2004 - Grundfosmahanegment - Pump Handbookl Ind HB 01 PDF

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GRUNDFOS Canada Inc.
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L-IND-HB-01 8/2008 (US)
U.S.A.
GRUNDFOS Pumps Corporation
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Olathe, Kansas 66061
Phone: (913) 227-3400
Telefax: (913) 227-3500
PUMP HANDBOOK
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GRUNDFOS PUMP HANDBOOK
PUMP HANDBOOK
Copyright 2008 GRUNDFOS Pumps Corporation. All rights reserved.

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Disclaimer
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however, GRUNDFOS shall not be liable or responsible for any loss whether direct, indirect,
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this material.
Foreword
Todays processes place heavy demand on pumps when it comes to optimum operation,
high reliability and low energy consumption. Therefore, we have developed the
Grundfos Pump Handbook which, in a simple manner, deals with various considerations
when sizing pumps and pump systems.
This handbook, developed for engineers and technicians who work with design and the
installation of pumps and pump systems, includes answers to a wide range of technical
questions. The handbook can either be read from cover-to-cover or in part on specific
topics.
The handbook is divided into five chapters which deal with different phases when
designing pump systems.
Chapter 1 includes a general presentation of different pump types and components.
Also described are precautions to consider when dealing with viscous liquids. Further,
the most used materials, as well as different types of corrosion, are presented. Terminologies in connection with reading pump performance are presented in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 deals with system hydraulics and some of the most important factors to
consider for optimum operation of the pump system. Pump performance adjustment
methods are discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 describes life cycle costs, as energy consumption plays an important role in todays pumps and pump systems.
We sincerely hope that you will find this handbook useful in your daily work.
Grundfos Pumps Corporation
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Design of pumps and motors. .....................7
Section 1.1 Pump construction............................................................. 8

1.1.1 The centrifugal pump................................................................... 8
1.1.2 Pump curves................................................................................................9
1.1.3 Characteristics of the centrifugal pump.......................... 11
1.1.4 Most common end-suction and

in-line pump types............................................................................... 12
1.1.5 Impeller types (axial forces)........................................................14
1.1.6 Casing types (radial forces).......................................................... 15
1.1.7 Single-stage pumps............................................................................ 15
1.1.8 Multistage pumps................................................................................16
1.1.9 Long-coupled and close-coupled pumps.........................16
Section 1.2 Types of pumps. ..................................................................17
1.2.1 Standard pumps. ................................................................................... 17
1.2.2 Split-case pumps................................................................................... 17
1.2.3 Hermetically sealed pumps.........................................................18
1.2.4 Sanitary pumps.......................................................................................20
1.2.5 Wastewater pumps............................................................................ 21
1.2.6 Immersible pumps...............................................................................22
1.2.7 Groundwater pumps.........................................................................23
1.2.8 Positive displacement pumps. ..................................................24
Section 1.3 Mechanical shaft seals...................................................27
1.3.1 The mechanical shaft seals

components and function............................................................29
1.3.2 Balanced and unbalanced shaft seals................................30
1.3.3 Types of mechanical shaft seals..............................................31
1.3.4 Seal face material combinations............................................34
1.3.5 Factors affecting the seal performance. ..........................36
Section 1.4 Motors..................................................................................... 39
1.4.1 Standards.................................................................................................... 40
1.4.2 Motor start-up........................................................................................ 46
1.4.3 Voltage supply.........................................................................................47
1.4.4 Frequency converter. .........................................................................47
1.4.5 Motor protection.................................................................................. 49
Section 1.5 Liquids........................................................................................53

1.5.1 Viscous liquids.........................................................................................54
1.5.2 Non-Newtonian liquids................................................................... 55
1.5.3 The impact of viscous liquids on the

performance of a centrifugal pump.................................... 55
1.5.4 Selecting the right pump for a liquid

with antifreeze........................................................................................56
1.5.5 Calculation example..........................................................................58
1.5.6 Computer-aided pump selection for dense and

viscous liquids..........................................................................................58
Section 1.6 Materials. ............................................................................... 59
1.6.1 What is corrosion?.............................................................................. 60
1.6.2 Types of corrosion................................................................................61
1.6.3 Metal and metal alloys....................................................................65
1.6.4 Ceramics........................................................................................................ 71
1.6.5 Plastics............................................................................................................ 71
1.6.6 Rubber............................................................................................................. 72
1.6.7 Coatings. ....................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 2 Installation and performance

reading.............................................................................................................75
Section 2.1 Pump installation ............................................................ 76
2.1.1 New installation. ...................................................................................76
2.1.2 Existing installation-replacement.........................................76
2.1.3 Pipe flow for single-pump installation. ............................ 77
2.1.4 Limitation of noise and vibrations........................................78
2.1.5 Sound level ................................................................................................81
Section 2.2 Pump performance ........................................................ 83
2.2.1 Hydraulic terms......................................................................................83
2.2.2 Electrical terms. ..................................................................................... 90
2.2.3 Liquid properties....................................................................................93
Chapter 3 System hydraulics.................................................. 95
Chapter 5 Life cycle costs calculation .........................127
Section 3.1 System characteristics ..................................................96

3.1.1 Single resistances. ................................................................................97
3.1.2 Closed and open systems............................................................. 98
Section 5.1 Life cycle costs equation. ........................................... 128

5.1.1 Initial cost, purchase price (Cic).............................................. 129
5.1.2 Installation and commissioning costs (Cin)................. 129
5.1.3 Energy costs (Ce).................................................................................. 130
5.1.4 Operating costs including labor (Co)................................. 130
5.1.5 Environmental costs (Cenv).......................................................... 130
5.1.6 Maintenance and repair costs (Cm)..................................... 131
5.1.7 Downtime costs (loss of production) (Cs)...................... 131
5.1.8 Decommissioning or disposal costs (Cd). ....................... 131
Section 3.2 Pumps connected in parallel and series. ..................101

3.2.1 Pumps in parallel. ...............................................................................101
3.2.2 Pumps connected in series........................................................ 103
Chapter 4 Performance adjustment

of pumps..................................................................................................... 105
Section 4.1 Adjusting pump performance...............................106
4.1.1 Throttle control. ...................................................................................107
4.1.2 Bypass control........................................................................................107
4.1.3 Modifying impeller diameter.................................................. 108
4.1.4 Speed control......................................................................................... 108
4.1.5 Comparison of adjustment methods...............................110
4.1.6 Overall efficiency of the pump system........................... 111
4.1.7 Example: Relative power consumption

when the flow is reduced by 20%........................................ 111
Section 4.2 Speed-controlled pump solutions ..................... 114
4.2.1 Constant pressure control..........................................................114
4.2.2 Constant temperature control. .............................................. 115
4.2.3 Constant differential pressure in a

circulating system.............................................................................. 115
4.2.4 Flow-compensated differential

pressure control...................................................................................116
Section 5.2 Life cycle costs calculation

an example.................................................................................................132
Appendix..........................................................................................................133
A) Notations and units..........................................................................134
B) Unit conversion tables...................................................................135
C) SI-prefixes and Greek alphabet............................................. 136
D) Vapor pressure and specific gravity of water at

different temperatures. ................................................................137
E) Orifice ...........................................................................................................138
F) Change in static pressure due to change

in pipe diameter.................................................................................. 139
G) Nozzles. ....................................................................................................... 140
H) Nomogram for head losses in

bends, valves, etc....................................................................... 141-150
I)
Periodic system..................................................................................... 151
J)
Pump standards...................................................................................152
K) Viscosity for typical liquids as a function

of liquid temperature. ............................................................153-157
Section 4.3 Advantages of speed control..................................117

Index .......................................................................................................... 158-162
Section 4.4 Advantages of pumps with integrated
frequency converter............................................................................... 118
4.4.1 Performance curves of speed-controlled

pumps. ..........................................................................................................119
4.4.2 Speed-controlled pumps in different systems.........119
Section 4.5 Frequency converter. ................................................... 122
4.5.1 Basic function and characteristics.......................................122
4.5.2 Components of the frequency converter......................122
4.5.3 Special conditions regarding frequency

converters.................................................................................................124
Chapter 1. Design of pumps and motors
Section 1.1: Pump construction

1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.1.8
1.1.9
The centrifugal pump

Pump curves
Characteristics of the centrifugal pump
Most common end-suction and in-line
pump types
Impeller types (axial forces)
Casing types (radial forces)
Single-stage pumps
Multistage pumps
Long-coupled and close-coupled pumps
Section 1.2: Types of pumps

1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
1.2.7
1.2.8
Standard pumps
Split-case pumps
Hermetically sealed pumps
Sanitary pumps
Wastewater pumps
Immersible pumps
Groundwater pumps
Positive displacement pumps
Section 1.1
Pump construction
1.1.1 The centrifugal pump

In 1689, the physicist Denis Papin invented the centrifugal pump. Today, this kind of pump is the most
commonly used around the world. The centrifugal
pump is built on a simple principle: Liquid is led to
the impeller hub and is flung towards the periphery
of the impeller by means of centrifugal force.
Fig. 1.1.1: The liquids flow through the pump
The construction is fairly inexpensive, robust and

simple, and its high speed makes it possible to connect the pump directly to an asynchronous motor.
The centrifugal pump provides a steady liquid flow,
and it can easily be throttled without causing any
damage to the pump.
See figure 1.1.1 for liquid flow through the pump. The
inlet of the pump leads the liquid to the center of the
rotating impeller from where it is flung towards the
periphery. This construction provides high efficiency
and is suitable for handling pure liquids. Pumps
which have to handle impure liquids, such as wastewater pumps, are fitted with an impeller that prevents objects from getting lodged inside the pump,
see section 1.2.5.
Radial flow pump
Mixed flow pump
Axial flow pump
Fig. 1.1.2: Different kinds of centrifugal pumps
If a pressure difference occurs in the system while the

centrifugal pump is not running, liquid can still pass
through due to its open design.
As you can tell from figure 1.1.2, the centrifugal pump
can be categorized in different groups: Radial flow
pumps, mixed flow pumps and axial flow pumps.
Radial flow pumps and mixed flow pumps are the
most common. These types of pumps are discussed
on the following pages with a brief presentation of a
positive displacement pump in section 1.2.8.
The different demands on the centrifugal pumps
performance, especially with regard to head, flow,
and installation, together with the demands for economical operation, are only a few of the reasons why
so many types of pumps exist. Figure 1.1.3 shows the
different pump types with regard to flow and head.
H [ft]
10000
H [m]
10000
6
4
2
1000
1000
Multistage radial
flow pumps
6
4
2
100
100
Single-stage radial
flow pumps
6
4
2
10
10
Mixed flow pumps
6
4
Axial flow pumps
2
1
10
4 6 10 2
100
4 6 100 2
1000
4 6 1000 2
4 6 10000 100000
3
Q [m /h]
10000
Q [GPM]
100000
Fig. 1.1.3: Flow and head for different types of centrifugal

pumps
1.1.2 Pump curves

The performance of a centrifugal pump is shown by
a set of performance curves. The performance curves
for a centrifugal pump are shown in figure 1.1.4. Head,
power consumption, efficiency and NPSH are shown as
a function of the flow.
60
50
40
50
40
Efficiency
20
30
10
20
10
P2
[hp]
10
15
20
25
35
30
40
Q [GPM] 0
NPSH
(ft)
Power consumption
0.6
20
15
10
0.4
NPSH
0.2
Fig. 1.1.4: Typical performance curves for a centrifugal

pump. Head, power consumption, efficiency and NPSH
are shown as a function of the flow
In some pump types with integrated motors and possibly

integrated frequency converters, e.g. canned motor pumps
(see section 1.2.3), the power consumption curve and the
-curve cover both the motor and the pump. In this case
the P1-value has to be taken into account, see figure 1.1.5.
In general, pump curves are designed according to
Hydraulic Institute test standards or ISO 9906 Annex
A, which specifies the tolerances of the curves.
70
60
30
0
0
Normally, pump curves in Grundfos product guides

only cover the liquid end hydraulic performance.
Therefore, the power consumption, the P2-value which
is listed in the product guides as well, only covers the
power going into the pump see figure 1.1.4. The same
applies for efficiency value, which only covers the
liquid end ( = P).
[%]
[ft]
Q
P1
M
3~
P2
Fig. 1.1.5: The curves for power consumption and

efficiency will normally only cover the pump part of
the unit i.e. P2 and P
Following is a brief presentation of the different pump

performance curves.
Head, the QH-curve

H
The QH-curve shows the head, identifying where the

pump is able to perform at a given flow, see figure 1.1.6.
Head is measured in feet liquid column [ft]; normally
the unit feet [ft] is applied. The advantage of using
the unit [ft] as the unit of measurement for a pumps
head is that the QH-curve is not affected by the type of
liquid the pump has to handle, see section 2.2 for more
information.
[ft]
60
50
40
30
Efficiency
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Q [GPM]
Fig. 1.1.6: A typical QH-curve for a centrifugal pump;

low flow results in high head and high flow results
in low head
Section 1.1
Pump construction
Efficiency, the -curve

The efficiency is the relationship between the supplied
power and the utilized amount of power. In the
world of pumps, the efficiency p is the relationship
between the power which the pump delivers to the
water (PH) and the power input to the shaft (P2 ):
p =
QH . SG
PH
=
3960 x P2
P2
side of the pump to avoid cavitation (see section

2.2.1). The NPSHr value is measured in [ft] and
depends on the flow. When flow increases, the
NPSHr value increases, see figure 1.1.9. For more
information concerning cavitation and NPSH, go to
section 2.2.1.
[%]
80
70
60
where:
SG is the specific gravity of the liquid.
Q is the flow in GPM and H is the head in ft.
p is the pump efficiency
For water at 68oF and with Q measured in GPM and H
in ft, the hydraulic power can be calculated as:
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
17 5
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
Q [GPM]
Fig. 1.1.7: The efficiency curve of a typical centrifugal

pump
PH = lb of liquid per minute . H

33,000
Power consumption, the P2-curve
The relationship between the power consumption of

the pump and the flow is shown in figure 1.1.8. The
P2-curve of most centrifugal pumps is similar to the
one in figure 1.1.8 where the P2 value increases when
the flow increases.
Q . H . SG
P2 =
3960 x p
P2
[hp]
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
25
50
75
100 125
150
175 200
225
25 0
275
300
325
Q [GPM]
Fig. 1.1.8: The power consumption curve of a typical

centrifugal pump
As it appears from the efficiency curve shown in figure

1.1.7, the efficiency depends on the duty point of the
pump. It is important to select a pump that fits the flow
requirements and ensures the pump is working in the
most efficient flow area.
NPSH
[ft]
20
15
NPSH - curve (Net Positive Suction Head

Required)
10
5
0
0
The NPSHr value of a pump is the minimum absolute

head pressure that has to be present at the suction
10
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300 325
Q [GPM]
Fig. 1.1.9: The NPSH curve of a typical centrifugal

pump
1.1.3 Characteristics of the

centrifugal pump
The centrifugal pump has several characteristics
and the most important ones are presented in this
chapter. A more thorough description of the different
pump types are given at the end of the chapter.
The number of stages

Depending on the number of impellers in the pump,
a centrifugal pump can be either a single-stage pump
or a multistage pump.
The position of the pump shaft

Single-stage and multistage pumps come with horizontal
or vertical pump shafts and are normally designated as
horizontal or vertical pumps. For more information, go to
section 1.1.4.
Single-suction or double-suction impellers

Depending on the construction of the impeller, a pump
can be fitted with either a single-suction impeller or a
double-suction impeller. For more information, go to
section 1.1.5.
Construction of the pump casing

Two types of pump casings are discussed: Volute
casing and return channels. For more information, go
to section 1.1.6.
Fig 1.1.10: Example of multiple stage pump
11
Section 1.1
Pump construction
1.1.4 Most common end-suction and in-line pump types
End-suction
Horizontal
Single-stage
Long-coupled
12
Multistage
Close-coupled
Close-coupled
End-suction pump
=

Liquid runs directly into the impeller. Inlet and outlet have a
90 angle. See section 1.1.9
In-line pump
=

