar, th e condition of th e civil populations, no less th a n of
th e prisoners of w ar 2, raised th e problem of assistance to the
defeated. The R ed Cross Societies of the victorious nations
were, a t th a t tim e, wholly absorbed by th eir heavy duties in
th eir own countries, or in the countries of th eir Allies ; the work
of U N R R A was confined, a t any ra te at th e outset, to relieving
m em bers of th e U nited N ations. P riv ate charity, w ith sadly
restricted m eans, was therefore alone in a position to help w ar
1 See Vol. I, pp. 43 and 46.
2 See above pp. 99 et seq.
386

victim s w ithout distinction. The ICRC did n o t hesitate tooffer itself to p riv ate welfare agencies, as an in stru m en t for
benefiting th e civil populations of countries occupied b y the
U nited N ations, ju st as during hostilities it had, a t the request
of donors in Allied or n e u tra l countries, set on foot large-scale
relief for th e civil populations of countries occupied b y th e Axis
forces. In th e view of th e ICRC, its activities c o n stitu te of
necessity a whole, from th e outset of th e conflict u n til th e final
conclusion of peace, i.e. u n til in tern atio n al relations are com
pletely re-established. I t was therefore im p o rta n t th a t, despite
the feelings of resentm ent and rancour induced in millions of
people by th e savage n a tu re of th e conflict, th e spirit of absolute
im p artiality , which is th a t of th e Red Cross, should once m ore be
given full play. The ICRC h ad some difficulty, however, in
upholding th e m otto Inter arma cayi'as, and in th u s properly
fulfilling its duties as a n eu tral interm ediary. In th is connec
tion, G erm any, where th e difficulties were greater th a n any
where else, is a ty p ical case ; th a t is w hy th e following pages
will be m ainly concerned w ith th a t country 1.
D uring May 1945, u n til th e occupying forces took over
S tate control, indescribable chaos reigned in G erm any. Dis
order was rife ; th e appalling destructions th e absence of m il
lions of able-bodied men still prisoners of w ar, th e large-scale
evacuations, together w ith th e exhaustion and privations which
the people h ad suffered during th e last m onths of th e w ar and
the crushing effect of defeat, reduced th e civil population to a
sta te where th e y were unable to a tte n d to th eir own needs.
Still less could th e y a tte n d to th e m any Volksdeutsche who
were pouring in from the Polish provinces, and from th e te rri
tories where th e y had form ed com pact groups, in Czecho
slovakia, R um ania, H ungary and Jugoslavia. To m ake m atte rs
worse, v a st num bers of aliens still rem ained in G erm any : Allied
prisoners of w ar, who h ad to be fed b y m eans of th e ICRC
vehicles u n til th eir own natio n al C om m issariats could care for
them ; civilian workers, forcibly recruited in th e occupied
1 Further details on Germany, and the consideration of the same
problem as it arose in other countries w ill be found on p. 401 et seq.

387

countries and who, like the prisoners, could not be im m ediately

re p a tria te d ; and finally, th e displaced persons.
Of these last,
some hundreds of thousands h esitated about retu rn in g to th eir
co u n try of origin ; dem oralised and em bittered by long years of
suffering, th ey rendered the food situation even m ore precarious,
an d som etim es even endangered th e safety of th e n ativ e popu
lation. True, U N R R A cam e to th eir assistance after a few
weeks, b u t th e sta tu te s of th is organization com pelled it to
leave a large proportion of them w ithout assistance.
Among th e countries bordering on G erm any, tw o had not
suffered directly from the w ar : Sweden and Sw itzerland, and it
was from them th a t the first relief came. The ICRC did all in
its power to facilitate the despatch of these supplies, in p a rti
cular those which cam e direct from Sw itzerland, or passed
th ro u g h Swiss territo ry . As has already been stated , the ICRC
on several occasions, in p a rticu la r in a M em orandum of A ugust,
1945, requested perm ission to send into G erm any, a t least for
Allied form er prisoners of w ar and for civilian w orkers and dis
placed persons from th e Allied countries, the large quan tities
of goods which had accum ulated in Geneva by the end of 1944 .
The supplies available for th e G erm an civil population a t
first com prised a p a rt of th e stocks held by welfare organiza
tions in Sweden and Sw itzerland, and by th e Jo in t Relief Com
mission ; th e last were very slender ; for th e R ed Cross very
rarely, as we know, received donations n ot specifically earm arked
and, up to th e tim e of th e arm istice, v ery little had been allo
cated for th e Axis Powers. M oreover, some tim e passed before
th e thousands of truckloads of supplies furnished by th e Swiss
Relief F u n d and th e Irish D onation arrived.
Thus, while large and regular consignm ents were already
en route for th e W estern countries, and late r for th e SouthW est of E urope, th e revictualling of G erm any a t first lacked all
system and was confined to isolated, unofficial sources ; no
special agreem ents on th e subject h ad been m ade w ith th e
Allied General Staffs, and th e ICRC vehicles entered G erm any
d u ty free m erely by perm ission of local m ilitary com m anders.
1 See above p. 118.

388

A few weeks later, however, when the occupying Powers had

set up an adm inistration, th e ICRC asked for official authorrity for th e e n try of goods in ten d ed either for th e G erm an
people or for aliens detained in G erm any. However, th e occupy
ing authorities were n o t yet a t th a t date rea d y to g ran t such
permission, a t a n y ra te as regards th e G erm an population. I t
was m aintained, in p a rticu lar, th a t b y th e term s of th e P otsdam
Agreem ent th e sta n d a rd of living of G erm ans could not be
superior to th a t of th e peoples who h a d suffered occupation by
H itlers arm ies. N evertheless,the ICRC, which h ad b e en inform ed
by th e reports of its delegates from S o uth-E astern E urope and
also b y appeals for help, of th e m igrations of Volksdeutsche and
their tragic consequences, was certain th a t the occupying a u th o
rities could n ot long rem ain indifferent to the situ atio n of these
millions of people, including m any women and children, who
had no fixed abode, no shelter, and no m eans of existence. On
Septem ber 7, 1945, th e ICRC drew th e a tte n tio n of th e Am eri
can, B ritish, French and R ussian G overnm ents to th e w retched
plight of these refugees, an d offered to rep o rt on th eir m ost u rgent
needs and to hand out to them the supplies it had received from
G overnm ents and priv ate donors for this purpose.
As, however, the Volksdeutsche were now spreading th ro u g h
out th e whole G erm an territo ry , any scheme of relief would
have to include th e entire population, w ithout distinction. The
special delegate sent by the ICRC to the four General Staffs of
th e occupying arm ies had th u s to seek th eir consent to the
supply of relief, not only to the refugees b u t also to th e stable
G erm an population. These a tte m p ts achieved an early success ;
from the au tu m n of 1945 onw ards, relief supplies were allowed
to enter, and the C om m ittees delegations were able to s ta rt
work in th e F rench and B ritish zones, as well as in Berlin. The
A m erican and R ussian au th o rities did not g ra n t perm ission
u n til th e early m onths of 1946 1.
T hus, in th e spring of 1946, th e ICRC and the Jo in t Relief
Commission were in a position, one th rough diplom atic m eans,
th e other in th e practical field, to tra n sm it relief supplies to
1 F o r fu rth e r d etails see pp. 424 e t seq.

389

civilians, w hether th ey belonged to the U nited N ations or the

defeated countries. As regards th e U nited N ations in W estern
E urope a n d Italy , such action now becam e rare, for these
countries h ad restored th eir ex tern al relations, both political
and m aterial, to a point w here th e y could do w ithout th e services
of a n e u tra l in term ed iary and no longer needed the assistance of
th e In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross. In fact, th e y them selves now gave
assistance to th a t b o d y this was especially so in the case of
F rance, Belgium and I ta ly by g ranting free tra n sit facilities, or at
a n y ra te considerable reductions in tariffs, for th e consignm ents
of th e J o in t Relief Commission passing th rough th eir territories.
A year a fter th e end of the w ar in E urope, th e question
again arose w hether th e Jo in t Relief Commission was still in a
position to do all th a t th e ICRC and th e League expected of it.
F o r reasons which will be found in th e R eport of the League to
th e Stockholm Conference, th e B oard of Governors of the
League, a t its X lX th Session held a t Oxford, in Ju ly 1946,
discussed th e problem , which had already been considered in
Paris b y th e League E xecutive Com m ittee in th e au tu m n of
1945, and passed a Resolution, th e substance of which ran as
follows : Relief supplies given by a R ed Cross should, as far as
possible, be tra n sm itte d direct to an o th er Red Cross Society.
The Jo in t Relief Commission should cease its activities altoge
ther, th a t is to say, it should refuse all new commissions, even
from R ed Cross Societies.
This R esolution was officially com m unicated to the ICRC
on J u ly 29, 1946, a t th e tim e when th e P relim inary Conference
of R ed Cross Societies was sittin g in Geneva. The Com m ittee
was th u s able to discuss th e m a tte r a t once w ith th e Chairm an
of th e League. B y a jo int circular d a te d Septem ber 4, th e ICRC
and th e League issued th e following statem en t to all N ational
R ed Cross Societies, th e chief donors outside th e R ed Cross,
and to G overnm ents and th e public : The Board of Governors
of the League, judging th a t th e supply of relief to civil popu
lations could, in m ost cases, be m ade direct by donors to reci
pients w ithout th e assistance of the Jo in t Relief Commission,
had asked for th e winding-up of th e Commission w ithin six
m onths. In order, however, to give donors an o p p o rtu n ity of
390

m eeting th e new situation, th e Jo in t Relief Commission was

ready to accept, up to O ctober 31, all commissions which could
be put through before the end of th e cu rren t year. The ICRC
agreed to this liquidation, b u t it was understood th a t, after
Novem ber 1, b o th th e ICRC and th e League would continue
to facilitate, in accordance w ith th eir s ta tu te s and in th e spirit
of the Red Cross, all consignm ents of relief to civil populations
who were victim s of th e war.
In fact, after an initial post-w ar dim inution, gifts sent to
the Jo in t Relief Commission h ad increased again in th e early
sum m er of 1946, and it was estim ated th a t th e countries who
benefited th ereb y would still be in need either of a neutral
interm ediary, or, in th e case of U nited N ations populations,
a t least of organizations having th e technical experience and
the privileges which th e ICRC, th e J o in t Relief Commission
and th e League had acquired during th e war.
In this belief, th e League expanded its secretariat in Geneva
and offered its services to all R ed Cross Societies anxious to
aid civil populations. The ICRC gladly lent its support to this
undertaking, th u s giving fresh proof of th a t desire for co-ope
ration which, in 1940, h ad led to th e foundation of th e Jo in t
Relief Commission. The ICRC now supplied th e League w ith
inform ation concerning th e requirem ents of civil populations ;
this inform ation appeared, w ith other d ata, in th e Inform ation
B ulletin for th e co-ordination of relief, published in G eneva by
th e League from J u ly 1946 onw ards. The Com m ittee lent its
support to th e Leagues applicationwhich was speedily gran ted
to th e Swiss A uthorities, for th e sam e privileges (free tra n sit,
free w arehousing and facilities for rapid export) which had been
accorded form erly to th e ICRC, th e League, and to th eir organ,
th e Jo in t Relief Commission.
As, co n trary to expectation, it was necessary to continue
warehousing and assem bling p a rt of th e deliveries in Geneva, the
ICRC offered th e League space in its own warehouses for 180
tons of relief goods, and m ade itself responsible for sending on sup
plies. These were sm all a t first, b u t reached 36 tons in June, 19471.
1 In A ugust and Sept., 1947, the am ount reached the figure of 135 tons.

391

In those countries where th e League had not as yet all

th e required facilities, or where th e assistance of a n eu tral
in term ed iary was needed, th e delegations of th e ICRC (e.g. in
G erm any, Belgium, N orthern Ita ly , a t Cairo, etc.) dealt w ith
th e receipt, forw arding and d istribution of relief goods for which
th e League was responsible.
A fter overcom ing th e difficulties inherent in th e winding
up of an organization in full activity, the League was soon able
to act as a useful interm ediary for the N ational R ed Cross
Societies in tra n sm ittin g th eir gifts to civil populations.
There rem ained, however, a delicate problem to be solved,
th a t of th e non-R ed Cross gifts, i.e. th e funds or goods
received from a donor country, which had not passed th rough
th e channel of th e R ed Cross of th a t p articu la r country
A part from th e supplies given by U N R R A and o ther in te r
n a tio n a l governm ent organizations, th e transm ission of which
th e ICRC and the J o in t Relief Commission were not called upon
to ensure, this category com prised consignm ents from various
G overnm ents (Swiss Relief F und, Irish D onation, etc.), in te r
natio n al religious organizations, m unicipalities, natio n al asso
ciations, groups form ed under the sponsorship of towns, etc.,
an d finally, p riv ate contributors. These non-R ed Cross
gifts h a d c o n stitu ted the m ajor p a rt of th e relief tra n sm itte d
b y th e Jo in t Commission during and a fter th e w ar ; b u t there
was a risk of these sources drying u p if th e services, b o th p rac ti
cal and economic, of a n eu tral interm ediary failed ju st a t the
m om ent when th e generosity of the public was beginning to
show signs of flagging.
The question now arose w hether the privileges accorded to the
R ed Cross should be exercised for th e transm ission of gifts which
h ad n o t passed th ro u g h th e R ed Cross of the donor country, and
in p a rticu la r for the gifts not destined for an entire population.
A t th e tim e of the Franco-P russian w ar of 1870, and la te r
during th e W orld W ar of 1914-1918, th e ICRC h ad already been
asked to forw ard gifts from families, in stitu tio n s o th er th a n the
1 This m atter is touched on in Vol. I, p. 38. It is also dealt with in the
R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.

392

Red Cross, and G overnm ents. D uring th e recent W ar, the

im portance both absolute and relative, of gifts of this kind
increased largely. In proof, we need only consider th e rem ark
able developm ent of th e aid afforded by religious associations to
prisoners of war, by Jew ish organizations to civilians in E urope
and the F a r E ast who were victim s of racial persecution, by
various Allied G overnm ents to th eir nationals who were pris
oners, and finally, th e increasing help given by G overnm ents
compelled to seek refuge abroad, to the civil populations resi
dent in th eir hom e countries under enem y occupation. The
greater p a rt of these donations, valued at several hundred m il
lion Swiss francs, had, as was well known to th e G overnm ents
concerned, enjoyed p rio rity and freedom of tra n sp o rt, tra n sit
concessions and custom s exem ption, these advantages having
been g ran ted to th e ICRC for all relief goods sent to prisoners of
w ar and, very often, for those sent to civil populations.
The ICRC h ad been g ran ted this extension of R ed Cross
privileges solely because it ensured th a t even gifts not originally
sponsored by th e R ed Cross should be d istrib u ted in accordance
w ith the rule of im p artial c h arity which is the feature of the Red
Cross. Moreover, it m ust not be forgotten th a t, in th e m a tte r of
relief parcels, th e Prisoners of W ar Convention h ad its origins in
th e individual parcel system , th a t is to say, in the system by
which relief is sent direct from the donor to the recipient.
B ut was it feasible to adhere strictly to th e principle of
im p a rtiality in th e distrib u tio n of " non-R ed Cross gifts to
civil populations ? The ICRC regards this principle as essential ;
during the last phase of th e W ar, it could not, however, always
be sure of having been faithful to this policy. From th e Red
Cross point of view, relief ought to be allocated solely in accord
ance w ith th e existing needs and th eir degree of urgency, w ith
out any regard for either side in a war, or for political,
social or religious parties. The effect of th is principle is, clearly,
th a t when needs are not equally urgent everyw here, assistance
given in various qu arters will not be in m athem atically equal
am ounts. D uring th e first w ar years, relief work for the Allies
was very m uch greater in proportion to th a t afforded to th eir
adversaries, while after th e arm istice, the ICRC, a p a rt from its
393

activities in aid of displaced persons and the civil populations

of C entral and E astern E urope, dealt alm ost exclusively w ith
nationals of th e Axis Powers, especially of G erm any.
F urtherm ore, th e ICRC had not been a t lib erty to issue
supplies as it th o u g h t best to prisoners of w ar of certain Allied
countries, for exam ple, nor to any civil population. In its
capacity of tru stee and forw arding agent, on the contrary,
it h ad to com ply w ith th e wishes of th e donors, who also
including th e N ational Red Cross Societiesreceived consi
derable funds from the public for quite definite purposes. H ad
th e ICRC, therefore, only accepted donations for distribution
to all w ar victim s, solely according to th eir needs, it would have
been compelled, even during th e war, to cease practically
all its efforts to help not only civil populations, b u t also prisoners
of w ar 1. I t is tru e th a t th e ICRC endeavoured, som etim es not
entirely in vain, to get th e N ational Red Cross Societies and
o th er donors to agree th a t a certain am ount of relief goods
should be held in com m on for all prisoners, no m a tte r of w hat
natio n ality . B ut it is not less tru e th a t the restrictions placed on
its activities caused very great disparities in th e distribution
of goods, even as regards an y single group of belligerents.
This was, however, of sm all im portance, as long as the
ICRC was th e only possible in term ed iary betw een donors and
recipients, as was th e case during th e W ar, an d in 1946-1947
also as regards certain territories.
In these circum stances,
th e R ed Cross could not, on th e plea th a t a different destination
would be m ore suitable, refuse any offer of relief, for it was
essential th a t aid should be given a t all costs to w ar victim s of
every kind. On th e other hand, when m eans of sending aid
a p a rt from th e R ed Cross becam e available, the ICRC preferred
to accept only those comm issions which could be executed in
a spirit of com plete im p artiality , while favouring, even in the
post-w'ar period, generous offers of a non-political nature.
The ICRC applied th e sam e policy to th e transm ission of
" non-R ed Cross relief to civil populations. A fter th e liquida
tion of th e Jo in t Relief Commission, th e ICRC a t first thought
1 F o r f u rth e r d etails, see Vol. 1, p. 16 e t seq.

394

of tem porarily und ertak in g this work, b u t abandoned th e idea

for three reasons :
(1) In the first place, th e ICRC was anxious to husband
its resources. True, it was entitled to cover expenses b y im posing
a levy calculated a t th e end of each year, either by th e system
applied to PW relief, or on a fixed percentage basis, as had
been th e practice of th e J o in t Relief Commission.
E ith e r
m ethod would have enabled it, as in th e past, to debit its general
budget only w ith th e small am ounts which were not repayable.
The creation of a special d ep artm en t to deal w ith civil popu
lations w ould have m eant diverting to this new task a section
of its staff, which was already h ard ly num erous enough to
deal w ith current business, even if experienced assistants had
been tran sferred from th e Jo in t Relief Commission.
(2) A special d ep artm en t, functioning only for a few
m onths, would have caused exactly th e sort of confusion th a t
h ad been avoided, in 1940, by th e con stitu tio n of a jo in t organ
of th e ICRC and the League. The League from th a t tim e h ad in
fact an organization of its own to deal w ith th e transm ission
of gifts from N ational Red Cross Societies.
(3) Finally, on its being decided th a t th e Jo in t Relief
Commission should be dissolved, it appeared essential th a t a
non-R ed Cross successor should be found, so as to lim it
direct intervention by th e ICRC to th e fairly brief periodas
it was th en hoped it would prove to beduring which relief
would be needed by civil populations.
W ith th e approval therefore of the General Secretariat
of th e League, th e ICRC looked for a successor in this work,
and on N ovem ber 1, 1946 (from which date th e J o in t Relief
Commission entered into liquidation, or in other words, refused
any fu rth e r commissions) th e ICRC and th e League m ade
th e following announcem ent by a general Circular addressed to
the N ational Red Cross Societies, to the chief non-R ed Cross
donors and to G overnm ents :
(1)
D onations from N ational R ed Cross Societies would
in th e fu tu re be forw arded by the League.
395

(2) The ICRC would continue, in accordance w ith its

s ta tu te s and its h u m an itarian trad itio n s, to facilitate th e
despatch of relief to civil populations, p articu larly in cases
w here a n e u tra l in term ed iary was indispensable.
(3) An In te rn a tio n a l Centre for Relief for Civil P opu
lations which h ad ju st been established in Geneva, would
accept, from N ovem ber 1 onwards, any commissions from donor
organizations for th e receipt, purchase, tra n sp o rt and d istrib u
tion of relief supplies destined for civil populations in distress as
a result of the war. In accordance w ith the agreem ents conclu
ded betw een th e ICRC and th e League, this Centre, which was
tak in g over th e personnel, offices and, as far as possible, the
w orking m ethods of the Jo in t Relief Commission, would carry
out, in th e nam e of th e Commission and on its account, any
m an d ate not executed when the Commission ceased work.
Relief for civil populations was therefore assured for as
long as m ight prove necessary, in accordance w ith the desire
of th e ICRC and th e League th a t no obstacle should be placed
in th e w ay of non-political relief work.
We will n o t dwell here on th e m any practical difficulties
w hich were necessarily incurred by th e disappearance of th e
J o in t Relief Commission and the su b stitu tio n of new organiza
tions 1. A few words m ay how ever be added on th e subject of
th e C om m ittees activities up to th e end of June, 1947.
In conform ity w ith th e circular of N ovem ber 1, th e ICRC
offered its services to th e League 2, to th e Centre and to any
o th er in stitu tio n requiring support.
In order to encourage donations for civil populations, the
ICRC form ed a service for passing on appeals for relief to the
League, th e m ajor in tern atio n al welfare organizations, th e
Swiss Relief F und, various other relief organizations, and th e
public. These appeals were a m easure of th e acute distress
suffered by countries which had been ravaged by th e war. The
ICRC also discovered th a t relief w ork was becom ing d ay by
1 Further details on this subject will be found in the General Report
of the Join t Relief Comm ission and in the report to be made by the
League to the International Red Cross Conference.
2 See above, p. 391.

396

day more difficult.

D onors were slackening in enthusiasm ,
those countries which h a d not been affected by th e w ar wished
to cease sending relief in order to co ncentrate on im proving
social conditions in th eir own territories, and th e G overnm ents
them selves decided to bring U N R R A s activities to an end.
The League and th e in tern atio n al or n atio n al in stitu tio n s
to which th e ICRC forw arded its appeals, were frequently
obliged to reply th a t th ey them selves were receiving requests
of th e sam e kind, and th a t th ey were unable to m ake any
su b stan tial response. The ICRC, acting in agreem ent w ith
organizations whose h ead q u arters were in Sw itzerland and
w ith th e Swiss groups, persevered, however, in supplying and
exchanging inform ation concerning needs for relief, in p a rticu la r
by w ay of the unofficial m onthly m eetings th a t took place in
tu rn a t the h ead q u arters of each of these institu tio n s, and a t
which the following organizations were represented : C aritas
C atholica In tern atio n alis (Lucerne), th e W orld Council of
Churches, th e U nion O.S.E., th e In te rn a tio n a l U nion for
Child W elfare, th e W orld Alliance of Y.W .C.A., th e W orld
Alliance of Y.M.C.A., th e In te rn atio n a l Centre for Relief of
Civil Populations, the Am erican Friends Service C om m ittee
a n d th e E uropean S tu d e n t Relief.
The m em bers of these m eetings, joined soon a fter by repre
sentatives of various o ther relief or social organizations, p u b
lished, under th e auspices of the ICRC, appeals to w orld public
opinion, a t th e beginning of each w inter. T hey hoped th u s to
encourage th e generosity of countries and of peoples who h ad
not suffered from th e war, or who h ad been less affected th a n
others b y its consequences. The first appeal was launched in
O ctober 1945 b y the ICRC, th e In te rn atio n a l U nion for Child
W elfare, th e C aritas Catholica Intern atio n alis, th e W orld
Jew ish Congress a n d the W orld Council of Churches. These
sta te d th eir readiness to unite in order to rescue th e children
of E urope from th eir tragic fate, w ithout distinction of n a tio n a
lity, race or religion. Though the League was unable, for
com prehensible reasons of a s ta tu to ry n a tu re , to associate
itself form ally w ith this appeal, it was none the less conscious of
th e serious n a tu re of the problem . This is clear from the message
397

which, jo in tly w ith th e ICRC, it addressed in N ovem ber 1945

to th e N ational R ed Cross Societies, and which reflected the
em otion w ith which forty -th ree of these Societies, m eeting in
an A dvisory Conference called b y th e League, h ad heard the
rep o rts on this distressing subject m ade by m any delegates.
T he N ational R ed Cross Societies were asked to give fu rth er
evidence of th eir generosity and fellowship, by helping to p ut
an end to one of th e w orst calam ities th a t had ever m enaced
the children, not only of E urope b u t of th e entire world.
D uring th e w inter of 1946-1947, th e ICRC and the in te rn a
tional in stitu tio n s w ith h ead q u arters in Sw itzerland repeated
th eir appeal to th e whole world, calling on every individual to
m ake, as far as his m eans perm itted, a donation to the national
or in tern atio n al organizations which based th eir activities on
the principle of im p artial aid to all hum an beings in distress.
Hopes h ad been en tertain ed of a considerable im provem ent
in the circum stances of w ar-victim s during 1947. B ut th ro u g h
out th e N orthern hem isphere, and especially in Europe, the
harvests were so poor th a t in D ecem ber a th ird appeal was
launched, under th e auspices of the ICRC, by the nine in stitu
tions already m entioned, urging once m ore, in the nam e of
hum an fellowship, th e need for supplying im m ediate aid to all
in distress.
In th e m a tte r of publications, th e ICRC tried to avoid
duplication by supplying one or o ther of the above-m entioned
organizations w ith a b u n d a n t d a ta ; practically all of these bodies
them selves also published bulletins and surveys. As the ICRC
appeared, for th e m om ent, to be th e only organization capable
of dealing direct w ith such questions, it in stru cted its Medical
Division to stu d y th e ill effects of undernourishm ent and poor
housing conditions on th e health of civil populations ; if the
public were enlightened 011 this m atte r, th ey would b e tte r
realise th e urgent need for assistance. In Ju n e 1946, a first
rep o rt appeared, in which a vivid picture was draw n of the
decline in h ealth observed, chiefly am ong people who had been
suffering for long years from restrictions of every kind. This
rep o rt form ed th e basis of th e appeal sent out in the autum n of
1946 by all the m ajor relief organizations.
398

A fter the liquidation of the Jo in t Relief Commission, the

Civil Populations Service of th e Medical Division was enlarged,
so as to provide all those interested w ith th e general or special
docum ents th ey required. The greater p a rt of these d a ta were
based on inform ation obtained b y th e C om m ittees delegations
from th e com petent authorities on th e spot ; th e rest cam e from
N ational Red Cross Societies, or from officials who visited Geneva.
In its publications, of which tw o m ore appeared in N ovem ber
1946 and A ugust 1947, th e ICRC h ad tried to give details of the
conditions in th e largest possible num ber of countries, p a rtly
to achieve im partiality , and p a rtly because general reports
were m uch less frequent th a n those on special aspects of the
subject. These sum m aries were widely quoted in th e Press,
among th e n atio n al and in tern atio n al relief organizations,
N ational Red Cross Societies, and in official and scientific
circles. Fresh printings had to be m ade, b o th in F rench and
English, to satisfy th e heavy dem and from official dep artm en ts,
welfare associations and th e m any people in terested in th e social
consequences of th e war.
On D ecem ber 26, 1946, the ICRC signed an agreem ent for
cooperation w ith th e In te rn atio n a l Centre for Relief for Civil
Populations, th e work of which was sim ilar to th a t of th e Relief
D ep artm en t of th e League Secretariat. T he ICRC undertook
to support any steps tak e n by th e Centre to obtain facilities for
export and for th e conversion of m oney in th e donor countries,
as well as th e same privileges as the Jo in t Relief Commission,
e.g. as regards th e tra n sit of supplies.
In retu rn , th e Centre could, on p aym ent of th eir expenses,
claim th e services of th e delegations which th e ICRC still
m aintained in th e countries to which assistance was being given,
as long as th eir activities were of a non-political n atu re, or in
conform ity w ith th e Red Cross principle of strict im p artiality ,
i.e. as long as th ey dealt w ith all the necessitous people in a given
country or territo ry . The ICRC knew, however, by experience
th a t donors often wished to restrict th eir gifts to a certain c a te
gory of recipients ; by refusing its services in such cases, there
was a danger th a t it would ob stru ct a considerable p a rt of such
welfare work. A comprom ise was necessary. I t was recom
399

m ended to th e Centre th a t it should endeavour to coordinate

these donations of restricted scope w ith one another, or w ith
th e m ore general donations, so th a t u ltim ately th e relief sent
to a co u n try , or a group of countries d ev astated b y th e war,
would be sufficiently com prehensive. N aturally, all activities
h ad to be sanctioned by the authorities of the countries concerned
and, in so far as th e ICRC was an interm ediary, to conform
w ith th e general arrangem ents m ade w ith the authorities.
The scruples which the ICRC felt as regards the principle
of strict im p a rtiality were heightened during 1947. The donors,
m oreover, while still inspired by a tru e spirit of charity, becam e
m ore and more strongly inclined to send individual parcels, or
relief in a form which would em phasise the activities of th e
political or religious in stitu tio n s in which th ey had a m ajor
interest. The ICRC was unable to follow this policy, especially
a t a tim e when its in terv en tio n was no longer indispensable,
other p a th s now being open to public charity. As a result, th e
ICRC gradually ceased its practice of sending on individual
parcels, w henever th e post office could tak e th em over ; it
practically succeeded, in the course of th e first half of 1947, in
checking th e flood of packages which were sent from all direc
tions to Geneva, usually w ithout previous notice. As regards
collective donations for relief for a stip u lated purpose, th e ICRC
requested th e donors, or th eir agents, to ask the authorities
concerned for leave to send th em direct to th eir destination.
The countries which could only be dealt w ith th rough a n eu tral
in term ed iary were now luckily becom ing fewer. F o r this reason
the ICRC which, as we have seen, is com pelled by its sta tu te s to
lim it its activities as soon as circum stances p e rm it1, was led to
restrict still fu rth e r its work in forw arding relief to the civil
populations affected b y th e second W orld W ar 2.

1 See p. 385.
2 In the Supplem entary R eport for the period July 1947 to Dec.
1948, an account will be found of the ICRC's collaboration w ith the
Centre for Relief for Civil P opulations, the League and various other
relief organizations, in the case of several countries where a neutral
interm ediary could still be of service.

400

Chapter 2

Relief to Individual Countries

i . A l b a n ia

The lim ited relief th a t th e ICRC and the Jo in t Relief Com

mission were able to give to th e A lbanian population was
considerably delayed b y adverse circum stances.
A lbania did not, like Greece, have th e advantage of aid
from colonies of its nationals living abroad, sufficiently num erous
an d well-off to supply her w ith relief funds. M oreover, A lbania
was, during th e second W orld W ar, one of the m ost difficult
E uropean countries to supply from abroad.
As early as 1944, th e condition of th e A lbanian population
becam e very grave. Appeals were m ade to th e ICRC b o th by
th e G overnm ent and by th e Resistance l. M edicam ents, food
stuffs and clothing were u rgently needed for nearly 50,000
children.
A m em ber of the C om m ittees delegation in Greece reached
A lbania in May 1944. A fter discussions w ith representatives
of th e A lbanian Red Cross, the G overnm ent and the R esistance,
he drew up a plan for forw arding and distrib u tin g supplies.
The ICRC and th e Jo in t Relief Commission took steps to find
donors willing to assist a homeless population num bering, by
th e figures of th e A lbanian Red Cross, more th a n 170,000
people.
The gifts actu ally received am ounted only to 51,500 francs.
I t was not u ntil the sum m er of 1945 th a t th e Jo in t Relief
1 The A n ti-F ascist C om m ittee for Albanian N ational L iberation.
i n .

26

401

Commission was able to forw ard via B ari 1,241 kilos of clothing,
6,872 kilos of foodstuffs, and 550 kilos of pharm aceutical
supplies.
Since com m unications across the A driatic were
re-established only several m onths after the end of hostilities,
th e goods w arehoused a t B ari did not arrive in A lbania u n til
th e au tu m n of 1945. T hey were d istrib u ted w ith th e assistance
of tw o delegates of th e ICRC, who, in travelling about the
country, were able to decide where needs were m ost urgent.
In spite of th e considerable activities of U N R R A , the
situation in A lbania im proved only very slowly. The S tate
was supporting 35,000 children, of whom 10,000 were orphans ;
70,000 wom en and old people were living in deplorable condi
tions, and 23,000 refugees from Greece were com pletely des
titu te 1. Renew ed assistance was essential. W ith the aid of the
Swiss Relief F u n d and the Irish D onation, the Jo in t Relief
Commission was able to increase its work in A lbania and to
assist m ost of these stricken people.
O ther gifts u n fo rtu n a te ly could n ot be used u ntil more
th a n a year had elapsed. In A ugust 1944, in fact, the ICRC
delegation in Cairo was in possession of E 7,000, collected
b y th e A lbanian M inister in Cairo ; E 5,000 was a gift from
th e E g y p tian G overnm ent, and E 2,000 came from a charity
sale organized by A lbanian ladies.
D espite the personal in tervention of the E gy p tian Finance
M inister, these funds could not be transferred to Geneva.
I t was only at the end of 1945 th a t th e Cairo Delegation
m anaged to place the E 7,000 a t th e disposal of the London
D elegation, which used this sum for purchasing relief stores
for th e A lbanian population in th e sterling areas 1.

2. A u s t r ia

A t th e end of the w ar in the spring of 1945, the situation

of A ustria was p a rtic u la rly tragic. A large p a rt of her te r
rito ry had been d evastated, while a vast influx of refugees
1 See R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.

402

had served to heighten her already considerable economic

difficulties.
Upper A ustria, w ith a norm al population of about one
million, was accom m odating some 600,000 im m igrants. These
included H ungarian refugees, m em bers of G erm an m inorities
from the Sudetenland, H ungary and Jugoslavia, m any South
Tyrolese and displaced persons. Food rations were below the
living m inim um and m edical supplies were v irtu a lly exhausted.
The p artitio n of A ustria into four zones of occupation m ade
relief schemes extrem ely difficult. The first shipm ents were
hastily im provised and despatched m ainly from Sw itzerland.
The C om m ittees delegation established in Vienna in th e spring
of 1945, which h ad organised soup kitchens even before the
surrender, exerted them selves in behalf of expectant and
nursing m others, childrens homes, TB patien ts reported by
the m unicipal health service, and a large num ber of repatriates.
Medical and pharm aceutical supplies w7ere sent chiefly to
m atern ity and childrens hospitals.
U ntil rail com m unications were restored, the relief supplies
were tran sp o rted by road from Sw itzerland, w ith the unofficial
consent of the local authorities. To d istribute the supplies
according to the wishes of the donors, delegations were set up
in Vienna, Innsbruck, K lagenfurt, Salzburg and Linz ; these
co-operated w ith the local agencies. The relief th u s contributed
was quite disproportionate to the needs. N evertheless, as the
Viennese authorities recognised, the ICRC and th e Swiss Relief
F und played a leading p a rt in feeding the country during th a t
period.
W hen the railw ays began to function in 1946, the Jo in t
Relief Commission was able to send its shipm ents by blocktrains. Concurrently, the U N R R A services were expanded.
It soon becam e clear th a t these various relief actions would
have to be co-ordinated. At th e beginning of 1946 th e In terAllied Commission in Vienna requested the organizations to
subm it all distribution plans for their approval. The A ustrian
G overnm ent, on its side, appointed the M inistry of Social
Insurance to co-ordinate relief activities ; th e scheme was to
be as far as possible in accordance w ith the wishes of th e donors.

403

This
carriage
to m ake
goods.
requests

step greatly facilitated th e im port of relief, d u ty and

free ; and th e C om m ittees delegates no longer had
daily arrangem ents for th e forw arding and storage of
They continued, however, to notify Geneva of the
for help, m ainly for the refugees 1.
3. B

e l g iu m

F rom the outbreak of the w ar in the W est, th e ICRC kept

in close co ntact w ith th e Belgian Red Cross and w ith those
of its units which h ad w ithdraw n to France to care for the
Belgian refugees. The Com m ittee was th u s able to follow the
food situation, which soon becam e very difficult. Inform ation
from this source was supplem ented by reports from the Com
m itte e s delegates on th eir visits to PW cam ps in the occupied
zones, and by prom inent Belgians who came to Geneva to
plead th e cause of th e undernourished women and children.
Collections were m ade am ongst the Belgian organizations
in Sw itzerland. In addition, a joint appeal issued by the ICRC
and th e League on N ovem ber 22, 1940, elicited su b stan tial
contributions for the relief of women and children in Belgium.
Finally, to m eet a steadily increasing food shortage, the ICRC
devoted a large proportion of its freely disposable funds for
th e purchase of relief for Belgium.
E ven before it had full sta tu s, th e Jo in t Relief Commission
was m ade responsible, by th e ICRC and th e League, for the
co-ordination of relief for th e Belgian civilians ; in particular,
th e Commission received for distribution alm ost th e whole of
tw o large gifts from th e G overnm ent of the Belgian Congo 2.
The C om m ittees Relief D epartm ent sent the following
goods betw een N ovem ber 1940 and April 1942 (in kilograms) :
Condensed m i l k .....................................................2,700 cases
C h e e s e .................................................................
62
,,
C hestnut p u r e
167
,,
(gift of the Belgian Congo Government)

67,160
940
3,760

1 For particulars regarding the foodstuffs, clothing and m edical

supplies sent to Austria b y the Joint Relief Commission, on behalf of
num erous donors, see the Com m ission's R eport.
2 For particulars see R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.

404

J e m a l t ..............................................
Cenovis y e a s t ................................
Milk p r o d u c ts ................................
N e s t r o v it ..........................................
Sundry f o o d s .................................
Pure vitam in C ............................
Salt f i s h ..........................................
O v a l t i n e ..........................................
Condensed m i l k ............................
Clothing (Various shipm ents to the
Belgian Red Cross from the Lausanne
Com m ittee for the R elief of Belgian
PW and I n te r n e e s )................................
Clothing (gift of the Belgian E m bassy
in W ashington)
..................