Liquid runs directly through the pump in-line. The suction pipe and the discharge
pipe are placed opposite one another and can be mounted directly in the piping system
Split-case pump
Pump with an axially divided pump housing. See section 1.2.2
Horizontal pump
Pump with a horizontal pump shaft
Vertical pump
Pump with a vertical pump shaft
Single-stage pump
Pump with a single impeller. See section 1.1.7
Multistage pump
Pump with several series-coupled stages. See section 1.1.8
Long-coupled pump =

Pump connects to the motor by means of a flexible coupling. The motor and
the pump have separate bearing constructions. See section 1.1.9
Close-coupled pump =
Pump connects to the motor by means of a rigid coupling. See section 1.1.9
In-line
Horizontal
Vertical
Split-case
Single-stage
Multistage
Single-stage
Long-coupled
Long-coupled
Close-coupled
Close-coupled
13
Section 1.1
Pump construction
1.1.5 Impeller types

There are three common types of pump impellers:
open, enclosed and semi-open, see figure 1.1.11.
The open impeller has a series of vanes attached
to the center hub and is commonly chosen for low
horsepower applications of clean, non-abrasive fluids
or fluids with large solids. The enclosed impeller
has vanes sandwiched between two shrouds. While
the shrouds result in a slightly lower mechanical
efficiency, they decrease the amount of pump casing
wear caused by dirty or abrasive liquids. This design
usually includes replaceable wear rings so critical
clearances can be renewed. The semi-open impeller
has a single shroud on one side of the vanes and it
leaves one side open. This design can handle abrasives
or solids well and often allows for simple axial
adjustment of critical impeller-to-casing clearances
without pump disassembly.
Axial Force Balancing

A centrifugal pump generates pressure, exerting
forces on both stationary and rotating parts of the
pump. Pump parts are made to withstand these
forces.
If axial and radial forces are not counterbalanced in the
pump, the forces have to be taken into consideration
when selecting the driving system for the pump, such
as angular contact bearings in the motor. In pumps
fitted with a single-suction impeller, large axial forces
may occur, see figures 1.1.12 and 1.1.13. These forces
are balanced or avoided as follows:
Mechanically via thrust bearings.
Via balancing holes on the impeller, see figure
1.1.14
Via throttle regulation from a seal ring mounted
on the back of the impellers, see figure 1.1.15
Via blades on the back of the impeller, see figure
1.1.16
Through the use of double-suction impellers, see
figure 1.1.17
14
Open
Semi-open
Enclosed
Fig. 1.1.11: Impeller types
Axial forces
Fig. 1.1.12: Single-suction

impeller
Fig. 1.1.13: Standard pump with
single-suction impeller
Fig. 1.1.14: Balancing the axial forces in

a single-stage centrifugal pump with
balancing holes only
Fig. 1.1.15: Balancing the axial forces in a

single-stage centrifugal pump with seal
ring gap at discharge side and
balancing holes
Fig. 1.1.16: Balancing the axial forces in

a single-stage centrifugal pump with
blades on the back of the impellers
Fig. 1.1.17: Balancing the axial forces in a

double-suction impeller arrangement
1.1.6 Casing types
Fig. 1.1.18: Single-suction

impeller
Radial forces
Radial forces are a result of the static pressure in the

casing. Therefore, axial deflections may occur and lead
to interference between the impeller and the casing.
The magnitude and the direction of the radial force
depend on the flow rate and the head.
The single-volute pump is characterized by a symmetric

pressure in the volute at the optimum efficiency point,
which leads to zero radial load. At all other points,
the pressure around the impeller is not symmetrically
equal and consequently a radial force is present.
Fig. 1.1.19: Single-volute casing
Double-volute casing
Radial force
When designing the casing for the pump, it is possible

to control the hydraulic radial forces. Two casing
types worth mentioning are the single-volute and the
double-volute. As seen in figure 1.1.19, both casings
are shaped as a volute. The double-volute has a guide
vane.
Single-volute
casing
Double-volute
casing
1.0
Q/Qopt
Fig. 1.1.20: Radial force for single and double-volute casing
As seen in figure 1.1.20, the double-volute casing develops

a constant low radial reaction force at any capacity.
Return channels (figure 1.1.21) are used in multistage
pumps and have the same function as volute casings.
Liquid is led from one impeller to the next. At the
same time, water rotation is reduced and the dynamic
pressure is transformed into static pressure. Because
of the return channel casings circular design, no radial
forces are present.
Fig. 1.1.21: Vertical multistage

in-line pump with return
channel casing
Return channel
1.1.7 Single-stage pumps

Generally, single-stage pumps are used in applications
that do not require a total head of more than 450 ft.
Normally, single-stage pumps operate in the range
of 6-300 ft.
Single-stage pumps are characterized by a low head
relative to the flow, see figure 1.1.3. Single-stage pumps
come in both a vertical and horizontal design, see
figures 1.1.22 and 1.1.23.
Fig. 1.1.22: Horizontal single-stage Fig. 1.1.23: Vertical single-stage

end-suction close-coupled pump in-line close-coupled pump
15
Section 1.1
Pump construction
1.1.8 Multistage pumps

Multistage pumps are used in installations where a
high head is needed. Several stages are connected in
series and the flow is guided from the outlet of one
stage to the inlet of the next. The final head that a
multistage pump delivers is equal to the sum of the
pressure that each of the stages provide.
Close-coupled pumps
These pumps can be constructed as follows: The pumps
impeller can be mounted directly on the extended
motor shaft or the pump can have a standard motor
and a rigid or a spacer coupling, see figures 1.1.28 and
1.1.29.
Multistage pumps provide high head relative to

the flow and have a steeper curve that is more
advantageous for variable speed drive, also known as
variable frequency drive (VFD) applications. Like the
single-stage pump, the multistage pump is available
in both vertical and horizontal versions, see figures
1.1.24 and 1.1.25.
Horizontal, Multistage Pumps

This type of pump is somewhat unique. With the same
benefits mentioned in 1.1.8, horizontal multistage
pumps meet flow and head requirements of single-stage
end-suction pumps but with significant reductions in
required horsepower. In general, multistage pumps
offer higher efficiencies when compared to single-stage
end-suction pumps resulting in energy savings. Due to
design, horizontal multistage pumps do not encounter
the same vibration problems often associated with
single-stage end-suction pumps.
Fig. 1.1.24: Vertical multistage in-line pump
Fig. 1.1.25: Horizontal multistage

end-suction pump
Fig. 1.1.26: Long-coupled pump

with basic coupling
Fig. 1.1.27: Long-coupled pump with spacer

coupling
1.1.9 Long-coupled and close-coupled

pumps
Long-coupled pumps
Long-coupled pumps have a flexible coupling (basic or
spacer) that connects the pump and the motor. If the
pump is connected to the motor by a basic coupling,
the motor must be disconnected when the pump is
serviced. The pump must therefore be aligned upon
mounting, see figure 1.1.26. If the pump is fitted with
a spacer coupling, the pump can be serviced without
removing the motor and alignment is less of an issue,
see figure 1.1.27.
16
Fig. 1.1.28: Close-coupled pump

with rigid coupling
Fig. 1.1.29: Close-coupled pump with

impeller directly mounted on motor
shaft
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
1.2.1 Standard pumps

Few international standards deal with centrifugal
pumps. In fact, many countries have their own
standards, which more or less overlap one another. A
standard pump is a pump that complies with official
regulations pertaining to the pumps duty point. A
couple of examples of international standards for
pumps follow:
Fig. 1.2.1: Long-coupled standard pump
ANSI B73.1 standard covers centrifugal pumps of

horizontal end-suction single-stage, centerline design.
This standard includes dimensional interchangeability
requirements and certain design features to facilitate
installation and maintenance.
DIN 24255 applies to end-suction centrifugal

pumps, also known as standard water pumps, with
a rated pressure (PN) of 145 psi.
The standards mentioned above cover the installation
dimensions and the duty points of the different pump
types. The hydraulic parts of these pump types vary
according to the manufacturer so, no international
standards are set for these parts.
Fig. 1.2.2: Bare shaft standard pump
Pumps designed according to standards provide

end users with advantages in installation, service, spare
parts and maintenance.
1.2.2 Split-case pumps

A split-case pump is designed with the pump housing
divided axially into two parts. Figure 1.2.4 shows a
single-stage split-case pump with a double-suction
impeller. The double-inlet construction eliminates
the axial forces and ensures a longer life span of the
bearings. Usually, split-case pumps have a rather
high efficiency, are easy to service and have a wide
performance range.
Fig. 1.2.3: Long-coupled split-case pump
Fig. 1.2.4: Split-case pump

with double-suction
impeller
17
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
1.2.3 Hermetically sealed pumps
Liquid
Seal
Atmosphere
The penetration point of the pump liquid by the

shaft that allows it to connect to the impeller has to
be sealed. Usually, this is addressed by a mechanical
shaft seal, see figure 1.2.5. The disadvantage of the
mechanical shaft seal is its poor handling of toxic
and aggressive liquids, which consequently leads to
leakage. This problem can often be solved by using a
double mechanical shaft seal. Another solution is to
use a hermetically sealed pump.
There are two types of hermetically sealed pumps:
Canned motor pumps and magnetic-driven pumps.
In the following two sections, additional information
about these pumps is provided. A disadvantage of
hermetically sealed pumps is that they can handle very
little, if any, solids in the pumped liquid.
Canned motor pumps

A canned motor pump is a hermetically sealed pump
with the motor and pump integrated in one unit
without a seal, see figures 1.2.6 and 1.2.7. The pumped
liquid is allowed to enter the rotor chamber that
is separated from the stator by a thin rotor can.
The rotor can serves as a hermetically sealed barrier
between the liquid and the motor. Chemical pumps
are made of materials, such as plastics or stainless
steel, that can withstand aggressive liquids.
Fig. 1.2.5: Example of a standard pump with mechanical shaft seal
Motor can
Fig. 1.2.6: Chemical pump with canned motor
Motor can
The most common canned motor pump type is

the circulator pump. This type of pump is typically
used in heating or cooling applications because the
construction provides low noise and maintenancefree operation.
Fig. 1.2.7: Circulator pump with canned motor
18
Magnetic-driven pumps
In recent years, magnetic-driven pumps have become
increasingly popular for transferring aggressive and
toxic liquids.
As shown in figure 1.2.8, the magnetic-driven pump is
made of two groups of magnets: An inner magnet and
an outer magnet. A non-magnetic can separate these
two magnets. The can serves as a hermetically sealed
barrier between the liquid and the atmosphere. As
it appears from figure 1.2.9, the outer magnet is
connected to the pump drive and the inner magnet
is connected to the pump shaft. The torque from
the pump drive is transmitted to the pump shaft by
means of attraction between the inner and outer
magnets. The pumped liquid serves as lubricant
for the bearings in the pump. Therefore, sufficient
venting is crucial for the bearings.
Outer magnets
Inner magnets
Can
Fig. 1.2.8: Construction of magnetic drive
Inner magnets
Can
Outer magnets
Fig. 1.2.9: Magnetic-driven multistage pump
19
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
1.2.4 Sanitary pumps

Sanitary pumps are mainly used in food, beverage,
pharmaceutical and bio-technological industries where
liquid is pumped gently and pumps are easy to clean
using clean-in-place (CIP) techniques.
In order to meet process requirements in these
industries, the pumps have to have a surface
roughness less than 32 -in (0.8 -m) or better. This
can be best achieved by using forged or deep-drawn
rolled stainless steel as the material of construction,
see figure 1.2.12. These materials have a compact
pore-free surface finish that can be easily worked up
to meet the various surface finish requirements. The
U.S. recommended interior surface finishes range
from 32 -in for food and beverage applications
down to 10 -in for bioprocessing applications.
Fig. 1.2.10: Sanitary pump
The main features of a sanitary pump are ease of

cleaning and ease of maintenance.
The leading U.S. manufacturers of sanitary pumps
have designed their products to meet the material
specifications of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) and the voluntary standards developed by 3-A
Sanitary Standards Inc., as well as other well known
globally-recognized standards such as:
Fig.1.2.11: Sanitary self-priming side-channel pump
EHEDG European Hygienic Engineering Design

Group
QHD Qualified Hygienic Design
Sand casting
Precision casting
Rolled steel
Fig.1.2.12: Roughness of material surfaces
20
1.2.5 Wastewater pumps

Wastewater pumps can be classified as submersible
and dry pit pumps. In submersible installations with
sliderail systems, double rails are normally used. The
auto-coupling system facilitates maintenance, repair
and replacement of the pump. It is not necessary to
enter the pit to perform service. In fact, it is possible to
connect and disconnect the pump automatically from
the outside of the pit. Wastewater pumps can also be
installed dry, like conventional pumps, in vertical or
horizontal installations. This type of installation provides
easy maintenance and repair as well as uninterrupted
operation of the pump in case of flooding of the dry pit,
see figure 1.2.14.
Normally, wastewater pumps must be able to handle
large particles (i.e. 3-inch solids) and are fitted with
special impellers to avoid blockage and clogging.
Different types of impellers include: Single-channel
impellers, double-channel impellers, three and fourchannel impellers and vortex impellers. Figure 1.2.15
shows the different designs of these impellers.
Fig. 1.2.13: Detail of a sewage pump

for wet installations
Fig. 1.2.14: Wastewater pump for dry

installations
Wastewater pumps with submersible motors shall

carry the Underwriters Laboratories Inc label for
class I, Divison I, Group D environment. Submersible
wastewater pump motors are hermetically sealed
and have a common extended shaft with a tandem
mechanical shaft seal system in an intermediate oil
chamber, see figure 1.2.13. Wastewater pumps are
able to operate either intermittently or continuously,
depending on the installation in question.
Vortex
impeller
Single-channel
impeller
Double-channel
impeller
Fig. 1.2.15: Impeller types for wastewater
21
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
1.2.6 Immersible pumps

An immersible pump is a pump type where the
pump part is immersed in the pumped liquid and
the motor is kept dry. Normally, immersible pumps
are mounted on top of or in the wall of tanks or
containers. Immersible pumps are used in the machine
tool industry, in chip conveyor systems, grinding
machines, machining centers, cooling units or in other
industrial applications involving tanks or containers,
such as industrial washing and filtering systems.
Pumps for machine tools can be divided into two
groups: Pumps for the clean side of the filter and
pumps for the dirty side of the filter. Pumps with
closed impellers are normally used for the clean side
of the filter because they provide a high efficiency
and a high pressure if necessary. Pumps with open or
semi-open impellers are normally used for the dirty
side of the filter because they can handle metal chips
and particles. Refer to page 14 for more discussion on
impeller types.
Fig. 1 .2.16: Immersible pump
22
1.2.7 Groundwater pumps

There are two primary types of pumps used for
groundwater applications: The submersible turbine
pump type, which features a pump directly attached
to a submersible motor and are completely submerged
in the groundwater, and the line shaft turbine pump
type with a motor mounted at the top of the well
which is connected to the submerged pump by a long
shaft. Both pump types are used to pump groundwater
from a well, typically for water supply and irrigation.
Because these pump types must fit into deep, narrow
wells, they have a reduced diameter compared to
above-ground pumps making them long and thin
compared to most other pump types.
Submersible turbine pumps are specially designed to be
fitted to a submersible motor, and the entire assembly
is submerged in a liquid. The submersible motor is
sealed to prevent water intrusion, and generally no
regular maintenance is required on these pumps.
Submersible pumps are preferred in deep installations
and those requiring low to medium flow rates,
generally up to 2,500 GPM. The liquid surrounding the
submersible motor cools it, so submersible pumps are
not suitable for hot water applications.
Line shaft turbine pumps have been replaced in many
applications by submersible turbine pumps but are
preferred for certain applications such as shallow
wells and those applications requiring higher flow
rates. The long shaft is a drawback in deep settings
making installation difficult and requiring frequent
service. Because the line shaft turbines motor is aircooled, it is often used in industrial applications to
pump hot water.
Fig. 1.2.17: Submersible turbine pump (A) and Line shaft turbine (B)
23
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
1.2.8 Positive displacement pumps
Fig. 1.2.19: Typical relation between

flow and head for 3 different pump
types:
1) Centrifugal pumps
2) Rotary pumps
3) Reciprocating pumps
The positive displacement pump provides an

approximate constant flow at fixed speed, despite
changes in the back pressure. Two main types of positive
displacement pumps include:
1
H
Rotary pumps
Reciprocating pumps
The difference in performance between centrifugal,
rotary and reciprocating pumps is illustrated in figure
1.2.19. Depending on the pump type, a small change
in the pumps back pressure results in differences in
the flow.
The flow of a centrifugal pump will change
considerably with back pressure. Changing back
pressure on rotary pumps will result in a minimal flow
change. However, the flow of the reciprocating pump
is almost constant with the back pressure change.
The performance difference between reciprocating
pumps and rotary pumps is due to the rotary pumps
larger seal surface area. Even though the two pumps
are designed with the same tolerances, the loss due
Fig. 1.2.18: Rotary Lobe pump
24
to the larger seal area of the rotary pump is greater.

The pumps are typically designed with the finest
tolerances possible to obtain the highest possible
efficiency and suction capability. However, in some
cases, it is necessary to increase the tolerances,
for example, when the pumps must handle highly
viscous liquids, liquids containing large particles or
liquids of high temperature.
Metering pumps
The metering pump belongs to the positive displacement
pump family and is typically of the diaphragm type.
Diaphragm pumps are leak-free, because the diaphragm
forms a seal between the liquid and the surroundings.
electrical parts caused by the solenoid operation,

stepper motor-driven diaphragm pumps enable a
more steady dose of additive.
The diaphragm pump is usually fitted with two or

three non-return valves; one or two on the suction
side and one on the discharge side of the pump.
On smaller diaphragm pumps, the diaphragm is
activated by the connecting rod, which is connected
to a solenoid, permitting the coil to receive the exact
amount of strokes needed, see figure 1.2.21.
On larger diaphragm pumps, the diaphragm is typically
mounted on the connecting rod, which is activated by a
camshaft. The camshaft is turned by way of a standard
asynchronous motor, see figure 1.2.22.
Fig. 1.2.20: Dosing pump
The flow of a diaphragm pump is adjusted by changing

the stroke length and/or the frequency of the strokes. If
it is necessary to expand the operating area, frequency
converters can be connected to the larger diaphragm
pumps, see figure 1.2.22.
Stepper motor drive design simplifies control of

both the suction side and the discharge side of
the pump. Compared to traditional electromagneticdriven diaphragm pumps which provide undesirable
pulsations as well as fast wearing of mechanical and
Fig.1.2.21: Solenoid spring return
Yet another kind of diaphragm pump exists. In this

case, the diaphragm is activated by means of an
eccentrically driven connecting rod powered by
a stepper motor or a synchronous motor, figures
1.2.20 and 1.2.23. A stepper motor drive increases the
pumps dynamic range, thus improving its accuracy.
This construction no longer requires stroke length
adjustment because the connecting rod is mounted
directly on the diaphragm. The result is optimized
suction and operation due to full suction.
1.2.22: Cam-drive assembly spring return
1.2.23: Stepper motor drive
25
Section 1.3: Mechanical shaft seals

1.3.1 The mechanical shaft seals components
and function
1.3.2 Types of mechanical shaft seals
1.3.3 Balanced and unbalanced shaft seals
1.3.4 Seal face material combinations
1.3.5 Factors affecting the seal performance
Section 1.3
Mechanical shaft seals
From the middle of the 1950s, mechanical shaft

seals gained ground in favor of the traditional sealing method - the stuffing box. Compared to stuffing
boxes, mechanical shaft seals provide the following
advantages:
None or minimal leakage of the fluid being

pumped.
No adjustment required
Seal faces provide a small amount of friction,
minimizing power loss
The shaft does not slide against any of the seals

components and therefore reduces wear and
associated repair costs.
The mechanical shaft seal is the part of a pump that
separates the liquid from the atmosphere. Figure
1.3.1 illustrates mechanical shaft seal mounting in
different types of pumps.
Before choosing shaft seal material and type, consider
the following:
Determine the type of liquid

Determine the pressure that the shaft seal is
exposed to
Determine the speed that the shaft seal is

exposed to
Determine the shaft-seal housing dimensions

The following pages present how a mechanical shaft
seal works, the different types of seals, materials used
in mechanical shaft seals, and the factors that affect the
mechanical shaft seals performance.
28
Fig. 1.3.1: Pumps with mechanical shaft seals
1.3.1 The mechanical shaft seals

components and function
The mechanical shaft seal is made of two main
components: A rotating part and a stationary part. The
parts of a shaft seal are listed in figure 1.3.2. Figure 1.3.3
shows where the different parts are placed in the seal.
The hydrodynamic lubricating film is created by

pressure generated by the shafts rotation.
Mechanical shaft seal
Seal face (primary seal)

Rotating component
The stationary component of the seal is fixed in the

pump housing. The rotating component of the seal
is fixed on the pump shaft and rotates when the
pump operates.
Designation
Secondary seal
Spring
Spring retainer (torque transmission)
Stationary component
Seat (seal faces, primary seal)

Static seal (secondary seal)
Fig. 1.3.2: The mechanical shaft seals components
The two primary seal faces are pushed against

each other by the spring (or other devices such as a

metal bellows) and the liquid pressure. During
operation, a liquid film is produced in the narrow gap
between the two seal faces. This film evaporates
before it enters the atmosphere making the
mechanical shaft seal leak-free, see figure 1.3.4.
Spring
Secondary seal
Primary seal
Stationary part
Rotating part
Spring retainer
Shaft
Secondary seals prevent leakage from occurring

between the assembly and the shaft.
Secondary seal
The spring or metal bellows press the seal faces
Fig. 1.3.3: Main components of the
together mechanically.
mechanical shaft seal
The spring retainer transmits torque from the shaft

to the seal. In connection with mechanical bellows
shaft seals, torque is transferred directly through the
bellows.
Vapor
Primary seal
Evaporation
begins
Lubrication film
Liquid force
Spring force
Seal gap
During operation, the liquid forms a lubricating film
between the seal faces. This lubricating film consists
of a hydrostatic and a hydrodynamic film.
Fig. 1.3.4: Mechanical shaft seal in operation
The hydrostatic element is generated by the pumped

liquid which is forced into the gap between the seal
faces.
29
Section 1.3
Start of
evaporation
1 atm
Exit into
atmosphere
1.3.2 Balanced and unbalanced shaft

seals
To obtain an acceptable face pressure between the
primary seal faces, two kinds of seal types exist: A
balanced shaft seal and an unbalanced shaft seal.
Balanced shaft seal

Stationary
seal face
Rotating
seal face
Pump pressure
Entrance
in seal
Pressure
Liquid
Vapor
Atmosphere
Fig. 1.3.5: Optimum ratio between fine lubrication

properties and limited leakage
The thickness of the lubricating film depends on the

pump speed, the liquid temperature, the viscosity
of the liquid and the axial forces of the mechanical
shaft seal. The liquid in the seal gap is continuously
renewed due to:
evaporation of the liquid to the atmosphere

Recirculation of the liquid
Figure 1.3.5 shows the optimum ratio between fine
lubrication properties and limited leakage. The
optimum ratio occurs when the lubricating film
covers the entire seal gap, except for a very narrow
evaporation zone close to the atmospheric side of the
mechanical shaft seal.
Deposits on the seal faces may cause leakage. When
using coolant agents, deposits build up quickly from
evaporation at the atmosphere side of the seal.
When the liquid evaporates in the evaporation zone,
microscopic solids in the liquid remain in the seal
gap as deposits, causing wear. These deposits are
seen with most types of liquid. When the pumped
liquid crystallizes, it can become a problem. The best
way to prevent wear is to select seal faces made of
hard material such as WC (tungsten carbide) or SiC
(silicon carbide). The narrow seal gap between these
materials (approx. Ra 0.3 in) minimizes the risk of
solids entering the seal gap, resulting in less buildup
of deposits.
30
Figure 1.3.6 shows a balanced shaft seal indicating

where the forces impact on the seal.
Unbalanced shaft seal

Figure 1.3.7 shows an unbalanced shaft seal indicating
where the forces impact the seal.
Contact area of seal faces

Contact area of seal faces
Spring forces
Hydraulic forces
Hydraulic forces
Fig. 1.3.6: Impact of

forces on the balanced
shaft seal
Fig. 1.3.7: Impact of

forces on the unbalanced
shaft seal
Several different forces have an axial impact on the

seal faces. The spring and the hydraulic forces from the
pumped liquid press the seal together while the force
from the lubricating film in the seal gap counteracts
this. With high liquid pressure, the hydraulic forces
can be so powerful that the lubricant in the seal
gap cannot counteract the contact between the seal
faces. Because the hydraulic force is proportionate
to the area that the liquid pressure affects, the axial
impact can only be reduced by obtaining a reduction
of the pressure-loaded area.
The balancing ratio (K) of a mechanical shaft seal is
20
40
60
defined as the ratio between the area A and the area

B : K=A/B
80
100
120
140
Comparative
wear
rates valid for water
Temperature
(oC)
K = 1.15
K = 1.00
K = 0.85
K = Balancing ratio
A = Area exposed to hydraulic pressure
B = Contact area of seal faces
The balancing ratio for balanced shaft seals is around
K=0.8 and for unbalanced shaft seals is around K=1.2.
1.3.3 Types of mechanical shaft seals
68
104
140
212
230
Temperature (oF)
Fig. 1.3.8: Wear rate for different balancing ratios
The main types of mechanical shaft seals include: Oring, bellows, cartridge single-unit seal.
Advantages and
disadvantages of
O-ring seal
O-ring seals
Sealing between the rotating shaft and the rotating seal
face is affected by an O-rings movement (see figure
1.3.9). The O-ring must be able to slide freely in the axial
direction to absorb axial displacements as a result of
changes in temperature and wear. Incorrect positioning
of the stationary seat may result in rubbing, which can
cause wear on the O-ring and shaft. O-rings are made of
different types of rubber material, such as NBR, EPDM,
Buna -N and FKM, depending on operating conditions.
176
Advantages:
Suitable in hot liquid and
high pressure applications
Disadvantages:
Deposits on the shaft,
such as rust, may prevent
the O-ring shaft
seal from moving axially
causing leakage and
premature failure
Fig. 1.3.9: O-ring seal
Bellows seals
Common to bellows seals is a rubber or metal bellows
which functions as a dynamic sealing element
between the rotating ring and the shaft.
Rubber bellows seal with folding

bellows geometry
Advantages and
disadvantages of
rubber bellows seal
Rubber bellows seals

The bellows of a rubber bellows seal (see figure 1.3.10)
can be made of different types of rubber, such as NBR,
EPDM, Buna-N and FKM, depending on the operating
conditions. Two designs are used for rubber bellows:
Advantages:
Not sensitive to deposits,
such as rust, on the shaft
Suitable for pumping
solid-containing liquids
Folding bellows
Rolling bellows
Disadvantages:
Not suitable in hot liquid and
high pressure applications
Fig. 1.3.10: Rubber bellows seal
31
Section 1.3
Metal bellows seals
Advantages and
disadvantages of cartridge
metal bellows seal
In an ordinary mechanical shaft seal, the spring

produces the closing force required to close the
seal faces. In a metal bellows seal, the spring is
replaced by a metal bellows with a similar force
(see figure 1.3.11). Metal bellows act both as a
dynamic seal between the rotating ring and the
shaft and as a spring. The bellows have a number
of corrugations to provide the desired spring force.
Advantages:
Not sensitive to deposits,
such as rust and lime, on
the shaft
Suitable in hot liquid and
high-pressure applications
Fig. 1.3.11: Cartridge metal

bellows seal
Low balancing ratio leads

to low wear rate and
consequently longer life
Disadvantages:
Fatigue failure of the
mechanical shaft seal may
occur when the pump is not
aligned correctly
Fatigue may occur as a
result of excessive
temperatures or pressures
Cartridge seals
In a cartridge mechanical shaft seal, all parts form
a compact unit on a shaft sleeve and are ready to
be installed. A cartridge seal offers many benefits
compared to conventional mechanical shaft seals, see
figure 1.3.12.
Advantages of the
cartridge seal:
Easy and fast service
The design protects the
seal faces
Preloaded spring
Safe handling
Flushing
In certain applications it is possible to extend the
performance of the mechanical shaft seal by installing
a flushing device, see figure 1.3.13. Flushing can lower
the temperature of the mechanical shaft seal and
prevent deposits from occurring. A flushing device
can be installed internally or externally. Internal
flushing is done when a small flow from the pumps
discharge side is bypassed to the seal area. Internal
flushing is primarily used to prevent further heat
generation from the seal in heating applications.
External flushing is done by a flushing liquid and is
used to ensure trouble-free operation when handling
liquids that are abrasive or contain clogging solids.
32
Fig. 1.3.12: Cartridge seal
Fig 1.3.13: Flushing device of a

single mechanical shaft seal
Double mechanical shaft seals

Double mechanical shaft seals are used when the life
span of a single mechanical shaft seal is insufficient due
to wear caused by solids, or too high/low pressure and
temperature. Double mechanical shaft seals help protect
the surroundings when aggressive and explosive liquids
are pumped. Two types of double mechanical shaft
seals include: The double seal in a tandem arrangement
and the double seal in a back-to-back arrangement.
Quench liquid
Quench liquid
Quench liquid
Pumped liquid
Double seal in tandem

This seal consists of two mechanical shaft seals
mounted in tandem, one behind the other, and
placed in a separate seal chamber, see figure 1.3.14.
The tandem seal arrangement must be fitted with an
external barrier liquid system which:
Absorbs leakage
Monitors the leakage rate
Lubricates and cools the outboard seal to
prevent icing
Protects against dry-running
Stabilizes the lubricating film
Prevents air from entering the pump in case of
vacuum
Pressure of the external barrier liquid must always be
lower than the pumped liquid pressure.
Pumped liquid
Fig. 1.3.14: Tandem seal arrangement with external barrier
Pumped liquid
liquid circulation
Quench liquid
Quench liquid
Quench liquid
Pumped liquid
Pumped liquid
Pumped liquid
Fig. 1.3.15: Tandem seal arrangement with external barrier

liquid dead end
Tandem - circulation
For external barrier liquid circulation via a pressureless
tank, see figure 1.3.14. External barrier liquid from the
elevated tank circulates by thermosiphon action and/or
by the pumping action in the seal.
Pumped
liquid
Tandem - dead end
The external barrier liquid runs through the seal chamber

to be collected for reuse or directed to drain, see figure
1.3.16.
Pumped
liquid
For external barrier liquid from an elevated tank, see

figure 1.3.15. No heat is dissipated from the system.
Tandem - drain
Pumped
liquid
Fig. 1.3.16: Tandem seal arrangement with external barrier liquid

to drain
33
Section 1.3
Barrier pressure liquid
Seal chamber with

barrier pressure liquid
industrial applications: Tungsten carbide/tungsten

carbide, silicon carbide/silicon carbide and carbon/tungsten
carbide or carbon/silicon carbide.
Tungsten carbide/tungsten carbide

Pumped liquid
Cobalt-bonded (Co) WC is only corrosion resistant in water if

the pump incorporates base metal, such as cast iron.
Fig. 1.3.17: Back-to-back seal arrangement
Chromium-nickel-molybdenum-bonded WC has a higher

corrosion resistance.
Double seal in back-to-back

This type of seal is the optimum solution for handling
abrasive, aggressive, explosive or sticky liquids which would
wear out, damage or block a mechanical shaft seal.
The back-to-back double seal consists of two shaft
seals mounted back-to-back in a separate seal chamber,
see figure 1.3.17. The back-to-back double seal protects the
surrounding environment and the people working
with the pump.
The pressure in the seal chamber must be 14.5-29 psi higher
than the pump pressure. The pressure can be generated
by:
An existing, separate pressure source. Many
applications incorporate pressurized systems.
A separate pump, e.g. a metering pump
1.3.4 Seal face material combinations