40
40
20
i
169
2
22
40
50

cases
,,

parcels
cases
barrels
cases
,,

20
4

1,823
1,280
76O
6O
3,823
70
1,700
1,580
1 ,1 7 5

863
..

160

All these shipm ents were addressed to the representative

of th e G erm an Red Cross in Brussels, and consequently were
exem pt from freight charges and custom s dues. The represen
ta tiv e handed them over to the Belgian R ed Cross, which acknow
ledged receipt to the ICRC and d istrib u ted the relief to m ate rn ity
homes and welfare institutions.
In order to increase this aid, which was still far from adequate,
the W inter Relief, an organization set up to assist the civilian
population and collaborate w ith the N ational R ed Cross Society,
sent a delegation to Geneva to consult w ith th e ICRC on suitable
measures.
Close and fruitful co-operation th en developed
betw een the W inter Relief, the ICRC and th e Jo in t Relief
Commission, which h ad ju st begun operations for the women
and children. As the W inter Relief had succeeded in mobilising
the credits and funds of the leading Belgian banks in Sw itzerland,
H ungary and R um ania, considerable purchases could be m ade
in those countries th ro ugh th e ICRC and th e Jo in t Relief
Commission 1.
The Jo in t Relief Commissions consignm ents, however,
were only a relatively sm all proportion of th e to ta l supplies
sent to th e Belgian civilian population. A t th e end of 1940,
th e Belgian G overnm ent in London set up an organization in
1 For particular, see R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.

405

P ortugal for the relief of the population in occupied Belgium.

In th e spring of 1941 a C o-ordination C om m ittee for the
Provisioning of Belgium by E urope was set up in Lisbon
to centralise these v ast shipm ents of foodstuffs from Portugal.
A Jo in t Com m ittee for the D istribution ot Relief in Belgium ,
in Brussels, com prising the principal welfare organizations of
the country, under th e chairm anship of M. Paul H eym ans
(who was also chairm an of the W inter Relief), shared out the
m aterial am ong th e various organizations, including the Belgian
R ed Cross, th e W inter Relief and the N ational Child W elfare
Office, which carried out th e distribution. Because of their
a c tiv ity for th e women and children of Belgium, the ICRC
and from 1941 th e Jo in t Relief Commission also m aintained
close relations w ith these Belgian organizations.
In N ovem ber 1942, th e ICRC and the Jo in t Relief Com
mission were requested by the G erm an authorities to send a
delegation to Berlin in order to exam ine the whole question
of Belgian relief. In the course of these m eetings, which were
also atte n d ed by the heads of the relief d istributing agencies
in Belgium, the G erm an authorities sta te d th a t no more direct
shipm ents of foodstuffs by the Co-ordination Com m ittee in
Portugal would be perm itted ; th a t is to say, the Germans
were opposed to the people of Belgium being fed by an agency
controlled by the Belgian G overnm ent abroad. On the other
hand, th ey had no objection to the relief being distrib u ted
under th e auspices and through the interm ediary of a strictly
n e u tra l and non-political body such as the ICRC.
To avoid any in te rru p tio n in the flow of relief, th e ICRC
sta te d its readiness, in principle, to tak e over these new res
ponsibilities, subject to having a representative in Belgium.
The C om m ittee felt th a t if it was to handle the shipm ent of
relief from Lisbon and give satisfaction to the donors, it should
also supervise the goods on their arrival and in their distribution.
This arrangem ent was approved by the Belgian G overnm ent ;
the Jo in t Relief Commission undertook the technical organi
zation of these shipm ents.
The ICRC thereupon set up a delegation in Brussels, enlarged
the one already in Lisbon, and sent a representative to Spain
406

whose mission was to forw ard the foodstuffs, reaching Spain

by sea, to' th e representative of the G erm an R ed Cross a t the
Franco-Spanish border, who sent them on to the Germ an
Red Cross representative in Brussels. The goods were delivered
in Brussels in th e presence of the ICRC delegates and the
representatives of the Belgian relief agencies.
Despite these su b stan tial consignm ents from Portugal, the
food situ atio n rem ained precarious, and in th e spring of 1943,
when reserve stocks of w heat were practically exhausted, even
became alarm ing. The ICRC endeavoured to close th e gaps
until the new harvest. In response to an appeal, the Swiss
Governm ent offered 14,700 tons of w heat which it held in
Philadelphia : paym ent was to be m ade b y th e Belgian G overn
m ent in London, and the w heat was to be carried in Swiss
vessels in May 1943.
This scheme, however, required the
sanction of the blockade authorities, to w hom th e ICRC once
more appealed for a w aiver of the regulations in force. U nfor
tun ately , the M inistry of Econom ic W arfare replied on J u ly 1
th a t, after careful stu d y of the question and despite its desire
to accede to the wishes of th e ICRC, it reg retted its in ab ility to
grant the required navicerts. A fu rth er proposal by th e ICRC,
for the g ran t of an e x tra ration of bread for Belgian children
in th e w inter of 1943/44 was also refused in N ovem ber 1943, in
spite of the intervention of the Belgian G overnm ent in London.
The shipm ents from P ortugal continued to reach Brussels
regularly, b u t a new difficulty soon arose : the G erm an authorities
suspected th a t a p a rt of these relief shipm ents were finding
th eir w ay into th e black m arket, and proposed th a t th ey
them selves should supervise th e reception and distribution
of the goods. Such a m easure, or even the supervision of d istri
b ution by th e G erm an R ed Crosswhich h ad also been con
tem p la te d would have had a m ost disastrous effect on the
relief program m e and w ould have alienated th e donors.
The ICRC delegation in Brussels im m ediately took steps
and th e G erm an authorities, th e W inter Relief and th e Belgian
Red Cross finally agreed th a t th e ICRC delegation in Brussels
should be responsible for reception and distribution. In order to
carry out th is new assignm ent, which entailed painstaking
407

vigilance from th e tim e th e relief goods arrived to th eir handing

over to th e consum er, th e ICRC was obliged to increase its
delegation.
W hen th e Allies landed in France, com m unications betw een
P ortugal and Belgium were cut off and the C oordination Com
m ittee decided on Ju n e 16, 1944, to suspend its activ ity until
th e resum ption of railw ay tran sp o rt.
The Belgian population was still supplied, however, from
Sw itzerland, p a rticu larly w ith foodstuffs which could still be
sent by rail across G erm any from E astern Europe. An ICRC
mission and th e Jo in t Relief Commission h ad fu rth e r conver
sations in Brussels w ith th e occupation authorities, and sought
to obtain some relaxation of th e restrictions th ey h ad im posed
in view of th e m ilitary situation.
D espite th e effective cooperation of th e G erm an railw ays,
a large p a rt of th e cereals bought in H ungary b y the Jo in t
Relief Commission did not reach Belgium before its liberation by
the Allied forces in Septem ber 1944, after which date the Belgian
G overnm ent took over th e ta sk of provisioning the country.
As will be seen later, the relief goods which were stocked in
G erm any were used for relief work in occupied H olland 1.
In th e period which followed th e liberation of Belgium,
th e Jo in t Relief Commission continued to dispatch num erous
relief train s to th a t country, as the ICRC delegation in Paris,
a fter difficult negotiations w ith th e French authorities and
the Allied M ilitary Com m and, m anaged to obtain th e necessary
perm its. The stocks which rem ained in P ortugal were also
sent on to Belgium 2.
4.

Cz e c h o s l o v a k ia

On th e G erm an occupation of the whole of Czechoslovakia

in May, 1939, Slovakia was declared an independent S tate,
while Bohem ia and M oravia were m ade a P rotectorate.
Because of its peculiar sta tu s, Czechoslovakia was not
included in the program m e draw n up by th e ICRC and the
1 See below p. 497.
2 See R eport of the Joint Relief Commission.

408

League, and accepted by the Germ ans for assistance to occupied

countries through the interm ediary of the Jo in t Relief Com
mission. Moreover, all th rough th e w ar, th e food situation
in these regions was never as unfavourable as in other occupied
countries. E ven in 1944, the ICRC representative in Slovakia
was still able to buy food, principally sugar, which he sent to
his colleague in V ienna for th e Jew ish population.
Only tow ards the end of th e war, shortly before th e liberation,
were th e ICRC representatives in Prague and B ratislava able
to furnish irregular aid to th e civilian population.
The representative a t Prague, although w ith slight resources,
assisted th e persons w ounded during the relieving b attles, th u s
replacing the R ed Cross installed by the Germ ans, now in
flight. Soon after, th e Czechoslovak Red Cross was sufficiently
reorganized, and able to tak e over this work.
In th e weeks following the liberation, th e ICRC m aintained
daily wireless contact w ith its representative in Prague. To
m eet an urgent dem and for m edicam ents, p a rtly for th e internees
a t Terezin, p a rtly for the civilian population, the C om m ittee
obtained a u th o rity from the Allied Suprem e Com m and to
despatch a fleet of trucks, organized by th e Jo in t Relief Com
mission and th e Special Aid Division of the ICRC. Since these
supplies were urgently needed, the ICRC h ad first of all tried
to send th em to Prague by air, b u t authorization for th e flight
was only gran ted as far as Pilsen. I t would th en have been
necessary to find rolling stock in this tow n and reload the
goods ; th e ICRC, therefore, preferred to use road tra n sp o rt
for th e entire route from Sw itzerland to Prague.
A t B ratislava, under the G erm an occupation, th e ICRC
representative helped th e Jew ish population 1.
U nder an
agreem ent w ith the Jew ish donor, he was able to use p a rt of
the funds for aid to th e civilian population a t large.
The reconstruction work accom plished in Czechoslovakia
was such th a t, even shortly after the war, relief was less u rg en tly
needed in Czechoslovakia th a n in other countries. A ction by
th e ICRC and the Jo in t Relief Commission did not ap p ear to
1 See below p. 523.

409

be indispensable either, as th e donors were soon in direct

com m unication w ith Czechoslovakia. However, the represen
ta tiv e of the ICRC in Prague applied for carriage and d u ty
free tra n sp o rt of relief goods for the civilian population. This
was granted on M arch 29, 1946.
W ith the consent of the G overnm ent and the donors, the
ICRC handled ten per cent of the goods sent to Czechoslovakia
by th e Swiss Relief Fund, and d istrib u ted them to the m inorities
interned in cam ps and aw aiting their deportation to G erm any.
These cam ps were also supplied w ith two carloads of potatoes
from the B avarian Red Cross. T hereafter, it was felt wiser
to w ait u n til these m inorities arrived in G erm any before giving
them the relief intended for them 1.
5. T

he

odecanese

D uring the m onth of D ecem ber 1944, th e ICRC received

urgent appeals from the civil and religious authorities of the
Dodecanese Islands, a t th a t tim e occupied by the Germans,
for aid to th e in h ab ita n ts, who were in a desperate plight.
N egotiations u n d ertak en by various delegations of the ICRC
w ith th e belligerents led to an agreem ent in J a n u a ry 1945,
w hereby th e B ritish and G erm an m ilitary com m ands authorised
delegates of the ICRC, of Swiss n atio n ality , to distrib u te relief
in th e Islands of Rhodos, Leros, Cos, Calymnos, Caichi and
Pserim o, where the population was m ost severely affected.
Izm ir was chosen as the base, and the T urkish G overnm ent
authorised the ICRC to c h arter th e necessary caiques, or
L evantine sailing vessels. These craft were required to wear
the T urkish flag and be m arked w ith the Red Cross emblem.
The bulk of th e food consignm ents were supplied free by B ritish
Middle E a st Com m and. At the request of the ICRC delegation
in Cairo, the Greek R ed Cross in London and E gypt, and the
Greek Colony in E g y p t bore th e entire costs of this mission,
particu larly the freight charges. The Greek donations allowed
th e purchase of m edical supplies and certain foodstuffs. Valuable
1 See abo v e pp. 387-389.

410

help was also given by the Red Cross Societies of Sw itzerland,

South Africa and A ustralia, and by th e Greek W ar Fund.
Once the th o rn y question of th e sea-route had been settled,
the ICRC delegate and five assistants, selected from the Swiss
nationals resident in T urkey to supervise the distrib u tio n of
the relief, left Izm ir for the first trip on F eb ru ary n , 1945,
in charge of four caiques. Minefields and violent storm s m ade
this crossing a perilous undertaking, b u t the vessels reached
their destination, and th eir cargoes were greeted by the popu
lation as heaven-sent gifts.
U nloading took a long tim e, as the in h ab ita n ts of the islands
were so weakened by undernourishm ent th a t, even when fed,
th ey were unable to work more th a n one hour a day. The
death -rate h ad risen steeply everyw here ; a t the beginning of
F ebruary 1945, it was somewhere betw een six and ten tim es
over norm al.
The occupation authorities, who were also in food difficulties,
cooperated w ith the ICRC and offered them tra n sp o rt and
storage space for the goods. They also facilitated th e super
vision and d istribution of the relief.
W hile th e delegates were in Rhodes, th e T urkish G overnm ent
declared w ar on Germ any. This event alm ost ended the ICRC
relief program m e, since th e boats were m anned b y T urkish
crews and flew th e T urkish colours. N evertheless, th e Germ an
com m andant 'of th e Dodecanese allowed the ICRC to continue
its work, provided th a t the vessels were plainly m arked w ith
the R ed Cross em blem . I t was how ever very difficult, once
the boats had retu rn ed to T urkey, to secure the perm ission of
the authorities for another trip to th e Dodecanese.
They
finally consented, after representations by the B ritish m ilitary
authorities and after th ey had noted th e delegates rep o rt on
the food situation in th e Islands.
On M arch 10, 1945, a second convoy, larger th a n the first,
left Izm ir for the Dodecanese ; a th ird followed in April, and
a fourth and last in May. B y th a t tim e hostilities had ceased,
b u t the B ritish m ilitary authorities in charge of the Archipelago
asked the C om m ittees delegate to continue the distribution
of relief as before. In addition, a t their suggestion also, the
411

ICRC sent a perm anent delegate to R hodes who continued

to supervise the num erous shipm ents, sent either direct or
th ro u g h th e Jo in t Relief Commission, u n til F eb ru ary 1946.
This delegate was also able to place his experience a t th e service
of th e in h a b ita n ts of th e Dodecanese.
From F e b ru ary to May 1945, 2,738 tons of food were dis
trib u te d in th e Islands, representing about 37 kilos per head.
The following tab le gives th e quantities, in kilos, d istrib u ted
in each Island a t each delivery :
Population

1st convoy
(February)

2nd convoy
(March)

3rd convoy

4th convoy

(April)

(May)

R hodes and
Caichi . . .

4 9 ,2 0 0

2 3 6 ,6 6 9

5 3 3 .2 2 6

5 8 2 ,1 2 7

5 5 4 .2 1 8

Cos................

1 6 ,4 0 0

1 8 5 .4 7 6

1 3 4 .9 9 2

1 5 9 ,6 4 3

4 8 0 ,1 1 1

Leros............

4 ,2 0 0

3 0 ,6 6 0

4 1 .5 5 9

3 9 .9 5 3

4 5 ,9 5 3

1 5 8 ,1 2 5

Kalym nos
& Pserim o

5 ,100

3 7 .0 9 0

5 5 .3 4 4

5i , 4H

4 9 .7 3 5

1 9 3 .5 8 0

T otal............

7 4 ,9 0 0

3 0 4 .4 1 9

8 1 5 ,6 0 5

8 0 9 ,5 4 9

2 ,7 2 8 ,0 5 6

Islands

8 0 8 ,4 8 3

Total

1 ,9 0 6 ,2 4 0

As circum stances differed on each island, th e delegates did

not deliver th e sam e am ount of food everyw here. D istress
was specially acute in th e tow n of Rhodes, whereas Cos, the
m ost agricultural island, was able to do w ithout food relief
u n til March.
A p a rt of the gifts was set aside for soup kitchens and milk
centres for children, which the delegates organized as soon as
th e y arrived in th e Dodecanese. More th a n 250,000 individual
issues were m ade in Rhodes from F eb ru ary to May, 1945.
The relief supplies also included :
10
i
100,000
1,000
12%
i
412

tons of m edical supplies

case of iodine
quinine tablets
woollen blankets
tons of soap
ton of cod-liver oil.

P a rt of these supplies were purchased in th e Middle E ast

w ith th e funds from the Greek R ed Cross and th e Greek colony
in E g y p t ; th e rem ainder came from th e Greek and South
African R ed Cross Societies and from th e Greek colony in
E gypt. In every island th ey were handed over to a m edical
commission for issue to hospitals and the sick.
A fter the liberation th e rem aining stocks of m edical supplies
were given to the B ritish A rm y Medical Service, which shared
them out, jo in tly w ith th e delegate of th e ICRC and a local
relief com m ittee, am ong th e hospitals and th e poor.
The Greek W ar Relief F u n d transferred 440 tons of foodstuffs
and 463 bales of clothing and shoes left in Cyprus, to th e ICRC
delegation in Cairo. These goods did n o t reach R hodes u n til
Ju n e 3 ; th e y were carried on one of the th ree vessels which
m ade up the fou rth convoy. As th e food supply of the Islands
was now m aintained by th e B ritish A rm y, these goods were
sto red in the ICRC warehouses in R hodes and d istrib u ted by
th e delegate to hospitals, charitable and educational in stitu tio n s
an d to th e needy.
The ICRC delegation in Cairo received the following gifts
for th e Dodecanese in 1945 :
From
Jan.
12
Jan. 1 3
Jan.
17
March i
March 29
Ma y
5
May 1 4

Messrs S. Casulli, A le x a n d r ia .......................

The Greek R ed Cross, C a i r o .......................
The Lricots Fraternity, A lexandria . . .
The Greek R ed Cross, London, through
M. M ou ra tia d is..............................................
The Greek Patriarch, A lexandria . . . .
Messrs S. Casulli, A le x a n d r ia .......................
The D odecanese Fraternity, A lexandria ..
E

IE
50 0 .
2,000.
1,000.
9 ,7 5 0

.
.
1,000.
1,499.985
3 ,5 0 0

19,249.985

These funds were used to cover :

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

The expenses of the m ission in the Dodecanese ;

The purchase of goods ;
Freight charges ;
Travelling expenses of delegates in the Middle E ast ;
Direct costs borne by the ICRC (telegrams, insurance, etc.).

413

i n

Im m ediately w ar broke out betw een F inland and the

Soviet Union, the ICRC m ade its usual offer to launch a general
appeal on behalf of the Red Cross Societies of th e two countries
concerned. The Finnish Red Cross accepted, and w ithin a
very short tim e th e ICRC was able to tra n sm it am bulances,
m edical supplies and m edicam ents presented by the sister
Societies. The ICRC m ade the custom ary notification when
these am bulances were p u t into service.
On learning of the distress of the Finnish civilians who had
fled from the fighting zones tow ards the interior of the country,
the ICRC and th e League of Red Cross Societies considered
m aking a joint appeal in their behalf. As, however, only one
of the belligerents was involved, the ICRC decided th a t th ey
could not proceed unless explicitly asked to do so by the Finnish
Red Cross. The la tte r organization, consulted by telegram
on D ecem ber 28, 1940, replied th a t th ey had already received
adequate foreign relief in cash and in kind, b u t th a t th ey
would not fail to apply to the ICRC a t some future date, if
th e situation required it.
This refusal will be b e tte r understood if it is borne in m ind
th a t the Finnish Red Cross directed its efforts m ainly to the
sick and wounded com batants, while the care of civilian refugees
was en tru sted by the Finnish G overnm ent to a central com
m ittee, the " Suomen H uolto , on which the Finnish Red
Cross and other welfare organizations were represented. This
C om m ittee indirectly inform ed the ICRC th a t relief shipm ents
would be gratefully accepted : although the aid sent by America
and Sweden was considerable, it was not sufficient to meet
all the needs.
In these circum stances and for the reason already m entioned
the proposed appeal was im practicable. B ut the ICRC did all
it could to encourage spontaneous gifts, and was th u s able
to send th e following supplies to the Finnish Red Cross, in
addition to m edical stores :
March :

414

621 kilos of chocolate for Finnish children ;

April :

June :

1,886 lcilos of m edicam ents, calcium and chocolate, pur

chased w ith the proceeds of a collection
made am ong Swiss doctors ;
1,550 kilos of underwear supplied by the Junior Swiss
Relief Fund for Finland.

In compliance w ith the wishes of the Finnish Red Cross,

which feared th a t tra n sp o rt difficulties m ight prevent the
tim ely arrival of supplies, m any Red Cross Societies and other
organizations for aid to F inland also sent m oney rem ittances
to the F innish Red Cross th rough the ICRC.
W hen fighting betw een F inland and Soviet R ussia ceased,
relief continued w ithout in terru p tio n ; from th en on, goods
were shipped by the Jo in t Relief Commission 1, while the
ICRC arranged m oney transfers.
D uring the second
Finnish-Soviet conflict, th e Finnish
M inister in Stockholm forw arded an appeal for relief by the
Finnish Red Cross for the areas occupied by the Finnish arm y
in E astern Carelia, where about 85,000 R ussian civilians were
in very distressed circum stances. However, th e ICRC obtained
no reply either from the Soviet G overnm ent, whom th ey con
sulted through their, delegate in Teheran, or from the B ritish
and Am erican G overnm ents, whose collaboration was requested
for th e dispatch of goods and money. As, m oreover, the Swiss
and Swedish R ed Cross Societies were unable to contribute
financially, the scheme had to be abandoned.
7.

rance

The invasion of the N etherlands, Belgium and France by

the W ehrm acht led to th e exodus of millions of th e in h ab ita n ts
of those countries, who fled before the crushing advance of
the enem y and sought refuge in the south of France. This
mass influx of refugees, who frequently had no more th an the
barest necessities w ith them , confronted the authorities and
the French Red Cross w ith a colossal task, for which th eir own
im m ediate resources were inadequate.
1 See R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.

415

The ICRC and the League of Red Cross Societies, in agree

m ent w ith th e French authorities, therefore sent the following
telegram on May 29, 1940 to th e natio n al R ed Cross Societies
of th e n eu tral and non-belligerent countries :
Some three m illion French, tw o million Belgian, sev en ty thousand
Luxem burg and fifty thousand D utch refugees or evacuees are in a
serious state of d estitu tion in France. The French Red Cross appeals
to sister Societies for relief of people in distress. N eeds are new clothes,
shoes, layettes, bedding, kitchen utensils, minor surgical instrum ents,
dressings, non-perishable foods, collapsible huts, tex tiles for workshops.
P lease send gifts in cash or kind to Central Com m ittee French Red
Cross Paris and through Vron transport agent for all ports .

Several replies were m ade to Geneva. The A rgentine Red

Cross Com m ittee notified a gift from the French Relief Com
m ittee in Buenos Aires of 50 tons of clothing. The T urkish
Red Crescent prom ised 500 tons of w heat 1. The Greek Red
Cross sent 125,000 F rench francs for the French R ed Cross.
O ther N ational Societies sent their gifts direct to the French
R ed Cross, a t th e same tim e notifying th e ICRC and the League
of R ed Cross Societies. Those gifts included : 150,000 levas
from the B ulgarian R ed Cross ; 100,800 French francs given by
th e E g y p tian R ed Crescent to the French M inister in Cairo ;
an d 50,000 dinars, to g eth er w ith a q u a n tity of non-perishable
foodstuffs to a value of 250,000 dinars, from the Jugoslav
R ed Cross.
It was proposed to launch a relief drive in all the L atin
A m erican S tates, w ith th e support of the Foreign M inister of
each country. There was also a generous response to the joint
appeal in th e U nited S tates ; the U.S. G overnm ent allocated
50 million dollars, and the Am erican Red Cross 20 million
dollars. These sum s were to be used for the relief of refugees
and w ar victim s in Europe, under the supervision of the Am e
rican Red Cross representatives.
U nfortunately, th e hopes
1 The ICRC was involved in long n egotiations in order to obtain
free carriage and exem ption from custom s d uties for this shipm ent.
W hen, finally, in the beginning of 1941, the agreem ent of all the in ter
ested parties had been secured, the econom ic situation of the country
had changed and the Turkish G overnm ent was obliged to refuse the
Red Crescent an export licence.

416

which the ICRC and the League had placed in th e help from
N orth and South Am erica were dashed, as the Allied blockade 1
.prohibited any food or clothing being sent to th e civilian popu
lation in the countries occupied by, or subjected to the Axis.
W ithout w aiting for the result of the appeal of M ay 29, the
ICRC consulted th e G erm an occupation authorities on the
details of the proposed relief action. The Germ an G overnm ent
sent a representative of one of its leading welfare organizations
to Geneva, who asked for Red Cross help for the refugees in
France.
As a result of these conversations, two wagons, containing
tw en ty tons of condensed m ilk supplied by th e ICRC, and
five wagons containing 33 tons of good and clothing from the
Swiss R ed Cross, were sent to the areas in question. The urgency
of the situ atio n was such th a t an exception was m ade to the
usual procedure and the shipm ents were distrib u ted by the
relief organizations th a t happened to be on the spot ; arrange
m ents were late r m ade for an ICRC delegate to be present, on
delivery of the relief consignm ents. In Ju ly 1940, two m em bers
of the ICRC w ent on mission to Berlin and exchanged views
w ith the G erm an authorities, who finally agreed th a t the
official representative of the ICRC in Paris should have a
certain discretion in the distribution of relief sent to F rance 2.
D uring th e sum m er and au tu m n of 1940 the ICRC sent
num erous consignm ents to the French R ed Cross, the refugee
cam ps and the childrens reception centres ; the persons in
charge supervised the distribution and sent receipts to Geneva.
The consignm ents were addressed to the representative of the
Germ an Red Cross, who passed them on to th e French R ed
Cross, and th ey consequently travelled carriage and d u ty free.
The ICRC in this w ay sent the following supplies to France :
August, 1940 :

70 tons of food

and clothing

(various donors
in Switzerland) ;
45 tons of food (Jugoslav Red Cross) ;

1 See pp. 368 et seq.

2 It was not until Septem ber 1943 th a t the German authorities
recognised this agent as an officially accredited delegate of the ICRC.
i l l . 27

417

Sept. 1940 :

283 tons of condensed and dried m ilk (Swiss Red

Cross) ;
Oct. to Dec. 1940:
1940 : 676 tons of foodstuffs )
.
, ,
.
s various sources
34 tons of clothing
Early 1941:

55 tons of food for the Swiss Aid Mission to the

Children of Toulouse.

All subsequent shipm ents were m ade through the Jo in t

Relief Commission of th e In te rn atio n a l Red Cross, which was
then beginning to function 1.
A lthough the efforts of th e authorities and th e French
R ed Cross led to th e early rep atriatio n of m any refugees, the
food situ atio n in F rance required th e continued shipm ent of
goods. The French N ational Relief Com m ittee was set up by
decree on O ctober 4, 1940, to deal centrally w ith all applications
for relief. I t was also th e sole body authorised to m ake appeals
to public generosity.
From 1941 onw ards, th e supply of relief to France was
settled by direct negotiation betw een this N ational Com m ittee
and the Jo in t Relief Commission. Nevertheless, the ICRCs
m ediation rem ained indispensable for solving the num erous
problem s which arose in connection w ith th e relief sent to
cam ps in Southern F rance 2.
D uring th e sum m er of 1943, another problem dem anded
th e intervention of th e ICRC. The provisioning of Corsica
depended to a large e x te n t on im ports. W hen th e Allies landed
in Ita ly the food situation of th e island was seriously affected,
for several food ships which th e French G overnm ent had
despatched were sunk as th e result of enem y action. A delegate
of th e French Red Cross suggested th a t th e ICRC should organize
th e supply of Corsica w ith F rench ships, ceded by the G overn
m ent to th e F oundation for Red Cross T ransports. I t was
proposed to sent 3,000 tons of food per m onth, half of it in the
form of flour. As these goods were to be sent from m etropolitan
French territo ry , there would be no infringem ent of the blockade
1 See R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.
2 See below pp. 525 e t seq.
418

regulations. However, when th is scheme was su bm itted to th e

belligerents, the ICRC was told th a t for m ilitary reasons
no safe-conducts could be granted. The plan to help Corsica
had therefore to be abandoned.
A fter.the Allied landing in F rance and during the subsequent
fighting, th e ICRC delegates were cut off from G eneva and
were obliged to m ake decisions on th e spot.
Thus, th e ICRC delegate in Paris, realising th a t th e reserves
of flour to feed th e capital were stored 50 kilom etres outside
Paris and th a t th e city m ight th u s be w ithout bread, possibly
for weeks, secured th e consent of th e Germans, who were still
in com m and of th e capital, to the im m ediate use of 80 lorries
and buses, which h ad already been dism antled to m ake th em
useless for th e G erm an troops. The vehicles left Paris on August
23, 1944, b u t on reaching Melun after a rou n d ab o u t journey,
the silos were found to be in flames. The convoy th en proceeded
to Verneuil-lE tang, whence 200 tons of flour were conveyed
to Paris. A nother a tte m p t was m ade th e following day, b u t
the convoy was h alted after a few miles, because th e licenses
issued b y th e Germ ans were no longer recognised. The Com
m ittees delegate was even arrested, b u t m anaged to escape
and conduct all the lorries safely back to Paris. The n ex t day
the capital was liberated, and no fu rth er trip s were needed.
T hanks to th e C om m ittees relations w ith an unofficial
agent of the French Provisional G overnm ent, relief schemes
for the tow ns and areas freed by th e advancing Allied forces
were greatly facilitated. On Septem ber 1, 1944, it was decided
to send a first em ergency relief consignm ent to the tow n of
Lyons ; a tra in was p u t a t the disposal of th e ICRC and the
Jo in t Relief Commission by th e Swiss G overnm ent, and des
patched loaded w ith m ilk products. The G erm an Consul-General
in Geneva had sanctioned the ro uting of this tra in across areas
which th e G erm ans did not yet regard as liberated, an d th e
journey to Lyons and back was effected w ithout incident.
As the liberation proceeded, requests for help poured into
Geneva, as th e m ass destruction of houses, roads and railways,
coupled w ith th e absence of tra n sp o rt, h ad im paired th e pro
visioning of entire D epartm ents.
419

A lthough the ICRC had long since m ade plans for post-w ar
relief, the elem ents of th e problem changed as th e w ar drew
to an end. The welfare organizations, b o th official and voluntary,
were again able to act independently of a neu tral interm ediary,
th e work of which was based prim arily on the principle of
reciprocity.
N evertheless, F rance was not yet com pletely freed, since
certain points on the A tlantic coast rem ained under G erm an
occupation u n til the arm istice.
Pockets on the Atlantic Coast.
W hen F rance was liberated in the sum m er of 1944, the
G erm an garrisons in the ports of D unkerque, La Rochelle,
R oyan, L orient and Saint N azaire were surrounded by the
Allied forces ; these areas were consequently separated from
the rem ainder of th e country by unbroken fronts.
In the
a u tum n, local truces enabled p a rt of the population to be
transferred to liberated France. A great m any of the in h ab ita n ts
refused, however, to leave th eir native soil, and as the war
continued, th eir position becam e increasingly serious.
In J a n u a ry 1945, the Charg d Affaires of the French
E m bassy in Berne asked the ICRC, a t the request of the Com
m issioner of th e R epublic in Angers, to exam ine the possibility
of sending a delegate to Saint Nazaire, to distrib u te the relief
supplies which th e French authorities proposed to forw ard to
some 120,000 people living in and around the city. In addition,
th e G erm an authorities asked the ICRC to send a representative
into th e A tlantic pockets , especially to La Rochelle, to
organize the provisioning of the tow n and of the Islands of
R and Olron.
The Com m ittee agreed to do so. As soon as the consent of
the belligerents was secured, a delegation left Geneva on J a n u a ry
19 to stu d y th e situation on the spot. On the grounds of their
investigations and the promise given by the German occupying
authorities not to requisition the supplies, the French and
U nited S tates m ilitary authorities allowed a tra in to leave for
Saint Nazaire, conveying 600 tons of foodstuffs and m edica
420

ments. The tra in arrived a t its destination on F e b ru ary 17,

after a truce had been concluded and the rails which h ad been
torn up by the belligerents across the no m an s land had
been replaced. The French local authorities d istrib u ted the
relief supplies under the supervision of the C om m ittees delegates.
Consequent to th e favourable reports received from these
delegates on th e outcom e of th eir mission, three o ther relief
trains conveyed the following supplies to Saint Nazaire :
On March 13 :
60 tons of sugar
10 ,, ,, butter
3V2 ,,
,, coffee
345 ,, ,, flour
i wagonload of relief supplies.
Given by the N ational
R elief Fund (Seconrs national)
i wagon of relief supplies.
Given by the Gendarmerie
maritime and the Harbour Fire Service
1,000 litres of petrol and oil, for civilian physicians in the area.
On A p ril 10 :
350
60
30
20
10
100
i
1
5

tons of flour
sugar
,, ,, tinned m eat
,, ,, dried vegetables
,, ,, butter
,, ,, potatoes
ton of Phoscao
ton of m alted milk
tons of m iscellaneous stores, given by the French Red
Cross
15 ,,
,, given by the E n tr a id e franaise
935 kilos of seed ;

On A p r il 21:
350 tons of flour
15 ,, ,, soap
10 ,, ,, potatoes
butter
5
10
noodles, macaroni, etc.
2
tinned m eat
1,000 litres of petrol, for civilian physicians ;
421

6o tons of seed potatoes

i lot of m iscellaneous relief supplies, given b y the E n tr a id e
franaise.

These fu rth e r consignm ents were d istrib u ted in th e same

w ays as th e first. The delegates of th e ICRC often had to cross
th e firing lines to arrange for these deliveries. W hile doing so
th e y visited the Allied PW , some of whom were exchanged a t
th e instance of the ICRC. The delegates also reported th a t
m edicam ents and hospital equipm ent were required for the
G erm an w ounded and sick in Saint Nazaire. Perm ission was
obtained from th e French authorities to forw ard a consignm ent
to th e enem y field hospitals th rough France, and th e ICRC
inform ed th e G erm an authorities th a t it would purchase m edi
cam ents and hospital m aterial on receipt of funds from Germ any.
As com m unications betw een Berlin and th e G erm an Consulate
in G eneva had been cut, th e G erm an a u th o rities answ er did
not arrive before the cap itulation of the Reich. The proposed
scheme was therefore abandoned.
The ICRC also contem plated chartering a neutral vessel
which would carry supplies under the Red Cross em blem to
L a Rochelle and the Islands of R and Olron. This proposal
was approved by the belligerents.
However, a lo c a l.tru c e
during the negotiations them selves enabled relief to be sent
overland. These supplies were d istrib u ted w ith the help of
the representatives of th e Swedish Red Cross, who also co
operated in supplying food to Royan.
As D unkerque had been alm ost entirely evacuated, the
Allied m ilitary authorities declined to authorise relief supplies
for the few in h a b ita n ts who had refused to leave the town.
The delegate of the ICRC therefore confined him self to visiting
th e Allied PW cam ps and issuing relief there. He also visited
th e F rench civilians who h ad rem ained and were quartered in
a p a rt of the tow n th a t was still standing. This mission was
a particu larly dangerous one, for to reach the G erm an outposts
th e delegate had to cross a m ined stretch of no m an s land .
The three tons of relief supplies for Allied PW followed the
sam e route, and were carried through the mine-field by 200
G erm an soldiers.
422

A bout 9,000 in h ab ita n ts had rem ained in Lorient. R eports

stated th a t their food situation was alarm ing, as the Germ an
garrison had been cut off in th e m onth of A ugust 1944, since
when no bread, potatoes or sugar h ad been issued. H aving
succeeded in crossing the firing lines, an ICRC delegate noted
the requirem ents of th e population and th e m eans of access
which were still open. Upon the stre n g th of his report, the
Allies agreed th a t th e tow n should be supplied w ith food by a
vessel furnished b y the G erm an authorities a t Lorient. This
vessel carried th e C om m ittees m arkings and was m anned by
a French crew. The com m ander of the G erm an garrison a n
nounced th a t any G erm an soldier guilty of looting the supplies
would be shot ; he also gave an und ertak in g th a t the distribution
of the food and m edicam ents should be carried out under the
supervision of th e C om m ittees delegate. As all th e civilian
doctors had been evacuated from the L orient area, the ICRC
sent a Swiss doctor into the tow n to organise a relief distribution
scheme, and to give m edical a tte n tio n to the inh ab itan ts.
The Carentan left Vannes under safe-conduct, on A pril
14, 1945, and arrived on the following day a t P o rt Louis, in
the southern area of the L orient pocket, where half of the
supplies were unloaded. On April 16 she sailed to the northern
area, to unload the rem ainder of her cargo. A fter negotiations
by the delegates, the Allied artillery fire, which had exposed the
ship to some danger in the southern area, was stopped until
her retu rn to Vannes.
This first consignm ent included :
47 Vz tons of flour
9 tons of sugar
70 tons of potatoes
3,000
cases of m atches
2,920
pairs of shoes and slippers
8
cases of m edicam ents, given by the French Red Cross.

The Carentan m ade a second trip on May 8, the day on

which the G erm an garrison surrendered. At the request of the
French and U nited S tates m ilitary authorities, the delegate
once more distrib u ted the relief stores, which com prised :
423

5 tons of flour
5 tons of salt
50 tons of potatoes
4 y2 tons of tinned m eat
750 kilos of soap
26 bales of clothing, given b y the French R ed Cross
i
consignm ent of m edicam ents and surgicalinstrum ents,
given by the French Red Cross
i
consignm ent of m iscellaneous relief (condensed
milk,
m alted milk, etc.) given by the E n traide franaise.

The U nited S tates m ilitary authorities w arm ly congratulated

the C om m ittee on the m anner in which their delegates had
carried out th eir mission. The Prefect of the Loire Infrieure
also expressed his g ratitu d e to the C om m ittee, on behalf of th e
population of Saint Nazaire.