What follows is a description of the most important
material combinations used in mechanical shaft seals for
34
Cemented tungsten carbide covers the type of hard metals that

are based on a hard tungsten carbide (WC) phase and usually
a softer metallic binder phase. The correct technical term is
cemented tungsten carbide; however, the abbreviated term
tungsten carbide (WC) is used by Grundfos for convenience.
Sintered binderless WC has the highest corrosion

resistance. However, its resistance to corrosion in liquids,
such as hypochlorite, is not as high. The material pairing
WC/WC has the following features:
Extremely wear resistant

Very robust; resists rough handling
Poor dry-running properties. In case of dry-running, the
temperature increases to several hundred degrees
Fahrenheit in just a few minutes and consequently damages
the O-rings.
If a certain pressure and temperature are exceeded, the
seal may generate noise. Noise is an indication of poor
seal operating conditions that, in the long term, may cause
wear of the seal. The limits of use depend on seal face
diameter and design.
A WC/WC seal face pair might be noisy during the break in
period. Usually the noise dissapears after a couple of days
of operation. In some cases noise may last up to
3-4 weeks.
Silicon carbide/silicon carbide

Silicon carbide/silicon carbide (SiC/SiC) is an alternative
to WC/WC and is used where higher corrosion resistance
is required.
The SiC/SiC material pair has the following features:
Very brittle material requiring careful handling

Extremely wear resistant
High resistance to corrosion. SiC (Q 1s, Q 1P and Q 1G ) hardly

corrodes, independent of the pumped liquid type with

the exception of water with very poor conductivity, such as
demineralized water, which attacks the SiC variants Q 1s
and Q 1P. Q 1G is also corrosion - resistant in demineralized
water
In general, these material pairs have poor dry-running

properties. However, the Q 1G / Q 1G material withstands
a limited period of dry-running due to the graphite
content of the material
For different purposes, SiC/SiC variants include:
Q 1s, dense-sintered, fine-grained SiC
A dense-sintered, fine-grained SiC with a small amount of
tiny pores.
For a number of years, this SiC variant was used as a
standard mechanical shaft seal material. Pressure and
temperature limits are slightly below those of WC/WC.
P
Q 1 , porous, sintered, fine-grained SiC

This porous-sintered SiC variant has large circular closed
pores. The degree of porosity is 5-15% and the size of the
pores is Ra 10-50 in. The pressure and temperature limits
exceed those of WC/WC.
In warm water, the Q 1P / Q 1P face material pair generates

less noise than the WC/WC pair; however, noise from
porous SiC seals must be expected during the running-in
wear period of 3-4 days.
Q 1G self-lubricating, sintered SiC
Several variants of SiC materials containing dry lubricants
are available on the market. The designation Q1G applies
to a SiC material which is suitable for use in distilled or
demineralized water, as opposed to the above materials.
Pressure and temperature limits of Q 1G / Q 1G are similar to
those of Q 1P / Q 1P.
The dry lubricants, such as graphite, reduce the friction in
case of dry-running and are critical to the durability of a
seal during dry-running.
Carbon/tungsten carbide or carbon/

silicon carbide features
Seals with one carbon seal face have the following
features:
Brittle material requiring careful handling

Are worn by liquids containing solid particles
Good corrosion resistance
Good dry-running properties (temporary dry-running)
Self-lubricating properties (of carbon) make the seal
suitable for use even with poor lubricating conditions
(high temperature) without generating noise. However,
such conditions will cause wear of the carbon seal face
leading to reduced seal life. The wear depends on
pressure, temperature, liquid diameter and seal
design. Low speeds reduce the lubrication between
the seal faces resulting in possible increased wear
However, since the distance that the seal faces have
to move is reduced, a shorter seal life may not be
experienced
35
Section 1.3
Metal-impregnated carbon (A) offers limited corro sion resistance, but improved mechanical strength and
heat conductivity, thus reducing wear
With reduced mechanical strength, but higher

corrosion resistance, synthetic resin-impregnated

carbon (B) covers a wide application field. Synthetic
resin-impregnated carbon is suitable for drinking
water
The use of carbon/SiC for hot water applications may

cause heavy wear of the SiC, depending on the

quality of the carbon and water. This type of wear
primarily applies to Q1 S/carbon. The use of Q1 P,
Q 1G or a carbon/WC pair causes far less wear. Thus,
carbon/WC, carbon/Q1P or carbon/Q1G are recommended
for hot water systems
The centrifugal pumping action of the seals rotating

parts increases power consumption dramatically with
the speed of rotation (to the third power)
The seal face friction
Friction between the two seal faces consists of
friction in the thin liquid film and
friction due to points of contact between the seal faces
The amount of power consumed depends on seal design,
lubricating conditions and seal face materials.
0.25
Power loss (hp)
0.2
0.15
0.1
3600
0.05
1.3.5 Factors affecting the seal

performance
As mentioned previously, no seal is completely tight.
On the next pages, factors which have an impact on the
seal performance, such as energy consumption, noise
and leakage, will be presented. While these factors will
be presented individually, it is important to stress that
they are closely interrelated and should be considered as
a whole.
Energy consumption
The following factors contribute to the power consumption
of a mechanical shaft seal:
36
0
0
2000
4000
6000
Fig. 1.3.18: Power consumption of a 1/2

inch mechanical shaft seal
8000
10000
12000
Speed (rpm)
Pumping
action
Friction
Figure 1.3.18 is a typical example of the power consumption

of a mechanical shaft seal. The figure shows that up to
3600 rpm friction is the major reason for the mechanical
shaft seals energy consumption.
Energy consumption is, especially in connection with

packed stuffing box, an important issue. Replacing
a stuffing box with a mechanical shaft seal leads to
considerable energy savings, see figure 1.3.19.
Noise
The choice of seal face materials is critical for the
function and the life of the mechanical shaft seal.
Noise is generated as a result of the poor lubricating
conditions in seals handling low viscosity liquids. The
viscosity of water decreases with increasing temperature.
This means that the lubricating conditions decrease as
the temperature rises. If the pumped liquid reaches or
exceeds boiling temperature, the liquid on part of the
seal face evaporates resulting in decreased lubricating
conditions. A speed reduction has the same effect, see
figure 1.3.20.
Standard pump 50 ft WCH; 2 inch shaft

Energy consumption
Stuffing box
2.0 kwh
Mechanical shaft seal 0.3 kwh
Leakage
Stuffing box
.02 GPD (when mounted correctly)
Mechanical shaft seal .005 GPD
Fig. 1.3.19: Stuffing box versus mechanical shaft seal
psi
350
300
200
150
Speed at 3600 rpm

Speed at 3000 rpm
100
Speed at 1800 rpm
50
Leakage
Noise
Duty range
250
Speed at 1200 rpm
0
0
75
50
100
125
150
175
200
225 F
Fig. 1.3.20: Relationship between duty range and speed
The pumped liquid lubricates the seal face of a

mechanical shaft seal, providing improved lubrication
resulting in less friction and increased leakage.
Conversely, less leakage means poor lubricating
conditions and increased friction. In practice, the amount
of leakage and power loss occurring in mechanical shaft
seals can vary because leakage depends on factors which
are impossible to quantify theoretically due to seal face
type, liquid type, and spring load.
Figure 1.3.21 shows how the lubricating film of fluid is
evaporated into the atmosphere.
Exit into
atmosphere
1 atm
Start of
evaporation
Stationary
seal face
Rotating
seal face
Pump pressure
Pressure
liquid
Entrance
in seal
vapor
Atmospheric
Fig. 1.3.21: Sealing gap
37
Section 1.4: Motors

1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
Standards
Motor start-up
Voltage supply
Frequency converter
Motor protection
Section 1.4
Motors
Motors are used in many applications all over the world.

The purpose of the electric motor is to create rotation, that is
to convert electric energy into mechanical energy. Pumps are
operated by means of mechanical energy which is provided by
electric motors.
Fig. 1.4.1: Electric motor
1.4.1 Standards
Fig. 1.4.2: NEMA and IEC standards
40
NEMA
IEC
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)

sets standards for a wide range of electric products, including
motors. NEMA is primarily associated with motors used in
North America. The standards represent general industry
practices and are supported by the manufacturers of electric
equipment. The standards can be found in NEMA Standard
Publication No. MG1. Some large motors may not fall under
NEMA standards.
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

sets standards for motors used in many countries
around the world. The IEC 60034 standard contains
recommended electrical practices that have been
developed by the participating IEC countries.
Introduction to potentially explosive

atmospheres
Potentially explosive atmospheres exist where there
is a risk of explosion due to mixtures of gas/air, vapor/
air, dust/air or other flammable combinations. In such
areas there is a need to eliminate ignition sources such
as sparks, hot surfaces or static electricity which may
ignite these mixtures.
When electrical equipment is used where there is
risk of explosion, the area must be so designed and
constructed to avoid sources of ignition capable of
igniting these mixtures. Before electrical equipment
can be used in a potentially explosive atmosphere,
a represenative sample must be fully tested and
certified by an independent authority such as UL in
the U.S.A.
This information is intended as a guide only, and further
expert guidance should be sought before placing
the equipment into service or before maintaining
or repairing any item of equipment in a potentially
explosive atmosphere. Where showing comparisons,
i.e., North American and European practices, these may
be approximations and individual standards/codes of
practice should be observed for precise details.
European & IEC Classification
Area Classification
Process plants are divided into Divisions (North American
method) or Zones (European and IEC method) according
to the likelihood of a potentially explosive atmosphere
being present.
Note: North American legislation now allows Zones
to classify areas, and when used, the IEC Zone method
is followed. See figure 1.4.3.
Gas Groups (plus dusts and fibers)

There are two main gas groups: Group I - Mining only
and Group II - Surface Industries.
These categories are used in European and I.E.C.
groupings.
Group I gases relate to underground mining where
methane and coal dust are present.
Group II gases relate to surface industries and
are sub-grouped according to their volatility. This
enables electrical equipment to be designed with
less onerous tolerances if it is to be used with the
least volatile gases. See figure 1.4.4.
Definition of zone or division
North American Classification
Zone 0 (ga ses)

Zone 2 0 (dusts)
A n a rea in which a n explosive mixture is

continuously present or present for long periods
C la ss I Division 1 (ga ses)

C la ss II Division 1 (dusts)
Zone 1 (ga ses)

Zone 2 1 (dusts)
A n a rea in which a n explosive mixture is

likely to occur in norma l opera tion

Zone 2 (ga ses)

Zone 2 2 (dusts)
A n a rea in which a n explosive mixture is not

likely to occur in norma l opera tion a nd if it
occurs it will exist only for a short time

Class III Division 1 (fibers)
Class III Division 2 (fibers)
Fig. 1.4.3: Area Classification
Typica l ga s/ ma teria l
Metha ne
A cetylene
Hydrogen
Ethylene
Propa ne
Meta l dust
C oa l dust
G ra in dust
N or th A merica n G as Group
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Europea n/ I.E.C . G as G roup

I
IIC
IIC
IIB
IIA
-
Fig. 1.4.4: Gas Groups
41
Section 1.4
Motors
Types of electrical equipment suitable for

use in potentially explosive atmospheres
Different techniques are used to prevent electrical
equipment from igniting explosive atmospheres. See
fig 1.4.5 for restrictions as to where these different
types of equipment can be used.
Flameproof Enclosure An enclosure used to house electrical
equipment which, when subjected to an internal explosion, will not
ignite a surrounding explosive a tmosphere.
Intrinsic Safety A technique whereby electrical energy is limited
such that any sparks or heat generated by electrical equipment is
sufficiently low a s to not ignite a n explosive a tmosphere.
Increased Safety This equipment is so designed as to eliminate
spa rks a nd hot surfa ces ca pa ble of igniting a n explosive
a tmosphere.
Purged and Pressurized Electrical equipment is housed in an
enclosure which is initially purged to remove any explosive mixture
then pressurizedto prevent ingress of the surrounding atmosphere
prior to energiza tion.
Encapsulation A method of exclusion of the explosive atmosphere
by fully encapsulating the electrical components in an approved
ma teria l.
Oil Immersion The electrical components are immersed in oil,
thus excluding the explosive atmosphere from any sparks or hot
surfa ces.
USA
Area of use
Designation
Standard
Class I
Divisions 1 & 2
UL1203
IEC
Area of use
Designation
Standard
Zones 1 & 2
Class I
Divisions 1 & 2
UL1203
Zones 1 & 2
Zones 0, 1 & 2
Exi
IEC60079-11
Zones 1 &2
Exi
IEC 6007 9-7
Zones 1 & 2
EExi
EN50020
Zones 1 & 2
EExe
EN 5 001 9
Zones 1 & 2
Class l
Divisions 1 & 2
NFPA 496
Powder Filling Equipment is surrounded with a fine powder, such as

quartz, which does not allow the surrounding atmosphere to come
into conta ct with a ny spa rks or hot surfa ces.
Non-sparking Sparking contacts are sealed against ingress of the
surrounding a tmosphere;, hot surfa ces a re elimina ted.
Special Protection Equipment is certified for use in a Potentially Explosive
Atmosphere but does not conform to a type of protection listed above.
Class l
Division 2
UL698
Exd
IEC60079-1
European
Area of use
Designation
Standard
Zones 1 & 2
EExd
EN50018
Exp
IEC 6007 9-2
Zone 1 & 2
EExp
EN 5 001 6
Zones 1 & 2
Exm
EC 6007 9-1 8
Zones 1 & 2
EExm
EN 5 002 8
Zone 1 & 2
Exo
EC 6007 9-6
Zones 1 & 2
EExo
EN50015
Zones 1 & 2
Exq
IEC 6007 9-5
Zone 2
Exn
EC 6007 9-1 5
Zones 0, 1 & 2
EExq
EN 5 001 7
Zone 2
EExN
EN50021
Zones 0, 1 & 2
* Exs
Exs
Fig 1.4.5: Standards and methods of protection
North American practice

Sample equipment and supporting documentation
are submitted to the appropriate authority, e.g U.L.,
F.M., C.S.A. Equipment is tested in accordance with
relevant standards for explosion protection and also
42
for general electrical requirements, e.g. light fittings.