8 . Germ any

The difficulties th a t arose in connexion w ith the relief of

the population of the defeated countries were especially m arked
in th e case of G erm any. This was due to her dom inant position
in the Axis and th e particu larly grave consequences of her
defeat 1.
F or this reason, a detailed account will be given of the
C om m ittees negotiations w ith the four occupying Powers for
a u th o rity to send relief from private sources to civilians in
th a t country. D uring the period of confusion which followed
the collapse of the Wehrmacht, the ICRC carried out its relief
work for released Allied PW and the Allied detainees who
had escaped from concentration cam ps 2. Sim ilarly, the Jo in t
Relief Commission, the C om m ittees road tra n sp o rt organization
and various Swiss and Swedish associations were in stru m en tal
in giving in te rm itte n t assistance to the population, b u t this
was not expressly authorized by the occupying A uthorities
and was only approved by the local m ilitary com m anders.
1 See above p. 387.
2 See above pp. 96 et seq.

424

As soon as th e arm istice was signed, appeals from priv ate

individuals and organizations called the a tte n tio n of the ICRC
to the tragic fate of the population of G erm any. N um erous
dem ands for relief also came th rough the delegations, or in
messages brought out of G erm any by underground channels
and posted in Sw itzerland.
The hospitals lacked m edical
supplies of daily use, and those local branches of the Red Cross
which h ad n ot been wound up were powerless for w ant of
m aterial resources. The official rations often did n o t exceed
t , o o o calories a day, and even these could not alw ays be ob
tained, because of th e lack of reserve stocks on the m arket.
Areas th a t h ad already been overpopulated by the influx of
refugees from th e air bom bardm ent of the W est, or by the
exodus from th e E a st during th e w inter of 1944, were burdened
anew by the tens of thousands expelled from Czechoslovakia,
Silesia, Pom erania and H ungary. The ruined railw ay stations
served as cam ps for th e refugees who, especially in the Soviet
zone, w andered from statio n to station, as th e y found trains,
often only to land once more a t the point from which th ey
h ad set out, or in th e Berlin area. The central G erm an Govern
m ent h ad been swept away, tak in g w ith it th e m ain services
of the G erm an Red Cross and of all the welfare organizations
which, v o luntarily or not, had supported th e regime. Only
a few Church in stitu tio n s and local branches of th e R ed Cross
rem ained. A broad, those Germ ans who m ight have been able
to help th eir co u n try were them selves called upon, a t least in
law, to bear the consequences of defeat. There was, in fact, little
or no o p p o rtu n ity of th eir setting up any relief organization,
except in n eu tral countries such as Sw itzerland, where several
com m ittees were form ed in the m onths following the arm istice.
A num ber of charitable organizations asked th e ICRC
to obtain a u th o rity to despatch m aterial and th u s to enable
them to m eet the essential needs of a great m any G erm an
cities, hospitals, homes, and welfare societies. In the early
weeks, this v o lu n ta ry activ ity m et w ith few obstacles, b u t
as soon as the occupation was placed on an organized basis,
the Allied authorities desired to be inform ed in advance of
an y relief work th a t was contem plated.
425

A t th e end of th e sum m er of 1945, a special delegate of

th e ICRC co n tacted the four Allied Staff H ead q u arters 1.
W hilst aw aiting th e result of th e negotiations which ensued,
various donors urged th a t th ere should be no cessation of
v o lu n ta ry aid.
Consequently, in D ecem ber 1945, although
the official consent of th e cen tral au th o rities of th e A m erican
zone had n o t been received, th e Swiss Relief F u n d sta rte d
w hat was know n as th e Ten Tow ns relief, which distrib u ted
additional calories to one th o u san d children for one hundred
days in each of th e G erm an areas selected.
Some of these tow ns were in th e Am erican Zone, and it
was planned to send h u ts to Munich, for use as dispensaries
an d canteens. The m unicipal authorities of M unich had, w ith
th e consent of th e Town C om m andant, barely erected these
h u ts, when th e U.S. au thorities in the Zone decided th a t the
aid of th e Swiss Relief F u n d should not a t once be accepted.
In answ er to an appeal by th e ICRC, an exception was m ade
for M unich and th e order was rescinded in J a n u a ry 1946 in
respect of th is tow n. N evertheless, on the advice of th e ICRC,
th e relief operations were postponed in order not to jeopardize
th e negotiations. These did, in fact, result in a general agreem ent
on M arch 1 for th e Zone as a whole ; the te x t of this docum ent
is given below.
As soon as the requisite agreem ents w ith the m unicipal
au th o rities of Berlin and w ith each of the four Zones had been
form ally concluded, th e ICRC was able to play its full p a rt
as an interm ediary. The perm anent delegations in each Zone,
acting under th e general supervision of th e Special D elegation
in Berlin, were called upon for daily duties which were often
very heavy, as th e agreem ent in principle could only be applied
a fter repeated negotiations. The delegations had, for instance,
to obtain tra n sp o rt facilities, to secure p rio rity for a set-train
sent by th e Jo in t Relief Commission to tra v e l over lines still
closed to civilian traffic, to find warehouses and w atchm en,
to accom m odate the escort agents and secure perm ission for
them to s ta y in a co u n try where foreigners were not yet willingly
1 See ab o v e p. 389.

426

a d m itte d , to gain th e confidence of th e m ilitary authorities

in charge of welfare services, and to m ake sure th a t th e Germ an
distrib u tin g agencies were able to c arry on th e work. Finally,
it was necessary to reassure and encourage th e donors, to
supervise distributions, and to obtain rep o rts on th e subject
often no easy m atter.
The delegations of th e ICRC also collaborated w ith foreign
in stitu tio n s, in p articu lar w ith th e team s of th e Swedish
R ed Cross, th e Swiss R ed Cross and th e Swiss Relief F und.
In its capacity as n e u tra l interm ediary, th e ICRC was often
able to d istrib u te w ork in such a w ay as to avoid in te r
ruptions and overlapping.
Agreement with the Occupation Authorities
The negotiations u n d ertak en in 1945 by th e Special Delegate
were concluded alm ost sim ultaneously in th e B ritish Zone,
in Berlin and in th e F rench Zone. A greem ent w ith th e A m erican
a n d Soviet Zones took longer.
British Zone.
In th e B ritish Zone a plan for co-operation was draw n up
on O ctober 30, 1945, betw een th e ICRC and th e head of the
B ritish R ed Cross, Civilian Relief U nits.
This agreem ent reads :
(1) R elief action in favour of the German population which the
ICRC or other hum anitarian organizations working together w ith the
ICRC undertake w ithin the British Occupation Zone of Germ any will
be planned and executed in collaboration w ith the B.R.C. Civilian
R elief U nit working in this zone.
(2) The relief actions m ight include :
(a) H elp to the settled German population (medical supplies,
m edical m issions, child welfare, including the supply of clothes
and food).
(b) H elp to the refugee population entering the British Zone
(medical supplies, m edical m issions and supply of food and
textiles to transit or perm anent refugee cam ps).

427

(3) The transport of supplies from Switzerland into the British

Zone w ill be executed b y lorries. Petrol and oil should be supplied b y
the m ilitary authorities of the Zone which the convoys cross or enter.
In a later stage, the p ossibility of railw ay transports m ight be discussed.
(4) - For distribution, the German relief organizations recognized
b y the British authorities will be used by the ICRC or the organizations
w ith which it works. For this purpose, the transport of the B.R.C.
sections can be made available.
(5) These distributions take place under the supervision of a
d elegate of the ICRC, or of an organization working w ith it, or by
delegates of both.
The com petent authorities of the M ilitary Governm ent of the
British Occupation Zone agree w ith the outlines of this proposal between
the ICRC and the B.R .C ., Civilian R elief Units, in the British Occupation
Zone.
For the ICRC : (Sgd.) : Dr. A. H . L i n d t .
For the B.R .C ., Civilian R elief U nits : (Sgd.) : Colonel

Agnew .

V lotho, October 30, 1945.

This te x t was approved by the D eputy M ilitary Governor

of th e B ritish Zone on N ovem ber 6, 1945. Moreover, th e Mili
ta ry G overnm ent g ran ted th e following additional term s :
(a)

The M ilitary A uthorities supplied the ICRC w ith petrol and

oil for the lorries carrying civilian relief to the British Zone.
M ilitary garages were available and repairs could be carried
out at the expense of the British forces.
(b) The British M ilitary Governm ent undertook to provide the
drivers and other persons in charge
of consignm ents w ith
perm its to enter Germany.

City of Berlin.
In N ovem ber 1945, the delegate of the ICRC proposed
th a t relief work should be organized for th e City of Berlin.
As the J o in t Relief Commission had received supplies from
th e Swiss Relief F und and th e Irish D onation, he was able
to subm it to the Allied authorities a detailed program m e
providing for a daily addition to th e food rations of 1,000
children for three m onths, and for th e d istribution of m edica
428

m ents, blankets, bed-sheets and sugar to various in stitutions.

Recognizing the value of this offer, the Interallied Com m and
in stru cte d th e H ealth Sub-Com m ittee, under th e chairm anship
of a R ussian officer, to exam ine it in conjunction w ith the
delegate. The plan was accepted and the ICRC was authorized
to establish a delegation in Berlin.
The Sub-C om m ittees
decision was tak en on N ovem ber 26. The four Allied heads of
th e Berlin sectors m et on D ecem ber 3, and a fter some am end
m ents, the m inutes of th eir m eeting were tra n sm itte d to the
delegate as follows :
The Inter-A llied Command :
I. H as approved the docum ent below w ith the follow ing am end
m ents :
(a) Sub stitu te see to for " supervise .
(b) Add the follow ing at the end of par. 3 :
The Public H ealth Com m ittee will supply a m onthly report
to the Comm andants or their deputies on the distribution of
relief given b y the Red Cross .
II. H as directed that the suggestion contained in par. 4 be su b
m itted to the Co-ordination Com m ittee of the Allied Control Council.
Decision taken by the Public Health Committee on November 26, 1945.
(1) To accept the supplies offered by the International Red Cross
for the relief of the sick and the children of Berlin.
(2) To transm it all supplies to the Public H ealth Section of th e
Berlin A dm inistration for distribution to the hospitals and childrens
in stitu tions in all sectors of the city.
(3) To allow the representative of the Red Cross to be present at
the distributions. Supervision will, in future, be carried ou t by the
Red Cross on the basis of enquiries made by the Public H ealth Section.
(4) To subm it to the Comm andants proposals regarding the trans
port of supplies from Switzerland to Berlin. Transport should be carried
out preferably by rail, which would enable the whole delivery to be
made in one operation.
(5) To perm it M. Lindt to consult the Public H ealth Section on
the subject of the m edical supplies m ost needed in Berlin.
(Signatures of the representatives of the Soviet Union, the U nited
States of America, Great Britain and France.)

429

A llie d K o m m a n d a tu r a B eylin

D ecem b er 5, 1945.
Subject : Red Cross Issue for Berlin.
To:
Dr. Lindt, International Red Cross.
(1) The Allied K om m andatura Berlin agreed on Decem ber 3 to
accept the generous oSer of the International R ed Cross of an issue
of food and m edicine for the sick and children of Berlin. Further,
representatives of the Red Cross m ay attend th e distribution of the
supplies.
(2) A ttached hereto is a copy of letter forwarded to the Travel
Security Board concerning Travel Perm its for tw o of your represen
ta tives.
A l l ie d

K om m andatura

B e r l in .

On D ecem ber 6, 1945, th e Co-ordination C om m ittee of

th e Allied Control Council approved th e decision of th e Berlin
Com m and. A nd of p a rticu la r im portance for the continued
work of th e ICRC in G erm any it also sta te d th a t th e adm ission
of representatives of relief organizations would be decided by
th e Com m and A uthorities in Berlin and by the M ilitary G overnor
in each Zone.
French Zone.
N egotiations in respect of th e F rench Zone resulted in an
agreem ent w ith th e M ilitary G overnor on D ecem ber 7, 1945,
in th e following term s :
(1) The relief work of the ICRC and of hum anitarian organizations
collaborating w ith it, for sick persons and children in the French Zone
of occupation in Germany, shall be planned and carried ou t in co-operation
w ith the French M ilitary A uthorities.
(2) R elief work m ay include :
(a) Aid to the German population perm anently dom iciled in
the zone, such as m edical supplies, m edical missions, food
and clothing for children.
(b) Aid to German refugees entering the French Zone of occu
pation (medical supplies, m edical m issions, food and clothing for
children).
The aid shall be distributed either in the reception centres or in
the perm anent refugee camps.

430

(3) It is intended th a t transport shall be by rail, if possible at the

expense of th e French M ilitary A uthorities. Goods m ay be taken by
lorry to the nearest station to the Swiss frontier.
(4) For the distribution of relief, the ICRC, or th e hum anitarian
organizations collaborating w ith it shall make use of the German relief
organizations recognized by the French M ilitary A uthorities.
(5) R elief schem es shall be supervised b y a delegate of the ICRC
or of a hum anitarian organization collaborating w ith it, or by delegates
of both.
(6) The ICRC shall give special consideration to the Saar D istrict.
Baden-Baden, Decem ber 7, 1945.
(Sgd.) General

K o e n ig .

As in the B ritish Zone, relief could be given to th e refugees

and to the population perm an en tly dom iciled there. A u th o rity
was given for th e establishm ent of a delegation of the ICRC.

Am erican Zone.
In the Am erican Zone, negotiations were less rapid. The
occupation authorities h ad to settle highly com plex dem ogra
phic problem s, which doubtless had a political aspect.
The delegate of th e ICRC m ade a definite offer to give aid
to the G erm an refugees, whose situ atio n was far m ore precarious
th a n th a t of th e population perm anently dom iciled in th a t
zone ; this would include m edical a tte n tio n , food supplies and
clothing.
However, th e U.S. m ilitary authorities inform ed
th e ICRC th a t public opinion in th e U nited S tates would not
yet allow p riv ate organizations to give relief to th e G erm an
population, a t a tim e when th e U.S. G overnm ent was itself
sending large quan tities of cereals to its zone of occupation.
I t was only a t th e beginning of Ja n u a ry , 1946, th a t the U.S.
G overnm ent allowed th eir m ilitary authorities in G erm any to
open th e zone to v o lu n tary relief. I t was laid down th a t the
donors should form tw o groups, one for relief from th e U nited
S tates and th e other for relief coming from or th ro u g h Sw it
zerland. The ICRC, whose delegation represented th e Jo in t
Relief Commission in occupied G erm any, was prepared, a t
431

least for a certain tim e, to co-ordinate the consignm ents of

th e second group. An agreem ent in principle was concluded
in Berlin on F eb ru ary 4, 1946, betw een U.S. General Staff H ead
q u arters and th e Special D elegate of th e Com m ittee. A fter
approval by th e ICRC, it came into force in the form of ins
tru ctio n s issued by the W elfare Section of the M ilitary G overn
m ent in G erm any. The M em orandum on this agreem ent reads
as follows :
M em orandum

Subject : Relief Operations by the IC R C acting for Non-American

Voluntary Agencies.
It is understood th a t several non-Am erican voluntary relief agencies
wish to send into Germ any relief supplies for the benefit of German
nationals. These agencies wish to designate the ICRC as their agents
for the im port of these supplies.
The OMGUS 1 is prepared to receive in Germany the follow ing
kinds of essential goods :
Condensed, evaporated, powdered milk ; fats ; sugar or dextrose ;
soap ; cod-liver oil ; clothing, especially shoes ; medicines ; recreational
supplies ; school supplies, etc.
The follow ing m em orandum will serve as a basis for procedure in
accordance w ith the above understanding.
Transport.
R elief goods will be called for b y the M ilitary Government. Transport
of relief goods called for w ill be provided by the M ilitary Government
from points of entry designated by it to the cities of distributions.
Allocation and Distribution.
The allocation of all these supplies to areas and, in the case of undes
ignated goods, to agencies, shall be done b y German public welfare
officials under the orders of the M ilitary Governm ent (Welfare Section
OMGUS).
The Central German C om m ittee and German public welfare officials
shall recom m end to the American M ilitary Governm ent (W elfare
Section OMGUS) the supplies which are to be called for b y the American
M ilitary Governm ent from the volu ntary agencies represented by
the ICRC.
1 = Office of the M ilitary G overnm ent of the U nited States.

432

Liaison Personnel.
The ICRC Special D elegate for R elief A ctions in Germany will
serve as a liaison agent to the American M ilitary Governm ent to fa ci
lita te arrangem ents for the im port and distribution of supplies. In
this cap acity the Special D elegate w ill be directly responsible to the
Chief of the W elfare Section OMGUS and will furnish reports to the
ICRC arid to the M ilitary Government.
A uthority to engage in activities relative to the distribution of
these supplies in the U .S. Zone m ay be given to personnel of the ICRC
or the volu ntary agencies furnishing relief supplies on ly b y the ICRC
Special D elegate for R elief A ctions in Germany, who m ay delegate
th is responsiblity to th e Chief D elegate of the ICRC in Frankfurt.

In his le tte r of M arch 4, 1946, the Chief of th e W elfare

Section clearly sta te d th a t his Section should be inform ed in
advance of any plans for im porting relief supplies into the
Am erican zone, since th e approval of U.S. Staff H eadquarters
was necessary for all consignm ents. The local branches of
th e G erm an R ed Cross, th e Catholic C aritas , th e P ro te sta n t
Evangelisches H ilfswerk (Evangelical Aid) a n d th e w orkers
organization A rbeiter-W ohlfahrt (W orkers W elfare) were
authorized to carry out th e distribution in collaboration. The
C entral G erm an Com m ittee was com posed of representatives
of these four societies and had its h ead q u arters a t S tu ttg a rt,
to which tow n, after Novem ber, 1946, all consignm ents h ad
to be sent, or a t least notified.
In April, 1946, th e M ilitary G overnm ent, which was no
longer able to place its own tra n sp o rt a t th e disposal of the
Jo in t Relief Commission, requested the ICRC and the Am erican
com m ittee CRALOG 1 to arrange for convoys them selves a t
the expense of the G erm an A uthorities 2.
At th e same tim e it was felt th a t one of the four organizations
chosen by the donors could in th e fu tu re be m ade responsible
for the delivery of supplies, as th e G erm an C entral Com m ittee
alone was com petent to designate the region m ost u rgently
in need of relief.
1 Council of Relief Agencies Licensed for Operations in Germany.
2 For the organization of convoys and reim bursem ent of transport
charges, see R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.
i n .

28

433

Soviet Zone.
D uring this period negotiations w ith the R ussian M ilitary
Com m and were also proceeding satisfactorily. On F eb ru ary 8,
1946, th e Special D elegate of the ICRC was inform ed th a t the
said G overnm ent intended to authorize th e C om m ittee to
extend its activities to th e Soviet Zone, and to B randenburg
in particu lar. The R ussian officers, in a very practical spirit,
asked th e ICRC to prove to them , by m aking definite proposals,
th a t relief passing th rough th eir hands would contribute m ate
rially to relieve th e distress of refugee children in the Soviet
Zone. They sta te d th a t a t the beginning of the year there were
1.200.000 G erm an refugee children in th a t zone, and th a t
60.000 of these were sick or undernourished. If the ICRC was
in a position to give aid to a t least a considerable proportion
of these children, access to the Zone would be granted.
The Com m ittee h ad already dem onstrated w hat it could
achieve, a fter th e Inter-A llied C om m ands decision of Decem ber
3, 1945, by sending tw o com plete block-trains of relief to
Berlin w ithin th e space of tw o m onths. The prom pt despatch
of these consignm ents, delivered to th e Jo in t Relief Commission,
and th eir source testified to the value and com plete im p a rtiality
of such aid. The ICRC adopted the sam e procedure for the
Soviet Zone, and asked for support from the Swiss Relief F und
and the Irish D onation, the W orld Council of Churches, the
In te rn atio n a l U nion for Child W elfare, C aritas , the Am erican
Friends Service Com m ittee, and others. In March, th e Special
D elegate was able to subm it proposals to the R ussian M ilitaiy
Com m and. The la tte r a t first planned to lim it the aid of the
ICRC to the R ussian suburbs of Berlin, although providing
for all children in need, w hether refugee or not. However, the
U nited F ro n t of th e Com m unist, Socialist, C hristian-Socialist
and D em ocratic-L iberal parties, on a proposal by the Com m unist
and Socialist parties, suggested th a t the R ussian Com m and
should appeal for aid from abroad for the distressed population,
not only of Berlin, b u t also of B randenburg. The Special Dele
gate th en su b m itte d a plan to th e m ilitary authorities, and 011
April 13, 1946, the Chief of Staff of th e Soviet M ilitary Ad mi
434

n istratio n in G erm any g ran te d

His message reads as follows :

the a u th o rity

applied for.

U .S .S .R .
General Staff of the Soviet M ilitary A dm inistration in Germany
Section for Transfer of Populations.
Berlin, April 13, 1946, No. 118.
To : Dr. Lindt, R epresentative of the International C om m ittee of
the Red Cross.
The S oviet M ilitary A dm inistration in Germany expresses its
gratitude to the ICRC for the relief it has given to the sick and d estitu te
children in the Soviet Sector of Berlin.
W ith regard to your proposal for the extension of this relief to the
sick and d estitu te children in the territory of the whole S oviet Zone of
occupation, we consider th at the follow ing arrangem ent should be
adopted :
(1) All goods from the ICRC will be consigned to the German
A dm inistration for the Transfer of German Populations in the Soviet
Zone, in Berlin.
(2) Goods will be allocated by a Commission set up for this purpose
and working under the German A dm inistration for the Transfer of
German Populations ; this Commission shall consist of representatives
of the four an ti-F ascist Parties, assisted by representatives of the
W om ens C om m ittee and of the Free German Trade Union (FDGB).
Later, representatives of other German dem ocratic organizations will,
if necessary, be adm itted to the Commission.
The Commission shall be accountable for the receipt, the storage,
and the proper allocation of all consignm ents from the ICRC for the
Soviet Zone ; it will be responsible to the representatives of the ICRC
for the use made of the goods received.
(3) The ICRC, should there be any com plaint of improper use of
goods of foodstuffs received, will be entitled to refer to the representa
tiv es of the Soviet M ilitary A dm inistration ; this body will direct and
supervise the work of this Commission set up for the proper distribution
to sick persons and children of the Red Cross relief supplies.
I should be glad if you would inform me personally of your opinion
in this m atter.
(Sgd.) Lieutenant-General D ratvine .
C hief of Staff of the Soviet
M ilitary A dm inistration in Germany.

435

Consignm ents m ade by th e ICRC could be delivered not

only in B randenburg, b u t in th e whole of th e Soviet Zone.
As th e R ussian message im plied, th e C hristian-D em ocratic
U nion (CDU) and th e E vangelical W elfare Society were a d m itte d
to th e D istribution Com m ittee, set up on M ay 18. The delegates
of th e ICRC were in direct co n tact w ith th e G erm an Com m ittee.
The M ilitary G overnm ent decided to tak e all necessary steps
to ensure th a t th e relief actu ally reached th e sick, th e children
and those in distress. The le tte r of April 13 did not specifically
authorize the delegates of the ICRC to a tte n d distributions,
b u t th e y could, in fact, visit th e R ussian zone for the purpose,
as required. M oreover, reports kept th e C om m ittee in Geneva
fully inform ed regarding the progress of distribution.
This jo in t u n d ertak in g som etim es gave rise to difficulties
in th e Soviet Zone, as it did in the other zones in G erm any,
an d in o ther countries where th e ICRC carried on relief work.
In this post-w ar period there was a constant divergence betw een
th e specified wishes of the donors and the desire of the ICRC
and th e public au thorities to allow, as far as possible, only
relief th a t was tru ly for all in need, w ithout discrim ination.
W here th e donors specify th a t their gifts shall be sent to
some p a rticu la r category of th e population chosen, not solely
on account of th eir needs, b u t in p a rt from religious or political
consideration, it is difficult to decide how far such wishes can
be com plied w ith. Gifts to a p a rticu la r group are adm issible
if it is persecuted because of its religious or political c h aracter ;
th e y are not, how ever, allow able when th e in h a b ita n ts of a
district are all subject to th e sam e jurisdiction. N evertheless,
if th e wishes of donors are n ot tak e n into account, th en th eir
gifts m ay cease, and n eith er th e ICRC nor th e au th o rities of
th e receiving countries wished to tak e this responsibility.
The Com m ittee therefore h ad no other recourse b u t com prom ise,
and endeavour to m ake up for relief of lim ited applications
w ith a large num ber of special issues, or large-scale general
supplies 1.

1 See abo v e p. 394 a n d p. 399.

436

D uring 1946, th e M ilitary G overnm ent of th e Soviet zone

came to th e conclusion th a t th e Commission nam ed in the
above le tte r was paying too m uch a tte n tio n to th e donors
wishes and was n ot insisting strictly enough on th e principle
of allocation according to need. N egotiations took place betw een
th e m ilitary authorities, th e Commission, th e G erm an Refugee
A dm inistration and th e delegation of th e ICRC. As it was
held th a t the A llocation Commission was responsible b o th to
th e donors and th e public authorities, it was decided to send
th e gifts to the homes, hospitals and other in stitu tio n s specified
b y th e donors, unless these organizations were receiving relief
in excess. M oreover, establishm ents aided b y priv ate relief
w ould only have a lim ited share of th e general allocations.
H owever, th e ICRC and th e M ilitary A uthorities b o th desired
th a t all consignm ents should be directed to th e Allocation
Commission. On several occasions, difficulties h ad been caused
by th e despatch of semi-collective consignm ents addressed
by nam e to religious, racial or political groups. Som etim es
th e consignors would not agree to th eir gifts being used for a
com m on purpose ; th e Berlin delegation was th en called upon to
m ediate. Relief consignm ents which gave rise to controversy
represented, however, only five per cent of th e to ta l.

System of Im port Licences for Germany.

A t the beginning of 1946, custom s regulations for goods
entering G erm any becam e necessary. Since the F rench Zone
com prised all th e te rrito ry along the German-Swiss frontier,
th e ICRC had to deal m ainly w ith the French authorities,
w hether th e goods were consigned to th e French Zone, or sent
in tra n sit to th e o ther zones.
In Ja n u a ry 1946, the offices responsible for tra d e and
finance in th e French occupation zone announced th a t in future
im ports of any kind would require perm its in accordance w ith
th e usual custom s procedure. I t was estim ated th a t the tim e
required for th e exam ination of each application would be
ab o u t six weeks. However, on Ja n u a ry 12, 1946, the D irector437

general for T rade and Finance authorized the ICRC to sign

way-bills in respect of relief consignm ents for which it was
responsible ; these took the place of th e im port licence. The
C om m ittee could exercise this rig h t not only in respect of its
own consignm ents, b u t also of relief from organizations working
w ith it. I t th u s h ad a general c o n tract for the duty-free im port
of all consignm ents for which it was responsible.
A lthough the ICRC was appreciative of the tru s t placed
in it by the French occupation authorities, this arrangem ent
had a disadvantage in th a t it gave the ICRC an im port m onopoly
co n tra ry to its policy of th e open door. O ther shippers, true,
could im port goods into G erm any, b u t only under the norm al
com m ercial im port procedure. T hey h ad m oreover no exem ption
from custom s duties and tra n sp o rt charges, such as th a t enjoyed
b y all consignm ents registered as p a rt of the ICRC im port
quota. In Ju n e 1946, th e C om m ittee therefore supported an
application from various intern atio n al associations w ith head
q u arters in Sw itzerland, who desired to receive privileges
sim ilar to those which the ICRC enjoyed. However, th e French
authorities were unable to m eet this request to the ex ten t
desired b y these associations. I t was not u n til the second half
of 1947 th a t an organization having no connection w ith the
ICRC received the right to send into th e French Zone relief
supplies coming from or th ro u g h Sw itzerland, w ithout having
recourse to th e C om m ittee as interm ediary.
In signing th e custom s declarations enabling relief supplies
to en ter im m ediately and free of duty, the ICRC becam e res
ponsible for th e w ay in which th e goods were d istributed.
I t therefore gave such a declaration only in respect of consign
m ents over which it could exercise supervision, which obliged
it to ask donors to use th e services of the J o in t Relief Commis
sion. A fter th a t Commission had been wound up, th e ICRC
continued to give its signature and its stam p for consignm ents
which were sent under th e auspices of the two organizations
th a t succeeded it : the Relief B ureau of the League of Red
Cross Societies, and the In te rn atio n a l Relief Centre for Civil
Populations.

438

g .

i t

i n

( C h

I s l a n d s )

In June 1940, the G erm an forces occupied th e B ritish

Channel Islands (Guernsey, Jersey, A lderney and Sark). Before
the war, living conditions in these islands off the west coast
of N orm andy were sim ilar to those in ru ral areas in th e U nited
Kingdom . In 1942, th e num ber of in h ab ita n ts h ad dropped
from 96,000 to about 65,000, m any having been tak e n to the
civilian in tern m en t cam ps in Germ any. The Islan d of A lderney
was com pletely em ptied.
A t th e request of the Hom e Office, the ICRC began in August
1940 to enquire into th e food situation in th e Islands. Various
reports sta te d th a t th e rations were th e same as in occupied
France.
W ith the perm ission of the G erm an G overnm ent, th e ICRC
used a gift of 25,000 Swiss francs from the Swiss Red Cross
to send 261 cases of food and pharm aceutical products to the
Islands. On M arch 29, 1941, th e Bailiff of Jersey acknowledged
th e receipt of the consignm ent, statin g th a t th e recipients would
be th e injured, sick children and infants, and th a t a suitable
q u a n tity had been handed over to the Controlling Com m ittee
of Guernsey, which sent a receipt on M arch 31, 1941.
In a note d ated April 10, 1941, the B ritish R ed Cross inform ed
the ICRC of th e pharm aceutical supplies required by the
population. The Com m ittee th en repeatedly conferred w ith th e
Swiss authorities on the possibility of exporting th e m edical
supplies listed by the B.R.C. Such export was possible only
if th e B ritish G overnm ent com pensated by im porting B ritish
goods in to Sw itzerland, and the ICRC in stru cted its delegation
in London accordingly. The principle of com pensation was
accepted by th e M inistry of Econom ic W arfare on J u ly 17,
and th e details were settled by a m em ber of the ICRC who
travelled to London early in 1942. In view of the difficulties
of th e initial scheme, th e B ritish R ed Cross decided to furnish
th e ICRC w ith a q u a n tity of m edical stores and funds for the
purchase of o ther products in Sw itzerland.
The balance of the gift m ade by th e Swiss R ed Cross in 1940
allowed of th e purchase of 82 kilos of v itam ins ; these were
439

sent o on O ctober 6, 1941, w ith the agreem ent of the Germ an

and Swiss authorities.
I t was not till April 22, 1942, th a t the ICRC was able to
despatch a first consignm ent of supplies given by the B ritish
R ed Cross ; this com prised six bales and a case of dressings.
A second consignm ent addressed to th e Feldkommandantur
of Granville, left on Septem ber 9. I t included 33 cases of m edical
supplies and 15 bottles containing each 800 in tern atio n al units
of insulin ; these stores reached the Islands on N ovem ber 13,
1942.
Insulin being very m uch in dem and, the B ritish R ed Cross
sent 12,000 in tern atio n al units to th e ICRC in April 1942.
The C om m ittee succeeded, after m uch difficulty, in shipping
these to th e H ealth Officer of Jersey, who sent an acknowledg
m ent on N ovem ber 13.
On N ovem ber 19, 1942, th e same Officer sent to the ICRC,
th rough the G erm an R ed Cross, tw o lists showing the medical
requirem ents of Jersey and Guernsey. These lists were forw arded
to th e B ritish Red Cross on D ecem ber 8, 1942. Subsequently,
th e H ealth Officer m ade several other requests, especially for
insulin and cotton wool. A lthough th e Germ an Red Cross
itself stressed the justice of these appeals, th e B ritish Red Cross
refused to com ply w ith th em until th ey had received the
acknow ledgm ent of the 33 cases sent out from Geneva early
in Septem ber.
The arrival of these cases was a t last announced by the
G erm an Red Cross on M arch 5, 1943, and on on May 10, th ey
forw arded th e acknow ledgm ents to Geneva. The consignm ent
included :
M iscellaneous sera. . .
3 cases
D r u g s .................................
4
..
E t h e r ................................
20

i case
S u lfa m id e s.......................
Sterilized catgut . . .
i
Sedormid .......................
i ,,
Powdered grape sugar .
2 cases
300 international units
of in s u lin ...................
1 case
T otal

440

33 cases valuing 20,255.30 Swiss frs.

On the arrival of the two receipts, the B ritish Red Cross

arranged for a fu rth er consignm ent, which left London for
G eneva on August 7, 1943, whence it was forw arded in three
lots, on N ovem ber 5, 10 and 12, to the F eldkommandantur of
Granville. The la tte r sent them on to the Channel Islands,
where th ey arrived before C hristm as, 1943. In M arch 1944,
th e ICRC received acknow ledgm ents from the local a u th o r
ities for :
15 cases of
10 ,,
,,
8 ,,
,,
i case of

surgical instrum ents |

disinfectants
for the sick in the
m edicam ents
1 Island of Jersey
m edical supplies

8 cases of
3 ,,
,,
100 ,,
,,
1 case of

surgical instrum ents

disinfectants
m edicam ents
m edical supplies

for the sick in the

Island of Guernsey

The B ritish Red Cross sent regular clothing parcels to the

Channel Islanders who were interned in Germ any. On learning
of th e precarious situation in the Islands, the detainees in
G erm any m ade up a few packages out of their own parcels and
sent th em to th eir relatives. U nfortunately, this practice was
a breach of the blockade regulations. The B ritish Red Cross
therefore asked the ICRC not to send any more clothing to
the internees until an assurance had been given th a t such
practices would not recur. On being inform ed of this B ritish
decision, the internees asked for th e rem oval of their relatives
to G reat B ritain, or a t all events for perm ission to send them
sm all Christm as packages containing cigarettes, chocolate,
soap, dried fruit, etc., which th ey would tak e from th eir own
weekly parcels. The ICRC com m unicated this request to the
B ritish R ed Cross, who gave th eir consent on N ovem ber 19,
1943. Clothing or footw ear were however forbidden, and the
B ritish R ed Cross dem anded a receipt from an Islan d official,
and a final report from the cam p leaders. The parcels
reached the Islands shortly after Christm as ; on M arch 7, 1944,
the B ritish R ed Cross received the official acknow ledgm ents.
Meanwhile, an extensive slaughter of ca ttle h ad given rise
to a milk shortage. In Septem ber 1943, th e Controlling Com
441

m ittee of Guernsey appealed to the ICRC, who referred to

th e Swiss Red Cross. On D ecem ber 2, 1943, this Society agreed
to sponsor a relief scheme solely for children. I t handed the
ICRC a sum of 53,000 Swiss francs and proposed th a t the
following should be sent :
30 tons of p otatoes
2,750 tins of vitam inized products
10,000 kilos of powdered milk.

This list was, however, altered, when it was sta te d by the

G erm an m ilitary au thorities th a t requirem ents in potatoes
were covered b y n ativ e production 1.
On N ovem ber 14, 1944, the Jo in t Relief Commission notified
th e B ritish R ed Cross th a t th ey still held in Geneva the residue
of th e pharm aceutical and m edical stores sent from London
during 1944 for shipm ent to th e Channel Islands. These stores
could not however be forw arded, as the Allied landings in
N orm andy on Ju n e 6 had cut off com m unications w ith the
Islands, which th e Germ ans continued to occupy.
In th e au tu m n of 1944, a poor h arvest seriously aggravated
th e food situation. The Islanders interned in G erm any once
more asked the ICRC to urge th e B ritish authorities to organise
a large-scale relief program m e th rough G eneva before w inter
set in.
On O ctober 18, 1944, th e G erm an Consul-General in Geneva
called on th e C om m ittee, to explain th a t as a result ot the
Allied landings th e Channel Islands had been cut off from all
outside sources of food for several m onths. R ations had been
drastically reduced ; there were practically no m edical stores
or soap. The Consul also sta te d th a t the situation h ad led the
G erm an m ilitary authorities of the Islands to suggest, by
direct com m unication, to the B ritish m ilitary authorities th a t
the in h ab itan ts, p articu larly the women, children, aged and
sick, should be rem oved to E ngland, b u t th a t th e B ritish
authorities had refused. The Consul therefore asked the Com
m ittee to come to th e aid of the population. He gave assurances
1 For particulars, see R eport by the Joint R elief Commission.

442

th a t the Com m ittee could forth w ith send a delegate to verify

th e critical situation in th e Islands and distrib u te any relief
th a t m ight be forthcom ing.
Evidence of the keen interest of th e Germ ans in the execu
tion of this scheme was the fact th a t th ey laid down its accep
tance, b y th e Allies as an essential condition to th eir consent
to any relief action by th e ICRC in behalf of occupied H olland 1.
The Com m ittee a t once com m unicated th e G erm an proposal
to the B ritish authorities, urging them to consider once more
the possibility of waiving the blockade regulationsth is tim e
in behalf of th eir own countrym enand to authorize a large
shipm ent of relief supplies for th e B ritish in h ab ita n ts of th e
Islands, adding th a t the stock of bread would ru n out b y m idDecem ber 1944, and th a t reserves of soap, coal and m any
m edicam ents were entirely exhausted.
On N ovem ber 8, 1944, the C om m ittees delegation inform ed
the Channel Islands C om m ittee in London of th e proposed
relief scheme, and suggested th a t a relief cargo should be m ade
available to the ICRC.
On N ovem ber 9, the B ritish Consulate in G eneva notified
th e ICRC th a t th e B ritish G overnm ent would authorize the
shipm ent of relief to the Channel Islands only under the following
conditions :
(1) th a t the G erm an G overnm ent should explicitly recognize
th eir responsibility for the continued supply of basic food
rations to the population of th e Islands ;
(2) th a t all the necessary facilities should be gran ted dele
gates of the ICRC to supervise th e distribution.
The B ritish authorities particu larly stressed th a t such
relief foodstuffs should be regarded as supplem entary, and
th a t th ey should be shipped in the form of PW parcels. T hey
also agreed to send m edical stores, in order to build up stocks
in Jersey, Guernsey and possibly Sark. B u t th e y considered
th a t this large-scale program m e would require the presence of a t
least tw o or three of the C om m ittees delegates in the Islands.
1 See p. 449.

443

The G erm an authorities were a t once inform ed of these

conditions. Meanwhile, it was planned to use th e Vega, which
h ad h ith e rto been carrying PW parcels under the C om m ittees
m arkings betw een Lisbon and Marseilles.
On N ovem ber 21, th e G erm an authorities agreed in principle
to the conditions laid down by the B ritish G overnm ent. They
did not, however, confirm th e sta te m e n t m ade by the Germ an
Consul in regard to th e presence of delegates of th e ICRC in
th e Islands 1.
Several practical details still h ad to be settled concerning
th e safe-conduct, th e route to be followed and the p o rt of
arrival, b u t the belligerents quickly agreed on these points.
The p ort of arrival was to be St. P eter P o rt (Guernsey), and
navigation in th e Channel would be under th e direction of a
G erm an pilot. D uring these negotiations, a cargo of 150,000
food parcels, 10,000 m edical parcels and four tons of soap
were tak en from B ritish R ed Cross stocks, and prepared for
shipm ent.
The first difficulty arose over the appointm ent of th e tw o
delegates who were to supervise the distribution of these supplies.
To gain tim e, th e delegates h ad left Geneva for Lisbon before
th e G overnm ents h ad given th eir consent to th e scheme. The
Germ ans raised objections to one of the delegates, who was
replaced a t the last m om ent by the head of th e C om m ittees
delegation in Lisbon.
The Vega finally left Lisbon on D ecem ber 22, 1944. The
B ritish R ed Cross requested th a t the delegates should find
out th e exact num ber of in h ab itan ts, th eir living conditions,
and th eir requirem ents in food, clothing and pharm aceutical
and m edical stores. P articu lar a tte n tio n was to be given to
th e sick, whom the B ritish authorities agreed to receive in
hospitals in G reat B ritain, should th e Germ ans be unable to
give th em proper care.
1 Subsequently, the ICRC noted th at the German authorities in
the Islands m ade no objection to the landing, both in Guernsey and
Jersey, of the C om m ittees delegates, who were given perfect freedom
to discuss the situ ation w ith the civil authorities.

444

On D ecem ber 27, the Vega arrived a t St. P eter P ort, w ith
the following cargo, given by th e B.R.C. :
Tobacco and cigarettes
. . . .
Food p a r c e l s .....................................
S o a p ........................................................
Medical s to r e s .....................................
D iet p a rce ls.........................................
S a l t .......................................................
Childrens clothing (given
by
Lady C a m p b e ll) .......................

1,328 kilos
24 cases =
119,792
= 669,697
120 cases =
4 .1 3 7
..
82 cases =
2.159 ..
4,200
21,000 ,,
=
5.265
65 bags =

6 cases =

300

,,

The ship also carried a m ail-bag containing 1,133 letters

a n d cards from PW and civilian internees in Germ any.
The cargo was unloaded in tw o stages, and in proportion
to the size of th e populations, given officially as :
Guernsey and Sark
.............................22,800 inhabitants
Jersey
................................................... 3 9 . 5

The first unloading took place a t St. P e ter P o rt on Dec. 30,

1944, and the second a t St. Helier (Jersey) on J a n . 3, 1945.
The ICRC delegates supervised the d istribution and w arehousing
of the supplies, in cooperation w ith representatives of the
G erm an forces, th e civilian authorities of th e Islands and the
local branch of the B ritish R ed Cross. An im m ediate issue
was m ade of one food parcel a head ; th e rem ainder of the
119,792 parcelsfor 62,300 in h a b ita n tswas placed in stock.
The Vega left St. P eter P o rt on Ja n . 4, 1945, and reached
Lisbon on Ja n . 9. T h a t same day th e representative of the
B ritish Red Cross in Lisbon was h anded th e lists of supplies
d istrib u ted to the population of th e tw o islands, countersigned
by th e Bailiffs.
Before leaving the Islands, th e delegates had wired to
Geneva to notify a second shipm ent to th e Islands, this tim e
of flour and yeast for bread-m aking, soap, clothing, underw ear
and shoe-leather : th e acute shortage of these com m odities
required in sta n t m easures.
445

Investigations by the delegates also established th e need

for subsequent shipm ents to th e Islands ol coal and Diesel oil,
to keep the electricity p lan ts and gas-w orks running.
As the need for fuel was growing urgent, the B ritish a u th o
rities suggested th a t the F ou n d atio n for th e O rganization of
Red Cross T ransports should ch arter a n eu tral vessel, able
to carry 1,500 tons of coal a t each voyage. The ICRC preferred
such a vessel to be chartered, like the Vega, b y the B ritish Red
Cross ; th e B ritish G overnm ent agreed and proposed the Sirius,
a Swedish vessel th en in th e Baltic. The G erm an authorities
agreed to the use of a collier for the Islands, b u t refused to
allow th e S irius to leave the Baltic. To secure th eir acceptance
of th e scheme, th e B ritish authorities sta te d th a t the Sirius
m ight carry m ail for G erm an P W from G othenburg to Lisbon.
T henceforw ard, negotiations were conducted through the
P ro tectin g Power. The Germ ans agreed to the use of the Sirius,
and to th e conveyance of coal direct from E ngland, instead of
from Lisbon.
They insisted, however, on the Sirius being
ch artered by th e F oundation, and not by the B ritish Red Cross.
Thus, after two m onths of discussions, the first proposal m ade
by London was finally adopted.
On April 25, 1945, the ICRC su b m itted the route of the
Sirius for the approval of the G erm an G overnm ent. D artm outh,
on th e south coast of E ngland, was chosen as the port for loading.
B u t th e w ar was draw ing to a close ; the use of this ship under
th e em blem of the ICRC becam e unnecessary, and the scheme
was therefore abandoned.
In a telegram d ated Ja n . 13, 1945, the head of the Com
m itte e s delegation in Lisbon referred to a m atte r raised by
the B ritish authorities a t the tim e of the first voyage of the
Vega, nam ely, th e rem oval of the seriously sick to G reat B ritain.
The representative of the ICRC sta te d th a t this scheme had
th e consent of the local authorities and of the G erm an m ilitary
a u thorities ; th e la tte r however dem anded th e right to select
th e evacuees. The difficulties encountered in settling m atters
of principle and in choosing the ship prevented th e speedy
execution of the plan, and the arm istice p u t an end to the
negotiations.
446

On th eir first visit to the Islands, th e C om m ittees delegates

had learned th a t 141 Allied PW were detained there. On the
retu rn voyage of the Vega to Guernsey, these PW were given
relief parcels tak en from the cargo.
To hasten tra n sp o rt, th e B ritish Red Cross proposed th a t
th e next voyage should s ta rt direct from G reat B ritain, b u t
th e G erm ans categorically opposed the scheme.
Supplies
therefore continued to be shipped from Lisbon, and th e Vega
m ade four more journeys from P ortugal to St. Helier and
St. P eter P o rt, accom panied each tim e by a representative
of the ICRC. All distributions were carried out in accordance
w ith the scheme established for the first shipm ent. R eceipts
from th e Bailiffs were regularly handed to th e representatives
of th e B ritish R ed Cross in Lisbon, together w ith fu rth e r appli
cations for relief m ade to the ICRC delegates. I t was only on
the th ird voyage th a t a consignm ent of flour could be added
to the cargo conveyed by the Vega.
The following are the particulars of these four voyages :
Second Voyage :
Cargo given by the British and Canadian R ed Cross.
Food p a r c e l s
T obacco
M e d ic a m e n t s ..............................................
B o o t-so le s.......................................................
S a l t .................................................................
Diesel oil for electric power station
in J e r s e y ..............................................

134,656
102 cases
1,099 cases
6 cases
150 bags

kilos
749,691
5,645
44,905
220
12,100

10 drums

Besides this consignm ent there were :

126 food parcels for 21 American PW (given by the American
Red Cross) ;
360 food parcels for 120 French PW (given by the American
Red Cross) ;
12 clothing parcels for 120 French PW (given by the Argentine
Red Cross).
Schedule :
Departure
Arrival at
Departure
Arrival at

from Lisbon, Feb. 1

St. Peter Port, Feb. 6
from St. Helier, Feb. 16
Lisbon, Feb. 21.

447

Third Voyage :
Cargo given b y the British and Canadian Red Cross.
Food p a r c e l s .........................
72,704
M edicam ents and surgical instrum ents
S a l t ...........................................
150
F lo u r ...........................................
8,000
Y e a st...........................................
37
S o a p ...........................................
200
D iesel oil (given by the Shell Company)
P e t r o l .......................................
7
Coal (for the locom otive used to
con vey th e s u p p l i e s ) .......................
Schedule :
D eparture
Arrival at
Departure
Arrival at

kilos
408,333

328 cases
bags
sacks
cases
cases
21 barrels
barrels

9 ,9 7 3

12,150
5 1 1 ,6 5 2
1 .371
5 .3 0 6
6 ,3 4 9

IA79

8 tons

from Lisbon, Feb. 28

St. Peter Port, March 5
from St. Helier, March 11
Lisbon, March T5.

Fourth Voyage :
Cargo.

Given by the British Government.

Flour and y e a s t
Sugar
K erosen e

kilos
8,038 sacks
360 sacks
13 casks

518,156
18,981
2,225

Given by the British Red Cross

Pharm aceutical p r o d u c t s .......................
S a l t .................................................................
S e e d .................................................................
Candles, m atches, spare parts, etc. . .
Communion w i n e .....................................

2,031
150
157
167
1

cases
sacks
sacks
cases
cask

Given by the Canadian Red Cross

Food p a r c e l s ..............................................
45,880
Soap
380 cases
Given by the American Red Cross
Clothing and f o o t w e a r
963 bales
In addition :
Foodstuffs for French PW . (Gift of
th e A . R . C . )
D itto for American PW . (Gift of the
A .R .C .)
D itto for British PW . (Gift of the C.R.C.)

448

280 cases
480 cases
12 cases

47.362
12,150
8,119
9 ,6 9 4

150

2 5 9 ,9 5 7

11,022

4 2 , 9 9 3

Schedule :
Departure
Arrival at
Departure
Arrival at

from Lisbon, March 31

St. Peter Port, April 5
from St. Helier, April, 15
Lisbon, April 19

It will be noticed th at the relaxation of the blockade regulations

(agreed to b y the Allied authorities on N ov. 9, 1944) was still further
allowed in this first relief programme, since a considerable q u an tity
of clothing was added to the food shipm ents.
Fifth Voyage :
Cargo.
Given by the British Government.
Sugar.................................................................
360 sacks
Flour and y e a s t ........................................
9,308 sacks
K erosen e
14 casks
Given by the British Red Cross
Clothing and footwear . . . .
. . .
S a l t ................................................... M e d ic a m e n t s ................................ . . .
S o a p ...................................................

1 ,2 6 9

4 9 ,7 0 7

150

1 2 ,1 5 0

Given by the Canadian Red Cross

Food p a r c e l s ................................
Cigarettes (for British PW) . . . . .
Schedule :
Departure
Arrival at
Departure
Arrival at

cases
sacks
8 cases
cases

kilos
18,981
502,056
2,336

292

3 A 75

kilos
3 5 0 ,5 7 !

i case

from Lisbon, April 28

St. Peter Port, May 3
from St. Hlier, May 11
Lisbon, May 15.

This cargo was also unloaded in two stages, the first at

St. P eter P o rt and the second a t St. Helier on May 8, the day
on which th e G erm an garrison surrendered.
The G erm an
com m ander himself notified the C om m ittees delegates of the
arm istice. He w ent on board the Vega together w ith the Bailiff
of Jersey, and surrendered his au th o rity , as regards unloading,
to the representative of the local branch of th e B ritish Red
Cross. A large crowd then sw arm ed on board the vessel. For
hours th e delegates of the C om m ittee h ad to shake hands,
give th eir autographs, and even consent to be carried shoulder
i n .

29

449

high. T hey also lea rn t th a t m any babies born w ithin th e last

m onths had been christened Vega 1.

9.

reece

On th e ou tb reak of hostilities against Greece, th e ICRC

began its custom ary w ork under th e 1929 Convention for PW
and, b y analogy, for civil internees. D uring th e occupation,
the C om m ittee gave help to th e Greek m ilitary disabled, sick
and TB p atien ts, and, in so far as it was possible in the absence
of a n y Convention, ensured th e welfare of the Greeks interned
in concentration cam ps, and of the 55,000 Jew s of Salonika
who were rem oved from Greece in May 1943.
The C om m ittees chief efforts were, however, m ade in
an o th er field of especial im portance : this was the relief of th e
civil population.
In norm al tim es Greece im ported more th a n one th ird of
th e foodstuffs required for natio n al consum ption ; it was now
com pletely cut off from th e outside world. In addition, home
production dropped considerably as a result of the war. W hen
th e co u n try was entirely occupied a t th e end of April 1941,
th e food situ a tio n rap id ly becam e critical, the more so as the
areas which h ad been annexed by th e B ulgarians (W estern
T hrace and E a ste rn Macedonia) supplied over one q u a rte r of
th e c o u n try s to ta l agricultural production. Im m ediate action
was needed if a calam ity was to be averted. All available
foodstuffs h ad to be sent a t once, and a t the same tim e a largescale scheme for th e continuous, extensive relief to a whole
population had to be planned. Thus the ICRC, in pursuance
of its h u m an itarian duty, was led, for th e first tim e, to the
large-scale relief of a civil population.
*

1 Once more, the Vega sailed

Channel Islands, this tim e under
G overnm ent. She had on board
Cross in Lisbon, and carried the
in Lisbon for the Islands.

450

from Lisbon, on May 31, 1945 for the

the entire responsibility of the British
the representative of the British Red
rem ainder of th e supplies warehoused

On May 30, 1941, the C om m ittees delegate in A thens sent

an urgent appeal to Geneva, asking especially for an em ergency
consignm ent of m ilk for women and children. A t th e sam e
tim e, a pressing call for help was m ade b y th e Greek R ed Cross.
B y Ju n e 13, th e ICRC h ad replied th a t it h ad begun negotiations
and was preparing shipm ents.
The first o p p o rtu n ity to send help, although restricted in
scope, came in th e following circum stances. The C om m ittees
delegation in I ta ly s A frican colonies inform ed G eneva th a t
the women, children and sick civilians in E ritre a were in urgent
need of condensed m ilk and other foodstuffs, and th a t th e
Ita lia n R ed Cross h ad placed a large sum of m oney a t th e
disposal of th e ICRC for the assistance of these people. A fter
m aking unsuccessful a tte m p ts to purchase supplies in E g y p t
and A ustralia, th e C om m ittee lea rn t th a t a consignm ent of
100 tons of m ilk from the A m erican R ed Cross for th e Greek
population was lying idle in E g y p t, owing to insurm ountable
tra n sp o rt difficulties. The ICRC proposed th a t th e shipm ent
should be presented to the Italian s in E ritrea, w hilst th e Ita lia n
R ed Cross handed over an equivalent am ount to th e Greek
population. N egotiations were m ade in Rom e by a mission
from Geneva, and th e Ita lia n and G erm an authorities agreed
to th e suggestion. The Greek population by this m eans shortly
afterw ards received 63 tons of pow dered m ilk and a q u a n tity
of foodstuffs, the first wagonloads reaching A thens a t th e end
of Ju ly 1941.
M eanwhile th e ICRC applied in London and W ashington
for navicerts, in p articular, for consignm ents of milk.
The J o in t Relief Commission, on th e proposal of its chair
m an, M. Carl J. B urckhardt, h ad also applied repeatedly to
the N ational R ed Cross Societies, for funds w ith which to
purchase food supplies. A first consignm ent of th e Jo in t Com
mission left Sw itzerland in N ovem ber 1941 1.
A relief scheme was also organized in T urkey. The T urkish
R ed Crescent was able to b u y large q u antities of food for th e
1 Particulars will be found at the end of this report on the assistance
given to the Greek population b y the Joint R elief Commission. For
further details see th a t Commission's Final R eport.

451

account of th e Greek W ar Relief Association. U pon arriving

in A nkara in J u ly 1941, th e delegate of the ICRC took an
active p a rt in preparing these shipm ents. The ICRC, which
h ad from the outset been engaged on th e problem of tra n sp o rt
by sea, agreed to distrib u te the supplies.
Following these
efforts by the ICRC and th e Turkish G overnm ent, the Axis
authorities agreed th a t a T urkish vessel, th e K urtulus, should
convey the supplies from Ista n b u l to the Piraeus. In point
of fact, the cargo of this ship had a t first been intended for
B ritish prisoners of w ar in Greece, b u t as these were few in
num ber, the ICRC secured perm ission from the Axis authorities
for th e K urtulus to carry supplies also for the Greek civilian
population. One m onth later, the blockade authorities allowed
50.000 tons of foodstuffs to enter the area under blockade.
I t should be added th a t the occupying authorities m ade it a
strict condition th a t d istribution of relief to Greece should be
supervised by the ICRC.
The K u rtu lu s, during her sixth trip , sank w ith her cargo
in the Sea of M arm ora in Ja n u a ry 1942 ; she was replaced by
an o th er T urkish vessel, the D um lupinar, which was in operation
u n til the m onth of August. These two vessels, sailing under
the em blem of the T urkish Red Crescent, carried in all about
19.000 of th e 50,000 tons of sundry foodstuffs contem plated.
These cargoes included neither w heat nor flour.
An extensive relief scheme and regular food distributions
had th u s become possible.
In O ctober 1941, when the first shipm ents from T urkey
were due, the ICRC tu rn ed to the difficult problem of the
reception and issue of relief supplies.
H aving secured the
necessary perm its from the Axis authorities, the C om m ittees
delegation in A thens set up a supervisory body, subsequently
known as the Commission de Haute Direction, or General Man
aging Board, which was to regulate and direct the relief work
This body was presided over by one of the ICRC delegates, and
included the President of the Greek Red Cross and the repre
sentatives of the Germ an and Ita lia n Red Cross Societies.
F or the practical details of receiving and d istributing the food
supplies, the ICRC delegation set up an executive body, the
452

Comit de gestion des envois de vivres du C IC R , or M anaging

Com m ittee for ICRC food supplies, under the control of the
delegation. The Chairm an was a m em ber of the ICRC delegation
and the Com m ittee included seven leading Greek citizens.
The task of the General M anaging Commission was to m aintain
liaison w ith the G erm an and Greek authorities, and to tak e
m easures enabling th e E xecutive M anaging Body to carry out
its work w ith the g reatest possible efficacy h
I t was th is organization which, w ith the lim ited m eans
available, had the ta sk of fighting the fam ine th a t was tak in g toll
of the Greek population. I t began its work on O ctober 3, 1941,
a n d continued u n til A ugust 31, 1942, when it was replaced,
as will be seen fu rth e r on, by a new commission under the
nam e of the M anaging Commission of the D elegation of the
ICRC in Greece .
As shipm ents of w heat began to arrive only in March 1942,
th e consignm ents from T urkey served as the basis of the relief
program m e during the terrible w inter of 1941-1942. The am ount
of food per m onth per person which before the war had been
155 kilos, dropped to 79 kilos in October, then to 50 kilos only
in the spring of 1942. D uring this critical period, the population
suffered grievously. The relief supplies d istributed to the peopie,
although of incalculable help and in stru m en tal in saving tens
of thousands of lives, were tragically inadequate. The loss
of the K urtulus a t the end of Ja n u a ry 1942 was severely
felt in A thens ; rations had to be cut to extrem ely sm all q u an
tities. The shiploads of w heat and flour which arrived in March
and April, and the retu rn of the m ild w eather, fo rtu n a te ly
averted the w orst consequences.
The M anaging Commission had a t once set to work to
organize the warehousing and distrib u tio n of relief supplies.
T hey issued relief first to those suffering m ost severely from
1 The first E xecu tive M anaging B ody is fully dealt w ith in the
Final R eport of the M anaging Commission of the Food Shipm ents of
the ICRC, (Athens, March 1945), w hich was drawn up by its liquidator,
Mr. E vangelos Papastrados, who succeeded Mr. Zannas as aclministratordelegate of this body. The reader will find a sum m ary of this statem en t
in the Final R eport of the M anaging Commission for Greek R elief under
the auspices of the ICRC, which is to appear shortly.

453

undernourishm ent, and used m ost of th e food to help the

in h a b ita n ts of th e cap ital and its suburbs, where distress was
acute. The order of p rio rity was : hospitals and welfare in sti
tu tio n s, -war-disabled and w ar-victim s, and th e d estitu te ;
a t all tim es, it did all in its power for th e children.
T he Commission supplied food to fo rty-three hospitals,
tw o infirm aries and three clinics for oedem a established jo intly
b y th e In stitu te of Social Insurance and th e Greek R ed Cross,
and to four S tate and three p riv ate sanatoria. These institutions,
which from O ctober 1941 to A ugust 1942 depended on the
Commission for th eir m ain supplies, h ad to feed about 190,000
persons. A few priv ate clinics, including 6,500 p atien ts and
staff, also received lim ited q u antities of food during the w orst
period.
Food was also supplied to tw enty-one hom es opened by
various associations for the disabled and other victim s of the
war, refugees in p articular, where a soup ratio n was issued
each day to about 17,000 people.
Canteens were opened for the destitute. F rom the outset,
th e Commission supplied th e Central Canteens Commission
(K .E.S.), which in O ctober 1941 controlled 39 homes and
180 distrib u tio n centres, w ith enough food to issue daily meals
to about 75,000 people. In March 1942, th e num ber of d istri
b u tio n centres had increased to 335, and the C entral Com
m ission h a d in addition opened 147 canteens for schoolchildren,
adm inistered b y th e School Insurance C om m ittee (E.M.A.).
The q u an tities of food handed over to th e public canteens
grew in proportion : th e average num ber of daily rations supplied
b y th e M anagem ent Commission rose, betw een D ecem ber 1941
and A ugust 1942, from 200,000 to 275,000 for th e public canteens,
and from 32,000 to 60,000 for th e school canteens, th a t is to
say, from 232,000 to 335,000 in all.
The M anaging Commission also supplied foodstuffs to
canteens opened by tra d e and professional organizations and
b y business firms. These num bered 292 and catered for 101,000
people in th e early spring of 1942. The canteens for civil servants
and employees, ev entually to talling 121, and catering for
55,000 people, also received supplies.
45 4

Finally, th e Commission gave relief supplies to industrial

u n d ertak in g s for th eir staff and w orkers canteens, on condition
th a t th e firms bore certain costs. There were 246 industrial
canteens in N ovem ber 1941, and 1,015 in Ju ly 1942 : a t this
point th ey were closed down, as th e Commission h ad m eanwhile
organized the general issue of supplies th ro u g h th e groceryshops. The ind u strial canteens served up to 88,000 people.
T hroughout, th e M anaging Commission allocated supplies
to public and priv ate child welfare agencies ; a t th e sam e tim e
it sought to co-ordinate th eir work. In F eb ru ary 1942, it was
agreed th a t in fant welfare should be in the hands of th e Greek
Red Cross and th e P a trio tic Foundation, th a t relief to children
u nder school age should be given by th e E.O .H .A . (N ational
O rganization of C hristian U nity), whilst relief to schoolchildren
should be given b y th e E.M.A. (School Insurance Com m ittee).
The priv ate organizations a t the same tim e continued their
activities. In addition to th e school children, num bering from
25,000 to 30,000, who received food through th e E.M .A., a
large num ber of children in th e w inter of 1941-1942 were given
one m eal a d ay (containing one th ird of th e daily calories
necessary) in th e special canteens th a t were opened in all
q u arters of A thens. Between April and A ugust, 1942, the
num ber of infants fed by th e canteens (including those of
th e E.M.A.) rose from 10,000 to 25,000. The corresponding
figures for pre-school children were 119,000 and 165,000 ; for
school children 67,000 and 86,000, m aking a rise from 196,000
to 276,000 in all. In Ju ly , the to ta l was 285,000. As A thens
num bered a t th a t tim e some 330,000 children and young persons
under 18, the great m ajority of these therefore received relief
from th e school canteens. Those who did n o t were either of
w ealthy parents, or were registered in th e public canteens.
L astly, th e M anaging Commission did w hat it could to
alleviate distress am ongst th e inm ates of th e th irteen prisons
and concentration cam ps : their average num ber during this
period was 36,500 and th eir sufferings were p a rticu larly severe.
Greek Red Cross nurses issued the supplies.
Owing to th e technical and adm inistrative difficulties
entailed by th e ever-increasing num ber of canteens, which,
455

a p a rt from the childrens canteens, eventually exceeded i.Soo

and served alm ost 500,000 persons, th e M anaging Commission
decided to abandon the system of cooked m eals and to distribute
supplies in kind th rough th e grocery-shops. An experim ent
m ade in N ovem ber 1941 b y th e M inistry of Supply proved
unsatisfactory, and th e Commission itself therefore set up an
agency for this purpose. F rom Ju ly 29 to Septem ber 15, 1942,
th is agency m ade three distributions, the last of which took
place after th e new M anaging Commission had begun to operate.
E ach issue affected about 1,220,000 people and com prised
close on 3,164 tons of m iscellaneous foodstuffs, including flour,
noodles, m acaroni, etc., shelled hazel-nuts and dried raisins.
The canteens, however, still continued their work.
The first cargo of grain was brought by the Swedish ship
Radm anso after the ICRC had m ade urgent representations
to th e blockade authorities 1. This freighter, which was lying
a t P o rt Said, h ad been chartered by the B ritish R ed Cross to
carry 7,000 tons of E g y p tian grain to Greece. The ICRC procured
th e necessary safe-conduct from the Axis authorities, and the
Radmanso, sailing under the Swedish flag, left A lexandria on
M arch 13, 1942, arriving a t th e Piraeus on the 17th. Many
difficulties, b oth in E g y p t and in Greece, had of course to be
overcom e before sailing, since the ship was th e first to ply
directly betw een a port in the hands of the Allies and one
occupied by th e o ther side. She was followed by the Sicilia,
ch artered by the Greek W ar Relief Association of New York.
This freighter left New Y ork w ith a cargo of 3,000 tons of
grain, under th e Swedish flag, and berthed at th e Piraeus on
April 16. The ICRC had been asked on M arch 17 to obtain a
safe-conduct from the Axis authorities, and was able to forw ard
a favourable reply on the very next day. The Hallaren, chartered
b y th e Swedish R ed Cross and flying the Swedish flag, arrived
a t the P iraeus on th e same day as th e Sicilia, w ith a cargo of
4,000 tons of grain, a gift from the Swedish R ed Cross, which
she had loaded a t Lisbon. The ship had left G othenburg on
F e b ru ary 20, on being authorized by the Germ ans to leave
1 F o r d etails o th ese n eg o tiatio n s see below p. 460.
456

Sweden on this errand, and she had tak en two m onths to arrive
a t her destination. This vessel was th en scheduled to carry
foodstuffs from Ista n b u l to the Piraeus, a t th e same tim e as
the D um lupinar. Finally, she was used to carry two loads each
of 4,500 tons of flour from H aifa to th e Piraeus, th e first in
Ju n e and the second in August 1942. On her second trip, she
discharged 1,000 tons at Izm ir for the people of the Greek
Archipelago 1.
A nother Swedish cargo steam er, the Stureborg, which had
been held up in th e N ear E ast, carried 2,000 tons of grain from
H aifa to th e Piraeus during May. The Axis G overnm ents,
when g ranting the necessary safe-conduct, had stip u lated
th a t this vessel should show both the Swedish colours and the
ICRC m arkings, and should have an ICRC escort agent 011
board. D uring her re tu rn voyage to H aifa, the Stureborg was
sunk by Ita lia n planes in the w aters south of Cyprus. The
cap tain and crew, w ith the exception of one seam an, and the
ICRC convoy agent all lost their lives. The Ita lia n G overnm ent
expressed its regrets to the ICRC and m ade official apologies.
From M arch to A ugust, 1942, these ships in all delivered
23,361.5 tons of grain and flour, and 386.5 tons of m iscellaneous
foodstuffs to the M anaging Commission.

1 The ICRC then made negotiations for the Hallaren to continue

carrying supplies to the Greek population, and instead of grain, to
convey dried vegetables from Syria. In September, when the Argentine
set aside a q u an tity of grain for Greece, the ICRC tried to arrange for
its shipm ent, and to induce the German authorities to agree th a t the
Hallaren be used for this purpose. B u t Germany who, as will be seen
further on, had just consented to eight Swedish vessels leaving the
B altic to carry grain from Canada to Greece, refused consent, on the
grounds th a t it was the turn of the Allies to supply tonnage by freeing,
for exam ple, three Swedish cargo boats which th ey were holding in
Canada. Later, the Germans, who were considering the im port into
Greece of certain quantities of food to offset the requisition and export
of Greek products, asked th at this ship be placed at the service of the
Greek firm " Ella Turk , to bring part of these supplies from Trieste
and Venice. This question was the subject of lengthy discussions between
the Swedish Governm ent and the belligerents. The Allies finally gave
their consent, after certain conditions had been accepted b y the occupying
Powers. From May 1943 to June 1944, the Hallaren made eight trips
to Trieste and Venice, bringing to Greece alm ost 30,000 tons of food,
including 16,000 tons of dried vegetables and 11,000 tons of sugar.

457

W hen th e first cargo of grain was unloaded a t th e Piraeus,,

th e daily bread ratio n for th e cap ital had dropped to 30 dram ia,
or 96 gram m es, and was m oreover v ery irregularly issued.
These deliveries m ade possible an appreciable im provem ent
in w hat h a d become an extrem ely critical situation. U nder
an agreem ent betw een th e head of th e C om m ittees delegation
a n d the M inistry of Supply, responsibility for m aintaining
th e bread supply in th e A thens area was divided equally betw een
th e M anaging Commission and th e M inistry. The bread ration
was raised to 60 dram ia (192 gram m es) on M arch 25, 1942,
and on May 3, to 67 dram ia (215 gram m es). The ratio n was
k ep t a t th is level u n til A ugust 3, when it had to be reduced
again to 50 dram ia (160 gram m es), pending the arrival of the
Hallaren on A ugust 20.
The needs of th e cap ital and th e lack of tra n sp o rt allowed
only of a sm all supply to th e provinces : this, during th e period
when th e first M anaging Commission was a t work, am ounted
to 2,993 tons of m iscellaneous foodstuffs and 4,467 tons of
grain and grain products.
The M anaging Commission set up a separate service for
th e provinces, which appointed local R ed Cross D istribution
Com m ittees
These com m ittees were divided later, if the
area was sufficiently large, into central and local com m ittees :
th e y received th eir instructions from , and were responsible
to th e M anaging Commission.
The K .E .S. (Central Canteens Commission) also appointed
Com m ittees in a large num ber of prefectures to organize soup
kitchens. In ste a d of distrib u tin g th e food supplies in kind,
these local com m ittees som etim es handed th e supplies over
to the canteen com m ittees, which m ade the distribution in the
form of cooked meals.
The provinces and islands near A thens, where th e food
situation was as critical as in the capital, were necessarily the
first to receive relief.
The M anaging Commission itself h ad to procure inform ation
on th e situation in the various provinces. I t also collected
d a ta on th e b irth and d eath rates in a large num ber of comm unes.
This p rep arato ry work late r proved m ost useful when the
458

Second M anaging Commission, w ith far greater qu an tities of

foodstuffs available, could give help on a larger scale to the
distressed provincial population.
The ICRC delegates in Salonika w orked tirelessly to ensure
food supplies, in th e face of a situation often com plicated by
th e breakdow n of com m unications betw een th a t city and
A thens. W hen th e new M anaging Commission began its work,
these delegates h ad already in itia ted an extensive distribution
scheme and h ad organized m edical and child welfare services 1.
The M anaging Commission for ICRC food shipm ents received
in all 45,435 tons of goods, 25,516 tons of which were grain and
grain products, and 19,919 tons m iscellaneous foodstuffs.
The greater p a rt of these supplies had been bought by
funds given b y relief organizations, in p articu lar b y th e Greek
W ar Relief Association and th e V anderbilt Com m ittee, and
by th e Greek G overnm ent in London. The rem ainder, w ith
th e exception of a consignm ent of Ita lia n maize flour provided
by th e M inistry of Food in A thens, came m ostly from gifts
by the Swiss R ed Cross and Swedish Red Cross. The grain and
grain products were purchased in th e U nited S tates, Portugal,
E g y p t and Palestine, and th e other foodstuffs for th e most
p a rt in Turkey.

Relief Shipm ents to the Aegean Islands

As supplies could not be sent from the Piraeus, th e ICRC
assigned its delegation in A nkara th e ta sk of victualling the
Aegean Islands u n til th e new M anaging Commission took over.
D espite m any difficulties, th e first shipm ents arrived in Ju n e
1942. The approval of the T urkish G overnm ent, th e repre
sentatives of Greece in A nkara, and th e Allied and the Axis
S tates h ad been given. A lthough a T urkish steam er was used,
1 W ith the help o a Swedish delegate on this Commission, the
three representatives of the ICRC (also mem bers), then undertook
the Comm issions m any duties involved in feeding the civil population,
w hilst continuing the traditional work of the ICRC. The organization
set up Salonika to relieve the civil population em ployed at this tim e
a staff of 350, as well as several hundred workmen.

459

th e greater p a rt of the cargo was carried by T urkish and Greek

sailing vessels and fleets of caiques bearing the m arkings of
the ICRC, based a t Izm ir. W ith th e exception of the 1,000
tons of flour which, as m entioned earlier, were unloaded a t
Izm ir from th e Hallaren in A ugust 1942, the relief supplies
were bought in T urkey w ith funds largely from the Greek W ar
Relief Association.
The delegates of the ICRC in A nkara
sailed w ith the boats, som etim es a hazardous and fatiguing
undertaking. T hey them selves, w ith the eager help th ey found
on the spot, d istrib u ted the supplies, and these were received
w ith indescribable joy and g ratitu d e by the population, th en
in dire need of help. The delegates were able, in particular,
to issue 660 tons of m iscellaneous foodstuffs in Ju n e and Ju ly
1942, and 1,000 tons in Septem ber of the same year to the
islands of Chios, M ytilene (Lesbos) and Samos, and from these
points the islands of Icaria, F u rn i and several others with sm aller
populations were supplied by m eans of small boats 1.
The ICRC, aware of Greeces urgent and v ital need for
m uch greater and regular relief supplies, and acting in close
co-operation w ith the Greek G overnm ent in London, had
begun in the early sum m er of 1941 to negotiate w ith G overn
m ents for a relief scheme on a scale com m ensurate w ith the
g rav ity of th e situation. The occupying Powers were approached
on th e subject, and the G erm an authorities in Greece on
N ovem ber 11, 1941 com m unicated the following to the ICRC
delegation : (1) The G erm an G overnm ent agreed to the ICRC
providing relief for th e Greek civil population ; (2) form al
assurances were given th a t the relief shipm ents would go
1 D istribution by the new M anaging Commission began only in
May 1943, as a result of the ban on the use of caiques for the tranship
m ent of supplies from the Piraeus. B y January 1943 it had been arranged
th at a Swedish freighter should carry to Izmir foodstuffs for the Islands
from Canada ; from Izmir, th ey were to be conveyed by sailing vessels.
The first cargo was unloaded at th at port towards the end of February,
but th e form alities for chartering caiques and installing the delegates
in th e Islands, delayed the forwarding of the food supplies until April.
The ICRC delegation in Izmir saw to the unloading of the Swedish
ships, and the warehousing, transhipm ent and transport by caiques
of these supplies. Swedish delegates of the new Commission looked
after distribution.

460

exclusively to the. said population ; (3) every facility would

be gran ted to the ships conveying these relief supplies.
On N ovem ber 15, th e Ita lia n au thorities gave sim ilar
assurances.
W ithout aw aiting confirm ation of these statem en ts, the
C om m ittee applied to th e blockade au thorities for th eir con
sent to the shipm ent of q u antities sufficiently large for Greeces
requirem ents. M. Carl J . B u rck h ard t, a m em ber of the ICRC
and Chairm an of the J o in t Relief Commission, w ent to London
in D ecem ber 1941, to plead th e cause of Greece. As a result,
the blockade authorities allowed continuance of th e shipm ents
from T urkey, which th ereafter rose to 11,500 tons, and sta te d
th a t th ey would consider other relaxations of th e blockade
in favour of Greece. At the close of J a n u a ry 1942, th ey a u th o r
ized the shipm ent of 1,000 tons of grain from E gypt. They
also p erm itted the shipm ent of other relief in lim ited quantities,
and the chartering of Swedish freighters which, as we have
seen, carried over 23,000 tons of grain and flour to Greece a t
a particu larly critical period.
The restriction im posed by T urkey m ade it impossible to
procure any fu rth er stocks in th a t country and the other avail
able resources were far from sufficient. R egular provisioning
from overseas was essential if adequate and regular supplies
were to be kept up. There rem ained, however, th e problem of
finding the necessary cargo space.
Upon M. B u rc k h a rd ts retu rn , th e ICRC approached the
Swedish Red Cross on the subject. Sweden was th en th e only
co u n try which h ad the required ships. A num ber of Swedish
freighters had been laid up in B altic ports, since m aritim e
com m unications w ith G reat B ritain and oversea countries
had been cut a fter the G erm an occupation of D enm ark and
Norway, and these ships could be used only w ith th e consent
of the G erm an G overnm ent.
The C om m ittee at the same tim e pursued its negotiations
w ith the blockade authorities, while th e Greek G overnm ent
in London, th e Greek W ar Relief Association, and th e m any
friends of Greece did all in their power to hasten th e success
of the scheme.
461

In addition to th e foodstuffs th a t could be supplied by

th e relief societies, b y th e Greek W ar Relief Association, in
particu lar, th e C anadian G overnm ent s ta te d th a t th ey were
prepared to furnish 15,000 tons of grain m onthly.
The Allied G overnm ents, while recognizing th e urgency
of these requests, could not agree to th e shipm ent of far g rea ter
q u antities of cereals and other foods, u n til th ey h ad definite
guarantees as to th e in tended use of these supplies. They
required assurances th a t relief would be d istrib u ted in its
e n tirety to th e Greek population, and th a t th e food production
of th e co u n try itself would still be reserved in the first place
for th e in h ab ita n ts.
The Allies were prepared to give prelim inary perm ission
for m onthly shipm ents of 15,000 tons of grain, subject to th e
Axis au th o rities acceptance of certain conditions. E a rly in
M arch th ey asked th e Swedish G overnm ent w hether th e neces
sary ships could be assigned for this purpose, and a t once
received an affirm ative reply.
The n ex t step was to induce th e Axis G overnm ents to
agree to th e conditions laid down by th e Allies. The Swedish
G overnm ent 1 and th e ICRC took up th e m a tte r sim ultane
ously and w ith equal vigour.
The Com m ittee was able to inform th e B ritish L egation in
Berne as early as F e b ru ary 3, 1942, th a t th e Ita lia n G overn
m ent would do its best to facilitate th is difficult enterprise.
S hortly after, th e G erm an G overnm ent gave sim ilar assurances.
The Axis G overnm ents asked how ever th a t no change should
be m ade in th e m ethods of distrib u tio n th en in use, for which
th e Comit de Haute Direction was responsible *. T hey also
insisted th a t th e shipm ents should be consigned to th e ICRC
delegation. On M arch 6, th e G overnm ents of the Axis countries
reitera te d th eir assurances, and th e fact was a t once com
m unicated by G eneva to th e B ritish authorities.