After successful testing, a listing is issued allowing
the manufacturer to place the product on the market.
The product is marked with the certification details
such as the gas groups A,B,C,D and the area of use,
e.g. Class 1 Division 1.
Temperature
Hot surfaces can ignite explosive atmospheres. To prevent
this from happening, all electrical equipment intended
for use in a potentially explosive atmosphere is classified
according to the maximum surface temperature it will
reach while in service. This maximum temperature is
normally based on a surrounding ambient temperature of
104 F (40 C). This temperature can then be compared to
the ignition temperature of the gas(es) which may come
into contact with the equipment and a judgement can be
reached as to the suitabillity of the equipment to be used
in that area, see figure 1.4.6.
NEMA Motor Enclosures

The following describes NEMA Motor Enclosures:
Open Drip Proof (ODP)

Internal fan pulls air in, blows it across windings

inside motor and exits opposite drive end. Motor is
protected from drops of liquid or particles falling at any
angle from 0-15 degrees.
TEFC-Totally Enclosed
External fan pulls air in through fan cover and blows it over
the exterior (only) surface of the motor. More resistant to
the liquid and particles.
Washdown - Totally Enclosed Spray Proof
Corrosion-resistant. There can be a HP limit for rolled
steel frame motors. Cast Iron finned motors do not meet
FDA requirements.
Explosion Proof (xp)
Enclosed motor designed to withstand an explosion
of a specified dust, gas or vapor according to explosive
environment standards.
IEC Motor Enclosures

The IP rating states the degrees of protection of the
motor against ingress of solid objects and water.
The rating is stated by the letters IP followed by
two digits, for example IP55. The first digit stands for
protection against contact and ingress of solid objects,
Temperature Classification
European/IEC
North America
T1
T1
T2
T2
T2 A
T2 B
T2 C
T2 D
T3
T3
T3 A
T3 B
T3 C
T4
T4
T4A
T5
T5
T6
T6
Maximum Surface Temperature

842 F
5 7 2 F
5 3 6 F
5 00 F
4 4 6 F
41 9 F
3 92 F
3 5 6 F
3 2 9 F
3 2 0 F
27 5 F
2 4 8 F
21 2 F
185 F
Fig 1.4.6
:
Temperature classification
and the second digit stands for protection against

ingress of water, see figure 1.4.7.
Drain holes enable the escape of water entering the
starter housing, i.e., through condensation. When
the motor is installed in a damp environment, the
bottom drain hole should be opened. Opening the
drain hole changes the motors enclosure class from
IP55 to IP44.
First digit
Second digit
Protection against contact and

ingress of solid objects
Protection against
ingress of water
0 No special protection
0 No special protection
1 The motor is protected against

solid objects bigger than
55 mm, e.g. a hand

vertically falling drops of water,
such as condensed water

objects bigger than 12 mm, e.g.
a finger

vertically falling drops of water,
even if the motor is tilted at an
angle of 15 degrees

solid objects bigger than 25 mm,
i.e. wires, tools, etc.
solid objects bigger than 1 mm,
e.g. wires
ingress of dust
6 The motor is completely
dust-proof

water spray falling at an angle
of 60 degrees from vertical
water splashing from any
direction
water being projected from a
nozzle from any direction
heavy seas or high-pressure
water jets from any direction
7 The motor is protected when
submerged from 15 cm to 1 m in
water for a period specified by
the manufacturer
continuous submersion in water
under conditions specified by
the manufacturer
Fig 1.4.7: Two-digit IP enclosure class identification (IEC)
43
Section 1.4
Motors
Frame size
Figure 1.4.8 gives an overview of the relationship
between frame size, shaft end, and motor power. The
figure shows where the different values that make
up the frame size are measured on the motor.
Flanges and shaft end comply with NEMA standards
or EN 50347 and IEC 60072-1 for IEC. Some pumps
have a coupling which requires a smooth motor shaft
end or a special shaft extension which is not defined
in the standards.
2F
Distance between
holes
Fig 1.4.8: Frame size
Insulation class
Hot-spot overtemperature
The insulation class is defined in the NEMA standard

and tells something about how robust the insulation
system is relative to motor operating temperatures.
The life of an insulation material is highly dependent
on the temperature to which it is exposed. The various
insulation materials and systems are classified into
insulation classes depending on their ability to resist
high temperatures, see figure 1.4.9.
[f] 356
15
311
10
266
248
10
Maximum temperature increase
176
Maximum ambient temperature
104 104 104
221
257
104
Maximum
temperature increase
(F)
Hot-spot
overtemperature
(F)
Maximum
winding temperature
(Tmax) (F)
104
144
18
266
104
189
18
311
104
225
27
356
Class
Maximum ambient
temperature
(F)
B
F
H
Fig 1.4.9: Different insulation classes and temperature increases

at nominal voltage and load
44
1
2
Frame Size
Shaft end
(C-face motors) diameter
[in]
42C
0.375
48C
0.5
56C
0.625
66C
0.75
143TC
0.875
145TC
0.875
182TC
1.125
184TC
1.125
213TC
1.375
215TC
1.375
254TC
1.625
256TC
1.625
284TC
1.875
286TC
1.875
284TSC
1.625
286TSC
1.625
324TC
2.125
326TC
2.125
324TSC
1.875
326TSC
1.875
364TC
2.375
365TC
2.375
364TSC
1.875
365TSC
1.875
404TC
2.875
405TC
2.875
404TSC
2.125
405TSC
2.125
444TC
3.375
445TC
3.375
444TSC
2.375
445TSC
2.375
3
Rated power (TEFC Motors)
2-pole
4-pole
6-pole
8-pole
[HP]
[HP]
[HP]
[HP]
In these fractional size motors, specific frame assignments
have not been made by horsepower and speed. It is possible
for more than one HP and speed combination to be found in a
given frame size.
1.5
1
2
1.5, 2.0
1
3
3
1.5
1
5
5
2
1.5
7.5
7.5
3
2
10
10
5
3
15
15
7.5
5
20
20
10
7.5
25
15
10
30
20
15
25
30
40
25
20
50
30
25
40
50
60
40
30
75
50
40
60
75
60
50
100
75
60
100
125
150
125
150
100
125
75
100
Fig 1.4.10: The relationship between frame size and power input
45
Section 1.4
Motors
1.4.2 Motor start-up

Methods of starting referred to in this section
include: Direct-on-line starting, star/delta starting,
autotransformer starting, soft starter and frequency
converter starting, see figure 1.4.11.
Starting method
Pros
Cons
Direct-on-line starting (DOL)
Simple and cost-efficient.

Safe starting.
High locked-rotor current.
Star/delta starting (SD)

(Y/)
Reduction of starting current by a factor of 3.
Current pulses when switching over from star to delta.

Not suitable if the load has a low inertia.
Reduced locked-rotor torque.
Autotransformer starting
Reduction of locked-rotor current and torque.
Current pulses when switching from reduced to full voltage.

Soft starter
"Soft" starting. No current pulses.

Less water hammer when starting a pump.
Reduction of locked-rotor current as required,
typically 2-3 times.
Frequency converter starting
No current pulses.
Less water hammer when starting a pump.
Reduction of locked-rotor current as required,
typically 2 to 3 times.
Can be used for continuous feeding of the motor.

Expensive
Fig 1.4.11: Starting method
Direct-on-line starting
As the name suggests, direct-on-line starting (DOL)

means that the motor is started by connecting it
directly to the supply at rated voltage. Direct-online starting is suitable for stable supplies as well
as mechanically stiff and well-dimensioned shaft
systems, i.e. pumps. Whenever applying the directon-line starting method, it is important to consult local
authorities.
As the name states, autotransformer starting makes

use of an autotransformer. The autotransformer
is placed in series with the motor during start and
varies the voltage up to nominal voltage in two to
four steps.
Star/delta starting
The objective of this starting method, which is used
with three-phase induction motors, is to reduce
the starting current. Current supply to the starter
windings is connected in star (Y) configuration
for starting. Current supply is reconnected to the
windings in delta () configuration once the motor
has gained speed.
46
Soft starter
A soft starter is a device which ensures a soft start of
a motor. This is done by raising the voltage within a
preset voltage rise time.
Frequency converter starting

Frequency converters are designed for continuous
feeding of motors, but they can also be used for soft
starting.
1.4.3 Voltage supply

The motors rated voltage lies within a certain voltage
range. Figure 1.4.12 shows typical voltage range
examples for 60 Hz motors.
According to the NEMA standard, the motor has to
be able to operate with a main voltage tolerance of
10% from the lowest and highest voltage in the
range.
Typical North America voltage examples

60 Hz
60 Hz motors come with the following voltages:
1 x 115 230 / 346 400 Y
1 x 115/208-230
1 x 208-230
1 x 230
3 x 208-230/460
3 x 230/460
3 x 575
Fig 1.4.12: Typical voltages
1.4.4 Frequency converter

Frequency converters are often used for speed
controlled pumps, see chapter 4. The frequency
converter converts the main voltage into a different
voltage and frequency, causing the motor to run at a
different speed. This way of regulating the frequency
might result in some problems:
Acoustic noise from the motor which is sometimes

transmitted to the system as noise
High voltage peaks on the output from the

frequency converter to the motor
47
Section 1.4
Motors
Insulation for motors with frequency

converters
Phase insulation also referred

to as phase paper
The discussion below highlights different kinds of motors

with frequency converters and how different kinds of
insulation affect the motor.
Motors without phase insulation

For motors constructed without phase insulation,
continuous voltages known as Root Mean Square
voltages (RMS) above 460 V can increase the risk of
disruptive discharges in the windings and destroy
the motor. This applies to all motors constructed
according to these principles. Continuous operation
with voltage peaks above 650 V can cause damage
to the motor.
Motors with phase insulation

Phase insulation is normally used in three-phase
motors. Specific precautions are not necessary if the
voltage supply is less than 500 V.
Motors with reinforced insulation

With supply voltages between 500 V and 690 V,
the motor has to have reinforced insulation or be
protected with delta U /delta T filters. For supply
voltages of 690 V and higher, the motor has to be
fitted with both reinforced insulation and delta U
/delta T filters.
Motors with insulated bearings

In order to avoid harmful current flows through the
bearings, the motor bearings have to be electrically
insulated. This generally applies to motors -> 40 hp run
with variable frequency drives. Motor manufacturers
will use special ceramic coatings to insulate one or both
bearings.
48
Fig 1.4.13: Stator with phase insulation
Motor efficiency
In general, electric motors are quite efficient. Some
have electricity-to-shaft power efficiencies of 8093% depending on the motor size and sometimes
even higher for bigger motors. There are two types of
energy losses in electric motors: Load-dependent and
load-independent losses.
Load-dependent losses vary with the square of the
current and cover:
Stator winding losses (copper losses)

Rotor losses (slip losses)
Stray losses (in different parts of the motor)
Load-independent losses in the motor refer to:
Iron losses (core losses)

Mechanical losses (friction)
100
0.8
80
0.6
60
0.4
Percent
0.2
40
20
Fig 1.4.14: Efficiency vs. load

and power vs. load
(schematic drawing)
Efficiency
Power factor
0
25
50
75
100
125
Per cent of rated load
150
100
100 hp
90
10 hp
80
1 hp
70
Efficiency %
Cos j
Motors are categorized according to efficiency. The

most important classifications are Environmental
Protection Act in the US (EPact) and CEMEP in the
European Union (EFF1, EFF2 and EFF3).
60
50
Fig 1.4.15: The relationship

between efficiency and rated
load of different
sized motors (schematic
drawing)
40
30
20
10
0
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
Motors can fail due to overload for long periods of

time so are often intentionally oversized and operate
at 75% to 80% of their full load capacity. At this
level of loading, motor efficiency and power remain
relatively high, but when motor load is less than 25%,
efficiency and power decrease.
Motor efficiency drops quickly below a certain
percentage of rated load. Therefore, it is important
to size the motor so that losses associated with
running the motor too far below its rated capacity
are minimized. It is common to choose a motor that
meets the power requirements of the pump.
1.4.5 Motor protection

Motors are usually protected against high
temperatures that can damage the insulation
system. Depending on motor construction and
application, thermal protection can also prevent
damaging temperatures in the frequency converter
if it is mounted on the motor.
Thermal protection varies with motor type. Motor
construction and its power consumption must be
considered when choosing thermal protection.
Generally, motors must be protected against the
following:
Errors causing slow temperature increase in

the windings:
Slow overload
Long start-up periods
Reduced cooling / lack of cooling
Increased ambient temperature
Frequent starts and stops
Frequency fluctuation
Voltage fluctuation
Errors causing fast temperature increase in
the windings:
Blocked rotor
Phase failure
175
Percent of rated load
49
Thermal protection
A motors thermal protection (TP) is provided by a
temperature-sensing device that is built in to the
motor. When motor temperature becomes excessively
hot due to failure-to-start or overloading, the sensor
device shuts off the motor. This is especially important
for motors that start automatically, are unattended,
or for motors that are located remotely or operated
off-sight.
The basic types of temperature sensing devices include:
Automatic Reset - The thermal protector
automatically restores power after the motor cools.
Note: This should not be used where unexpected
restarting would be hazardous.
Manual Reset - Power to the motor is

restored by pushing an external button. This type
is preferred where unexpected restarts would be
hazardous.
Impedance Protected - The motor is designed to

protect itself under locked rotor (stalled)
conditions, in accordance with UL standards.
TP 111
TP 112
TP 121
TP 122
TP 211
TP 212
TP 221
TP 222
TP 311
TP 312
Technical overload with

variation (1 digit)
Only slow
(i.e. constant
overload)
Slow and fast
(i.e. constant overload
and blocked condition )
Only fast
PTC thermistors
(i.e. blocked condition)
Number of levels and

function area (2 digits)
Category 1
(3 digits)
1 level at cutoff
1
2
1
2
2 levels at emergency
signal and cutoff
1 level at cutoff
2 levels at emergency
signal and cutoff
1 level at cutoff
1
2
1
2
1
2
Indication of the permissible temperature level when the motor is exposed to thermal
overload. Category 2 allows higher temperatures than category 1 does.
Fig 1.4.16: TP designations
50
Thermal switch and thermostats

Thermal switches are small bi-metallic switches that
change state due to the temperature. They are available
with a wide range of trip temperatures; normally open
and closed types, with closed being the most common.
One or two, in series, are usually fitted in the windings
like thermistors and can be connected directly to the
circuit of the main contactor coil, requiring no relay. This
type of protection is less expensive than thermistors;
however, it is less sensitive and is not able to detect a
locked rotor failure.
Thermal switches are also referred to as Klixon thermal
switches and Protection thermal overload (PTO). Thermal
switches always carry a TP111 designation.
Single-phase motors
According to the IEC 60034-11 standard, the thermal

protection (TP) of the motor has to be indicated on the
nameplate with a TP designation. Figure 1.4.16 shows
an overview of the TP designations.
Symbol
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC thermistors) can

be fitted into the windings of a motor during production
or afterwards. Usually three PTCs are fitted in series; one
in each phase of the winding.They can be purchased
with trip temperatures ranging from 194F to 356F.
PTCs have to be connected to a thermistor relay which
detects the rapid increase in resistance of the thermistor
when it reaches its trip temperature.
Single-phase motors normally come with thermal

protection. Thermal protection usually has an
automatic reclosing. This implies that the motor has
to be connected to the main voltage supply in a way
to ensure that accidents caused by the automatic
reclosing are avoided.
Three-phase motors
Three-phase motors have to be protected according
to local regulations. This kind of motor usually has
contacts for resetting in the external control circuit.
Space Heater
The fixed bearing in the drive end can be a deep-groove

ball bearing or an angular contact bearing.
A heating element ensures the standby heating of

the motor and is used with applications that struggle
with humidity and condensation. By using the space
heater, the motor is warmer than the surroundings,
and thereby, the relative air humidity inside the motor
is always lower than 100%.
Bearing clearances and tolerances are stated according

to ISO 15 and ISO 492. Because bearing manufacturers
must fulfill these standards, bearings are internationally
interchangeable.
In order to rotate freely, a ball bearing must have a
certain internal clearance between the raceway and
the balls. Without this internal clearance, the bearings
can be difficult to rotate or they may seize up and
be unable to rotate. Conversely, too much internal
clearance will result in an unstable bearing that may
generate excessive noise or allow the shaft to wobble.
Fig 1.4.17: Space heater
Depending on the pump type to which the motor

is fitted, the deep-groove ball bearing in the drive
end must have C3 or C4 clearance. Bearings with C4
clearance are less heat sensitive and have increased
axial load-carrying capacity.
The bearing carrying the axial forces of the pump can
have C3 clearance if:
Maintenance
The motor should be checked at regular intervals.
It is important to keep the motor clean to ensure
adequate ventilation. If the pump is installed in a dusty
environment, the pump must be cleaned and checked
regularly.
The pump has complete or partial hydraulic relief

The pump has many brief periods of operation
The pump has long idle periods
C4 bearings are used for pumps with fluctuating high
axial forces. Angular contact bearings are used if the
pump exerts strong one-way axial forces.
Drive end
Non-drive end
Bearings
There are several types of bearing designs. Normally,
motors have a locked bearing in the drive end and
a bearing with axial play in the non-drive end. Axial
play is required due to production tolerances, thermal
expansion during operation, and other factors. The
motor bearings are held in place by wave spring
washers in the non-drive end, see figure 1.4.18.
Spring washer
Non-drive end bearing
Drive end bearing
Fig 1.4.18: Cross-sectional drawing of motor
51
Section 1.4
Motors
Axial forces
Bearing types and recommended clearance

Drive end
Non-drive end
Moderate to strong forces.

Primarily outward pull on
the shaft end
Fixed deep-groove ball bearing (C4)
Deep-groove ball bearing (C3)
Strong outward pull

on the shaft end
Fixed angular contact bearing
Small forces
(flexible coupling)
Strong inward
pressure
Fixed angular contact bearing
Moderate forces.
Primarily outward pull on
the shaft end (partly
hydraulically relieved in
the pump)
Fig:1.4.19: Typical types of bearings in pump motors
Motors with permanently lubricated bearings

For closed permanently lubricated bearings, one of
the following high temperature resistant types of
grease are normally used:
Lithium-based grease
Polyurea-based grease
The grease zerks are visible and are easily accessible.