1 See Final R eport of the M anaging Commission for Relief in Greece.

2 The Comit included, as stated above, representatives of the
German, Italian and Greek Red Cross Societies, w ith the ICRC delegate
in the chair.

462

S hortly afterw ards, the Ita lia n G overnm ent inform ed the
ICRC th a t, though Ita ly h ad been able to deliver enough grain
to Greece to ensure bread supplies u n til M arch, she was
now no longer able to continue these shipm ents, and th a t it
was urg en tly necessary to find enough grain to tide the popula
tion over u n til the nex t h arvest in Greece.
A t th e same tim e th e ICRC received distressing reports
from its A thens delegation to th e effect th a t th e num ber of
d eaths in the city h ad risen to 5,000 in D ecem ber (i.e. five
tim es m ore th a n in D ecem ber 1940), and th a t failing im m ediate
supplies, Greece w ould suffer th e m ost dreadful fam ine during
the three m onths to come. Allowing for th e cargoes to be
tak e n b y th e Radmanso and th e Hallaren, 20,000 tons of grain
w ould have to be found in order to ensure a bare m inim um
of bread u n til th e end of June.
On M arch 12, th e J o in t Relief Commission telegraphed
th is urgent appeal to th e blockade au thorities in London. At
th e sam e tim e th e C om m ittee notified th e Greek G overnm ent
in London and th e Am erican R ed Cross. On M arch 20, it
applied once more to the blockade authorities for perm ission
to send th e m ost urgent supplies, and stressed th e im perative
need for a large scale relief scheme. On A pril 18, a t th e request
of th e blockade authorities, th e C om m ittee once more gave
details of th e desperate food situ atio n in Greece. E a rly in
April, the Ita lia n G overnm ent inform ed th e ICRC th a t it
th o u g h t inadvisable to increase th e num ber of distribution
agencies. On th e other han d the Allied G overnm ents expressed
th e wish th a t th e grain supplied b y C anada should be d istrib u ted
under th e responsibility of an organization which, like the
existing one, would have th e benefit of th e C om m ittees
experience and au th o rity .
The Swedish G overnm ent m eanw hile h ad approached
Berlin and Rom e, whose response, given in April, was encourag
ing ; it was not u n til Ju n e, however, th a t th e Swedes could
give the Allies an assurance th a t th e conditions th ey h ad laid
down would be fulfilled. Certain difficulties still rem ained.
In particu lar, th e Axis G overnm ents approved th e distrib u
tion scheme set up by th e ICRC, and did not wish it replaced
463

by an o th er ; the B ritish and U nited S tates G overnm ents, on

th e o ther hand, while appreciating th e aid of the ICRC, objected
to any G erm an, Greek or Ita lia n R ed Cross representation on
th e Comit de Haute Direction ; th ey wished the supplies im ported
th rough th e blockade to be d istrib u ted by a strictly neutral
comm ission, and suggested th a t th e Swedish G overnm ent and
R ed Cross should b o th form p a rt of such a commission. The
Swedes readily agreed to this proposal, and it rem ained to
discover a m eans of reconciling the dem ands of the belligerents.
The Swedish M inister in Berne discussed the whole problem
w ith the ICRC in G eneva on April 20, when th e form ation of
a joint comm ission of ICRC delegates and Swedish citizens
was m ooted. In view of th e m agnitude of the enterprise, the
ICRC was h ap p y to enlist Sw edens help, the m ore so since
th a t co u n try had recently m ade an invaluable contribution
to the w ork for Greece by her negotiations w ith the belligerents,
and by th e ships she had supplied, w ithout which the Canadian
grain would scarcely have reached its destination. To m eet
th e Allied G overnm ents desires, the ICRC agreed to th e pro
posal for a new M anaging Commission w ithout th e leading
Greek citizens who had h ith erto given th e ICRC invaluable
assistance ; despite its readiness to co-operate w ith the Swedes,
th e Com m ittee considered it hazardous to introduce any farreaching change into th e existing arrangem ent.
The m a tte r was fu rth e r discussed on May 6, 1942, in Geneva
w ith the Swedish M inister in Berne, and th e following plan
was su b m itted by th e ICRC to th e Ita lia n G overnm ent.
The ICRC would m ain tain
distributions, nam ely :

th e

existing supervision of

(1) A Comit de Haute Direction, under the chairmanship of the

principal ICRC delegate in Greece, and including, as before, represen
ta tiv es of the Italian and German Red Cross, and the Chairman of the
Greek Red Cross.
(2) A Managing Commission, presided over by an ICRC delegate
and including a certain num ber of leading Greek citizens.
(3) W here required b y the increasing relief shipm ents, the addi
tion of representatives of the Swedish and Swiss Red Cross to the Com
m ission, w ith the sam e statu s as the ICRC delegates.
464

I t was also proposed to set up a strictly n e u tra l R ed Cross

Commission for the reception of all shipm ents from overseas
and from n eu tral countries. The M anaging Commission would
rem ain in co n stan t touch w ith th e Comit de Haute Direction,
which would m aintain th e necessary relations w ith th e occupy
ing and governm ental authorities.
The Commission would
have power to set up Sub-comm issions in Greek tow ns other
th a n A thens and th e Piraeus, where necessary.
On M ay 18 the Ita lia n G overnm ent replied to this verbal
note as follows :
(1)
Greece to
nized b y
work in

The G overnm ent wished the work of distributing relief in

remain in the hands of the ICRC, since this body was recog
all belligerents, and had already done considerable relief
Greece.

(2) The Governm ent approved an increase in the num ber of the
C om m ittees assistants, w hether of Swedish or Swiss nationality.
(3) The Governm ent thou ght it inadvisable to set up a neutral
Red Cross com m ission, but proposed th a t the M anaging Commission
should be w holly com posed of neutrals.
(4) The G overnm ent agreed to the suggestion th a t this neutral
Commission should, if necessary, set up Sub-com m issions in towns
other than Athens.

The ICRC tra n sm itte d this reply to the Swedish G overn

m ent, which a t once asked the B ritish and A m erican G overn
m ents for th eir consent. Before giving this, these G overnm ents
asked for fu rth er assurances :
(1) That the duties of the Comit de Haute Direction would be
strictly confined to m aintaining liaison between the M anaging Com
mission and the occupying authorities.
(2) That the Managing Commission, com posed solely of neutral
delegates, would have certain powers and responsibilities only.
(3) That the Swedish Governm ent would be able to supervise
the working of the plan, and to ensure th a t the conditions laid down
b y the Allies were observed by the occupying Powers.

In face of these reservations the Swedish G overnm ent and

the ICRC again studied the question. I t should be noticed
in .

30

4 6 5

th a t collaboration betw een th e ICRC and a G overnm ent had

never been contem plated prior to th is occasion. By its s ta tu te s
and tra d itio n al principles, th e ICRC is bound to carry out its
relief operations on a strictly independent basis ; it cannot
agree, even in exceptional circum stances and in any single
country, to follow th e in structions and act under th e respon
sibility of any G overnm ent, even of a n eu tral country. The
ICRC could not expose itself to the charge of serving G overn
m ent interests. B etray al of this fundam ental principle would
have jeopardized its entire work.
F u rth erm o re, th e activities of th e occupying Powers had
to be kept under strict surveillance, since th e to ta l supplies
were to be handed over to the recipients, and a t th e sam e
tim e th e occupying Pow ers was not en titled to requisition an
equivalent am ount of dom estic produce. E ven had th e ICRC
been able to exercise such supervision thro u g h o u t th e co u n try ,
it could not, as a m a tte r of principle, have agreed to do so.
I t was therefore understandable th a t th e Allies should invite
a n o th e r G overnm ent to un d ertak e th is responsibility and to
be answ erable to th e Allies. L astly, in view of the situation
in Greece and th e practical difficulties to be overcome, th e
d istrib u tin g agency could have th e necessary a u th o rity and
powers only if th e ICRC brought to its work the benefit of
its credit w ith th e G overnm ents, th e occupying Power, th e
local au th o rities a n d th e Greek people them selves.
In view of these facts and th e conditions laid down b y the
belligerents, th e Swedish G overnm ent and Red Cross and the
ICRC discussed th e m a tte r fu rth e r in Stockholm and agreed
to th e following principles :
(1) The relief schem e to remain under the sponsorship of the
ICRC.
(2) D istributions of oversea shipm ents to be handled by a strictly
neutral com m ission ; as soon as the shipm ents were dispatched, Swedish
delegates to sit on this Commission as delegates of the ICRC.
(3) The Comit de Haute Direction to be m aintained and its m em ber
ship to include representatives of the Swedish and Swiss Red Cross
Societies ; its chief d u ty to be to ensure liaison w ith the occupying
authorities and to make suggestions for the distribution of relief.

466

I t was furtherm ore agreed in Stockholm th a t th e n eu tral

M anaging Commission should (i) act as an ICRC agency ;
(2) include ab o u t fifteen m em bers, of Swedish or Swiss n a tio n
ality , six of them , a t m ost, to be delegates of th e ICRC and the
rem ainder to be assistants to th e ICRC delegation, under
th e control of th e head delegate ; (3) th e la tte r to be
C hairm an of th e Comit de Haute Direction, w hilst the
chair of th e n e u tra l M anaging Commission would be filled
by a Swedish n ational ; (4) th e Swedish Charg dAffaires to
be allowed to a tte n d th e m eetings of th e Comit de Haute
Direction in an advisory capacity ; (5) th e Swedish R ed Cross
to furnish th e ICRC w ith a list of the Swedish nationals
selected for th e new Commission, w hilst the ICRC would
secure th eir approval by th e belligerent G overnm ents con
cerned.
The plan th u s adopted in Stockholm was su b m itted by
th e ICRC to th e Ita lia n G overnm ent, who in a note dated
Ju n e 5, expressed th eir approval, adding th a t th e G erm an
G overnm ent agreed likewise.
On Ju n e 29, 1942, the ICRC issued a M em orandum to all
the belligerents concerned, setting out the result of th e various
negotiations conducted by itself and especially by the Swedish
G overnm ent.
The Swedish G overnm ent and the ICRC a t once set to
work on this plan which was of such vital im portance for the
Greek population. On J u ly 21, when the first three Swedish
ships sailed for M ontreal, th e ICRC su b m itted to the Ita lia n
and G erm an G overnm ents a list of the new Swedish and Swiss
m em bers of its delegation in Greece. At the end of A ugust
these new m em bers h ad reached A thens, and the new m achinery
was a t once set in m otion, as the first shipm ents of C anadian
grain had by th en also arrived.
The new Commission, composed of eight Swedes and seven
Swiss, and en titled th e " M anaging Commission of the ICRC
D elegation in Greece , began its w ork on Septem ber 1, and
th e original M anaging Commission was dissolved. In view of
the size and great com plexity of its task, th e Commission was
m uch aided by th e fact th a t it could draw on the large-scale
467

organization set up by its predecessor, the work and experience

of which were also of great assistance.
W hen the new agency had been a t work for some tim e,
it becam e ap p aren t to th e ICRC th a t the collaboration betw een
its delegates and th e Swedish nationals did not rest on a very
satisfactory legal foundation.
W hilst the C om m ittees own
delegates were inv ariab ly engaged on a c o n tract basis, the
Swedish m em bers of the M anaging Commission were not so
bound a fact which th e ICRC had failed to foresee. Con
sequently, the C om m ittee could not give them instructions,
as th ey were under th e orders of th eir own G overnm ent. The
fact th a t th e relief organization becam e more and more govern
m ental in ch aracter in ev itab ly placed th e ICRC in an aw kw ard
position ; circum stances finally becam e so difficult th a t the
ICRC th o u g h t it would be best to w ithdraw , w hilst co n tin u
ing, however, to lend all possible assistance, in p a rticu la r by
enabling Swiss delegates to tak e p a rt in its work. In any case,
a closer definition of the respective positions of the ICRC and
of th e Swedish G overnm ent, subscribed to by the G overnm ents
concerned, becam e urgent.
The ICRC and th e Swedish G overnm ent exchanged views,
first a t Stockholm and la te r in Geneva and Rome ; the discus
sions concluded on M arch 9, 1943, w ith the Rome Agree
m ents , the chief clauses of which were as follows :
(1) R elief for the Greek civil population to be given under the
auspices of th e ICRC. The work to be pursued by tw o agencies, a
Comit de Haute Direction 1 and a M anaging Commission.
(2) The Comit de Haute Direction to continue w ith the sam e m em
bership as in the past under the chairm anship of the principal ICRC
delegate, and its m eetings to be open to the representative of the Sw e
dish G overnm ent, or the Chairman of the M anaging Commission. The
1 The Comit de Haute Direction disappeared after the Italian sur
render. In the subsequent period, the ICRC alw ays m aintained th a t the
head of its delegation had, in a sense, becom e the successor of this body,
th a t its specific powers passed to him, and th a t he had the right not
only to be kept informed of the chief decisions made by the M anaging
Commission, but also to subm it proposals or raise objections on hum ani
tarian grounds, or for reasons of neutrality. In practice, however, and
in the opinion of the ICRC, insufficient regard was paid to this point
of view .

468

Comit to remain in con tact w ith the responsible authorities in Greece

regarding the work of relief, and to co-ordinate the activ ities of the relief
agencies. The Comit to be kept informed of the work of the Managing
Commission and of all its plans, and to have au th ority to subm it pro
posals.
(3) The M anaging Commission to have equal num bers of Swedish
nationals and ICRC delegates b The Chairman to be appointed b y the
Swedish Governm ent, and the Vice-Chairman b y the International
C om m ittee. The Commission to allocate and distribute the supplies
consigned to it, and to supervise consignm ents from overseas and dom es
tic foodstuffs as required b y the Allied Governm ents. The Chairman
and Vice-Chairman alone to have powers to make decisions. The final
decision in the allocation and distribution of all goods carried b y Swedish
ships under the au th ority of the Swedish G overnm ent, to lie w ith the
Chairman, responsible to the Swedish Governm ent. The Chairman
also to undertake the supervision required b y the Allied Governm ents.
The Vice-Chairman alone to have final au th ority in m atters concern
ing relief supplied b y the ICRC. In all other cases, decisions to be
m ade join tly by the Chairman and Vice-Chairman. In all instances,
the Chairman and Vice-Chairman to consult each other on the course
to be followed.
(4) The ICRC delegates in the provinces could, w ith the consent
of the principal delegate, be asked to distribute supplies received from
the M anaging Commission, so long as instructions received from the
Chairman of the said Commission did not run counter to the traditional
principles of the ICRC. The ICRC delegates undertaking such duties
for the M anaging Commission to be responsible only to the ICRC, and
to co tinue under its authority, w hether th ey were m embers of the
M anaging Commission, or not.
(5) Questions relating to the goods brought from overseas in
Swedish vessels to be handled through the Swedish G overnm ent ;
an y new problems in regard to these goods to be settled in each p arti
cular case b y agreem ents sought through the same channels betw een
the belligerent Governments.

The Commission took th e nam e of M anaging Commission

for Greek Relief under the auspices of th e In te rn atio n a l Com
m ittee of th e R ed Cross .
1 The Italian authorities asked th a t the M anaging Commission
should not have more than th irty members. Owing to the difficulty
of finding, in Sweden and Switzerland, qualified candidates free to
serve for a sufficient period, the com plem ent of th irty was reached only
for a short tim e.

469

These provisions took effect late in M arch 1943, on the

a rrival in A thens of th e new C hairm an appointed by the
Swedish G overnm ent, M. E m il Sandstrom , Counsellor to the
Suprem e Court of Sweden and M ember of th e Governing B ody
of th e Swedish R ed Cross, to whom th e ICRC wishes here to
p a y a p a rticu la r trib u te . I t should be recalled th a t im p o rta n t
questions were usually discussed at the Comm issions weekly
sessions, before decisions were m ade by th e C hairm an, and
th a t during tem p o rary absences of the Chairm an, his super
visory duties were discharged by a Swedish delegate, acting
in the cap acity of a representative of th e Swedish G overnm ent.
In practice, th e Rom e A greem ents did not lead to all the
im provem ents which the ICRC would have considered desirable.
The ruling th a t relief was given to th e Greek civil population
under th e auspices of th e ICRC m ade th a t body responsible
tor th e w ork as a whole. The ruling found its principal applica
tion in th a t the liaison betw een the M anaging Commission and
th e occupying au th o rities was m aintained by th e chief ICRC
delegate on th e Comit de Haute Direction. A lthough it soon
becam e ap p a re n t th a t it was neither practical nor possible to
c o n stitu te the Comit as defined in th e Rom e A greem ents, the
ICRC held it to be th e d u ty of its chief delegate to conduct
negotiations w ith th e com petent authorities in Greece for the
effective provisioning of th e country. In practice, th e ICRC
noted th a t, even in cases where the p a rticu la r responsibilities
of Sweden tow ards the blockade au thorities were not involved,
negotiations were usually conducted by the C hairm an of th e
Commission. Som etim es neither th e ICRC, nor its delegates
were inform ed of these steps. This was so, for instance, when
highly im p o rta n t discussions took place betw een th e diplom atic
rep resen tativ e in Greece of th e Swedish G overnm ent and the
C hairm an of the M anaging Commission, which led, late in
N ovem ber 1943, to an agreem ent signed w ith the occupying
au thorities concerning th e olive harvest. On the whole, it was
not easy to m aintain a satisfactory balance betw een the tw o
p arties co-operating in th e Commission.
D uring th e years 1943 an d 1944, th is situ atio n was several
tim es discussed by the ICRC and th e Swedish G overnm ent,
470

b u t these conversations did n ot lead to appreciable results

u n til m uch later. In addition, th e ICRC was for a long tim e
left in ignorance of th e reasons w hy it h ad not been possible
over long periods, to send food to certain areas, such as E pirus 1
w here th e situ atio n was viewed w ith grave concern b y th e ICRC.
The Greek population which generally drew no distinction
betw een the M anaging Commission, th e In te rn atio n a l R ed
Cross and th e In te rn atio n a l C om m itteewas on th e whole
ill-form ed as to th e IC R C s powers in m atte rs where th e Com
m ittee had no a u th o rity to m ake final decisions, in p a rticu la r
as regards th e allocation of relief. This sta te of affairs caused
th e Com m ittee some anxiety. B u t th e desire of each p a rty to
give all possible assistance to Greece, th e recognition by each
of the invaluable and indispensable co ntribution of th e o ther
in th e pu rsu it of a com m on aim , and th e bonds created by joint
activities, often u n d ertak en in try in g circum stances, alw ays
overcam e any difficulties. We should not forget th a t obstacles
of th is kind were v irtu a lly inherent in th e n a tu re of the parties
whom circum stances had led to co-operate in a com m on ta s k
th a t could n ot have been accom plished w ithout th eir concerted
efforts. B oth were inspired by th e same will to serve, b u t both
differed profoundly : th e ICRC was a priv ate R ed Cross organi
zation, a neu tral body, relying solely on its experience : the
o th er p a rty although the work of supplying Swedish delegates
and of chartering cargo vessels fell to th e Swedish R ed Cross
itselfwas a G overnm ent w ith extensive resources th a t alone
m ade it possible for certain tasks to be carried out.
B y authorizing th e use of its nam e and em blem for a relief
work, th e policy of which it could only influence to a lim ited
degree, the ICRC m ade an im p o rta n t d ep artu re from its tra d i
tional principles. The step was, in its view, justified b y th e
urgency and m agnitude of th e needs of th e Greek population,
th e extrem e danger in which th ey were and th e peculiar cir
cum stances of th e work to be done. I t was, too, vindicated
b y the devoted service given b y th e representatives of th e
G overnm ent w ith which th e C om m ittee was asssociated.
1 See F in al R e p o rt of th e M anaging Com m ission, Chap. V I.
471

From Septem ber 1942 to April 1944 th e M anaging Com

mission received a m onthly average of 15,000 tons of w heat
and 3,000 tons of dried vegetables, and after D ecem ber 1942
an additional 300 tons (later increased to 600 tons) a m onth
of condensed m ilk for children. These shipm ents were not
m erely su p p lem en tary rations ; th e y form ed the basic food
supply of th e large tow ns and also of a considerable p a rt of
th e population in sm all tow ns and villages. The situ atio n in
th e absence of this su b sta n tia l help, which arrived on the
whole a t sufficiently regular intervals, can be easily im agined.
In spite of th e supplies given by th e Commission, th e posi
tion how ever rem ained critical. D uring 1943 it deteriorated
greatly.
In D ecem ber th e ICRC received highly alarm ing
reports from natio n al organizations and from the leaders of
all Greek political parties ; these reports were confirm ed by
th e ICRC delegation. The fam ine had become acute, p a rti
cularly in consequence of guerilla activities and the very poor
h arv est, and th e approach of w inter heightened the anxiety.
As a crow ning m isfortune, th e consignm ent due to leave
T urkey and th e 30,000 tons of Canadian w heat aw aiting ship
m ent, were b o th held up th ro u g h lack of tran sp o rt. Prolonged
shortage was underm ining th e h ealth of th e entire population.
F urtherm ore, 250,000 people a t least were homeless. It was
therefore essential th a t greatly increased help should be given
w ithout delay. The ICRC representative tho u g h t th a t to m eet
th e situation the consignm ents should be doubled ; he drew p a rti
cular a tte n tio n to the absence of fats and album inous foods.
D uring Decem ber, while the Swedish G overnm ent was
tak in g independent action, the ICRC b rought the above facts
to the notice of the B ritish, Canadian and U nited S tates Govern
m ents ; th e Red Cross Societies of these countries were also
inform ed.
The ICRC added th a t if m oney donations were
m ade, it could purchase clothing in Sw itzerland.
At th e end of J a n u a ry 1944, the U nited S tates G overn
m ent inform ed the ICRC th a t its appeal had been considered,
and th a t th ey had decided to dispatch 1,600 tons of album inous
foodstuffs each m onth. A dditional qu an tities of milk and ten
tons of O valtine would be sent from Canada, and the U nited
472

S tates would also contribute some filty tons o concentrated

food for children ; 2,500 tons of rice had also been allocated,
p a rt of which were already on th e way, th e rem ainder to follow
in J a n u a ry and F ebruary. The request for a largely increased
m onthly q u o ta of w heat and dried vegetables had been granted,
and e x tra q u antities would be dispatched as soon as possible.
A u th o rity h ad been given for a gift of 300,000 garm ents
and shoes for children and young people, and it was hoped
to dispatch half of these w ithin a m onth.
Shortly afterw ards th e Allies advised th e Swedish G overn
m ent th a t th e m onthly quotas of w heat and dried vegetables
could be increased to 24,000 and 6,000 tons respectively, and
th a t th e y were sending 2,000 tons of tin n ed fish.
A dditional Swedish ships were m ade available through the
Swedish R ed Cross, for the tra n sp o rt of these large quantities.
Since early Septem ber, the ICRC had been try in g to find
Swiss vessels.
D espite their goodwill the Swiss authorities
cculd not m eet this request, as Sw itzerland had only a very
lim ited tonnage available.
In regard to this fundam ental
problem of tonnage, we should m ention th e efforts m ade by
th e ICRC in Ju n e 1944, a t a tim e when th e M anaging Com
m issionwhich h ad no reserve stocksfeared th a t the slight
est hitch in the deliveries by the Swedish steam ers would
com pel it to abandon its distributions L
A lthough larger consignm ents of dried vegetables and
q u antities of rice and fish reached Greece during the early
1 The Allies were landing in France at th at tim e, and it seem ed
probable th a t oversea shipm ents for Switzerland would be held up in
Spain and Portugal, thus greatly reducing the sailings of the Swiss
merchant fleet. The ICRC thereupon asked the Swiss Governm ent for
the use of some smaller vessels, and for part of the supplies blocked at
Lisbon, in order to feed the Greek population. The Swiss Government
agreed th at one or tw o vessels and 3,000 tons of w heat should be handed
over, so th at late in August the ICRC was able to ask the belligerents
for their approval. The Swiss Transport Office then offered the Zurich
to the Foundation for Red Cross Transports, for a lim ited period. The
Greek Governm ent in London, which was to provide the funds for
chartering this vessel, wished the ship to be available for a longer
period, however, and so the offer was not accepted. The British Govern
m ent informed the ICRC th at in view of the m ilitary situation th ey could
not give their approval. As the problem of tonnage had in the m eantim e
been solved, the project was then abandoned.

473

m onths of 1944, the Commission did n ot receive th e fresh

q u otas u n til th e second q u a rte r, and deliveries did n ot tally
w ith th e q u an tities nam ed in th e new program m e u n til after
th e co u n try was liberated, w hen th e Allied im ports arrived.
Betw een April 1 and N ovem ber 1, 1944, deliveries never
theless reached a m onthly average of 29,000 tons.
A fter th e liberation, th e M anaging Commission was unable
to unload forthw ith th e Swedish boats lying in th e Piraeus,
as th e p ort h ad been destroyed by the G erm ans before th ey
left. A thens was tem p o rarily cut off from all dom estic supplies,
and food becam e short. The Commission did w hat it could
to m eet th e situation. Telegram s were exchanged w ith the
Swedish captains, Stockholm and Geneva, and it was found
possible to m ake a general issue of p a rt of the stock of parcels
in tended for Greek w ar-disabled.
W hen Greece was freed in O ctober 1944, th e Allied a u th o r
ities sta te d th a t th e y would g ran t every facility to th e M anag
ing Commission in th e execution of its task. The Commission,
however, regarded its work as com pleted, and was planning
to h an d over its responsibilities to th e Greek authorities on
D ecem ber 15. H ow ever, a t the urgent and rep eated request
of th e Greek G overnm ent, which was not yet in a position to
feed th e population, Sweden and th e ICRC agreed to continue
th eir jo int w ork u n til th e end of April, 1945. The resources
of th e Commission were th en increased by th e im ports of th e
M ilitary Liaison, a relief service for civilian populations atta ch e d
to th e Allied M ilitary Com m and. The Swedish ships continued
th e tra n sa tla n tic service, in accordance w ith th e relief
program m e, u n til th e end of March, a fter which th ey were
used for a fu rth e r four of five m onths to c arry U N R R A
supplies.
D uring this period, th e Swedish G overnm ent were no
longer bound b y th eir obligations tow ards th e blockade a u th o r
ities, and th e co-operation betw een th e ICRC and the Swedish
representatives on th e Commission changed, in th e sense th a t
all decisions were m ade b y m u tu al agreem ent I.
1 See F in a l R e p o rt of th e M anaging C om m ission, C h a p te r X X V II.

474

Reference m ust also be m ade to the ICRC rep resen tativ es

w ork for the protection of th e civil population during the period
im m ediately before th e liberation, when local skirm ishes,
sabotage, pu n itiv e expeditions and reprisals were comm on.
The delegation m ade c o n ta c toften w ith great difficulty
w ith th e h ead q u arters of E D E S and EAM -ELAS, in order
to obtain th e concessions necessary for relief work. W hen
th e G erm an troops left Greece, repeated p rotests of th e ICRC
delegates to th e G erm an com m and were successful in p rev e n t
ing the destruction of public u tility installations, such as
reservoirs, pum ping stations, electric power stations, mills,
stocks of goods, etc. At Salonika, the ICRC delegation acted
as interm ediary betw een th e G erm an forces and th e partisans,
a n d saved the tow n from large-scale destruction. In Septem ber
and October 1944, th e ICRC representatives succeeded in
doing m uch rescue w ork on both sides of th e firing line, a fter
the retrea t of the G erm an armies.
The ICRC representatives were also able to give valuable
service la te r on, during th e civil war. This lasted from D ecem ber
3, 1944 to Ja n u a ry 17, 1945, when th e V arkyssa agreem ents
were signed ; it caused m uch bloodshed in A thens, and added
to the ravages of invasion and occupation those of dom estic
strife. W ith the approval of the B ritish Com m and, the ICRC
delegation succeeded in concluding an agreem ent w ith EAMELAS h ead q u arters for the free passage across the fighting
area of convoys of food and m edical supplies. D uring this
u n h ap p y period, the representatives of th e ICRC and of the
Swiss R ed Cross were p articu larly active. T hey largely took
over the provisioning of hospitals and of th e civil population,
which would otherwise have been in a desperate position.
D espite rifle-fire, mines, barricades, air a tta c k and artillery
fire, the R ed Cross convoys daily crossed th e fighting areas,
since h eadquarters, th e car park, fuel dum ps and p a rt of the
stores were on one side of the lines, while th e m ajo rity of the
stores, th e flour mills and th e w ater tan k s were on the other.
Though m any vehicles were p u t out of action, th e ICRC
representatives were spared th e fate of a devoted Greek Red
475

Cross N urse, Mlle Lecou, who was killed after volunteering to

accom pany a car-load of m edical supplies.
*

The M anaging Commission 1 received from overseas a

to ta l of some 610,000 tons of foodstuffs, including nearly
470.000 tons of w heat and w heat products. In addition, 3,600
tons were received from Sweden, 2,100 tons from T urkey 2,
31.000 tons from Axis countries by w ay of com pensation,
and 4,400 tons from Greece itself. Thus, betw een th e opening
a n d th e close of its work, th e M anaging Commission handled
ab o u t 651,000 tons of various foodstuffs. If we add the 55,000
tons given to th e Com m ittee by the M ilitary Liaison for d istrib u
tion, and th e 6,000 tons left by th e Germ ans, the to ta l supplies
am ounted to roughly 712,000 tons.
In addition, the M anaging Commission received from
overseas 426 tons (gross weight) and 1,059 cases of m edical
supplies, 893,813 litres of cod-liver oil for children, and a q u a n tity
of hospital equipm ent, including 1,210 dozen spools of films
and seven tons of X -ray equipm ent 3.
L astly, th e M anaging Commission was en tru ste d w ith
large q u an tities of clothing 4. Between F eb ru ary and A ugust,
1944, it received some 900 tons of clothing for d istribution
to 300,000 children.
A fter Septem ber 1944, the blockade
au thorities allowed th e despatch m onthly of 100 tons of cloth
ing and footw ear. A fter the liberation, th e welfare organiza
tions m ade a num ber of consignm ents. A ltogether th e Com1 The Commissions m entioned here are the second and third Managing
Comm issions ( M anaging Commission of the ICRC representatives in
Greece and " Managing Commission for aid to Greece under the auspices
of the ICRC , Septem ber 1942 April 1945), which were marked by
the collaboration between the ICRC, the Swedish Governm ent and the
Swedish Red Cross. The figures relating to the first Managing Com
m ission ( M anaging Commission of the ICRC for sending Food
Supplies , October 1941 August 1942) were given above.
2 The supplies from Turkey were sent to the ICRC representatives
who instructed the M anaging Commission as to their distribution.
3 See Final R eport of the Managing Commission, Chapter X X II.
4 loc. cit., Chapter X X III.
476

mission received some 2,500 tons of clothing for children and

ad u lts 1.
In its com plex duties, th e Commission was seconded by
th e Swiss R ed Cross Mission, whose first task, in July, 1943,
had been to issue the milk and m edical supplies which the
Swiss Red Cross (Child W elfare Branch) sent to the ICRC
representatives in Greece through th e Jo in t Relief Commission.
From the outset, the ICRC delegates m ade it a rule to hand
over th e whole of the milk, drugs and m edicam ents received
to the Swiss R ed Cross Mission. As this body h ad already set
up p a rt of th e necessary m achinery and was qualified to
d istrib u te this relief, and since its head was one of th e ICRC
representatives and therefore a m em ber of th e M anaging
Commission, th e la tte r body decided th a t he should properly
distrib u te th e large q u antities of milk, restoratives and m edical
supplies received from overseas, as long as th e distribution
was carried out in accordance w ith accepted principles. At
A thens, the Piraeus, Salonika, Volo and in Crete, these relief
supplies were d istrib u ted by the m em bers of th e Swiss Red
Cross Mission ; in th e provinces th e y were issued b y th e delegates
of th e Commission. The head of the Swiss Mission was
responsible for co-ordinating these activities. In his capacity
as m em ber of the M anaging Commission he was also responsible
for supplying food to hospitals, sanatoria, welfare in stitu tio n s,
orphanages and canteens for children and students, etc. All
th e relief work for children and sick persons was therefore
placed under his au th o rity .
In addition, th e Swiss R ed Cross Mission organized inde
pendent m edical aid for children, th u s assisting th e work of
the M anaging Commission. The R ed Cross Mission th u s rendered
invaluable services to the Commission, p a rticu larly in th e
1 W hen the new Managing Commission started work, the central
adm inistration left by its predecessor was em ploying a staff of 500
people. W hen the new Commission finished its work, the staff numbered
about 2,000. In addition, there were nearly goo chauffeurs, convoy
agents and caretakers, and over 2,000 w orkm en. These figures do not
include the staff of the Swiss Red Cross m ission, the nurses and voluntary
aids who were doing relief work, nor the personnel of the canteens.
Besides these, a large staff was em ployed in the provinces.

4 77

period w hen th e la tte r h ad only a sm all num ber of representa

tives and h ad to solve com plicated problem s of organisation
a t very short notice 1.
*
*

As regards the new Commission, com posed of ICRC and

Swedish representatives, th e present account m erely indicates
th e w ay in w hich th is co-operation was carried on, th e work
and negotiations of th e ICRC, th e broad lines of th e Commis
sions work, and th e to ta l am ount of relief distributed. The
Final R eport o'f th e M anaging Commission supplies detailed
inform ation on all aspects of th a t b o d y s work, p articu larly
the organization, d istrib u tio n and expansion of relief, relations
w ith the G erm an, Ita lia n and Greek authorities, and help
given by the Greek R ed Cross and by Greek nationals.
B etw een 1941. and 1946 th e Jo in t Relief Commission of
the In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross, m entioned above, sent to Greece
2,471 tons of su n d ry relief supplies (including 101 tons of cloth
ing) valuing 7,062,500 Swiss francs, and 113,642 kilogram s
of p harm aceutical products and m edical stores, to the value
of 1,825,000 francs. The au th o rities of th e countries concerned
g reatly assisted its efforts b y sanctioning th e tran sfer of funds,
g ran tin g the necessary export perm its and facilitating th e
tra n sp o rt of goods. A lthough th e Com m issions funds were
relatively sm all, th e supplies which it dispatched from th e
in terio r of E urope were of considerable assistance, especially
to children, owing to th e g reat n u tritiv e value of m ost of the
foodstuffs ; m oreover, th e m edical equipm ent and stores were
often a useful com plem ent to the supplies received by the
Commission.
The necessary arrangem ents w ith th e belligerents were
m ade b y th e ICRC, and all relief supplies were sent to its
1 The Swiss Red Cross M issions work is described in Chapters X X II
and X X I I I of the Com m issions Final R eport. The A nnex to th a t
R eport gives a short general account of the work done. For further
details, see the R eport on the W ork of the Swiss Red Cross Mission in
Greece.

478

representatives a t A thens, who supervised th eir issue, accord

ing to th e directions of th e donors. A fter Septem ber 1942,
th e ICRC representatives m ade over to th e Swiss R ed Cross
Mission all consignm ents of milk, restoratives and m edical
stores:
Thus, despite all th e obstacles encountered, the economic
blockade in particu lar, and w ith th e co-operation of the Jo in t
Relief Commission, th e ICRC from th e o u tset achieved results
which, although sm all in proportion to needs, were v itally
useful.
These relief supplies were, in fact, th e first to arrive during
a critical period, when nothing had been organized and when
th e p rom pt arrival of foodstuffs was a m a tte r of life and d eath
for hundreds of thousands of people. A fter Septem ber 1942,
th e relief program m e assum ed unprecedented proportions,
th an k s to th e co-operation of th e Swedish G overnm ent and
R ed Cross. The scheme undo u b ted ly saved a whole people
from irreparable disaster ; it was m ade possible by th e good
will of th e belligerents and th e au th o rities concerned, and by
th e continued efforts of a num ber of R ed Cross Societies and
agencies, th e Greek G overnm ent in London and several neu tral
countries, added to those of various organizationsparticu larly
th e Greek W ar Relief Association and the V anderbilt Com m ittee
and of a num ber of priv ate donors.

11.

H ungary

W hen m ilitary operations spread to H ungarian soil, the

ICRC delegate in B udapest m ade th e utm o st exertions to
prevent th e exterm ination of th e H ungarian Jew s C
W hen th e fighting approached B udapest, during th e w inter
of 1944, he devised a scheme for assisting homeless children,
regardless of th eir race or religion. M any people had been
killed in air raids, and th e evacuation of th e population, by
order of th e H ungarian Fascist G overnm ent, before th e R ussian
1 See Vol. I, pp. 647 e t seq. ; fu rth e r p. 522 below.

479

advance had brought m any orphans in to th e capital. In res

ponse to a public appeal, a large num ber of priv ate a p artm en ts
were p u t a t th e delegates disposal, who used th em as chil
d ren s hom es and placed them under th e protection of the
ICRC. O ver 2,000 children of Jew ish convert parents, who were
receiving no help w hatever, were housed, fed an d cared for by
th e ICRC delegation while th e b a ttle was raging in the heart
of B udapest.
A fter th e G erm an retre a t, the ICRC representatives were
unable a t once to resum e th eir ordinary duties. N evertheless,
th ey m ade them selves responsible for a th o u san d orphans in
B udapest, and procured supplies and funds for th e institu tio n s
in which th e children were housed. This work was late r on
tak e n over b y th e Swiss Red Cross.
A fter relations has been established w ith th e new a u th o r
ities, em ergency aid was conveyed from Sw itzerland to B uda
pest by the C om m ittees lorries, and la te r on by block-trains
organized b y the Jo in t Relief Commission. From 1946 onwards,
w hen relations w ith abroad h ad become regular, the donors
were free to deal w ith the receiving organizations direct ;
m eanw hile th e H ungarian R ed Cross, too, was reorganized.
The ICRC th en w ithdrew its representatives in H ungary, and
responsibility for th e tra n sp o rt and d istribution of the consign
m ents from the Jo in t Relief Commission was assum ed by the
ICRC rep resen tativ e in Vienna.
H owever, before ceasing its work in H ungary, the ICRC
helped to organize the distrib u tio n of relief. A com m ittee was
form ed by the G overnm ent, w ith a representative of U N R R A
in the chair. The ICRC representative, on the understanding
th a t th e com m ittee would m erely have advisory powers, agreed
to sit on it, and suggested the ap p o in tm en t of an expert dis
trib u tin g agency. This body was presided over by a m em ber of
the H ungarian R ed Cross and included representatives of the
Prim e M inister, the M inistries of Social W elfare and Food,
and th e M unicipal Social Assistance Board. The ICRC repre
sen tativ e was also an ex officio m em ber. The d u ty of this body,
know n as the C om m ittee of Five , was to establish a plan
for free food issues under the R ed Cross emblem. The H ungarian
480

R ed Cross was responsible for th e receipt, storage and d istrib u

tion of the supplies.

12.

I taly

and

the

I t a l ia n P o p u l a t io n

in

A f r ic a

The ICRC was called in to help th e Ita lia n population

only a fter th e occupation of the Ita lia n territories in Africa by
th e Allies.
Eritrea.
A fter the Allied v ictory in E ritrea, th e ICRC endeavoured
to send milk to the Ita lia n children in th a t country. Owing
to its close connection w ith the supply of m ilk to Greece, this
schem e has been described in 9 above (p. 451).
Italian East Africa.
A fter the close of hostilities in Abyssinia, in Ja n u a ry 1942,
th e B ritish and E th io p ian G overnm ents concluded an agreem ent
for th e evacuation of the entire Ita lia n population, w ith the
exception of a few hundred technicians. The Swiss G overnm ent,
in its capacity of P rotecting Power, succeeded in having these
Italian s rep a tria te d on board Ita lia n vessels. T hey were due
to em bark a t Berbera, in Ita lia n Som aliland.
On M ay 6, 1942, a few days before th e Ita lia n ships called
a t Berbera, the ICRC was advised th a t th ey were carrying a
large cargo of supplies for those Ita lia n s in E a st Africa who were
not to be sent hom e. The C om m ittee was requested to send a
representative to B erbera to a tte n d th e unloading of th e supplies,
and to ensure th eir distribution in E ritrea , Ita lia n and B ritish
Som aliland, and Abyssinia.
T hanks to the courtesy of the B ritish au thorities in the
Middle E ast, a m em ber of the Cairo delegation travelled to
B erbera b y special plane, where he arrived in tim e for th e
unloading, due to be ended on May 15. He drew up the following
plan of d istribution for 3,840 cases and bales of foodstuffs,
I I I . 31

481

m edical supplies a n d clothing, according to th e ty p e of p ro d u ct

an d th e num ber of Ita lia n s in th e various p a rts of E a st Africa :
2,777 cases and bales for Eritrea (80,000 civilians and 2,000 PW )
464 cases for Italian Som aliland (11,000 civilians)
599 cases for B ritish Som aliland and A byssinia (11,000 civilians
and 5,000 PW)

Thirty-five cases were set aside for th e m em bers of th e

Ita lia n A rm istice Commission a t J ib u ti. Perm ission to send
these was so long delayed th a t it was decided to ad d th em to th e
consignm ent for PW held in th e B erbera region. The B ritish
au th o rities thereupon received a fu rth e r appeal in behalf of
th e Commission and finally gave th eir consent ; th e y undertook
to tra n sp o rt th e rem aining tw e n ty cases to J ib u ti and replace
th e missing fifteen which h ad been sent to th e above-m entioned
cam ps, nam ely :
i
5
5
i
1
2

case
cases
,,
case
,,
cases

of
,,

,,
,,
,,

olive oil
tobacco
condensed milk
orange juice
m eat extract
Marsala wine

The distrib u tio n in E th io p ia a n d B ritish Som aliland was

carried out under th e direction of th e ICRC representatives,
a n d was com pleted in Ju n e 1942.
The goods for B ritish Som aliland were reforw arded b y sea.
A jo in t com m ittee of B ritish and Ita lia n officials, w ith tw o
m em bers of the Ita lia n R ed Cross a t M ogadishu, superintended
th e distribution.
The supplies for E ritrea , h astily unloaded during th e night
a t M assawa, were u n fo rtu n ately reduced by ab o u t 3 per cent
th ro u g h pilfering. On reaching th is p ort a few days la te r the
ICRC delegate verified th e losses and lodged a com plaint w ith
th e occupants ; the culprits were thereupon severely punished
and th e warehouse guards reinforced by Ita lia n carabinieri.
The goods were repacked w ith th e help of th e Ita lia n R ed Cross
482

an d tra n sp o rte d in 22 railw ay wagons to A sm ara, th e capital,

where th e y were used as follows :
(1) The food, m edicam ents and restoratives were issued to m edical
units (hospitals) and to the Italian R ed Cross. The latter adm inistered
th e restoratives, under m edical supervision, to the sick and to children
in the tow ns ; part of the m edicam ents were sent to M ogadishu, in
Italian Som aliland.
(2) The clothing, underclothing and tex tile s were given to th e poor.
(3) The cigarettes and tobacco were issued to the PW and civilian
internees in Eritrea, and to all Italian men over 18 years of age.

The branches of th e Ita lia n R ed Cross in E ritre a also received

parcels of clothing, underclothing, textiles, cigarettes and
tobacco.
North Africa.
W hen the N o rth A frican cam paign cam e to an end in May
1943, th e Ita lia n G overnm ent su b m itted a note to th e ICRC and
to th e Swiss G overnm ent, as th e P ro tectin g Pow er, draw ing
th eir a tte n tio n to th e difficult position of th e Ita lia n residents
an d refugees in this area, p articu larly in Tunisia.
The ICRC passed this inform ation to th e A m erican R ed
Cross rep resen tativ e a t Geneva, who replied th a t P resident
Roosevelt h a d issued instructions to th e U. S. forces to assist
th e civilian population in N o rth Africa, including th e Ita lia n
residents, and th a t th e occupying authorities were p a rticu larly
concerned about Tunis.
The ICRC subsequently received an appeal th ro u g h its
delegate in Tunis, sta tin g th a t th e Ita lia n s in th a t tow n were no
longer receiving financial help from th e P ro tectin g Pow er ;
in O ctober 1944, precise inform ation a t last reached G eneva as
to th e num ber of distressed persons and th eir requirem ents.
The ICRC representative in Rom e was p u t in possession of a
q u a n tity of m edicam ents by th e Ita lia n R ed Cross, and was able
to send th em b y air to Tunis early in 1945.
City of Rome.
U nder th e G erm an occupation, m any refugees lived in
Rom e in precarious conditions. The ICRC representatives set
483

a b o u t collecting funds locally, pending th e arrival of relief

from abroad. In April and M ay 1944 th e y were able to d istrib u te
to G reek refugees 83,000 lire, a th o u san d undergarm ents and
5,550 kilos of rice flour ; th ey also assisted Jugoslav refugees,
who were given more th a n 25 million lire during the second
q u a rte r of 1944. Seconded by th e Swiss R ed Cross, the ICRC
a tte m p te d to procure m ilk in Sw itzerland, b u t negotiations
w ith th e blockade au th o rities for im port perm its continued
u n til th e Allied occupation of Rom e, and th e schem e th u s fell
to the ground.
The Allies a t once organized th e provisioning of th e city
and set up an Ita lia n relief organization, which facilitated
th e tra n s it of gifts collected by the Jo in t Relief Commission.
This body, th e Ente nazionale per la distribuzione di soccorsi
in Ita lia (EN D SI), included representatives of the Cabinet,
th e V atican, the Ita lia n R ed Cross, and later, th e N ational
C onfederation of Labour. Its purpose was to collect and issue
free to th e population relief supplies from N orth and South
Am erica and other countries, including Ita ly itself, and gifts
from p riv ate sources. The Ita lia n G overnm ent gran ted this
agency exem ption from postal charges, custom s dues, and taxes.
The ICRC representatives in Rom e co-operated w ith E N D SI
from th e outset. The Jo in t Relief Commission also sent it
all th e shipm ents it m ade in its Capacity as in term ed iary betw een
donors and recipients, and th u s enjoyed all the advantages
g ran te d to th e natio n al organization.
Southern Italy.
On Septem ber 9, 1943, the day of th e first Allied landing
n ear N aples, th e C hairm an of the Ita lia n Red Cross happened
to be in G eneva to discuss w ith th e ICRC th e question of feeding
S outhern Ita ly a n d Sicily. W heat was becom ing scarce in these
provinces, which were cut off by th e front from th eir usual sour
ces of supply. In D ecem ber 1943, the ICRC placed before the
au th o rities a suggestion m ade by th e Geneva representatives of
th e H ungarian R ed Cross. Before th e arm istice was concluded,
th e Ita lia n G overnem ent h ad ordered 150,000 tons of w heat from
H ungary, and th a t co u n try was now prepared to deliver
484

50,ooo tons to Southern Ita ly , subject to th e necessary per

m its being obtained.
In M arch 1944, th e M inistry of Econom ic W arfare in London
asked th e ICRC for inform ation concerning m ethods of paym ent
and proposed routes. M ilitary developm ents in E astern E urope
and th e B alkans how ever b rought th e schem e to nothing,
although it could not in any case have been carried out under
th e R ed Cross em blem , owing to its com m ercial nature.
D uring th e sum m er of 1944 several organizations in N orth
and S outh Am erica tu rn e d to th e ICRC for assistance in th e
tra n sp o rt and issue of th e supplies which th e y were anxious to
forw ard to th e Ita lia n population in th e areas occupied by the
Allies. The m ost im p o rta n t of these associations, th e Am erican
Relief for Italy , in New York, wished to send about 3,500 tons
of clothing to S outhern Ita ly . The ICRC could not, however,
provide m eans of tra n sp o rt for these various bodies, since all
th e vessels in its service already had th eir full cargo of supplies
for Allied P W in Europe.
The Am erican donors were therefore advised to m ake
arrangem ents direct w ith th e Ita lia n authorities in th e liberated
areas, or w ith the A m erican Red Cross and U N R R A , who were
already w orking in Ita ly . The ICRC how ever offered to all
organizations anxious to use them for strictly hum an itarian
purposes, th e services of th e R ed Cross delegates in th e work
of receiving and forw arding relief supplies and supervising th eir
distribution.
Thus, in O ctober 1944, th e In te rn atio n a l Union for Child
W elfare reported th a t their representatives in Buenos Aires
h ad sent the ICRC representatives in Rome 5,000 tons of food
stuffs, for issue to th e hom es for children and adolescents whose
needs the ICRC considered greatest, subject to full reports
being m ade. In the m eantine, the Am erican Relief for Ita ly
h ad set up an office in Rom e and had been en tru sted w ith
th e d istribution of all relief received from the U. S. Supplies
given by the In te rn atio n a l Union for Child W elfare were then
issued jo in tly by th e Am erican Relief and the Red Cross repre
sentatives.

485

Regions bordering upon Switzerland.

The in h a b ita n ts of these d istricts n a tu ra lly tu rn e d to
Sw itzerland, which h ad n o t been affected by th e war. An
im m ediate response followed. Besides th e Swiss Red Cross
and th e Swiss Relief F und, which furnished all th e assistance
in th eir power, m any com m unes, associations and private
individuals gave aid unsolicited 1. M any organizations asked
the ICRC for inform ation on needs to be m et, and steps already
tak en , or co ntem plated ; overlapping was th u s avoided.

Northern Italy.
A fter its occupation by the Allies, N orthern Ita ly rem ained
cut off from th e C entral and Southern provinces u n til a perm a
n en t civilian ad m in istratio n was installed. Local governm ent
in th e region was therefore different from th a t in th e rest of the
country. The tra n sp o rt system was alm ost com pletely a t a
stan d still, owing to th e d e a rth of fuel, th e effect of air bom
b ard m en t and the lack of vehicles due to requisitioning by the
Axis.
In May 1945, a t th eir first m eeting w ith an ICRC represen
ta tiv e , th e Allied m ilitary au thorities sta te d th a t th e y would
endeavour to feed th e p opulation by large-scale im ports from
N orth and South Am erica. A ssistance from th e ICRC would be
welcome, b u t the Allies w ould them selves, in future, indicate
th e areas in g reatest need, th u s co-ordinating th e offers of help,
which were very num erous in Italy .
M oreover, as th e Ita lia n R ed Cross was being reorganised,
th e ICRC was no longer called upon to provide m aterial aid
for th e civilians in Italy . Its representatives in Tunis, Milan,
Genoa and Trieste continued, however, to render service in
m atte rs of tra n sp o rt, storage and exem ption from dues and
charges.

1 In th is connection, p a rtic u la rly for th e relief given to th e V alley

of D om odossola, see th e R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief Com m ission.
486

1 3 -

s l

i a

A fter th e dism em berm ent of Jugoslavia and th e creation

of local R ed Cross bodies by th e Axis, th e ICRC found it im pos
sible to ex ten d its relief work to th e co u n try as a whole, and
was obliged to act separately in Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia
an d M ontenegro. The m ain ta sk was to assist th e women
an d children in w orst need. In addition, certain categories
of refugees and m inorities were the object of lim ited relief
activities.
Serbia.
E a rly in 1941, th e Am erican R ed Cross was inform ed by
th e U nited S tates M inister in Belgrade th a t a serious epidem ic
of m alaria was spreading in Jugoslavia. The A. R. C. cabled
to the League of R ed Cross Societies its readiness to m ake a g ra n t
for help to th e Jugoslav population. The League proposed
th e purchase in Sw itzerland of m edicam ents, for consignm ent
to th e Jugoslav R ed Cross th rough th e G erm an R ed Cross,
and d istribution under th e supervision of th e Am erican Red
Cross representative a t Belgrade.
The scheme was approved by the A m erican Red Cross,
an d orders were placed to th e value of 30,000 Swiss francs. The
whole m a tte r lapsed, however, in A ugust 1941, when th e Ame
rican delegation was obliged to leave Jugoslavia. The League
th en applied to the Jo in t Relief Commission, which proposed
th a t d istribution be supervised by th e liaison officer a t Belgrade.
This course was agreed to b y the Am erican R ed Cross.
D uring the first half of 1941, the ICRC approached the
G erm an A uthorities w ith a view to appointing a delegate in
Belgrade, b u t this representative was finally g ran ted no more
th a n the sta tu s of liaison officer w ith the G erm an R ed Cross at
Belgrade. This p a rtial failure was due to th e G erm an R ed Cross
itself, which was in principle opposed to th e ap p o in tm en t of
ICRC delegates in territories occupied b y the W ehrm acht. The
Com m ittee accepted this arrangem ent, despite its unsatisfactory
character, in order to be able to operate in Jugoslavia, even
if only in a lim ited m anner. I t was understood th a t th e issue
487

of relief supplies would tak e place w ith the approval and under
th e supervision of th e liaison officer.
In th e case which has been m entioned, the G erm an R ed Cross,
learning of the A. R. C.s scheme for m edical aid, inform ed th e
Jo in t Relief Commission on Septem ber 3 th a t no supervision
by th e liaison officer was required, and th a t the m edicam ents
could be forw arded to the Serb Red Cross. The Jo in t Relief
Commission, which was responsible to the donors for ensuring
th a t issues were supervised by a neu tral representative, was
unable to accept the G erm an proposition, and w ithheld the
consignm ent which was ready for despatch.
Despite this set-back the ICRC and the Jo in t Relief Com
mission, who were inform ed by th eir Belgrade representatives
of conditions in the country, sought funds w ith which to buy
the m aterial th a t Jugoslavia required. The cam paign of 1941 and
th e o ccu p an ts struggle against the resistance m ovem ent, took a
severe toll of the in h ab ita n ts, thousands of whom were forced
to leave th eir b u rn t-o u t villages.
The appeals m ade by the ICRC and th e Jo in t Relief Com
mission were answ ered m ainly the Am erican, B ritish, and Swiss
R ed Cross Societies, Am erican and C anadian organizations, and
Jugoslav associations abroad. Purchases were also m ade possible
by an allocation from the Shoken F und to the Serb Red Cross.
Aided by the ICRC liaison officer, the Jo in t Relief Commis
sion was to set up several relief schemes 1. A part from the
right to supervise distributions, the ICRC agent had succeeded
in obtaining several privileges. He was authorized to inspect
the warehouses in and around Belgrade where the shipm ents
of th e J o in t Relief Commission were stored, and he forw arded the
receipts of the Serb Red Cross to the ICRC.
The relief supplies which the Jo in t Relief Commission sent
to Serbia were addressed to the representative of the Germ an
R ed Cross a t Belgrade, who forw arded them to th e local com
m ittees of the Serb R ed Cross. U nder this system the Jo in t
Relief Commission was exem pt from tra n sp o rt charges and
custom s dues.
1 See th e R e p o rt of th e J o in t Relief Com m ission.
488

The ICRC liaison officer also assisted th e Swiss R ed Cross

in sending 450 Jugoslav children to th e Ticino (Switzerland)
for a sta y during th e sum m er of 1942.
The ICRC, having learned from the Jugoslav Legation in
Berne th a t Jugoslavs abroad were planning to buy foodstuffs in
T urkey for the Serb population, negotiated for the purchase and
tra n sp o rt of these supplies. These were to be issued th ro u g h the
Serb Red Cross w ith th e collaboration of th e ICRC liaison
officer. The latte r, who was in Belgrade on sufferance, had b u t
sm all influence ; to reinforce his position, the ICRC asked
perm ission to appoint an assistant, to which the Germ ans
agreed. It was th u s possible for the first shipm ents to leave
Ista n b u l in June, 1943 h The to ta l supplies sent from T urkey
to th e Serb R ed Cross am ounted to 3,000 tons of m iscellaneous
com m odities (figs, raisins, olives, shelled hazel nuts, dried fish,
salt m eat, milk pow der and soap).
E arly in 1943, before th e successful conclusion of th e above
talks, the ICRC received alarm ing reports on the food situ a
tion in Serbia. A great num ber of roads and railw ay lines were
cu t ; the 1942 harvest had been inadequate, and there were
over 300,000 refugees, including 80,000 seriously underfed
children.
The ICRC then approached the blockade authorities in
London. Before th a t, one of its m em bers had d rafted a scheme
in Lisbon for the im port of foodstuffs from overseas ; the
B ritish A m bassador had assisted in this work and prom ised to
subm it the plan to his G overnm ent. The M inistry of Econom ic
W elfare, however, refused its consent ; th e ICRC and th e Jo in t
Relief Commission had, therefore, to be co n ten t with m aking
purchases in countries w ithin the blockaded zone.
The Swiss Red Cross also opened a relief program m e for
the Belgrade children, and its contributions, valued a t half
a million Swiss francs, were received and d istrib u ted by the
ICRC representative. On this occasion, the la tte r had a far
greater freedom of operation and supervision th an when dealing
w ith shipm ents sent by the Jo in t Relief Commission.
1 See th e R e p o rt of th e J o in t Relief Com m ission.
489

In O ctober 1944, after the liberation of the country, the

Jugoslav R ed Cross published an appeal for the victim s of the
war, p a rticu larly th e thousands of orphans, m ostly d estitu te,
who were living in the d e v a sta te d areas. The R ed Cross applied
for th e help of doctors and relief in th e shape of m edicam ents,
food and clothing ; th e ICRC seconded this appeal.
A fter the arm istice, th e ICRC delegation stay ed on in
B elgrade w ith th e consent of M arshal T ito s governm ent. It
assisted in the distrib u tio n of the supplies sent by the Jo in t
Relief Commission ; helped by the Jugoslav Red Cross, it
supplied three com m unal kitchens w ith pow dered milk, p a rt
of a large consignm ent from the Swiss R ed Cross ; it continued
to handle relief sent from T urkey for Jugoslav children, and
also issued th e first shipm ents sent by the Swiss Relief Fund
(food, clothing, bandages, m edicam ents, m edical stores and
vitam ins), valued a t 600,000 francs.
T hrough the various delegations, th e ICRC was able to
facilitate th e m ovem ents and activities of the Swiss medical
missions sent to Jugoslavia to prevent a feared epidem ic, due
to th e lack of m edicam ents and sera 1. In Ju ly , 1945, the Com
m ittee secured th e rapid shipm ent to Jugoslavia of 200 kilos
of vaccine and the same q u a n tity of m edicam ents, given by
th e Swedish C om m ittee for In te rn atio n a l Relief. The parcels
had reached Paris by air, a t which point th ey had been held
up. The ICRC delegation in P aris applied to U. S. H eadquarters
and were g ran ted p rio rity for im m ediate conveyance by air ;
th e consignm ent th u s reached Jugoslavia safely.
The ICRC, th ro u g h its delegations, also secured contributions
from various organizations overseas, in th e shape of funds and
com m odities, for th e distressed Serb people. The South African
and C anadian R ed Cross, the Irish D onation and the Swiss
Relief Fund, were am ong th e principal contributors 2.

1 See Vol. I, p. 721.

2 A list of these contributions will be found in the R eport of the Joint
R elief Commission.

490

Croatia.
The Zagreb G overnm ent having agreed, in F e b ru ary 1943,
to apply th e tw o G eneva Conventions, th e ICRC ap p ointed a
representative in th a t tow n. C roatia was sh o rt of food, clothing
a n d m edical stores. The ICRC and th e Jo in t Relief Commission,
having "no funds available for th is work, set ab o u t finding
contributors.
As th e result of negotiations w ith th e G eneva representative
of th e Jugoslav R ed Cross in London, and w ith th e Croat
G overnm ent th ro u g h its representative a t Zagreb, th e ICRC
obtain ed from th e Jugoslav R ed Cross in London a gift of 50,000
Swiss francs for the purchase of sera, and from th e Croat G overn
m ent a g ran t of 500,000 Swiss francs for th e purchase of m edi
cam ents. The Swiss R ed Cross also agreed to co n trib u te funds
for m edicam ents and sera, and expressed th e wish to send to
C roatia a m edical team , to com bat possible outbreaks of exanthem atic ty p h u s in p articu larly d e v a sta te d areas.
The Jo in t Relief Commission, which h ad already despatched
several sm all consignm ents to Polish refugee Jew s in Croatia,
arran g ed to send m edicam ents for distrib u tio n b y th e ICRC
representative, assisted by the Croat R ed Cross. The Croat
G overnm ent, however, refused perm ission for a Swiss m edical
tea m to accom pany th e shipm ent, and th e Swiss R ed Cross
therefore abandoned its original plan for exclusively m edical
aid. Instead, it m ade a g ran t of 200,000 Swiss francs for the
purchase of food a n d m edicam ents. These supplies were d istri
b u ted b y th e Jo in t Relief Commission and th e ICRC delegate l.
The children of Zagreb and th e surrounding districts th u s
received considerable quan tities of milk.
These shipm ents
m ade up som ew hat for th e shortage of essential supplies.
T hrough the ICRC representative a t Zagreb, the Swiss
R ed Cross th en offered, th ro u g h th e Croat R ed Cross, to receive
some 500 Croat children in Sw itzerland for a three m onths
stay. The Croat Red Cross was, how ever, obliged to decline
th is offer.
1 See R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief C om m ission.
491

E a rly in 1944, th e fighting in C roatia grew still more fierce

betw een th e G erm an forces, assisted b y G erm an-Croat police
squads, and th e R esistance m ovem ent. B oth sides exercised
reprisals, from which th e civil population was th e first to suffer.
R ailw ay com m unications were largely destroyed and sea
traffic was suspended. The num ber of hom eless people grew
steadily, as the Allied air raids becam e m ore frequent.
The Jo in t Relief Commission and th e ICRC, which received
regular reports from its representative, endeavoured to expand
their relief work, despite the lack of funds and th e growing
shortage of com m odities in E urope.
C ontact w ith M arshal
T ito s representatives enabled the ICRC delegations a t Zagreb,
Algiers, Cairo and B ucharest to organize relief for the popula
tions of th e areas freed by the partisans. The Zagreb delegation
was th u s able to despatch m edicam ents to these areas 1, and
the ICRC had the o p p o rtu n ity to send relief supplies to Ju g o
slavia when a m edical team of the Centrale sanitaire suisse,
whose journey it had facilitated, left for th a t country 2.
A fter the arm istice, Jugoslavia was again united, and the
ICRC m aintained only its delegation in Belgrade, closing
down its offices a t Zagreb early in 1946.
D alm atian Islands.
D uring a visit to G eneva in M arch 1943, th e ICRC represen
ta tiv e a t Zagreb reported th a t there was fam ine in the D al
m atian Islands, p articu larly in those of B rae and Tesina, as
a result of th e suspension of m aritim e traffic.
On April 16, the ICRC inform ed the Ita lia n au th o rities
th a t it proposed to provide relief in the D alm atian Archipelago,
and asked for help in the form of regular com m unications
or m eans of tra n sp o rt. Such m eans were prom ised on May 7,
b y the Ita lia n G overnm ent, who added th a t th e y them selves
would m ake every effort to supply the islands. The representa
tive of th e Jugoslav Red Cross in Geneva proposed the purchase
of some 2,500 tons of flour, enough to feed nearly 40,000 people.
1 See R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.
2 See Vol. I, p. 721, an d R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief Com m ission.
492

As w heat could not pass th rough th e blockade, the ICRC

in stru cted its delegations in H ungary, R um ania and C roatia to
subm it this scheme to th e G overnm ents of these countries.
H ungary replied th a t she was unable to export flour, as she
h ad not enough for her own needs. R um ania gave a sim ilar
reply, b u t indicated th a t she could furnish 1,000 tons of
barley.
In Ju n e, 1943, th e Croat G overnm ent and R ed Cross an n o u n
ced th a t, th an k s to th e help of the Ita lia n G overnm ent, th ey
could un d ertak e th e provisioning of th e D alm atian Islands,
and th a t the proposed relief scheme was therefore unnecessary.
The ICRC nevertheless consulted the Swiss R ed Cross, and th e
latte r, in Ju ly , co n trib u ted 50,000 francs for th e children in
the islands of Brae and Lesina. N aval operations in the A driatic
however precluded any direct tra n sp o rt a t th is tim e, and th e
above donation was included in the general relief for the Croat
population. Finally, when, in October, the Croat G overnm ent
showed in terest in the C om m ittees offer, the situation in I ta ly
had suffered such a radical change th a t the initial scheme was no
longer feasible 1.
Montenegro.
M ontenegro, one of the areas of Jugoslavia th a t h ad suf
fered m ost severely, applied to the ICRC for relief in th e shape
of foodstuffs and clothing for the in h ab ita n ts and for the refugees
who had arrived from all parts.
In the absence of funds for th is purpose, the ICRC asked
the Jo in t Relief Commission to consult individuals and orga
nizations able to contribute funds, and to stu d y the technical
problem of tra n sp o rt and distribution. A fter applying to the
representatives of the Am erican and Jugoslav R ed Cross Socie
ties a t Geneva, and to th e ICRC delegations in London and
W ashington, the Jo in t Relief Commission was able to m eet this
request 2.
1 For the few shipm ents despatched to Slovenia, which w as annexed
b y Italy, see R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.
2 F o r details, see R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief Com m ission.

493

M uslim C om m unity in Jugoslavia.

A large proportion of the W estern B alkan population is
Muslim. A fter its occupation by th e Axis forces, the area
was shared betw een A lbania, M ontenegro, B ulgaria and C roatia.
The m ajo rity of th e Muslims lived in Croat territo ry . T h re a t
ened b y persecution, th ey flocked to the N orth, seeking refuge
in Sarajevo and th e Save Valley. T heir num ber was p u t a t
198,000, m ostly widows a n d orphans ; 108,000 were children
under 14. Im m ediate help was required, to prevent starv atio n
and disease.
In M ay 1944, th e ICRC inform ed the President of th e
A rab A cadem y a t D am ascus, who was th en in Geneva, of the
desperate plight of these refugees, and asked him to nam e
Muslims who could procure the necessary funds.
The Com m ittee also applied to the T urkish R ed Crescent
a n d sent th e E g y p tian R ed Crescent, at its request, th e infor
m atio n su p p lie d 'b y the Zagreb delegation.
H aving noted a rep o rt from th e Jo in t Relief Commission
to th e ICRC delegation in London, the Jugoslav Red Cross
and th e Jugoslav Relief Society, in A ugust 1944, announced
g ran ts for the purchase of pharm aceutical supplies in G reat
B ritain . A t the close of th e year the E gy p tian G overnm ent
gave E 25,000, and th e E g y p tian R ed Crescent E 5,000.
D espite tw elve m onths of negotiations, these funds could not be
transferred, b u t were spent on the purchase of raw cotton for
m anufacture into cotton goods in Jugoslavia
P ursuing th e stu d y of its plan w ith the ICRC delegation
in Cairo, the Jo in t Relief Commission encountered new o b sta
cles : th e Jugoslav au th o rities tho u g h t it unfair to favour
Muslims a t th e expense of th e num erous other w ar victim s,
in a co u n try where everyone needed assistance L ater, diplom a
tic relations having been re-established betw een E g y p t and
Jugoslavia, donors and recipients were able to settle the m a tte r
directly and th e d istribution of relief was assigned to th e Ju g o
slav R ed Cross.

494

Finm e.
E a rly in 1944, the ICRC representative in Rom e was infor
m ed by th e Chairm an of th e Poor Relief Com m ittee th a t the
civil population of th e tow n and district of Fium e was faced
b y a serious food shortage. A large influx of rep a tria te s and
refugees w ithout m eans of support h ad greatly increased the
indigenous population of 25,000. The children were in urgent
need of m ilk. The ICRC representative in N orthern Ita ly
thereupon travelled to Fium e, despite great difficulties caused
by th e operations of th e R esistance, tak in g w ith him tw o cases
of condensed milk, 192 kilos of m ilk powder, 12 large boxes
of Eledon, 3,200 soup cubes and 50 parcels of coffee su b stitu tes,
given by various donors in Milan. In addition, he h ad a sum
of 15,000 lire for distrib u tio n to needy Jugoslavs in Fium e.
Talks w ith the m ilitary and civil au th o rities on Feb. 12,
1944, showed th a t th e food situ atio n was th e same as in other
tow ns and com m unes in the neighbourhood. H ealth conditions
were fairly satisfactory, b u t th e children were short of milk,
particu larly in Susak Camp, where 600 fam ilies, all refugee
Jugoslavs aw aiting rep atriatio n , received only two scan ty meals
daily.
The representative handed th e provisions he h ad brought
w ith him to th e cam p store ; eighty litres of m ilk were a t once
issued to 106 children under ten. As this cam p was closed in
F eb ru ary 1944, the supplies did n ot need to be replenished.
On Ju n e 22, 1945, th e ICRC delegation in Rom e re-opened
th e question of relief for th e population of Fium e, and sta te d
th a t supplies would be p u t a t th e im m ediate disposal of th e
ICRC, on condition th a t th e boat was accom panied by an ICRC
representative, who would also supervise distribution.
The
V atican and th e Ita lia n Red Cross hoped to be able, b y th e end
of A ugust, to collect 60 tons of food and m edicam ents for
shipm ent from Ancona to Fium e on an Allied vessel, a t th e
donors' expense.
L ate in A ugust, th e ICRC delegate in Trieste succeeded in
reaching Fium e and m et th e civil authorities. The Bishop of
Fium e was prepared to organize the d istribution, b u t his offer
495

had to be approved by the occupation authorities. As the p o rt

was com pletely destroyed, it was decided to tra n sp o rt the goods
by road from Trieste.
H ow ever, th e ICRC representative in Trieste was unable
to secure th e occupants perm ission to convey th e supplies
to Fium e and to issue them there. On O ctober 3, 1945, therefore,
the ICRC wired to its delegation in B elgrade asking it to secure
perm ission for one of its m em bers. The Jugoslav authorities,
however, delayed th eir consent. Supplies wrere also slow in
reaching Trieste, as so m any obstacles had dam ped the goodwill
of the donors. On N ovem ber 27, th e ICRC representative in
Trieste was a t last able to report th a t 28 tons were aw aiting
shipm ent a t Ancona. On D ecem ber 3, th e m otor vessel Esperia
Redenta unloaded fifteen tons, instead of the 28 tons th a t had
been expected.
A lthough application for perm its for fu rth e r shipm ents
were m ade well in advance, these still failed to m aterialize.
However, th e ICRC delegate a t Trieste again succeeded in
going alone to Fium e, for fu rth e r negotiations. The d istribution
of the supplies was scheduled for C hristm as Day, and was
to have been supervised, not by th e Bishop of Fium e, b u t by
the new ly-founded local Red Cross, which was in co ntact w ith
th e Jugoslav R ed Cross, as well as w ith th e Ita lia n Red Cross.
The recipients were those of the com m unal Register. P rior
ity was given to the unem ployed and to the relatives of pris
oners of w ar and deportees. This distribution, as well as la te r
ones, was carried out w ith the help of various local and neu tral
organizations.
14.

etherlands

The position in th e N etherlands d eteriorated in the au tu m n

of 1944. In order to check the Allied advance, th e occupying
forces, whose num bers increased steadily, flooded large areas,
th u s destroying a great p a rt of the harvest. Owing to the
strike of th e D utch railw aym en, th e products of th e agricultural
provinces in the N o rth could n o t be sent to the W estern pro
vinces. Finally, th e serious dam age inflicted on th e G erm an
496

railw ays ham pered the provisioning of th e country. Fam ine

was th reatening, p a rticu larly in th e three W estern provinces
(South H olland, N o rth H olland and U trecht), where the popula
tio n had already suffered great privations during some four
years of occupation.
Public opinion all over the world was deeply concerned by
th e peril which m enaced an entire people, for which it held
the occupying Pow er responsible, and called for im m ediate
action. This did not facilitate the ta sk of th e ICRC, which
h ad to observe extrem e caution in approaching th e Germ an
authorities.
On th e occasion of prelim inary talk s w ith the G erm an
Consul in G eneva concerning the supply of food for H olland
under the Red Cross em blem , th e ICRC was told th a t such a
scheme would only be p e rm itted if it operated discreetly ;
public appeals th rough th e press would alm ost certainly lead
to an official refusal. F urtherm ore, th e G overnm ents decision
would depend on the Allies consent to th e dispatch of relief
to th e Channel Islan d san und ertak in g to which th e G erm an
G overnm ent atta ch e d the g reatest im portance 1.
Meanwhile th e ICRC, in its a tte m p ts to find support for
its scheme, enlisted the active cooperation of th e N etherland
G overnm ent in London.
The D utch authorities prom ised
th eir financial assistance, and backed up th e endeavours of
th e R ed Cross representatives in London to persuade the
blockade authorities to m ake an exception in favour of H olland.
Several national Red Cross Societies were also u rgently requested
to give th eir help.
In Sw itzerland various organizations, including a Com m ittee
in Basle, had quickly purchased foodstuffs and clothing w ith
funds subscribed, no tab ly by the D utch R ed Cross and the
Swiss Relief Fund. Large q u an tities of w heat released by the
Swiss G overnm ent were lying a t Lisbon, ready for despatch.
A cting on behalf of th e D utch Red Cross and th e Swiss Relief
F und, the Jo in t Relief Commission purchased 2,600 tons of
grain warehoused a t R atisbon and originally intended for
1 See p. 443.

497
m . 32

Belgium : the recent liberation of th a t co u n try had led th e

G erm ans to prohibit th eir export to Belgium.
The tra n sp o rt of these supplies raised a p articu larly difficult
problem . On N ovem ber 7, th e ICRC suggested to the belligerents
th ree routes which appeared practicable :
(1) B y barge down the Rhine from Basle to R otterdam ;
(2) B y ICRC vessel from Lisbon to a D utch port, named by the
Germans ;
(3) B y rail through Germany.

The G erm ans raised no objection to the first of these routes.

The Am erican au th o rities agreed to it in principle, on the
recom m endation of General E isenhow ers headquarters. The
A m erican Com m ander-in-Chief was strongly in favour of the
C om m ittees a tte m p ts to relieve the D utch population. The
B ritish G overnm ent, however, delayed th eir reply, and finally
refused th e ir safe-conduct for m ilitary reasons and on the
plea th a t th e R hine was m ined, and th a t in one place a t least
its course was blocked by fallen bridges. The barge, painted
w hite and bearing th e R ed Cross emblem, which was ready
to leave, h ad therefore to be unloaded. The Jo in t Relief Com
m ission, how ever, succeeded in despatching th e cargo across
Belgium in a block-train, which reached the liberated p a rt of
the N etherlands on Ja n u a ry 10, 1945 1.
G reat difficulties also ham pered th e tra n sp o rt of the 2,600
tons of grain stored a t R atisbon. These cereals had been
purchased by th e Jo in t Relief Commission w ith Belgian funds
released in H ungary ; th e consent of the blockade authorities
was therefore not required. Owing to the disorganisation of
th e G erm an railw ay system , it was impossible, however, to
convey th e grain by rail from R atisbon to th e D utch frontier.
The G erm ans thereupon m ade over to the Jo in t Relief Commis
sion an equivalent am ount of rye which was lying a t Essen
(Oldenburg), a sm all tow n near the D utch frontier. The D utch
G overnm ent in London, th e donor of these foodstuffs, valued
a t 800,000 francs, accepted this offer. A fter testing th e q u a lity
1 Sec R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief Com m ission.

498

of th e rye, th e ICRC delegate h ad it conveyed b y special train s

to R o tterd am . This consignm ent m ade it possible to increase
th e ratio n for 3,200,000 in h ab ita n ts of th e W estern provinces
by 400 gram s a week for a period of th ree weeks.
The supplies stored a t Lisbon included 3,575 tons of grain
released to th e Swiss Relief F u n d b y th e Swiss G overnm ent,
600 tons of pulse foods, 500 tons of rice and 175 tons of oatflakes given h y th e Swiss Relief F u n d , in addition to a large
q u a n tity of m edicam ents offered by th e D u tch R ed Cross and
30,000 sta n d a rd food-parcels, th e gift of th e C anadian Red
Cross.
The Henry D nnant, flying th e Swiss flag and bearing the
m arkings of th e ICRC, was p u t a t th e C om m ittees disposal
by her owners, th e F ou n d atio n for th e O rganisation of Red
Cross T ransports. This was done in agreem ent w ith th e Am eri
can R ed Cross, which h ad p rio rity for the tra n sp o rt b y this
vessel of parcels for Am erican PW in Germ any.
E a rly in N ovem ber 1944, th e ICRC applied to th e bellige
ren ts for safe-conducts for th e ship, and for the free passage
of its cargo th rough the blockade. The U nited S tates gran ted
a safe-conduct a t the end of th e m onth ; G erm any agreed in
principle, b u t insisted th a t th e Allied blockade should be lifted
also from the Channel Islands. M oreover, she refused to allow
an ICRC delegate to enter th e fighting area, and proposed
th a t th e issue of supplies should be supervised by a com m is
sion of ICRC representatives residing in H olland and of D utch
R ed Cross delegates. F or G reat B ritain, on th e other hand,
th e presence of an ICRC delegate was an indispensable condi
tion of th e operation. The ICRC th en sought to induce th e
G erm ans to yield on this point, particu larly as it was inform ed
b y th e D u tch R ed Cross in London th a t th e R ed Cross Com
m ittee in H olland h ad recently been reorganised and no longer
com m anded the confidence of th e population.
The position in th e N etherlands, m eanw hile, becam e increas
ingly critical and it was essential th a t the Henry D unant should
sail a t once. U rgent representations b y the ICRC induced
th e G erm an authorities to allow a delegate to accom pany
th e ship to the D utch p ort of Delfzijl and to ensure th a t the
499

cargo was properly accepted and forw arded.

F urtherm ore,
a m em ber of the ICRC delegation in Berlin was to be in this
p o rt a few days beforehand and assist in the unloading. B oth
delegates, however, were strictly bound by th eir instructions,
and th e distrib u tio n centres in th e interior w ould be supervised
n ot by them , b u t by four Swiss residents in H olland, appointed
for this purpose by th e ICRC and free to com m unicate w ith
th e ICRC delegates a t Delfzijl. These conditions were finally
accepted by the B ritish, who were notified th a t the route
th e y had suggestedalong the W est cost of E ngland and
Scotland and th en along the coasts of Sweden and D en m ark
would be followed.
W hen the cargo for th e H enry D unant was ready, the ICRC
advised the B ritish G overnm ent of the sh ip s sailing, adding
th a t after G othenburg she would be accom panied by a G erm an
escort and would pass th ro u g h the K a tte g a t, the Kiel Canal
and along the G erm an coast. On J a n u a ry 3, 1945, London
how ever m ade a new reservation : before allowing th e ship
to sail, the Foreign Office wished to stu d y the reports by
Swedish residents in H olland on th e distrib u tio n of th e relief
sent by th e Swedish R ed Cross. Two possibilities were feared :
(1) Confiscation of th e supplies by th e G erm ans, in an
endeavour to break the resistance of the D utch people by
underfeeding ;
(2) Fresh conditions im posed by th e Germ ans, which
m ight yield them fu rth e r m ilitary advantages.
Thus an exceedingly urgent relief und ertak in g was held
up still furth er. M oreover, there was a danger, if the vessel
could n ot be used a t once according to plan, of its being claim ed
b y th e Am erican R ed Cross, and th e sh ip s lying idle in the
p o rt of Lisbon involved heav y dem urrage. The a tte n tio n of
th e B ritish G overnm ent was draw n to these objections ; th ey
th en authorised the sailing of th e H enry D unant for G othen
burg, b u t reserved th eir decision concerning the rem ainder
of th e voyage. Should th e decision be favourable, a fortnight
w ould be gained, i.e. the tim e tak e n to sail round the B ritish
Isles ; if it were negative, th e cargo would be unloaded a t
500

G othenburg and forw arded to its d estination a t th e earliest

o p p o rtu n ity .
S hortly after this, th e ship left Lisbon for th e Faroe Islands.
The m aster h a d orders to sail th ro u g h th e Skepenfjord ; owing
to a m isunderstanding he h a d not been given th e detailed
ch a rts asked for, and finding no pilot a t th e appointed place,
he set an o th er course. U nable to find th e Skepenfjord in these
circum stances, he decided to sail round the Islands on th e
n o rth -east, and th en m et an escort which took him to Thorshavn.
A fter a fo rtn ig h ts voyage, th e Henry D unant finally reached
G othenburg on F e b ru ary n . On the 15th, the ship was allowed
to leave for Delfzijl, a t the sam e tim e as the Hallaren, a Swedish
b o at also carrying supplies for th e N etherlands.
Owing to
th e shallow w aters of th e Soundth e route fixed b y th e
A d m ira lty th e vessel h a d to leave a t G othenburg 1,700 tons
out of its cargo of 6,000 tons. These 1,700 tons included the
s ta n d a rd food-parcels of the C anadian R ed Cross, and these
finally reached H olland on b oard th e Hallaren a few days after
th e liberation.
These supplies were issued in th e W estern
provinces, chiefly to persons over six ty years of age.
On M arch 8, the H enry D unant entered th e p ort of Delfzijl,
w here she was anxiously expected. H er cargo was transferred
on to canal barges, w hich took th e supplies to th e distribution
centres. This work was done by th e N etherlands D ep artm en t
of A griculture and Fisheries of which th e Food B ureau was
a b ran c h and was supervised b y th e ICRC delegates. The
barges were sealed a t Delfzijl, and th e seals were verified on
arrival by an official of th e Food B ureau in th e presence of the
ICRC delegates. The said Office provided th e Maas mills and
its own bakeries for converting th e grain into bread.
Large posters inform ed th e public of th e arrival of the
supplies and th eir origin, m anner of issue, an d th e places where
th e y would be handed out free, against receipts. The d istrib u
tion was effected in th e following w ay :
(1)
2,150 tons of flour were issued in the shape of bread to the
whole population over four years of age ; 3,200,000 persons thus received
tw o w eekly rations of 400 grams each ;
5 0 1

(2) 5 tons of rice were set aside for children and nursing m others
w ith babies up to six m onths, which represented tw o w eekly rations
of 250 grams for ab ou t 860,000 children ;
(3) 175 tons of oat-flakes provided 293,190 children under 13 w ith
tw o w eekly rations of 150 grams ;
(4) 460 tons of lentils were issued to com m unal kitchens, especially
in the cities, allow ing an issue of 0,75 litre of soup per head for four to
nine days ;
(5) The surplus flour, rice and oat-flakes were sent to childrens
canteens and to hospitals.

The M inistry of A griculture and Fisheries m et all the costs

incurred in d istrib u tin g th e supplies (dock charges, pilots,
tra n sp o rts, storage, milling, etc.).
The occupied provinces were not alone in receiving relief
th ro u g h Geneva. F rom D ecem ber 1944 to M arch 1945, the
Jo in t Relief Commission was successful in sending across
France and Belgium four block-trains for the N etherland Red
Cross a t T ilburg
A large p a rt of these supplies was not
em ployed in this area, b u t was placed in reserve for issue in
th e W estern provinces on th eir liberation, as those provinces
h ad suffered even m ore severely.
In th eir reports, th e ICRC delegates stressed the fact th a t
th e situ atio n in th e N etherlands rem ained serious, in spite
of these consignm ents. The ICRC, acting in close cooperation
w ith th e Jo in t Relief Commission, th en sought fresh help.
In response to its request, th e A m erican R ed Cross abandoned
its rights to th e services of th e Caritas, due to convey foodparcels for Am erican PW , and allowed her use by the Swiss
Relief F u n d for a second relief shipm ent in April 1945. How
ever, th e arm istice m eanw hile concluded m ade it possible to
use block-trains, which were quicker and cheaper. The goods
th u s conveyed 2 were d istrib u ted b y th e N etherlands R ed
Cross, w ith the cooperation of the ICRC delegate who had
tak e n up his duties at The H ague after th e liberation. As
these supplies were insufficient to give th e whole population
1 See R eport of the Joint Relief Commission.
2 For details, see R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.

502

appreciable help, th ey were set a p a rt for those districts and

categories of persons which were in th e greatest need.
In M ay 1945, General Eisenhow er negotiated w ith the
G erm ans in occupied H olland for th e relief of th e civil popula
tion. An agreem ent for th e despatch of relief team s was signed
by b o th parties ; it included a clause authorising an ICRC
representative to enter occupied te rrito ry in order to supervise
distribution. The arm istice, however, overtook this scheme.
L astly, a tte n tio n should be draw n to th e assistance given
b y th e ICRC to th e relief work u n d ertak en b y Zurich U niver
sity in aid of th e professors a t th e U niversity of Leyden. The
ICRC facilitated the jo urney of a p a rty of professors from
Zurich to Leyden, to greet th eir D u tch colleagues.
L ater,
Zurich U niversity invited several Leyden professors and th eir
fam ilies for a m o n th s sta y in Sw itzerland, and th e ICRC
helped in procuring th eir visas, and organised th e journey,
in cooperation w ith th e Swiss R ed Cross. Two groups, one
of 48, and th e other of 46 professors, arrived in Sw itzerland,
th e first on Ju ly 27 and the other on A ugust 23, 1945.

15.

orway

The C om m ittees work in favour of N orw ay appears slight,

when com pared w ith its efforts for other occupied countries.
This is due to th e role played a t this tim e b y N orw ays neigh
bour, Sweden, a co u n try which had escaped th e w ar and whose
population and R ed Cross could th u s give invaluable help to
th e victim s of distress in Norway.
The C om m ittees work was therefore confined to those
situations where th e difficulties caused b y th e occupying forces
could be overcome only by a non-political, as well as n eu tral
interm ediary. This was th e case a t th e beginning of th e Norwe
gian cam paign. The Norwegian forces w hich were still resist
ing in th e n o rth h ad no am bulances, m edicam ents or dressings,
as the stores set up in th e south h ad fallen into enem y hands.
The ICRC a tte m p te d to have p a rt of these stores sent to the
n o rth , b u t th e G erm ans refused.
5 0 3

As th e result of an appeal in N ovem ber 1940 by the League

of R ed Cross Societies and th e ICRC, the la tte r h ad received
gifts in tended by the donors for Norwegian women and child
ren, in general. W ith th e agreem ent of the League, p a rt of
th e funds were used to purchase 15 tons of sugar in Czecho
slovakia and 15 tons of m illet in H ungary. T ogether w ith
three tons of dried raisins offered by th e T urkish R ed Crescent
to the N orwegian R ed Cross, th e goods were sent to Oslo
th rough the G erm an R ed Cross. There th ey were handed to the
N orwegian Society for distrib u tio n am ong children in N orway.
Beginning as soon as it was created, the Jo in t Relief Com
mission despatched several consignm ents to N orway. Their
d istrib u tio n was supervised by th e ICRC delegate in Stock
holm , w henever th e G erm ans g ran ted him perm ission to visit
Norway. The delegate was th u s able to m ake valuable contact
w ith th e N orwegian Red Cross and to inform th e donors about
th e conditions of life and the needs of th e Norwegian
population.
In 1944, it again appeared th a t action by the ICRC alone
w ould overcom e th e obstacles to relief w ork in N orway. N or
th ern N orw ay h ad ju st been liberated by th e Russians, and
Sweden had h ad reports of th e tragic situation of the popu
lation, which h ad been forcibly rem oved by th e retreatin g
Germans.
The ICRC consulted th e N orwegian G overnm ent in London
and th e N orwegian R ed Cross delegate in Geneva, on the
possibility of sending relief to these areas in a neu tral ship
sailing under the R ed Cross flag, which could also on its retu rn
voyage bring back th e sick.
The Swedish R ed Cross was, however, also dealing w ith
th e question, and th e Swedish G overnm ent had already tak en
urgent steps in Berlin. The G erm an G overnm ent agreed to
th e dispatch of relief to these districts, on condition th a t sim ilar
supplies were sent to th e areas already occupied b y the Russians.
This dem and nullified th e proposed scheme.
F o rtu n ately ,
however, owing to the exceptionally mild w eather, the evacua
tion of th e population involved less hardship th a n h ad been
anticipated.
504

i 6

Im m ediately after the end of the Polish cam paign, the

ICRC considered th e question of relief for th e civil population
and for th e Polish refugees in n eu tral countries. A delegate
was sent on a special mission to Berlin, in Septem ber 1939, to
consult th e authorities and th e G erm an R ed Cross, and to
learn th eir views on a relief scheme for which th e ICRC and
th e League of R ed Cross Societies would tak e responsibility.
In principle, th e G erm an au thorities concerned were not
opposed to such an appeal being addressed to all th e national
R ed Cross Societies.
Arguing, however, th a t the supplies
co n trib u ted by the In te rn atio n a l Red Cross would be small
in com parison w ith the efforts already m ade by Germ an organi
zations for the provisioning of Poland, th e y asked th a t the
proposed appeal should not be w orded in term s th a t m ight
serve th e adversary for propaganda purposes.
A t a fu rth e r m eeting in Berlin, th e G erm an R ed Cross,
which was strongly in favour of th e scheme, inform ed the ICRC
delegate of th e shortage of m edicam ents in W arsaw.
The
delegate was able to verify the fact during a trip to Poland,
when th e Polish Red Cross and other welfare organizations
gave him lists of u rgently needed m edicam ents and medical
stores.
On th e other hand, the G erm an au thorities in Poland
assured the delegate th a t th e relief given by the R ed Cross
would be issued free to those who were in g reatest need. In
addition, th e y pledged them selves th a t th e parcels for the
Jew s would be handed to them in ta c t.
The only provinces which could benefit were those of W arsaw ,
R adom , Cracow, Lublin, and half th a t of Lodz. No relief could
be sent to the provinces of the form er Polish Republic which
h ad been annexed b y G erm any, and the in h ab ita n ts of which
were regarded as G erm an citizens ; the same applied, in spite
of repeated a tte m p ts, to the provinces occupied by Soviet
Russia.
The cooperation of th e G erm an R ed Cross greatly facilitated
th e scheme. The Red Cross was in stru m en tal in obtaining the
505

consent of th e G erm an M inistry of T ransport for th e free

carriage and custom s free consignm ent of all goods sent to its
representatives in th e General G overnm ent, who w ould reforw ard
them th ro u g h local Polish organizations.
The occupying
au thorities did not, how ever, allow th e C entral C om m ittee
of the Polish R ed Cross to continue working. I t was agreed
th a t receipts signed by the Polish organizations benefited
would be sent in duplicate to th e ICRC. In J a n u a ry , 1940,
th e la tte r circulated these details to the N ational Red Cross
Societies and th e o ther welfare organizations th a t were in a
position to assist th e Polish population.
I t w ould be im possible here to enum erate all th e gifts in
m oney and in kind which th e ICRC received to th is effect,
or to describe all th e negotiations required, b o th for the tra n s
fer of funds and for export perm its from the countries, chiefly
Sw itzerland, th a t gave assistance.
The following schedule
is a sum m ary of th e consignm ents m ade, from F eb ru ary 1940
to Ju ly 1941, b y th e ICRC to th e G erm an R ed Cross delegates
in P oland ; m ost of th e item s were co n trib u ted b y R ed Cross
Societies overseas :
Kilos

1940
Feb.

S u gar...................................................

. .

March C h o c o la te ..........................................
Food and clothing
...................
Pharm aceutical products . . . . .
June
Food and m edicam ents. . . .
Surgical in s tr u m e n ts...................
F o o d ...................................................
Pharm aceutical products . . .
,,
. . . . .
C l o t h i n g ..........................................
M ay
Aug.

F o o d ...................................................
Pharm aceutical products . . .
Bandages ..........................................
F o o d ...................................................
S o a p ...................................................

.
.

.
.

500 sacks
5 cases

30,000
273

144

116
485
1,082
221
5.091

14

659

22
33
4

i case
83 cases

20
6,797

41
242

524
165
859
1,462
8,611

77

2,473

14
9
14

2,461
66,299

506

Kilos

Forward

1940

Sept.
Oct.

Condensed m i l k .................................
Food and clothing

Dec.

.......................

Bandages and m edicam ents

. .

66,299

200 cases
180
,,

5,000
4.500
80

,,

83

1941

A p ril
J u ly

M edicam ents and restoratives

219

Pharm aceutical products . . . .

189
Total

I >3 7

In addition, th e A m erican R ed Cross gave valuable help

to the Polish population th ro u g h a Com m ittee, under Mr.
H oovers chairm anship, which included representatives of
th e various welfare organizations in th e U nited S tates. This
C om m ittee h ad considerable funds, b u t its w ork cam e to an
end when th e U nited S tates entered th e war.
A lthough th e ICRC stressed the advantage of collective
shipm ents, it was v ery often requested to send individual
parcels to occupied Poland. As regular postal services had
n o t yet been restored, th e ICRC requested th e G erm an R ed
Cross to assist in forw arding such parcels. E a rly in March,
1940, the G erm an R ed Cross sta te d th a t its delegates in th e
General G overnm ent would tra n sm it individual parcels
addressed to residents in th e principal districts of Poland,
on condition th a t th ey were forw arded in the form of collective
shipm ents, accom panied b y lists of addressees. The parcels were
n ot to exceed five kilos in weight ; spirits, tobacco, m atches
an d saccharine were prohibited.
From its creation in th e au tu m n of 1940, th e Jo in t Relief
Commission undertook responsibility in principle for relief
to Poland. In 1941, however, th e ICRC itself ensured th e safe
arrival of a shipm ent of clothing (16,350 kilos) in th e following
circum stances. On M arch 10, 1941, th e Cold Harbour unloaded
a t Marseilles a q u a n tity of clothing which the A m erican Red
Cross delegate in th a t tow n forw arded direct to th e Swiss
m ilitary authorities, for issue to Polish m ilitary personnel
in tern ed in Sw itzerland. The ICRC was subsequently inform ed
5 0 7

by the Swiss th a t, according to th e a tta ch e d instructions from

th e donors, th e Commission for Polish Relief in New York,
p a rt of these goods were in tended for Polish P W in G erm any
and th e in h a b ita n ts of Polish occupied territo ry . The G eneva
delegate of th e Polish R ed Cross in London thereupon requested
th e ICRC to forw ard these goods to th e Germ an Red Cross a t
Cracow, for transm ission to th e Polish C entral Com m ittee in
th a t city, w hich was able to operate freely in Poland.
Certain prelim inary steps were, however, required. Firstly,
this clothing was n o t a com m odity in tra n sit, like th e relief
supplies from overseas, in respect of which the ICRC acted
as shipping agent.
The present consignm ent, having been
im ported into Sw itzerland w ith th e rem ainder of the above
shipm ent, could n ot be exported w ithout a licence. F u rth e r
m ore, it was c o n tra ry to th e general blockade regulations to
send relief goods from overseas to civilian populations of occu
pied territories. The blockade authorities, however, gave th eir
consent, th ro u g h th e B ritish Consulate in Geneva, and the
export licence being granted, th e clothing was loaded on three
railw ay wagons and left for Cracow on Septem ber 24, 1941.
The clothes were chiefly d istrib u ted in Galicia, an area th a t
h ad h ith e rto received no help of this kind. The receipts, signed
by the Polish C entral C om m ittee, were retu rn ed to the Com
mission for Polish Relief in New Y ork on O ctober 21, 1942.
In addition to this shipm ent of clothing, the ICRC on
O ctober 29, 1941, sent the Polish civilian population 101 cases
of soap (12 tons) bought in P ortugal, and 120 cases of woollen
goods (three tons).
The ICRC also dispatched m inor surgical instrum ents,
purchased in G erm any a t the cost of 30,000 Swiss francs, and
originally intended for Polish PW in th a t country. As these
in stru m en ts were extrem ely scarce in Poland, th ey were handed
to th e Polish C entral C om m ittee, at the donor's request.
The role of the ICRC as n eu tral interm ediary in a p a rti
cularly difficult relief ta sk also deserves brief m ention. In
A ugust 1944, th e W arsaw population, encouraged by the R ussian
advance to the eastern bank of the V istula, rose against the
occupant. The b a ttle which raged in W arsaw led to th e exodus
508

of hundreds of thousands of civilians, including a large propor

tion of women, children and old people. These refugees were
assem bled a t Pruszkow , about tw elve miles from W arsaw ,
in a tra n sit cam p w ith a capacity of some 50,000 persons.
Thence th e y were tra n sp o rte d tow ards th e w estern p a rt of
the General G overnm ent, to th e W artheland, a p a rt of Poland
annexed by the Reich.
On A ugust 25, following an appeal by th e Polish radio
in W arsaw , the G eneva representative of th e Polish R ed Cross
in London inform ed th e ICRC of this tragic situation, and placed
large funds a t th e disposal of the J o in t Relief Commission.
The ICRC a t once issued an urgent appeal to th e G overn
m ents and R ed Cross Societies of G erm any, G reat B ritain,
R ussia and th e U nited S tates, w ith whom responsibility for
an y relief scheme prim arily rested. The ICRC was especially
anxious to send a m em ber of its delegation in Berlin to Pruszkow ,
to supervise th e distrib u tio n of relief. The only m eans of giving
rapid relief would have been to send aircraft which could p a ra
chute tw o to five tons of supplies on each trip ; th e ICRC m ade
arrangem ents to this effect w ith S w issair and tried to
find th e necessary fuel.
U nfortunately, th e belligerents
concerned refused all safe-conducts, and th e scheme h ad to be
abandoned.
A proposal to deduct for Pruszkow p a rt of th e supplies
given to the ICRC for PW and civilian internees was rejected.
The Jo in t Relief Commission succeeded, however, in sending to
the cam p a large q u a n tity of goods paid for by th e Polish
R ed Cross in London. Twelve railw ay wagons despatched by
th e Commission happened to have left Sw itzerland th ree weeks
earlier and h ad arrived a t Cracow, n ot w ithout difficulty,
chiefly th ro u g h the efforts of th e G erm an R ed Cross. The Jo in t
Relief Commission a t once took steps to divert p a rt of these
supplies to Pruszkow cam p. At the sam e tim e, it m ade furth er
shipm ents 1.
F u rth er, th e ICRC delegation in Berlin was advised on
Septem ber 15 th a t one of its m em bers would be allowed to visit
1 F o r d etails, see R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief C om m ission.

509

Pruszkow . He arrived there on th e 17th, and spent tw o days

visiting th e entire cam p and some of th e dependent infirm aries,
and supervising the distrib u tio n of supplies received from
Geneva. W hereas th e to ta l num ber of persons passing daily
th ro u g h th e cam p a t th e tim e of th e revolt was 30,000 and m ore,
it h ad fallen by now to about 4,000. The delegate th en proceeded
to W arsaw , th e evacuation of which was being pursued under
appalling conditions, and reported to th e ICRC on th e m ost
urgent needs. He th en visited th e W artheland, to check th e
issue of relief in th a t area.
In early October, th e ICRC received a new appeal from th e
Polish C entral Relief C om m ittee a t Cracow. Echoed by the
G erm an authorities, th e G erm an Red Cross and all th e Polish
organizations, th is C om m ittee sta te d th a t the health and lives
of about 30,000 people were th reaten ed , since th e y were facing
th e w inter w ithout bedding, clothing, linen, footw ear and
m edicam ents, none of which th e G erm an authorities were
able to supply in sufficient quantities.
The ICRC a t once
relayed this appeal to all th e R ed Cross Societies and welfare
organizations able to relieve these terrible sufferings.
From th e outset, the Swedish R ed Cross had despatched
large qu an tities of relief goods to Pruszkow ; this Society now
renew ed its efforts, w ith the m ost effective cooperation of the
A m erican, B ritish and Canadian Red Cross Societies.
E a rly in 1945, talk s betw een th e ICRC and th e Paris repre
sentative of the Polish G overnm ent of Lublin determ ined the
m anner in which aid m ight be given to the liberated areas
of Poland. Shortly afterw ards, the Relief O rganization set up
b y th e ICRC delegation in R um ania sent working team s to the
spot, who concerned them selves prim arily w ith the Jew ish
com m unities. These team s were th e m ain source of inform ation
on th e extrem e destitu tio n of th e Polish population.
E a rly in th e a u tu m n of 1945, a fleet of ICRC lorries success
fully conveyed th e first relief supplies for liberated Poland
from th e Jo in t Relief Commission ; the la tte r used block-trains
for th is purpose, as soon as railw ay com m unications were
re-opened. The ICRC delegate who h ad been a t W arsaw since
April, 1946, cooperated w ith th e Polish Red Cross, to which
510

these goods were delivered, and took an active p a rt in th eir

reception and unloading C
Relief Work for Polish Refugees in Neutral Countries
In th eir flight before th e G erm an and th e R ussian invaders,
m any Polish civilians took refuge in R um ania, H ungary,
L ith u an ia and L atvia. The R ed Cross Societies of these countries
came to th e help of th e fugitives, m ost of whom arrived ex h a u st
ed and in pitiable condition.
The ICRC and th e League issued a jo int appeal on Septem ber
26, 1939, asking for help for these people, and a num ber
of R ed Cross Societies in non-belligerent countries sent the
following contributions to G eneva :
American R ed Cross
Belgian Red Cross .
Brazilian Red Cross
Estonian Red Cross
D utch Red Cross .
Jugoslav R ed Cross
Swedish R ed Cross.

90,000
5.000
2,500
4.000
2,000
60,000
20,000

dollars
Belgian francs
dollars
French francs
florins
dinars
Swedish crowns

These figures represent only p a rt of the contributions m ade

by N ational Societies for Polish refugees. To these should be
added the very large gifts, in m oney and in kind, m ade by the
R ed Cross Societies in th e four receiving countries.
O ther
welfare organizations also gave th eir help th ro u g h the
ICRC.
The H ungarian, R um anian, L ith u an ian and L atv ian Red
Cross Societies received relief from the ICRC and th e League in
the shape either of funds for purchases locally, or of supplies
bought in n eu tral countries, chiefly m edical stores, clothing,
footw ear, bedding and soap. The joint delegates of th e ICRC
and th e League on repeated occasions obtained inform ation
from these Societies as to th e num ber and needs of th e refugees,
so as to ensure the fair distribution of th e relief supplies.

1 See R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief Com m ission.

511

 i7-

umania

Relief work in th is co u n try was principally for the Jew s C

H ow ever, th e ICRC was em pow ered to deduct certain sum s
from th e funds destined for Jew ish com m unities, w ith which
th e B ucharest delegation assisted th e civil population, and in
p a rticu la r opened com m unal kitchens in 1944.
As was th e case in o th er countries, th e delegation negotiated
th e delivery and distrib u tio n of relief supplies sent to th e
R um anian R ed Cross by th e Jo in t Relief Commission 2 and the"
In te rn atio n a l Relief Centre.

1 See p. 520.
2 See R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.
512

Chapter 3

Special Cases
i.

J e w i s h C i v i l i a n P o p u l a t io n

In its relief w ork for civilian populations, th e ICRC paid

special a tte n tio n to th e Jews. In G erm any and th e countries
occupied b y her, or under her dom ination, especially H ungary,
Poland, Czechoslovakia, R um ania and Jugoslavia 1, no other
section of th e population endured such hum iliation, p rivation
and suffering. D eprived of all tre a ty protection, persecuted
in accordance w ith the N ational-Socialist doctrine and th re a t
ened w ith exterm ination, th e Jew s were, in th e last resort,
generally deported in th e m ost inhum an m anner, sh u t up in
concentration cam ps, subjected to forced labour or p u t to
death.
The ICRC did everything in its power for these hapless
people.
The right to h u m an itarian action, was, however,
its only a u th o rity for trespassing in a field which S tates con
sidered to be exclusively their dom estic concern, in which no
intern atio n al tre a ty provisions could run. Some m easure of
prudence was therefore essential, an d th e Com m ittee refrained
from steps th a t held no hope of success ; these w ould m erely
have resulted in com prom ising, to no-ones advantage, those
of th e C om m ittees activities th a t rested on tra d itio n or on the
Conventions. The wisest course was to profit b y th e very lim i1 For aid to the Jews in Shanghai, see Vol. I, p. 480.
n i . 33

513

te d facilities g ranted, to endeavour to secure others, to be

w atchful of changes in th e political situ a tio n and to seize every
o p p o rtu n ity for interceding in behalf of th e victim s of th e racial
discrim ination practised b y th e Reich.
The question of relief for th e Jew s am ongst th e civilian pris
oners or deportees held in prisons, concentration cam ps and
closed ghettos has already been dealt w ith 1. We m ust now
speak of th e aid given to th e Jew ish section of th e free popula
tion. In G erm any and her satellite countries, th e lot of the
civilians belonging to th is group was b y far th e w orst. Subjected
as th e y were to a discrim inatory regim e, which aim ed more or
less openly a t th e ir exterm ination, th e y were unable to procure
th e necessities of life, even in th e reduced quan tities to which
A ryans were entitled. Moreover, th e Jew ish com m unities
h a d been seriously im poverished b y th e discrim ination, confis
cation and robbery practised on th em for m any years.
Relief w ork for th e Jew s opened up a new field of a c tiv ity
for th e ICRC, w here it was able to profit b y experience already
acquired, b u t w here it continually encountered th e alm ost
insurm ountable obstacles p u t in its w ay b y th e Axis G overn
m ents a n d th e Allied blockade authorities. P a rt of th is work
was th e concern of th e J o in t Relief Commission, a body which
had, indeed, been set up to assist civilian w ar victim s ; conse
quently, th e ta s k of aiding ghettos and Jew ish com m unities
also fell to it. The Commission th u s procured food, clothing
an d m edical supplies, which were d istrib u ted by th e N ational
R ed Cross Societies a n d o th er welfare organizations, so far as
possible in th e presence of an ICRC delegate.
W hilst th e Jo in t Relief Commission carried out th e technical
p a rt of th e m andates en tru sted to it by Jew ish organizations
an d sent relief supplies to th e countries w here this was p erm itted,
th e ICRC increased its diplom atic pressure on th e G overnm ents
concerned and th e occupying Power, in the hope of securing
some relaxation of th e h arsh tre a tm e n t inflicted on th e Jew ish
population. In response to num erous u rgent appeals, th e Com
m ittee th u s w orked for th e protection of Jew s, for th eir em igra
1 See above p p . 73 e t seq.

51 4

tio n to P alestine and for th e rep a tria tio n of civilian deportees l .

The despatch of m aterial relief nevertheless c o n stitu te d its
principal a c tiv ity in th is field.
As shown above 2, th e ICRC set up w ithin its general ser
vices a " Special Aid Division , to deal w ith all questions
relating to persecuted Jews. This d e p a rtm e n ts ta s k was, in
th e first place, to handle m atte rs of principle and to negotiate
w ith G overnm ents and N ational R ed Cross Societies, as well
as w ith th e donor organizations. I t was m ainly engaged in
supplying, w ith th e assistance of th e ICRC delegations abroad,
th e m ost effective m aterial relief possible to this class of dis
tressed persons, in accordance w ith th e wishes of th e donors.
The Special Aid Division refrained from action, however,
w henever th e Jew ish organizations, p articu la rly th e Am erican
J o in t D istribution C om m ittee, were able to c arry out th eir
w ork unaided. Such was not th e case during th e m ost critical
period of th e war, in 1944 and 1945, when th e N ational-Socialist
persecutions reached th eir clim ax. A t th is tim e, th e Jew ish
organizations were powerless, an d th e In te rn atio n a l R ed Cross
was th e only hope of m any thousands. The w ork of th e Special
Aid Division th en developed greatly, despite th e fact th a t it
h a d no juridical term s of reference and was no t strictly p a rt of
th e C om m ittees tra d itio n al work. The Division pursued its
ta s k even during th e post-w ar period, u n til th e Jew ish organi
zations were again able to assist the m em bers of th eir com m unity
direct and w ithout any outside help.
The Jo in t Relief Commission received large sum s from Jew s
in countries eith er n eu tral, or a t w ar w ith G erm any, p a rti
cularly A m erica and Sw itzerland ; it even succeeded in collect
ing m oney in some of th e S tates subservient to G erm any.
Considerable sum s were handed direct by w ealthy Jew s in
R um ania to th e C om m ittees delegation in B ucharest, for local
purchases. The ICRC also forw arded to th a t delegation m oney
gifts for th e sam e purpose which h ad reached G eneva from
Jew s abroad.
1 See Vol. I, pp. 641-657.
2 See pp. 338-340.

515

T h e p rin c ip a l d o n o rs w e re :

(1) - The Am erican Jo in t D istribution Committee (called

for short th e " J o in t ), w ith h ead q u arters in New York, and
a rep resen tativ e in Sw itzerland ;
(2) - The Jew ish World Congress, w ith h ead q u arters in
New York, and a representative in S w itzerland ;
(3) - The Schweizerische H ilfsverein f r jdische Fliichtlinge
im A usland (for short : Hijefs ), w ith h ead q u arters in Montre u x ;
(4) The U nion of Orthodox Rabbis of the United States of
America and Canada, which h ad a b ran ch a t M ontreux ;
(5) The Union O .S .E . (Union of Child W elfare Societies),
whose Swiss h ead q u arters are a t Geneva.
In addition, th e ICRC was in co n stan t to u ch w ith the m ajor
refugee organizations, p articu la rly w ith th e Inter- Govenunental
Committee for Refugees a n d th e W ar Refugee Board.
(1) The Inter-G overnm ental Com m ittee for Refugees,
in London, which h ad replaced th e form er N ansen Office,
was dependent on th e League of N ations. It often applied to
th e ICRC for inform ation and was regularly advised of th e
w ork done by th e Jo in t Relief Commission.
(2) - The W ar Refugee Board, in W ashington, set up a t th e
beginning of 1944 by P resident Roosevelt, gave valuable
support to th e C om m ittees relief work, p articu larly during
the la te r m onths of the w ar in E urope l. I t enjoyed certain
facilities for th e despatch of relief supplies th ro u g h the blockade
and for th e transfer of m oney, (e. g. conversion of dollars into
Swiss francs, for purchases in Sw itzerland on the account
of th e Jo in t , which was th e largest Jew ish donor).

The position of the Jew s in the Axis countries other th a n

G erm any was uncertain, and the right to give them assistance
1 See above pp. 81 an d 336.

5 l6

th a t existed a t one tim e, could be cancelled a t a n y m om ent.

Moreover, th e Jew s were n o t everyw here tre a te d alike : the
greater th e pressure exerted b y G erm any on her satellites,
th e harsher th eir anti-Sem itic policy.
By ad a p tin g itself to these circum stances, th e ICRC quickly
p u t tw o d istinct m ethods into operation :
(1) D ispatch of relief in kind th ro u g h th e J o in t Relief
Commission ;
(2) Transm ission
ICRC.

of funds for local purchases by the

These m ethods were ad o p ted according to th e degree of

tolerance shown b y the Powers concerned, and to th e political
and economic circum stances of th e countries where th e scheme
was to be carried out. B oth were som etim es applied sim u l
taneously.
Relief in kind was sent to countries where th e im poverished
sta te of th e m ark et precluded local purchasing. To help the
distressed population in these areas, th e Jo in t Relief Commission
forw arded goods bought in o th er countries, p a rticu larly in
n e u tra l E uropean countries, such as Sw itzerland, P o rtu g al and
T urkey. These purchases were m ade w ith th e funds which
Jew ish donors of various nationalities p u t a t th e disposal of
th e ICRC.
The despatch of goods was ham pered b y difficulties of m any
kinds :
(1) Lack of funds for purchasing in th e overseas m arkets
still available, and in n e u tra l or occupied countries
in E urope ;
(2) Scarcity of com m odities in n eu tral countries and
export difficulties due to th e restrictions im posed by
these countries, to safeguard th eir own provisioning ;
(3) Difficulties caused by th e absence of land and sea
tra n sp o rt, and b y th e dam age to th e railw ay system s
in th e countries a t w ar ;
(4) Difficulty in releasing frozen funds and supplies, and in
conveying m oney and supplies to Sw itzerland through
517

th e blockade. Thus, th e Jo in t Relief Commission was

n o t allowed to forw ard parcels containing goods th a t
h ad been th e subject of a navicert, except those re
ceived from th e W ar Refugee Board. The tran sfer of
funds b y G overnm ents in exile in London was also
p rohibited 1.
D espite all these obstacles, th e J o in t R elief Commission
succeeded in carrying on relief work in A ustria, Czechoslovakia,
France, G erm any, Ita ly , Jugoslavia, L atv ia, th e N etherlands
and Poland, and la te r in th e B alkan countries after th eir libe
ratio n 2.
W hilst th e Jo in t Relief Commission provided com m od
ities, th e ICRC arranged the tran sfer of funds for th e purchase
of goods in countries where stocks of food, clothing and m edi
cam ents were still sufficient, b u t were available only to C hristians
or A ryans . This was th e case in R um ania, H u n g ary and
Czechoslovakia, where anti-Sem itic regulations h ad reduced
th e Jew ish population to a sta te of u tte r destitution.
Transfers of funds offered th e following advantages :
(1) The local purchase of m uch-needed goods circum
v en ted th e blockade ;
(2) T ran sp o rt problem s, if any, were confined to the
co u n try w here th e w ork was being carried on ;
(3) Free exchanges enabled th e ICRC to increase largely
th e purchasing power of available funds, and to tak e
ad v an tag e of local m ark ets ;
(4) A t certain tim es, th e supplies bought b y th e ICRC
delegates in B alkan countries could be sent to groups
of deported Jew s in A ustria, and even in G erm any.
As a rule, th e relief funds were utilised by th e local Jew ish
organizations. D uring th e critical period, these bodies w orked
1 See above p. 377.
2 For relief to concentration cam ps and gh ettos organized as closed
cam ps, see pp. 73 and 335 e t seq. For relief to free Jew ish populations,
see the Joint R elief C om m issions Report.

5 l8

u nder th e auspices an d th e p ro tectio n of th e C om m ittees

delegations. In th e spring of 1944, th e donors began to place
Swiss francs and U. S. dollars a t th e disposal of th e ICRC.
This m ethod of work obliged th e ICRC and its delegates
ab ro ad to c arry out large-scale banking an d exchange opera
tions. In th e B alkan countries, p articu la rly R um ania, H ungary
an d Slovakia, relief for th e Jew ish populatio n was th e m ost
pressing ta s k before th e C om m ittees delegates. Some skill
was needed to get a u th o rity from th e N ational B anks to nego
tia te foreign currency on th e open m arket. I t was only th rough
th e influence of th e ICRC a n d its delegation th a t th is m ethod,
allowing th e b est utilisatio n of th e credits m ade available by
relief societies, was specially p e rm itted b y th e Swiss A uthorities
a n d b y those of th e B alkan countries.
The operation usually ran along th e following lines : the
donor deposited a certain am ount to th e account of th e ICRC
a t G eneva ; th e la tte r telegraphed th e figure to its delegations
an d these, a fter obtaining th e consent of th e n atio n al authorities,
sold th e credits to p riv ate individuals and requested th e ICRC
by telegram to deposit th e am ounts th u s sold to th e b u y e rs
account.
W hen, in th e la tte r p a rt 011944, postal traffic and telegraphic
com m unication betw een G eneva an d b o th H u n g ary a n d R u m a
nia were suspended, th e delegations were com pelled to resort
to o th er m eans of financing relief to th e Jew s. R ecourse was
h ad to th e issue of certificates. In B ucharest, these certificates
were nom inal an d n o t transferable, and could n o t be endorsed.
The holders could use them solely to cash, a t th e ICRC T reasury
in Geneva, th e am ount nam ed. The B udapest delegation, for
reasons beyond its control, was com pelled to issue bearer certi
ficates, a t th e risk of th e ir being used for speculative purposes.
In th is way, th e ICRC issued 426 certificates for B ucharest,
representing a to ta l of 6,665,880 Swiss francs, and 687 certifi
cates for B udapest, to th e to ta l value of 3,731,550 Swiss francs.
T he greater th e difficulties w hich th e J o in t Relief Commis
sion experienced in sending goods from Geneva, th e more
freely did the ICRC have recourse to th e tra n sfe r of funds
for th e local purchase of foodstuffs. These funds also allowed
519

th e delegations to tak e im m ediate action, in emergencies.

A t th e m ost critical period of anti-Sem itic persecution, the
ICRC delegates set up in certain tow ns, e. g. B udapest, childrens
hom es w here th e y placed Jew ish children u n d er th eir protection.
T hey also opened a certain n um ber of com m unal kitchens,
each d istrib u tin g ab o u t a h u n d red h o t m eals daily. F inally,
reception centres and shelters were organized for th e Jew s who
h ad escaped from concentration cam ps a fter th e liberation.

F inancing of Relief in Various Countries

(a) R um ania.
In 1943, th e ICRC, to which Jew ish circles increasingly
appealed in behalf of th e Jew s in R um ania, considered th e
possibility of reliei work, especially in T ransnistria. Its difficulty
was enhanced by th e fact th a t th e ICRC h ad only one delegate
a t B ucharest, who was m oreover' charged w ith other pressing
duties.
To avoid delay, th e delegate m ade arrangem ents w ith the
R um anian R ed Cross, who consented to c arry out this work,
in agreem ent w ith Jew ish circles, w hilst th e ICRC d elegates
ta s k was lim ited to general supervision and to any local checks
he m ight th in k desirable.
This m ethod was la te r extended and im proved. The Jew ish
organizations them selves m ade purchases in R um ania, and
handed over th e goods (clothing, food a n d m edical stores)
to th e R u m an ian R ed Cross, which d istrib u ted th em in
T ra n sn istria and elsewhere. The ICRC delegate visited th is
province and was able to assure him self th a t th e allocation
was equitable.
The n um ber of people assisted was roughly 220,000. The
following were th e classes chiefly in need of relief :
(a) People evacuated and deported to T ran sn istria in
1941 from B ukovina, B essarabia and N orthern Mol
davia ;
(b) Jew s due for em igration to P alestine ;
520

(c) Jew s who h ad been ruined by th e seizure of th eir

p ro p erty an d th eir exclusion from certain professions ;
(d) People rendered hom eless by air raids on B ucharest
an d Ploesti.
This relief schem e h ad th e support of th e R um anian a u th o r
ities. I t was sta rte d in N ovem ber, 1943, w ith a first donation
from th e " J o in t of 100,000 Swiss francs, which was tran sferred
to R um ania a t th e low ra te of 45 lei for 1 Swiss franc. The
R um anian R ed Cross m ade a g ran t from its own funds, bringing
th e to ta l to 10 m illion lei in all. Most of th is m oney served for
th e purchase in R um ania of clothing a n d footw ear, w hich was
d istrib u ted in th e g h ettos of T ransnistria.
A fu rth e r donation from th e J o in t of 100,000 dollars
was tran sferred to th e ICRC w ith th e aid of th e W ar Refugee
B oard. Of th e 420,000 Swiss francs o b tained by conversion,
100,000 francs were allocated to relief w ork for th e Jew ish
population in R um ania. This tim e, th e am ount was not tra n s
ferred th ro u g h official channels, b u t m ade available to th e
ICRC delegation in B ucharest, w hich m anaged to obtain 33
m illion lei, a t th e rate therefore of 330 lei for 1 Swiss franc.
This sum was allocated as follows :
8,000,000 lei

for th e purchase of underw ear and clothing,

all of which was d istrib u ted b y th e Jew ish
Centre a t B ucharest ;

15.000.000 lei

for th e purchase of food, prim arily for em i

g ran ts to P alestine on b oard th e Taris. As
th e ship was unable to sail, th e supplies were
given to th e d e stitu te Jew ish population ;

10.000.000 lei

for relief in cash, clothing, food and lodging

for w ar victim s, especially for rep a tria te s
from T ransnistria, refugees from B essarabia
and victim s of air raids.

In May, 1944, four w agonloads of food were sent from

Ista n b u l to R um ania. The supplies th ey carried (nuts, dried
raisins, etc.) were of sm all use to th e distressed persons, and were
521

therefore sold for general relief work. The ICRC delegate paid
o u t to Polish refugee Jew s th e allowances he h ad received from
Jew ish organizations in B ucharest. In addition, 250 m illion lei
were used for th e relief of 12,000 to 14,000 persons re p a tria te d
from T ran sn istria.
The local Jew ish organizations were v ery active. A t th e
request of th e J o i n t , th e ICRC delegate asked th e well-to-do
Jew ish circles in B ucharest to subscribe to aid for th e ir co
religionists in need ; during th e first nine m onths of 1944, a
to ta l of 847 m illion lei was th u s collected.
F rom th e sum m er of 1944, th e tran sactio n s of the J o in t
reached th e following levels :
4 m illion
8 m illion
10 m illion

Swiss francs, during th e second half of 1944 ;

Swiss francs, during th e first q u a rte r of 1945 ;
Swiss francs, during tn e second q u a rte r of 1945.

Some of th is m oney was utilised in neighbouring countries.

A t th e beginning of 1945, B ucharest becam e th e centre of relief
w ork for th e Jew s in H ungary, Jugoslavia, Czechoslovakia,
P oland a n d S ub-C arpathian R ussia. This w ork could be organi
zed only in R um ania.
(b) H ungary.
A lthough relief for th e Jew s was p erm itted by th e R um anian
authorities, th is was not th e case in H ungary. The ICRC
delegate a t B udapest nevertheless succeeded in settin g on
foot relief w ork sim ilar to th a t carried out by his colleague
in B ucharest.
The condition of th e Jew ish population in H u n g ary becam e
p a rticu larly tragic a fter th e G erm an occupation in M arch
1944. The ICRC, which was unable to o b tain any rem ission
of th e new m easures affecting th e Jew s, endeavoured to give
them p ractical assistance.
The Jew ish Senate in B udapest h ad appealed for help,
p a rticu larly in th e shape of m oney, as food and m edicam ents
were available on th e spot. In agreem ent w ith th e rep resen ta
tive of th e J o in t in Sw itzerland, th e ICRC a t once deposited
522

six m illion pengs w ith its B udapest delegate, to which fu rth e r

sum s were added later. The delegate was th u s able to purchase
b o th food and m edical stores in H u n g ary a n d th e adjacen t
countries, for d istrib u tio n to th e Jew s confined in th e Judenhauser, th e w ork cam ps and th e ghettos. T he delegate in
B ratislav a c o n trib u te d to th is w ork b y purchasing foodstuffs,
p articu la rly sugar in Slovakia, w hich he sent to H ungary.
These supplies were deposited in w arehouses an d p u t a t th e
disposal of th e Judenbro.
W hen, early in N ovem ber, 1944, th e H ungarian F ascists
began th e d ep o rtatio n of 35,000 to 45,000 Jew s, th e ICRC
delegate trav elled along th e route from B udapest to Vienna
an d issued food and m edical relief to these u n fo rtu n a te people,
who were being driven to th eir destin atio n in colum ns and on
foot. The rest of th e Jew ish population (the aged and unfit,
children, old m en and sick people) who h a d been assem bled
in th e gh etto a t B udapest, were fed as well as circum stances
perm itted .
As soon as B udapest was lib erated b y th e Soviet forces,
th e ICRC delegate was able to purchase a b o u t 350 tons of
foodstuff in R um ania, for fu rth e r distributions. T hanks to
th e credits from th e " J o in t , and to th e com bined efforts of
th e ICRC delegations and local Jew ish organizations, stocks
of food and m edicam ents were b u ilt u p in B udapest.
(c)Slovakia.
I t was not u n til th e uprising a t th e end of A ugust, 1944,
th a t th e Slovak au th o rities s ta ite d th e m ass arrest, im prison
m ent in concentration cam ps and tran sfer to G erm any of the
Jew ish population in Slovakia. To escape from these m easures
the Jew s were com pelled to rem ain in hiding.
As th ere was no Jew ish centre in this country, th e ICRC
delegate a t B ratislav a h a d great difficulty in issuing th e m oney
g ran ts which were placed to his credit from th e " J o in t ,
Relief for Jew s was th en strictly prohibited. T he delegate
endeavoured, how ever, to assist th e Jew s in hiding by m aking
paym ents to interm ediaries, often tru s te d persons w hom th e
523

" J o in t h ad indicated b y nam e. These subsidies enabled th e

Jew s in hiding, who were unable to procure food in th e usual
m anner, to obtain th eir supplies in the black m arket.
(d) Other Countries.
W hen th e Axis forces occupied Greece, th e ICRC delega
tion did its best to assist th e 55,000 Jew s in Salonika. In Ju ly
1942, a census was tak e n , and m ost of th e m en betw een 18
and 45 were sent to labour b attalio n s. The delegation gave
th em m edical supplies. Tow ards th e end of th e au tu m n of
1942, th e Jew ish w orkers were discharged ; tow ards th e m iddle
of May, 1943, th e y were tran sferred to G erm any. W hen their
d e p a rtu re h a d been arranged by th e G erm an authorities, the
ICRC delegate a t Salonika m ade pressing appeals for th e right
to supply them w ith b read and milk. The only effect was th a t
th e G erm ans asked the ICRC to recall th eir delegate.
In A ustria, th e Jew ish population was assisted by the
ICRC delegation in Vienna. In th is city there were, am ongst
others, 15,000 Jew s deported from H u n g ary in 1944 and
em ployed on forced labour. The ICRC delegate a t B ratislava
gave them food and clothing purchased in Slovakia.
Sim ilar w ork was carried out by th e ICRC delegate in
Croatia. From May, 1943, u n til th e arm istice, all relief for
d e stitu te Jew s was given th ro u g h his intervention. The credit
p u t a t his disposal for this purpose am ounted, in 1945, to
20,000 Swiss francs m onthly.
The ICRC in G eneva received direct from Jew ish organiza
tions sum s am ounting to 22,817,000 Swiss francs for its relief
to the Jew ish p o pulation in th e B alkan countries. The greater
p a rt of this m oney was tran sferred to R um ania and H ungary
an d utilised on the spot, m ainly for the purchase of food,
clothing and m edical supplies.
In th is connection, it should be pointed out th a t th e ICRC,
in agreem ent w ith th e J o in t
deducted betw een 5 and 7
per cent from th e funds sent by th e la tte r, and set it aside
for aid to w ar victim s, irrespective of race, n a tio n a lity or
524

religion. T hanks to these donations of Jew ish origin, th e I C R C

was able to m eet th e cost of various relief schem es, in p a rticu la r
hom es for children and h eated h u tm en ts.

2.

Camps

in

the

South

of

rance

D uring th e years which preceded th e second W orld W ar,

m any thousands of persons h ad to leave th eir n ativ e co u n try
because of political or racial persecution.
L arge num bers
found an asylum in France.
In Septem ber, 1939, th e French G overnm ent, for security
reasons, assem bled these refugees in cam ps in th e S outh of
France, w here there were already m any Spanish R epublicans
who h ad escaped from Spain a t th e end of th e Civil W ar.
In th e spring of 1940, during th e B a ttle of F rance, great
num bers of refugees m oved tow ards th e S outh and were for
th e m ost p a rt accom m odated in these cam ps. The arm istice
of Ju n e, 1940, far from leading to th eir release, increased the
population of th e cam ps by the inclusion of nationals of countries
a t w ar w ith th e Axis, political suspects and " undesirable
aliens. This unexpected influx, added to th e breakdow n of
tra n sp o rt, m ade th e provisioning of th e cam ps far more
difficult.
The ICRC, on learning of th is disquieting situ atio n , m anaged
to obtain inform ation on th e location and n um ber of th e cam ps,
which the F rench M inistry of the In te rio r h ad h ith e rto refused
to reveal. The C om m ittee a t once tu rn e d to all welfare organ
izations able to assist the internees, and called for financial
help.
An im m ediate response cam e from th e Swiss R ed Cross and
other Swiss relief organizations, and th e Swiss G overnm ent
authorized th e ICRC to export th e foodstuffs and m edical stores
it had purchased w ith the funds collected. Relief consignm ents
were addressed to th e cam p com m andants and to the represen
tativ e s of th e welfare organizations which h ad perm ission to
work in th e assem bly centres. The first consignm ent left G eneva
525

on J u ly 20, 1940, a n d others soon followed. Thus, in J u ly and

A ugust th e cam ps received ab o u t :
3.000 cases of condensed m ilk ;
12,000 kilos of pow dered m ilk ;
5.000 food a n d clothing parcels.
The ICRC o b tained receipts for these goods and handed
them to th e donor organizations.
This w ork was pursued w ith all possible speed. On its
inception, th e J o in t Relief Commission seconded th e C om m ittees
requests for funds, a n d for free tra n sp o rt and exem ption from
custom s dues I.
Since th ey were in tended for refugees, th e earliest shipm ents
b y th e C om m ittee were in th e n a tu re of relief for civilians. As
th e refugees were, how ever, u n d er detention, th e ICRC took
steps to ensure th a t th e y should have th e sam e tre a tm e n t,
w henever possible, as th a t accorded to prisoners of w ar under
th e 1929 Convention. The principal object of th is equality
of tre a tm e n t was to allow relief supplies collected in countries
overseas to pass th ro u g h th e blockade. Since th e detainees
were for th e m ost p a rt nationals of countries no longer a t w ar
w ith th e V ichy G overnm ent (most of them were G erm an and
A ustrian Jew s, an d citizens of countries allied w ith th e Axis),
th e y could n o t be regarded as civilian internees. The m ajo rity
were therefore subject to th e M inistry of th e In terio r, which
d etain ed them for security reasons, w hilst civilian internees
proper and th e Spanish R epublicans were under th e a u th o rity
of th e M inistry of W ar.
In th e sum m er of 1940, th e ICRC applied to th e blockade
au th o rities for th e free passage of relief supplies from overseas
for wom en and child victim s of th e w ar in E urope ; on th is
occasion, it also described th e critical situ a tio n of th e cam ps in
th e S outh of France, and its desire to im prove conditions in
an y w ay possible. D espite th e in terest shown b y public opinion
in G reat B ritain , no relax atio n of th e blockade could be secured.
U ndeterred, th e ICRC pursued its negotiations.
1 F o r d etails, see R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief Com m ission.
526

Before m aking an y response to th e num erous appeals

received, th e C om m ittee h ad to know e x actly w hat were the
requirem ents of each cam p, an d therefore obtain ed a u th o rity
from th e F rench G overnm ent to m ake visits. I n N ovem ber,
1940, a m em ber of th e Com m ittee was able to inspect th e cam ps
a t Gurs, Le V ernetin (Arige) a n d Argels-sur-M er, containing
respectively 12,047, 3>I;r3> an<l 12,046 persons. H e d istrib u ted
300 kilos of dressings, m edical stores and surgical in stru m en ts,
a n d a sum of 265,000 F rench francs, co n trib u ted b y nationals
of various countries for th eir detained relatives or friends.
The visit supplied evidence of grave needs, p articu larly
for clothing, footw ear, foodstuffs, m edical stores and even
h u tm e n ts. The ICRC notified these requirem ents to th e F rench
au th o rities and th e A m erican R ed Cross. On J a n u a ry 17, 1941,
it telegraphed to th e M inistry of Econom ic W arfare in London,
once again appealing for an exception in favour of these refugees.
The presence of B ritish subjects in these cam ps m ay possibly
have influenced th e a ttitu d e of the Allied authorities. A t all
events, th e blockade authorities inform ed th e ICRC on A pril 24,
1941, th a t th ey agreed to th e despatch of relief from overseas to
th e cam ps in th e S outh of France, on th e following conditions :
(1) Free tra n sp o rt and exem ption from custom s dues
in F ren ch te rrito ry ;
(2) Collective shipm ents only to be sent ;
(3) Supervision of issue by th e In te rn a tio n a l R ed Cross, or
th e F riends Service C om m ittee, acting in cooperation
with cam p com m ittees elected b y th e detainees ;
(4) Periodical reports on th e arrival an d issue of relief
stores, fot th e inform ation of th e M inistry of Econom ic
W arfare.
These conditions were su b m itted to th e F rench G overnm ent
and th e F rench R ed Cross a t Vichy, who inform ed th e ICRC
of th eir entire agreem ent in respect of points (1), (2) and (4).
As regards point (3), th ey proposed th a t th e issues should
be en tru ste d to com m ittees com prising m em bers of the local
F rench R ed Cross and of th e Service social d'aide aux migrants.
527

The point was discussed a t th e end of 1941 during a second

visit of a m em ber of the ICRC to Vichy F rance ; finally, on
J a n u a ry 30, 1942, th e F rench au th o rities accepted th e suggested
procedure for th e issue of relief from overseas to th e cam ps in
Southern France, and its supervision b y a n e u tra l organization.
A fter th e U nited S tates en tered th e war, it n a tu ra lly becam e
more difficult to find N o rth and South A m erican donors inclined
to send relief to internees in non-occupied F rance ; th e Jo in t
Relief Commission h a d to confine itself to sending m edicam ents.
On th e o th er h and, th e F rench G overnm ent and th e blockade
au th o rities agreed th a t a large consignm ent of clothing from
th e A m erican F riends Service C om m ittee should be unloaded
a t Lisbon a t th e end of 1941, and forw arded in early 1942 to th e
cam ps in S outhern France. The operation was n ot easy, b u t
th e belligerents agreed th a t this clothing should, as an exception,
be conveyed by a vessel assigned to th e tra n sp o rt of PW parcels
betw een Lisbon an d M arseilles, under th e R ed Cross flag. The
issue of th is clothing in th e cam ps was supervised by th e ICRC
delegate a t M arseilles 1.
D uring th eir visits, th e C om m ittees representatives noted
th a t th e detaining au th o rities h ad n ot alw ays succeeded,
despite th e ir earnest endeavours, in sufficiently im proving
th e sa n ita ry in stallatio n s of th e cam ps, or th e feeding and
clothing of th e internees.
A fter th e to ta l occupation of F rance in N ovem ber 1942,
a large num ber of hbergs were arrested and deported
and th e ta s k of feeding th e rem ainder becam e increasingly
difficult. B y perseverance and the use of every o p p o rtu n ity , th e
ICRC a n d th e J o in t Relief Commission contrived to supply
the cam ps, b u t this help was irregular and in ad eq u ate. Unlike
the E nglish-speaking civilians who, from 1943 onw ards, were
regarded in F rance as civilian internees and consequently
eligible for relief, th e " hbergs did not come under th e 1929
Convention. F u rth erm o re, th e welfare organizations th a t h ad
h ith e rto assisted them , had, as the result of o ther calls, ceased

1 See R e p o rt of th e J o in t R elief C om m ission.

52

to tak e th e sam e active in terest in these people. The ICRC

and th e J o in t Relief Commission, w ith no tu n d s of th e ir own,
were in consequence seriously handicapped.
To com plete th e account of th e IC R C 's w ork in th e cam ps
of Southern France, we should allude to th e forw arding of indi
vidual parcels and currency transfers. R elatives and friends
who did n o t know th e addresses of internees applied to the
C om m ittee, in stead of sending parcels direct. The ICRC, in
tu rn , was able to send th em on, th an k s to th e postal tra n sit
service w hich it h a d set up for th e purpose a t th e o u tb reak of
w ar 1.
U n fo rtu n ately , the F rench post office collected the cost of
tra n sp o rt and custom s dues from th e consignees, m ost of whom
were unable to p ay ; thus, a large n um ber of parcels were held
up in th e cam ps, involving the loss of all perishable contents.
T hanks to negotiations b y th e ICRC, individual parcels were
finally exem pted from th e above charges, b u t not trom the
consum er tax . F u rth erm o re, th e exem ption held only if the
parcels were assem bled a t G eneva and addressed to th e Comit
de la Reconnaissance franaise, who would forw ard them to the
consignees th ro u g h th e local com m ittees of the F rench R ed Cross.
People who were anxious to send gift parcels to th e internees
could n o t do so as freely as th e y w ould have liked.
The ICRC also did everything it could to prom ote the
tra n sfe r of currency. On F e b ru ary 26, 1941, th e A ssistant
H igh Commissioner for Refugees under the League of N ations,
in London, asked the C om m ittee to d istrib u te a sum of 100,000
F rench francs (which was subsequently doubled), to G erm an and
A ustrian m em bers of th e In te rn a tio n a l B rigade d etain ed in the
cam ps a t Gurs, Le V ernet and Argels. The J o in t Relief Com
mission was in stru cted by th e ICRC to carry out this tran sfer
and finally succeeded, a fter ngociations which lasted over
a year 2.

1 See above, p. 11.

2 For details, see R eport of the Joint R elief Commission.
n i. 34

529

3-

J a

s e

t i o

l s

i n

t i n

e r i c a

In M arch, 1944, th e Jap an ese R ed Cross in Tokyo m ade

a gift of 150,000 yen to th e ICRC, th ro u g h th e Jap an ese L egation
in Berne, for m edical care to indigent Jap an ese in certain
L a tin Am erican S tates. This c o n trib u tio n was to be allocated as
follows :
B olivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Mexico
Paraguay
Peru

per cent

7
24 .

42
4

13

Bol.
CR.
Ch. dois.
Pcs.
US. dois.
Pes.
US. dois.
Sol.

58,560,70
89,772.30
42,918.20
1,179.62
2,442.
40,604,
1.395
94,909.69

The Jap an ese L egation in Berne asked th a t th e m oney

should be e n tru ste d to th e ICRC delegates. Since there were
no such delegates in Chile, P eru or P araguay, recourse was h ad
in these countries to th e services of th e N ational R ed Cross
Societies. The general control of th e schem e was en tru ste d to
th e ICRC delegate in Buenos Aires, who was in stru cte d to tak e
all necessary action, to disburse th e funds, and to collect and
forw ard th e accounts and receipts to Geneva. These papers
were forw arded regularly from G eneva to th e Jap an ese Red
Cross. A ccording to th e wishes of th e donors :
(1) The funds were in ten d ed solely for the m edical care
of n o n-interned indigent Japanese.
(2) W herever practicable, th e cooperation of th e Japanese
colonies or th e ir com m ittees was to be enlisted, p articu larly
in th e selection of beneficiaries.
(3) The ICRC was responsible to th e Jap an ese R ed Cross
for th e use of these funds.
(4) D etailed accounts and, if possible, receipts were to
be sent a t regular in tervals to Geneva, as a rule m onthly.
W herever possible, th e P rotecting Pow er should also be
consulted on th e use of th e funds and th e selection of benefi
ciaries.
530

These in structions were com m unicated to th e agencies

concerned, nam ely th e ICRC delegates, th e R ed Cross Societies
an d th e P ro tectin g Powers.
The execution of th is p articu la r relief schem e was b y no
m eans easy, and m uch telegraphic correspondence was required
for th e arrangem ents w ith th e local Jap an ese organizations, and
to o b tain a u th o rity for currency transfers. B y th e end of May,
1944, how ever, m ost of th e above am ounts h ad reached th e
recipients. In P eru, P araguay, Chile and p articu larly Cuba,
in stru ctio n s were strictly carried out, b u t th is proved im possible
in th e other countries.
Mexico.
The ICRC delegate in Mexico m ade an agreem ent w ith the
Japanese M utual Aid Com m ittee as to th e use of th e funds.
This Com m ittee h ad forty-eight delegates th ro u g h o u t the
country, and was th u s inform ed of all Jap an ese nationals who
were in need of m edical a tte n tio n . The ICRC delegate m ade
periodical allocations to th e com m ittee, and sent m onthly
reports to Geneva.
Chile, Peru, Paraguay.
In the absence of any ICRC delegation in these three coun
tries, responsibility fell to th e delegation in th e A rgentine,
which enlisted th e help of th e N ational R ed Cross Societies and
th e P ro tectin g Pow ers, and issued precise in structions as to
th e categories eligible for relief. All accounts and receipts h ad
to be forw arded to G eneva th ro u g h th e delegation a t Buenos
Aires.
In Chile, the N ational R ed Cross agreed to adm inister
th e funds, w ith th e help of tw o Japanese representatives. In
point of fact, th e m oney was e n tru ste d to th e Swedish L egation
a t Santiago, which looked after Japanese interests, answ ered
applications and drew up th e accounts. The sta te m e n ts were
sent to th e delegation a t Buenos Aires th ro u g h th e Chilean Red
Cross.
5 3 1

I n Peru, th is w ork was th e charge of th e N ational R ed Cross,

acting in collaboration w ith four Japanese representatives.
R egular accounts and receipts were sent to th e delegation at
Buenos Aires.
In P arag u ay , arrangem ents were m ade w ith th e N ational
R ed Cross and the Spanish Legation, which looked after J a p a
nese interests. B u t as no applications were received, th e donors
agreed th a t th e available m oney should be held back for possible
use in o th er South A m erican countries. I t was finally used for
Jap an ese nationals in Cuba.
Cuba.
D uring a first visit to Cuba, in Septem ber, 1944, th e ICRC
delegate to th e W est Indies m ade arrangem ents w ith the Cuban
R ed Cross and left a certain sum of m oney in its hands. These
funds, and fu rth e r sum s which were paid in late r, were adm inis
tered jo in tly b y th e Cuban R ed Cross and Japanese rep resen ta
tives. The m ain difficulty was the fact the ICRC delegate
resided in W ashington and could only visit Cuba a t rare
intervals.
Follow ing a second trip , th e delegate inform ed the Com
m ittee, in Septem ber 1945, on th e difficult position of Japanese
internees who were due for early release. He sta te d th a t all
were short of clothing and food, w hilst th e y received m edical
aid from th e G overnm ent and th e Cuban R ed Cross. L ater,
th e delegate sta te d th a t some of the released internees were in
need of resto rativ es and vitam ins, and asked for a u th o rity to
purchasse these w ith th e balance of th e funds assigned for
Jap an ese n ationals in Cuba. W ith th e consent of the donors,
1,395 dollars originally provided for P araguay, which could
not be used there, were m ade over by th e Com m ittee. Thus,
th e funds assigned to Cuba were devoted alm ost entirely to
m edical care, w hilst th e q u o ta first in ten d ed for P arag u ay
w ent to th e purchase of clothing, foodstuffs, restoratives and
vitam ins for released Jap an ese internees. The ICRC delegate
was able to b u y th is clothing cheaply in H aiti and to send it
free of charge to Cuba.
532

Bolivia.
A rrangem ents were m ade by th e ICRC delegate a t L a Paz,
b u t no Jap an ese nationals applied for m edical care.
Colombia.
No m edical aid was needed.
Certain Jap an ese families,
whose breadw inners h ad been in tern ed , were how ever in very
straiten ed circum stances, and th e ICRC delegate decided to use
for th eir relief p a rt of th e funds a t his disposal.
Brazil.
The ICRC delegate a t Rio de Janeiro proposed to enlist the
su p p o rt of th e P ap al Nuncio, who was looking after Japanese
in terests in Brazil, and was th u s able to m ake co ntact w ith all
th e Jap an ese colonies scattered th ro u g h o u t th is v ast area.
The donors accepted th e suggestion. W hen approached, the
Nuncio replied th a t he could only u n d ertak e this d u ty if he was
n o t asked to confine him self to m edical aid, since he was anxious
to com bine th is new ta sk w ith th e work he was already doing,
on behalf of th e V atican, for th e Japanese. The donors having
agreed, th e funds were h anded over to th e Nuncio, who applied
them b o th to m edical aid and th e purchase of foodstuffs,
clothing, etc. The receipts were sent to Geneva.
The g ran t m ade by th e Japanese R ed Cross has not yet
been com pletely disbursed, and the balance is draw n upon,
as occasion arises.

533

CO NTENTS
Page
I n

i o

..............................................................................................................................................................................................................

PART I

Relief Work by the ICRC for Prisoners of War and Detainees

of all Categories. General Problems
Chapter 1.

From the P olish Campaign to the Invasion of W estern

E u r o p e .......................................................................
9
Individual C onsignm ents.............................
C ollective C o n sig n m en ts.............................

Chapter 2.

10
16

The Influx of Prisoners of W ar after the Campaigns

in the W e st..............................................................
22
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Organization of C ollective R elief by the

D o n o r s ....................................................
26
Effects of Econom ic W a r fa r e ......
28
R ole of the I C R C .........................................
35
Arrival of S up plies.........................................
43
Supervision of D istr ib u tio n ..........
46

Chapter 3.

Campaigns in the B a l k a n s .............................

Chapter 4.

Mass Capture of Prisoners of W ar on the Eastern

Front in E u rop e....................................................
53
(a)
(b)
(c)

Chapter 5.

48

Russian PW in G erm any...........................

54
Russian PW in R um ania and F inland.
.
57
German, Finnish,
Hungarian, Italian,
Slovak and R um anian PW in R ussia . .
61

The War in N orth A f r i c a .............................

63

535

Page

Chapter 6.

M ovem ents of Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees

follow ing the Italian Arm istice of Septem ber 1943.
(1)
(2)
(3)

Chapter 7.

Transfer of Allied PW to Germ any . . .

Transfer of Italian A nti-F ascists to Ger
m any
R esum ption of R elief to Allied N ationals

D etained and D eported C i v i l i a n s .....................

(a)
(b)
( c)
(d)
(e)

67
67
68
70

73

First Phase, 1 9 3 9 -1 9 4 0 ...........................

Second Phase, 1 9 4 1 -1 9 4 2 .......................
Third Phase, 1943-1944...........................
Fourth Phase, Jan.-June 1 9 4 5 ........
Post-W ar A c t i v i t i e s ................................

74
74
79
83
84

Chapter 8.

The Final Phase of the War in E u rop e............

Food Supplies for G e r m a n y .........................

85
88

Chapter 9.

The Period of R ep atriation ....................................

96

Chapter 10. R elief to A xis Prisoners of War after the End of

H ostilities
(1)
(2)
(3)

General O b servations................................
Supply of Food and C lothin g ..............
Forwarding of Surplus K i t ..................

99
107
115

Chapter I I . R elief to D isplaced P erson s...............................................

118

PAR T II

Work of the ICRC in Transport and Communications

G eneral R e m a r k s ........................................................................................
Chapter 1.

Maritime Transports
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Chapter 2.

In trod u ction ..................................................

Status of the C om m ittees V essels.. . .
Technical O rgan ization ...........................
W ork a c c o m p lis h e d ................................

R ailw ay T ransport........................................................
D espatch of Gifts by P o s t..............................

536

124

127
134
156
158
166
181

P age

Chapter 3.

Road Transport
(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)

General S u r v e y .............................................
Supply of Equipm ent :
A. L o r r i e s ............................................
B. Fuel
........................................................
Use of ICRC T rucks....................................
Organization of R oad T ransport............

184
186
189
190
195

P A R T III

Execution of Relief Schemes

Chapter 1.

C ollective Relief Supplies for Prisoners of War

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

(5)

(6)
(7)

(8)

A dvantages of C ollective Supplies . . . .

201
D espatch and R eceip t of Supplies. . . .
207
Purchase of Supplies by the ICRC . . .
225
The W arehouses of the ICRC
(a) European P o r t s ..................................
227
(b) S w itz e r la n d ............................................
237
(c) A b r o a d .....................................................
245
D istribution by N ationality
(a) Polish P W ............................................
251
(b) British P W ...........................................
253
(c) French P W ............................................
254
(d) Czechoslovak, Jugoslav, Greek,
D utch, and N orwegian P W . . .
255
(e) Other N a tio n a lities.............................
256
(f) Hungarian, R um anian and B ul
garian P W ..................................
256
( g) P a r t is a n s ................................................
257
Arrival of R elief Supplies in PW Camps .
257
A llocation of E xpenses
..................................
269
F ixing of a L e v y ...................................
270
A. Supplies conveyed and A dm inis
trative C o s t s .........................
271
B. D etails of Costs
.......................
272
Internal O r g a n iz a t io n ...............................
273

Chapter 2.

Individual R e l i e f .................................................................

281

Chapter 3.

Intellectual A i d ......................................................................

288

537

Chapter 4.

Medical Aid
(x)

Medical and Pharm aceutical Aid

(2)

A.
Allied P W ....................
296
B. German and Austrian P W . . .
306
C.Italian PW and M ilitary Internees
312
D.
Civilian I n t e r n e e s ...........
314
E.
D isplaced P e r s o n s ............
314
Artificial Limbs, Surgical A ppliances, etc.
318

Chapter 5.

R elief for Civilian................. I n t e r n e e s .....................

Chapter 6.

R elief to Civilian

Chapter 7.

Special C a s e s ....................................................................
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

328

D etainees and D eportees. . . .

Relief to W ar-D isabled after th e Arm is

t ic e ...............................................................................
R elief to W ar-Disabled and C onsum ptives
in G r e e c e .................................................................
Relief to Nurses in C a m p s .............................
R elief to Internees in N eutral Countries .

335
341
341
346
351
352

PART IV

Relief to Civilian Populations

Chapter 1.

E xten sion of R elief Work to Refugees, and to the

W om en, Children, Aged and Sick of the Civilian
Population
( 1)
(2)

(3)
538

Creation of a special International Red

Cross E x e c u t i v e ...................................................
General N egotiations w ith the Belligerents
Econom ic W a r f a r e .....................................

359
366
367

A. The B l o c k a d e .................................
B. The Counter-Blockade . . . .
Transfers of F u n d s. . . .
U N R R A and International
Red C r o s s .......................
D istribution of R elief . .

368
377
378

The Post-W ar P e r i o d .......................................

384

380
382

P age

C h apter 2.

R elief to In d iv id u a l C ountries
(1)
(2)
(3 )
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)

(13)

(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
Chapter 3.

A lb an ia...............................................................
401
A u s t r ia ...............................................................
402
B elg iu m ..............................................................
404
C zechoslovakia.................................................
408
The D o d e c a n e se ............................................
410
F in la n d ...............................................................
414
F r a n c e ...............................................................
415
P ockets on the A tlantic Coast . . . .
420
G e r m a n y ..........................................................
424
British Zone City of Berlin French
Zone American Zone S oviet Zone
Im port Licences.
Great Britain (Channel Islands) . . . . .
439
G r e e c e ...............................................................
450
H u n g a r y ..........................................................
479
Ita ly and the Italian Population in Africa
481
Eritrea Italian
E ast Africa N orth
Africa C ity of R om e Southern Ita ly
Swiss Frontier N orthern Ita ly .
Ju goslavia ..........................................................
487
Serbia Croatia D alm atia M ontene
gro Muslim C om m unity Fium e.
N eth e rla n d s......................................................
496
N orw a y ...............................................................
503
P o l a n d ...............................................................
505
R u m a n i a ..........................................................
5x2

Special Cases
(1)
(2)
(3 )

Jew ish Civilian P o p u la t io n .....................

513
Camps in the South of F r a n c e ............
525
Japanese N ationals in Latin America . .
530

539

ERRATA

Page 14, line 1.

This line should be indented and start a new paragraph.
Page 112, line 5.
For under-nourishment read undernourishment
Page 165, line 3.
For below read below 1
Page 168, line 6 from bottom.
For sentto read " sent to .
Page 221, sub-title.
For Parcels to read Parcels for
Page 237, sub-title Setting up... .
Delete both brackets.
Page 252, line 3.
For " mobilise das read mobilised as .
Page 348, line 11 from below.
For " five kilo read five-kilo ,
Page 469, line 10 from below.
For co tinue read continue

AA 3
CICR BIBLIOTHEQUE