The motor is designed so that:
there is a flow of grease around the bearing
new grease enters the bearing
old grease is removed from the bearing
Motors with lubrication system
Motors with lubricating systems are normally labeled

on the fan cover and are supplied with a lubricating
instruction. Apart from that, instructions are given in
the installation and operating instructions.
Many integral size motors have lubricating nipples

for the bearings both in the drive end and the nondrive end. This may vary by manufacturer.
The lubricant is often a lithium-based, high

temperature grease. The basic oil viscosity must be:
Higher than 50 cSt at 104F
8 cSt at 212F
52
Section 1.5: Liquids

1.5.1 Viscous liquids
1.5.2 Non-Newtonian liquids
1.5.3 The impact of viscous liquids on the
performance of a centrifugal pump
1.5.4 Selecting the right pump for a liquid
with antifreeze
1.5.5 Calculation example
1.5.6 Computer-aided pump selection for
dense and viscous liquids
53
Section 1.5
Liquids
1.5.1 Viscous liquids

While water is the most common liquid that pumps
handle, in a number of applications, pumps have to handle
other types of liquids, e.g. oil, propylene glycol, gasoline.
Compared to water, these types of liquids have different
densities and viscosities.
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a substance to
flow.
The higher the viscosity, the more difficult the liquid
will flow on its own. Propylene glycol and motor oil are
examples of thick or high viscous liquids. Gasoline and
water are examples of thin, low viscous liquids.
Two kinds of viscosities exist:
The dynamic viscosity (), which is normally measured
in Poise (1 Poise)
The kinematic viscosity (), which is normally measured

in centiStokes (cSt)
= density of liquid
The relationship between the dynamic viscosity () and the

kinematic viscosity () is shown in the formula at right.
On the following pages, we will focus on kinematic
viscosity ().
The viscosity of a liquid changes considerably with the
change in temperature; hot oil is thinner than cold oil. As
you can tell from figure 1.5.1, a 50% propylene glycol liquid
increases its viscosity 10 times when the temperature
changes from +68 to 4oF.
For more information concerning liquid viscosity, go to
Appendix K.
54
Liquid
Liquid
Density
temperature [lb/ft3]
t [f]
Kinematic
viscosity
[cSt]
Water
68
62.4
1.004
Gasoline
68
45.75
0.75
Olive oil
68
56.18
93
50% Propylene glycol
68
65.11
6.4
50% Propylene glycol
-4
66.23
68.7
Fig. 1.5.1: Comparison of viscosity values for water and a few

other liquids. Density values and temperatures are also shown
1.5.2 Non-Newtonian liquids

The liquids discussed so far are referred to as
Newtonian fluids. The viscosity of Newtonian liquids
is not affected by the magnitude and the motion that
they are exposed to. Mineral oil and water are typical
examples of this type of liquid. On the other hand,
the viscosity of non-Newtonian liquids does change
when agitated.
A few examples of non-Newtonion liquids include:
Dilatant liquids, like cream, exhibit a viscosity
increase when agitated
Plastic fluids, like ketchup, have a yield value which
must be exceeded before the flow starts. From that
point on, the viscosity decreases with an increase
in agitation
Thixotropic liquids, like non-drip paint, exhibit a
decrease in viscosity with an increase in agitation
freezing. When glycol or a similar antifreeze agent

is added to the pumped liquid, the liquid obtains
properties different from those of water. The liquid
will have a:
Lower freezing point, tf [F]

Lower specific heat, cp [btu/lbm F]
Lower thermal conductivity, [btu ft/h ft2 F]
Higher boiling point, tb [F]
Higher coefficient of expansion, [ft/F]
Higher density, [lb/ft3]
Higher kinematic viscosity, [cSt]
These properties must be considered when designing
a system and selecting pumps. As mentioned, the
higher density requires increased motor power and
the higher viscosity reduces pump head, flow rate
and efficiency resulting in a need for increased motor
power, see figure 1.5.2.
H, P,
The non-Newtonian liquids are not covered by the

viscosity formula described earlier in this section.
H
1.5.3 The impact of viscous liquids on

the performance of a centrifugal pump
Liquid with higher viscosity and/or higher density
than water affects the performance of centrifugal
pumps in different ways:
Fig. 1.5.2: Changed head, efficiency and power input for

liquid with higher viscosity
Power consumption increases, i.e. a larger motor

may be required to perform the same task
Head, flow rate and pump efficiency are reduced
For example, when a pump is used for pumping a
liquid in a cooling system with a liquid temperature
below 32oF, an antifreeze agent like propylene glycol
is added to the water to prevent the liquid from
55
Section 1.5
Liquids
1.5.4 Selecting the right pump for a

liquid with antifreeze
Pump characteristics are usually based on water
temperature at around 68F, i.e. a kinematic viscosity
of approximately 1 cSt and is 1.0 specific gravity.
When pumps are used for liquids containing
antifreeze below 32F, it is necessary to determine,
most importantly, that the pump can meet the
required performance or if a larger motor is required.
The following section presents a simplified method
used to determine pump curve corrections for pumps
in systems that must handle liquids with a viscosity
between 5 cSt - 100 cSt and (specific gravity of 1.0).
Please notice that this method is not as precise as
the computer-aided method described later in this
section.
Pump curve corrections for pumps handling

high viscous liquid
Based on knowledge about required duty point,
flow (QS,), head (HS,) and kinematic viscosity of the
pumped liquid, the correction factors of H and P2 can
be found, see figure 1.5.3.
To get the correction factor for multistage pumps,
the head of one stage has to be used.
56
Fig. 1.5.3: It is possible to determine the correction factor for head

and power consumption at different flow, head and viscosity
values
Figure 1.5.3 is read in the following way:

When kH and kP2 are found in the figure, the equivalent
head for clean water HW and the corrected actual
shaft power P2S can be calculated by the following
formula
Hw = kH . HS
Hw
Hs
Water
2
1
HW = kH . HS
P2S = kP2 . P2w .
Mixture
s
w
( )
Qs
Q
3
where
HW : is the equivalent head of the pump if the

pumped liquid is clean water
P2W : is the shaft power at the duty point (QS,HW)

when the pumped liquid is water
HS : is the desired head of the pumped liquid

with agents
P2s
P2S = KP2 . P2w . s

w
( )
P2w
5
4
Mixture
Water
Q
Fig. 1.5.4: Pump curve correction when choosing the right pump
for the system
P2S : is the shaft power at the duty point (Qs,Hs) for

the viscous pumped liquid water (with

agents)
The pump and motor selection procedure contains

the following steps:
s : is the specific gravity of the pumped liquid
Calculate the corrected head Hw (based on

Hs and kH ), see figure 1.5.4 lines 1 and 2
w : is the specific gravity of water = 1.0
The pump selection is based on the normal data

sheets/curves applying to water. The pump should
cover the duty point flow and head, and the motor
should be powerful enough to handle the power
input on the shaft.
Figure 1.5.4 shows how to proceed when selecting a
pump and testing whether the motor is within the
power range allowed.
Choose a pump capable of providing performance

according to the corrected duty point (Qs, Hw)
Read the power input P2w at the duty point (Qs,Hw),
see figure 1.5.4 lines 3 and 4
Based on P2w, kp2, w, and s calculate the corrected required shaft power P2s, see figure 1.5.4, lines
4 and 5
Check if P2s is less than P2 max of the motor. If that is
the case, the motor can be used. Otherwise select a
more powerful motor
Ensure NPSHr < NPSHa
57
Section 1.5
Liquids
1.5.5 Calculation example

A circulator pump in a refrigeration system is to
pump a 40% (weight) propylene glycol liquid at 14F.
The desired flow is QS = 260 GPM, and the desired
head is HS = 40 ft. If the required duty point is known,
it is possible to find the QH-characteristic for water and
choose a pump to cover the duty point. Once the pump
type and size is determined, the pump is fitted with a
motor which can handle the specific pump load.
The liquid has a kinematic viscosity of 20 cSt and a
specific gravity of 65.48 lb/ft3. With QS = 260 GPM, HS
= 40 ft and = 20 cSt, the correction factors can be
found in figure 1.5.3.
kH = 1.03
kP2 = 1.15
HW = kH HS = 1.03 12 = 40 ft
QS = 260 GPM
1.5.6 Computer-aided pump selection

for dense and viscous liquids
Some computer-aided pump selection tools
include a feature that compensates for the pump
performance curves based on input of the liquid
density and viscosity. Figure 1.5.5 shows the pump
performance curves from the example at left.
The figure shows both the performance curves for
the pump when it handles viscous liquid (the full
lines) and the performance curves when it handles
water (the broken lines). As indicated, head, flow
and efficiency are reduced resulting in an increase
in power consumption. The value of P2 is 4.5 hp
which corresponds to the result as shown in the
calculation example in section 1.5.4.
[%]
[ft]
60
50
The pump selection has to cover a duty point

equivalent to Q,H = 260 GPM, 40 ft. Once the
necessary pump size is selected, the P2 value for the
duty point is determined, which in this case is P2W =
3.8 hp. It is now possible to calculate the required
motor power for the propylene glycol mixture:
40
20
70
60
50
40
10
20
30
30
10
0
0
P2
[hp]
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Q [GPM] 0
NPSH
(ft)
P2S = kP2 . P2w .
S
w
4
2
0
Q [GPM]
Fig. 1.5.5: Pump performance curves
1049
P2S = 1.15 . 3.8 .
998
= 4.6 hp
The calculation shows that the pump has to be fitted

with a 5 hp motor, which is the smallest motor size
able to cover the calculated P2S = 4.6 hp.
58
Section 1.6: Materials

1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4
1.6.5
1.6.6
1.6.7
What is corrosion?
Types of corrosion
Metal and metal alloys
Ceramics
Plastics
Rubber
Coatings
Section 1.6
Materials
This section discusses the different materials used

for pump construction, including the features that
every single metal and metal alloy have to offer.
Corrosion will be defined, and the different types
will be identified, as well as what can be done to
prevent corrosion from occurring.
1.6.1 What is corrosion?

Corrosion is usually referred to as the degradation
of the metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction
with its environment, see figure 1.6.1. Considered
broadly, corrosion may be looked upon as the
tendency of the metal to revert to its natural state
similar to the oxide from which it was originally
melted. Only precious metals, such as gold and
platinum, are found in nature in their metallic state.
Some metals produce a tight protective oxide layer
on the surface which hinders further corrosion. If
the surface layer is broken, it is self-healing. These
metals are passivated. Under atmospheric conditions,
the corrosion products of zinc and aluminum form
a fairly tight oxide layer and further corrosion is
prevented. Likewise, on the surface of stainless steel,
a tight layer of iron and chromium oxide is formed,
and on the surface of titanium, a layer of titanium
oxide is formed. The protective layers of these metals
demonstrate their good corrosion resistance. Rust, on
the other hand, is a non-protective corrosion product
on steel. Rust is porous, not firmly adherent and does
not prevent continued corrosion, see figure 1.6.2.
Environmental variables that affect the

corrosion resistance of metals and alloys
pH (acidity)
Oxidizing agents (such as oxygen)
Temperature
Concentration of solution constituents
(such as chlorides)
Biological activity
Operating conditions
(such as velocity, cleaning procedures and shutdowns)
Fig. 1.6.1: Environmental variables that affect the corrosion

resistance of metals and alloys
Rust on steel
Non-protective corrosion product

Oxide layer on stainless steel
Protective corrosion product

Fig. 1.6.2: Examples of corrosion products
60
1.6.2 Types of corrosion

Generally, metallic corrosion involves the loss of metal
at a spot on an exposed surface. Corrosion occurs in
various forms ranging from uniform attacks over the
entire surface to severe local attacks. The environments
chemical and physical conditions determine both the
type and the rate of corrosion attacks. The conditions
also determine the type of corrosion products that are
formed and the control measures that must be taken.
In many cases, it is impossible or rather expensive to
completely stop the corrosion process; however, it is
usually possible to control the severity to acceptable
levels.
On the following pages, different forms of corrosion
and their characteristics will be discussed.
Uniform corrosion
Uniform or general corrosion is characterized by
corrosive attacks spreading evenly over the entire
surface or on a large part of the total area. General
thinning continues until the metal is broken down.
Uniform corrosion results in waste of most of the
metal.
Fig. 1.6.3: Uniform corrosion
Examples of metals subject to uniform corrosion include:

Steel in aerated water
Stainless steel in reducing acids [such as AISI 304
(EN 1.4301) in sulfuric acid]
Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of a corrosive
attack. Pitting corrosion forms holes or pits on the
metal surface. It perforates the metal while the total
corrosion, measured by weight loss, might be rather
minimal. The rate of penetration may be 10 to 100
times that of general corrosion depending on the
aggressiveness of the medium. Pitting occurs more
often in a stagnant environment.
Fig. 1.6.4: Pitting corrosion
An example of metal subject to pitting corrosion:

Stainless steel in seawater
61
1. Design
Sectionof
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump
construction, (10)
Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion, like pitting corrosion, is a localized
form of corrosion attack. However, crevice corrosion
is more aggressive. Crevice corrosion occurs at narrow
openings or spaces between two metal surfaces
or between metals and non-metal surfaces and
is usually associated with a stagnant condition in
the crevice. Crevices, such as those found at flange
joints or at threaded connections, are often the most
critical spots for corrosion.
Fig. 1.6.5: Crevice corrosion
An example of metal subject to crevice corrosion:

Stainless steel in seawater
Intergranular corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs at grain boundaries.
Intergranular corrosion, also called intercrystalline
corrosion, typically occurs when chromium carbide
precipitates at the grain boundaries during the
welding process or in connection with insufficient
heat treatment. A narrow region around the grain
boundary may become deplete in chromium and
become less resistant to corrosion than the rest of
the material. This is unfortunate because chromium
plays an important role in corrosion resistance.
Fig. 1.6.6: Intergranular corrosion
Examples of metals subject to intergranular corrosion

include:
Insufficiently welded or heat-treated stainless steel
Stainless steel AISI 316 (EN 1.4401) in nitric acid
Selective corrosion
Brass
Selective corrosion attacks one single element of an

alloy and dissolves the element in the alloy structure.
Consequently, the alloys structure is weakened.
Examples of selective corrosion:
The dezincification of unstabilized brass producing
a weakened, porous copper structure
Graphitization of gray cast iron leaving a brittle
graphite skeleton due to the dissolution
of iron.
62
Zinc corrosion products

Copper
Fig. 1.6.7: Selective corrosion
Erosion corrosion
Erosion corrosion is a process whereby the rate of
corrosion attack is accelerated by the relative motion
of a corrosive liquid and a metal surface. The attack
is localized in areas with high velocity or turbulent
flow. Erosion corrosion attacks are characterized by
grooves with a directional pattern.
Examples of metals subject to erosion corrosion:
Bronze in seawater
Copper in water
Flow
Fig. 1.6.8: Erosion corrosion
Cavitation corrosion
Cavitation corrosion occurs when a pumped liquid
with high velocity reduces the pressure, and it drops
below the liquid vapor pressure forming vapor
bubbles. In the areas where the vapor bubbles form,
the liquid boils. When the pressure rises again,
the vapor bubbles collapse and produce intensive
shockwaves. Consequently, the collapse of the vapor
bubbles remove metal or oxide from the surface.
Examples of metals that are subject to cavitation:
Cast iron in water at high temperature
Bronze in seawater
Fig. 1.6.9: Cavitation corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) refers to the combined influence of tensile stress (applied or internal)
and corrosive environment. The material can crack
without any significant deformation or obvious
deterioration of the material. Often, pitting corrosion is associated with SCC.
Examples of metals that are subject to SCC:
Stainless steel AISI 316 (EN 1.4401) in chlorides
Brass in ammonia
Fig. 1.6.10: Stress corrosion cracking
63
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump
construction, (10)
<
Corrosion fatigue
Pure mechanical fatigue occurs when a material
subjected to a cyclic load far below the ultimate
tensile strength fails. If the metal is simultaneously
exposed to a corrosive environment, the failure
can take place at an even lower stress and after a
shorter period of time. Contrary to a pure mechanical
fatigue, there is no fatigue limit in corrosion-assisted
fatigue.
Fig. 1.6.11: Corrosion fatigue
An example of a metal subject to corrosion fatigue:

Aluminium structures in a corrosive atmosphere
Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when a corrosive electrolyte
and two metallic materials are in contact (galvanic
cell) and corrosion increases on the least noble
material (the anode) and decreases on the noblest
material (the cathode). The tendency of a metal or
an alloy to corrode in a galvanic cell is determined by
its position in the galvanic series. The galvanic series
indicates the relative nobility of different metals
and alloys in a given environment (e.g. seawater,
see figure 1.6.13).The farther apart the metals are
in the galvanic series, the greater the galvanic
corrosion effect will be. Metals or alloys at the upper
end are more noble than those at the lower end.
Aluminium
- less noble
Fig. 1.6.12: Galvanic
corrosion
Copper - most noble
Examples of metals that are subject to galvanic

corrosion include:
Steel in contact with AISI 316 (EN 1.4401)
Aluminum in contact with copper
The principles of galvanic corrosion are used in
cathodic protection. Cathodic protection is the
reduction or prevention of the corrosion of a metal
surface through the use of sacrificial anodes (zinc or
aluminum) or impressed currents.
Fig. 1.6.13: Galvanic series for metals and alloys in seawater
64
1.6.3 Metal and metal alloys

On the following pages, the features of different
metals and metal alloys used for construction of
pumps are discussed.
Ferrous alloys
Cavitation corrosion of bronze impeller
Ferrous alloys are alloys where iron is the prime

constituent. Ferrous alloys are the most common of
all materials because of their availability, low cost,
and versatility.
Steel
Steel is a widely used material primarily composed
of iron alloyed with carbon. The amount of carbon
in steel varies in the range from 0.003% to 1.5% by
weight. The content of carbon has an important
impact on the materials strength, weldability,
machinability, ductility, and hardness. Generally, an
increase in carbon content will lead to an increase in
strength and hardness but to a decrease in ductility
and weldability. The most common type of steel
is carbon steel. Carbon steel is grouped into four
categories, see figure 1.6.14.
Erosion corrosion of cast iron impeller
Pitting corrosion of AISI 316 (EN 1.4401)
Steel is available in wrought and cast grades. Cast

steel is closely comparable to wrought; both are
relatively inexpensive to make, form, and process
but have low corrosion resistance compared to
alternative materials such as stainless steel.
0.0394 inch
Intergranular corrosion of
stainless steel
Crevice corrosion of
SAF 2205 (EN 1.4462)
Type of steel
Content of carbon
Low carbon or mild steel
0.003% to 0.30% of carbon
Medium carbon steel
High carbon steel
Very high carbon steel
Fig 1.6.14: Four types of carbon steel
65
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump
construction, (10)
Cast iron
Nodular (ductile) iron
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, silicon and carbon. Typically,

the concentration of carbon is between 3-4% by weight,
most of which is present in insoluble form (e.g. graphite
flakes or nodules). The two main types are grey cast iron
and nodular (ductile) cast iron. The corrosion resistance
of cast iron is comparable to that of steel; and sometimes
even better. Cast iron can be alloyed with 13-16% (by
weight) silicon or 15-35% (by weight) nickel (Ni-resist)
to improve corrosion resistance. Various types of cast
irons are widely used in industry, especially for valves,
pumps, pipes and automotive parts. Cast iron has good
corrosion resistance to neutral and alkaline liquids (high
pH) but has poor resistance to acids (low pH).
Nodular iron contains around 0.03-0.05% (by weight) of

magnesium. Magnesium causes the flakes to become
globular, so the graphite is dispersed throughout a ferrite
or pearlite matrix in the form of spheres or nodules.
The round shape of nodular graphite reduces the stress
concentration and consequently, the material is much
more ductile than grey iron. Figure 1.6.16 shows that
the tensile strength is higher for nodular iron than for
grey iron. Nodular iron is normally used for pump parts
with high strength requirements (high pressure or high
temperature applications).
Grey iron
In grey iron, the graphite is dispersed throughout a
ferrite or pearlite matrix in the form of flakes. Fracture
surfaces take on a grey appearance (hence the name).
The graphite flakes act as stress concentrators under
tensile loads making the material weak and brittle
in tension, but strong and ductile in compression.
Grey iron is used for the construction of motor blocks
because of its high vibration damping ability. Grey iron
is an inexpensive material and is relatively easy to cast
with a minimal risk of shrinkage. That is why grey iron
is often used for pump parts with moderate strength
requirements.
Stainless steel
Stainless steel is composed of chromium containing steel
alloys. The minimum chromium content in standardized
stainless steel is 10.5%. Chromium improves the corrosion
resistance of stainless steel. This is due to a chromium
oxide film that is formed on the metal surface. This
extremely thin layer is self-repairing under the right
conditions. Molybdenum, nickel and nitrogen are other
examples of typical alloying elements. Alloying with
these elements brings out different crystal structures
which enable different properties in connection with
machining, forming, welding and corrosion resistance.
In general, stainless steel has a higher resistance to
chemicals (i.e. acids) than steel and cast iron.
ASTM
150
172
EN-GJL-150
-
GG-15
-
50
-
A 48 Gr 25A
200
EN-GJL-200
GG-20
200
207
A 48 Gr 30A
241
A 48 Gr 35A
250
EN-GJL-250
GG-25
250
Fig 1.6.15: Comparison and designations of grey iron
66
400
EN-GJS-400-18
GGG-40
400-18
400
EN-GJS-400-15
GGG-40.3
400-15
430
450
EN-GJS-450-10
450-10
460
500
EN-GJS-500-7
575
GGG-50
-
ASTM
A 536 Gr 60-40-18
A 536 Gr 65-45-12
-
500-7
-
A 536 Gr 80-55-06
Fig 1.6.16: Comparison and designations of nodular iron
In environments containing chlorides, stainless steel

can be attacked by localized corrosion, such as pitting
corrosion and crevice corrosion. The resistance of
stainless steel to these types of corrosion is highly
dependent on its chemical composition. It is common
to use the so-called Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE)
values as a measure of pitting resistance for stainless
steel. PRE values are calculated by formulas where
the relative influence of a few alloying elements
(chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen) on the pitting
resistance is taken into consideration. The higher the

PRE, the higher the resistance to localized corrosion. Be
aware that the PRE value is a rough estimate of the pitting
resistance of a stainless steel and should only be used for
comparison/classification of different types of stainless
steel. To follow, the four major types of stainless steel:
ferritic, martensitic, austenitic and duplex are presented.
Fig 1.6.17: Chemical composition of stainless steel
Chemical composition of stainless steel [w%]

Microstructure
1)
5)
Designation
EN/AISI/UNS
%
Carbon max.
%
Chromium
Ferritic
1.4016/430/ S43000
0.08
16-18
Martensitic
1.4057/431/ S43100
0.12-0.22
15-17
1.5-2.5
Austenitic
1.4305/303/ S30300
0.1
17-19
8-10
Austenitic
1.4301/304/ S30400
0.07
17-19.5
8-10.5
18
Austenitic
1.4306/304L/ S30403
0.03
18-20
10-12
18
Austenitic
1.4401/316/ S31600
0.07
16.5-18.5
10-13
2-2.5
24
Austenitic
1.4404/316L/ S31603
0.03
16.5-18.5
10-13
2-2.5
24
Austenitic
1.4571/316Ti/
S31635
0.08
16.5-18.5
10.5-13.5
2-2.5
Ti > 5 x carbon
Ti < 0.70
24
Austenitic
1.4539/904L/ N08904
0.02
19-21
24-26
4-5
Cu 1.2-2
34
Austenitic
1.4547/none /
S 31254 3)
0.02
20
18
6.1
N 0.18-0.22
Cu 0.5-1
43
Ferritic/
austenitic
1.4462/ none/
S32205 2)
0.03
21-23
4.5-6.5
2.5-3.5
N 0.10-0.22
34
Ferritic/
austenitic
1.4410/none/
S 32750 4)
0.03
25
N 0.24-0.32
43
Microstructure
Designation
EN/ASTM/UNS
%
Carbon max.
%
Chromium
%
Nickel
%
Molybdenum
%
Other
PRE
Austenitic 1)
1.4308/CF8/ J92600
0.07
18-20
8-11
Austenitic
1)
1.4408/CF8M/ J92900
0.07
18-20
9-12
2-2.5
Austenitic
1)
1.4409/CF3M/ J92800
0.03
18-20
9-12
2-2.5
N max. 0.2
26
Austenitic
1.4584/none/ none
0.025
19-21
24-26
4-5
N max. 0.2
Cu 1-3
35
Ferritic/
austenitic
1.4470/CD3MN/ J92205
0.03
21-23
4.5-6.5
2.5-3.5
N 0.12-0.2
35
Ferritic/
austenitic
1.4517/CD4MCuN/
J93372
0.03
24.5-26.5
2.5-3.5
2.5-3.5
N 0.12-0.22
Cu 2.75-3.5
38
Contains some ferrite 2) Also known as SAF 2205, 3) Also known as 254 SMO,
Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE): Cr% + 3.3xMo% + 16xN%.
%
Nickel
%
Molybdenum
%
Other
PRE 5)
17
4)
16
S 0.15-0.35
18
19
26
Also known as SAF 2507
67
1. Design
Sectionof
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump
construction, (10)
Ferritic (magnetic)
Ferritic stainless steel is characterized by good
corrosion properties, resistance to stress corrosion
cracking, and moderate toughness. Low alloyed
ferritic stainless steel is used in mild environments
(teaspoons, kitchen sinks, washing machine drums,
etc.) where maintenance-free and non-rusting is
required.
Martensitic stainless steel is characterized by

high strength and limited corrosion resistance.
Martensitic steels are used for springs, shafts, surgical
instruments and for sharp-edged tools, such as knives
and scissors.
The stabilized grade AISI 316Ti (EN 1.4571) contains

a small amount of titanium. Because titanium has
a higher affinity for carbon than chromium, the
formation of chromium carbides is minimized. The
content of carbon is generally low in modern stainless
steel, and with the easy availability of L grades, the
use of stabilized grades has declined significantly.
Austenitic (non-magnetic)
Ferritic-austenitic or duplex (magnetic)
Martensitic (magnetic)
Austenitic stainless steel is the most common type

of stainless steel and is characterized by a high
corrosion resistance, good formability, toughness
and weldability. Austenitic stainless steel, especially
the AISI 304 and AISI 316, are used for almost any
type of pump components. This kind of stainless steel
can be either wrought or cast.
AISI 303 is one of the most popular stainless steel
types of all the free machining stainless steel types.
Due to its high sulphur content (0.15-0.35 w%), the
machinability improves considerably but corrosion
resistance and weldability decrease. Over the years,
free machining grades with a low sulphur content and
a higher corrosion resistance have been developed.
If stainless steel is heated up to 932F - 1472F for
a relatively long period of time during welding,
the chromium may form chromium carbides with
the carbon in the steel.This reduces chromiums
capability to maintain the passive film and may
lead to intergranular corrosion, also referred to as
sensitization (see section 1.6.2).
68
If low carbon grades of stainless steel are used, the

risk of sensitization is reduced. Stainless steel with
a low content of carbon is referred to as AISI 316L
(EN 1.4306), or AISI 304L (EN 1.4404). Both grades
contain 0.03% of carbon compared to 0.07% in the
regular type of stainless steel, AISI 304 (EN 1.4301)
and AISI 316 (EN 1.4401), see illustration 1.6.17.
Ferritic-austenitic (duplex) stainless steel is

characterized by strength, toughness, high corrosion
resistance and excellent resistance to stress corrosion
cracking and corrosion fatigue. Ferritic-austenitic
stainless steel is typically used in applications that
require high strength, high corrosion resistance and
low susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking or a
combination of these properties. Stainless steel SAF
2205 is widely used for making pump shafts and
pump housings.
Nickel alloys
Copper alloys
Nickel based alloys are defined as alloys in which

nickel is present in greater proportion than any
other alloying element. The most important
alloying constituents are iron, chromium, copper,
and molybdenum. The alloying constituents make it
possible to form a wide range of alloy classes. Nickel
and nickel alloys have the ability to withstand a wide
variety of severe operating conditions, including
corrosive environments, high temperatures, high
stresses or a combination of these factors.
Pure copper has excellent thermal and electrical

properties but is a very soft and ductile material.
Alloying additions result in different cast and
wrought materials suitable for use in the production
of pumps, pipelines, fittings, pressure vessels and
for many marine, electrical and general engineering
applications.
HastelloyTM alloys are commercial alloys containing

nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and iron. Nickel
based alloys - such as InconelTM Alloy 625, HastelloyTM
C-276 and C-22 - are corrosion resistant, not subject
to pitting or crevice corrosion in low velocity seawater
and do not suffer from erosion at high velocity.
The price of nickel based alloy limits its use in certain
applications. Nickel alloys are available in both
wrought and cast grades. However, nickel alloys are
more difficult to cast than the common carbon steels
and stainless steel alloys. Nickel alloys are often used
for pump parts in the chemical process industry.
1) Lead can be added as an alloying element to improve

machinability.
2) Bronze can be alloyed with aluminium to increase strength.
Fig 1.6.18: Common types of copper alloys
Brasses are the most widely used of the copper alloys

because of their low cost and easy or inexpensive
fabrication and machining. However, they are inferior
in strength to bronzes and must not be used in
environments that cause dezincification. Red brass,
bronze and copper nickels, compared to cast iron,
have a high resistance to chlorides in aggressive
liquids, such as seawater. In such environments, brass
is unsuitable because of its tendency to desincificate.
All copper alloys have poor resistance to alkaline
liquids (high pH), ammonia, and sulfides and are
sensitive to erosion. Brass, red brass and bronze
are widely used for making bearings, impellers and
pump housings.
69
1. Design
Sectionof
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump
construction, (10)
Aluminum
Titanium
Pure aluminum is a light and soft metal with a density

of about a third of that of steel. Pure aluminum
has a high electrical and thermal conductivity.
The most common alloying elements are silicon
(silumin), magnesium, iron and copper. Silicon
increases the materials castability, copper increases
its machinability, and magnesium increases its
corrosion resistance and strength.
Pure titanium has a low density, is quite ductile and

has a relatively low strength. When a limited amount
of oxygen is added, it will strengthen titanium and
produce commercial-pure grades. Additions of various
alloying elements, such as aluminum and vanadium,
increase its strength significantly but at the expense
of ductility. The aluminum and vanadium-alloyed
titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) is the workhorse alloy of
the titanium industry. It is used in many aerospace
engine and airframe components. Because titanium
is a high-price material, it is seldom used for making
pump components.
An advantage of aluminum is its ability to generate a

protective oxide film that is highly corrosion resistant
if it is exposed to the atmosphere. Treatment, such
as anodizing, can further improve this property.
Aluminum alloys are widely used in structures where
a high strength to weight ratio is important, such as
in the transportation industry. The use of aluminum
in vehicles and aircrafts reduces weight and energy
consumption.
A disadvantage of aluminum is its instability at low or
high pH or in chloride-containing environments. This
property makes aluminum unsuitable for exposure
to aqueous solutions, especially under conditions
with high flow.
Titanium is a reactive material. Like stainless steel,

titaniums corrosion resistance depends on the
formation of an oxide film. Titaniums oxide film
is more protective than stainless steels. Therefore,
titanium performs much better than stainless steel
in aggressive liquids, such as seawater, wet chlorine
or organic chlorides, where pitting and crevice
corrosion can occur.
This is further emphasized by the fact that aluminum

is a reactive metal, i.e. has a low position in the
galvanic series and may easily suffer from galvanic
corrosion if coupled to nobler metals and alloys (see
section on galvanic corrosion pg. 64).
Designation
Major alloying element
1000-series
Unalloyed (pure) >99% Al
2000-series
Copper is the principal alloying element, though other

elements (magnesium) may be specified
CP: commercial pure (titanium content above 99.5%)
3000-series
Manganese is the principal alloying element
4000-series
Silicon is the principal alloying element
5000-series
Magnesium is the principal alloying element
6000-series
Magnesium and silicon are principal alloying elements
7000-series
Zinc is the principal alloying element, but other elements,

such as copper, magnesium, chromium, and zirconium
may be specified
8000-series
Other elements (including tin and some lithium

compositions)
Fig 1.6.19: Major alloying elements of aluminum
70
Fig 1.6.20: Titanium grades and alloy characteristics
1.6.4 Ceramics
Thermoplastics
Ceramic materials are composed of metallic and

non-metallic elements and are typically crystalline in
nature. Common technical ceramics are aluminum
oxide (alumina - Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten
carbide (WC), and silicon nitride (Si3N4).
Ceramics are suitable for applications requiring high
thermal stability, strength, wear resistance, and
corrosion resistance. Disadvantages of ceramics
include low ductility and high tendency for brittle
fractures. Ceramics are mainly used for making
bearings and seal faces for shaft seals.
Thermoplastic polymers consist of long polymer

molecules that are not cross-linked to each other.
They are often supplied as granules and heated to
permit fabrication by methods such as molding or
extrusion. A wide range is available from low-cost
commodity plastics (e.g. PE, PP, PVC) to high cost
engineering thermoplastics (e.g. PEEK) and chemical
resistant fluoropolymers (e.g. PTFE, PVDF). PTFE is
one of the few thermoplastics that is not meltprocessable. Thermoplastics are widely used for
making pump housings or for lining of pipes and
pump housings.
1.6.5 Plastics
Thermosets
Some plastics are derived from natural substances

like plants but most types are synthetic. Most
synthetic plastics come from crude oil, but coal
and natural gas are also used. There are two main
types of plastics: Thermoplastics and thermosets
(thermosetting plastics), with thermoplastics
being the most common used worldwide. Plastics
often contain additives which transfer additional
properties to the material. Furthermore, plastics can
be reinforced with fiberglass or other fibers. These
plastics, together with additives and fibers, are also
referred to as composites.
Thermosets harden permanently when heated,

as cross-linking hinders bending and rotations.
Cross-linking is achieved during fabrication using
chemicals, heat, or radiation; a process called curing
or vulcanization. Thermosets are harder, more
dimensionally stable and brittle than thermoplastics
and cannot be remelted. Some thermosets include
epoxies, polyesters, and polyurethanes. Thermosets
are, among other things, used for surface coatings.
Examples of additives found in plastics:

Inorganic fillers for mechanical reinforcement
Chemical stabilizers, e.g. antioxidants
Plasticizers
Flame retardants
Abbreviation
Polymer name
PP
PE
PVC
PEEK
PVDF
PTFE*
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polyvinylchloride
Polyetheretherketone
Polyvinylidene fluoride
Polytetrafluoroethylene
*Trade name: Teflon
Fig 1.6.21: Overview of polymer names
Linear polymer chains
Thermoplastics
Branched polymer chains
Elastomers
Weakly cross-linked polymer chains
Thermosets
Strongly cross-linked polymer chains
Fig 1.6.22: Different types of polymers
71
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump
construction, (10)
1.6.6 Rubber
Ethylene-propylelediene rubber
The term rubber includes both natural rubber

and synthetic rubber. Rubbers, also known as
elastomers, are flexible long-chain polymers that
can be stretched easily to several times their length.
Rubbers are cross-linked (vulcanized) but have a
low cross-link density, see figure 1.6.22. The crosslink is the key to the elastic or rubbery properties
of these materials. The elasticity provides resilience
in sealing applications. Different components in a
pump are made of rubber, such as gaskets and Orings (see section 1.3 on shaft seals). In this section,
the different kinds of rubber qualities and their main
properties, in regards to temperature and resistance
to different kinds of liquid groups, will be presented.
Fluoroelastomers
Nitrile rubber
At temperatures up to about 212F, nitrile rubber
(NBR) is an inexpensive material that has a high
resistance to oil and fuel. Different grades of nitrile
rubber exist - the higher the acetonitrile (ACN)
content, the higher the oil resistance but the poorer
the low-temperature flexibility. Nitrile rubbers have
high resilience and high-wear resistance but only
moderate strength. Further, this rubber has limited
weathering resistance and poor solvent resistance.
It can generally be used at about -22F, but certain
grades can operate at lower temperatures.
of
AbbreviationCommon types
Common
ofname
copper alloys Examples
trade name
NBR
Nitrile rubber
Buna-N
EPDM, EPM
Ethylene-propylelediene
Nordel
FKM
Fluoroelastomers
Viton
MQ, VMQ, PMQ, FMQ
Silicone rubber
Siloprene
FFKM
Perfluoroelastomers
Chemraz
Kalrez
Fig 1.6.23: Rubber types
72
Ethylene propylelediene (EPDM) has excellent water

resistance which is maintained to approximately
248-284F. This rubber type has good resistance
to acids, strong alkalis and polar fluids such as
methanol and acetone. It has very poor resistance to
mineral oil and fuel.
Fluoroelastomers (FKM) cover a whole family of

rubbers designed to withstand oil, fuel and a wide
range of chemicals including non-polar solvents. FKM
offers excellent resistance to high temperatures (up
to 392F depending on the grade) in air and different
types of oil. FKM rubbers have limited resistance
to steam, hot water, methanol, and other polar
fluids. This type of rubber also has poor resistance
to amines, strong alkalis and many freons. There
are standard and special grades - the latter have
improved low-temperature properties or chemical
resistance.
Silicone rubber
Silicone rubbers (Q) have outstanding properties,
such as low compression set in a wide range of
temperatures (from -76F to 392F in air), excellent
electrical insulation and non-toxic. Silicone rubbers
are resistant to water, some acids and oxidizing
chemicals. Concentrated acids, alkalines and
solvents should not be used with silicone rubbers.
In general, these rubber types have poor oil and
fuel resistance. However, the FMQ silicone rubber
resistance to oil and fuel is better than that of types
MQ, VMQ, and PMQ.
Perfluoroelastomers
Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM) have very high chemical

resistance, almost comparable to that of PTFE
(polytetrafluorethylene, e.g. Teflon). They can be
used in high temperatures, but their disadvantages
are difficult processing, very high cost and limited
use at low temperatures.
1.6.7 Coatings
Protective coatings such as metallic, non-metallic
(inorganic) or organic coatings, are a common
method of corrosion control. The main function of
coatings, aside from galvanic coatings such as zinc,
is to provide a barrier between the metal substrate
and its environment. They allow for the use of
normal steel or aluminum instead of more expensive
materials. In the following section, the possibilities of
preventing corrosion by means of different coatings
will be examined.
To protect the base steel,

zinc coating sacrifices itself
slowly by galvanic action.
Steel coated with a more noble

metal, such as nickel, corrodes
more rapidly if the coating
is damaged.
Fig 1.6.24: Galvanic vs. barrier corrosion protection
Metallic coatings
There are two types of metallic coatings. One is
where the coating is less noble than the substrate,
and the other, electroplating, is where a more noble
metal is applied to the substrate as a barrier layer.
Metallic coatings less noble than the substrate

Zinc coatings are commonly used for the protection of
steel structures against atmospheric corrosion. Zinc
has two functions. It acts as a barrier coating, and it
provides galvanic protection. Should an exposed area
of steel occur, the zinc surface preferentially corrodes
at a slow rate and protects the steel. The preferential
protection is referred to as cathodic protection. When
damage is minimal, the protective corrosion products
of zinc will fill the exposed area and stop the attack.
Metallic coatings nobler than the substrate

Electroplating of nickel and chromium coatings on
steel are nobler than the substrate. Unlike galvanic
coatings where the coating corrodes near areas
where the base metal is exposed, any void or damage
in a barrier coating can lead to an immediate base
metal attack.
73
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
<
Materials
1.1 Pump
construction, (10)
Non-metallic coatings
(conversion coatings)
Conversion coatings are included in non-metallic
coatings, also known as inorganic coatings. Conversion
coatings are formed by a controlled corrosion reaction
of the substrate in an oxidized solution. Examples of
conversion coatings are anodizing or chromating
of aluminum and phosphate treatment of steel.
Anodizing is mainly used for surface protection of
aluminum, while chromating and phosphating are
usually used for pre-treatment to improve paint
adhesion and to help prevent the spreading of rust
under layers of paint.
Paints
As mentioned, paints are an important class of
organic coating. Figure 1.6.25 shows several types of
organic coatings. A typical paint formulation contains
polymeric binders, solvents, pigments and additives.
For environmental reasons, organic solvents are
often replaced by water or simply eliminated, as in
powder coating. Painted metal structures usually
involve two or more layers of coating applied on a
primary coating, which is in direct contact with the
metal.
Organic coatings
Organic coatings contain organic compounds and are
available in a wide range of different types. Organic
coatings are applied to the metal by methods of
spraying, dipping, brushing, lining or electro-coating
(paint applied by means of electric current). They may
or may not require heat-curing. Both thermoplastic
coatings (i.e. polyamide, polypropylene, polyethylene,
PVDF and PTFE) and elastomer coatings are applied
to metal substrates to combine the mechanical
properties of metal with the chemical resistance of
plastics, but paints are by far the most widely used
organic coating.
74
Physical states of common organic coatings

Resin
type
Acrylic
Alkyd
Epoxy
Polyester
Polyurethane
Vinyl
Solvent- Water- Powder

based
based coating
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Two comp.
liquid
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Fig 1.6.25: Physical states of common organic coatings
Chapter 2. Installation and performance reading
Section 2.1: Pump installation

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
New installation
Existing installation-replacement
Pipe flow for single-pump installation
Limitation of noise and vibrations
Sound level
Section 2.2: Pump performance

2.2.1 Hydraulic terms
2.2.2 Electrical terms
2.2.3 Liquid properties
Section 2.1
Pump installation
Accuracy of suited pump type for an installation has

significant impact on optimum operation. The larger
the pumps, the greater the costs with respect to
investment, installation, commissioning, operation
and maintenance basically the life cycle costs
(LCC). An extensive product portfolio combined
with competent advice and after-sales service is
the foundation of a proper selection. The following
analysis, recommendations and pump tips are
general for any installation but, to a greater extent,
relevant for medium to large sized installations.
Recommendations for new and existing installations
follow.
2.1.1 New installation

If the pipework has not been planned, the selection

of a pump type can be based on other primary

criteria, such as efficiency, investment costs or
lifecycle costs (LCC). This will be covered in a later
section.
If the pipework has been planned, pump selection

is equivalent to pump replacement in an existing
installation.
2.1.2 Existing installationreplacement

Tips for optimum pump selection for existing installation
follows.
Pre-investigation of the installation should

include:
Basic pipe flow pipes in and out of the building, e.g.
from the ground, along the floor or from the ceiling
Specific pipework at the point of installation, e.g.

in-line or end-suction, dimensions, manifolds
Space availability width, depth and height
Accessibility for maintenance, i.e., doorways
Availability/accessibility of lift equipment
Floor type, e.g. solid or suspended floor with
basement
Existing foundation
Existing electrical installation
Previous pump installation

Pump make, type, specifications including old duty
point, shaft seal, materials, gaskets, controlling
History, e.g. lifetime, maintenance
Future requirements
Desired improvements and benefits
New selection criteria including duty points and
operating times, temperature, pressure, liquid specs
Supplier criteria, e.g. availability of spare parts
Advisory
Major changes might be beneficial in long or short
term and should be documented, e.g. installation
savings, life cycle costs (LCC), reduced environmental
impact (noise, vibration accessibility for maintenance)
Selection
Should be based on priorities agreed to by customer
For the selection of correct pump type and installation advice, two main areas are important: Pipe flow
and limitation of noise and vibrations. This will be
dealt with on the following pages.
76
2.1.3 Pipe flow for single-pump installation

Figure 2.1.1 is based on single-pump installation. In parallel installations, accessibility plays a
major role for suitability of a pump choice.
Simple pipework with few bends as possible is the criteria for pump choice in a single-pump installation.
Scores:
Best choice
Good choice
Acceptable choice
Not applicable
Pump type
Pipework
To the pump:
Along floor
From ground
From ceiling
Wallmounted
A. In-line close-coupled
(horizontal or vertical
mounting)
B. End-suction close- coupled

(horizontal or vertical
mounting)
C. End-suction long-coupled
(only horizontal mounting)
From the pump:

Along floor
Best choice
Good choice
Good choice
To ground
Best choice
Good choice
Good choice
To ceiling
Good choice
Best choice
Best choice
Along floor
Good choice
Best choice
Acceptable choice
To ground
Good choice
Best choice
Acceptable choice
To ceiling
Good choice
Best choice
Best choice
Along floor
Best choice
Acceptable choice
Acceptable choice
To ground
Best choice
Good choice
Good choice
To ceiling
Good choice
Best choice
Best choice
Wallmounted
Best choice
Good choice
Not applicable
Fig. 2.1.1 Pipework and pump type
77
Section 2.1
Pump installation
Accessibility plays a major role in how well a specific

pump choice is suited to an installation of several
pumps in parallel. In-line pumps installed in parallel
do not always provide the best accessibility because
of the pipwork, see figure 2.1.2. End-suction pumps
installed in parallel provide better accessibility, see
figure 2.1.3.
2.1.4 Limitation of noise and vibrations
Fig. 2.1.2:
Three in-line pumps in parallel; limited maintenance
access because of pipework
To achieve optimum operation and minimize noise

and vibration, vibration dampening of the pump may
be necessary. Generally, this should be considered for
pumps with motors above 7.5 hp. Smaller motor sizes,
however, may also cause noise and vibration due to
rotation in the motor and pump and by the flow in
pipes and fittings. The effect on the environment
depends on correct installation and the condition
of the entire system. Three ways to limit noise and
vibration in a pump installation are: Foundation
considerations, dampeners and expansion joints.
Fig. 2.1.3:
Three end-suction pumps in parallel; easier maintenance
access because of pipework
Floor
Solid ground
Foundation
Floor constructions can be solid or suspended.
Fig. 2.1.4: Solid floor construction
Solid minimum risk of noise due to low

transmission of vibrations, see figure 2.1.4.
Suspended risk of floor amplifying the noise.
Basement can act as a resonance box,
see figure 2.1.5.
Ground floor
Wall
The pump should be installed on a plane on a rigid

surface. There are four basic installations for the
two types of floor constructions: Floor, foundation,
floating foundation and foundation suspended on
vibration dampeners.
Basement
Floor
Solid ground
Fig. 2.1.5: Suspended floor construction
78
Floor
Floor
Direct mounting on floor, hence direct vibration
transmission, see figure 2.1.6.
Fig. 2.1.6: Floor
Floor
Foundation
Poured directly on concrete floor, see figure 2.1.7.
Floating foundation
Resting on a dead material, e.g. sand, hence reduced
risk of transmitting vibration, see figure 2.1.8.
Foundation suspended on vibration dampeners

Optimum solution with controlled vibration
transmission, see figure 2.1.9.
The weight of a concrete foundation should be 1.5 x
the pump weight. This weight is needed to get the
dampeners to work efficiently at low pump speed.
Base plate Pump unit
Fig. 2.1.7: Foundation
Floor
Foundation Base plate Pump unit
Floor Sand
Foundation Base plate Pump unit
Fig. 2.1.8:
Floating foundation
Fig. 2.1.9: Foundation

suspended on
vibration dampeners
Floor
Vibration dampeners Foundation Base plate Pump unit
Pump unit
Fig. 2.1.10: The same

foundation rules apply
to vertical in-line
pumps
Foundation
Vibration
dampeners
Floor
79
Section 2.1
Pump installation
Dampeners
Vibration dampener selection requires the following
data:
pressure loss on the pressure side. At high water

velocities (16.4 ft/s or greater), it is best to install larger
expansion joints, corresponding to the pipework.
Forces acting on the dampener

Motor speed with consideration of speed control
Required dampening in % (suggested value is 70%)
Dampener selection varies from installation to
installation. An incorrect selection may increase the
vibration level. The supplier should, therefore, size
vibration dampeners.
Pumps installed with vibration dampeners should
always have expansion joints fitted at both the
suction and the discharge side to prevent the pump
from being supported by the flanges.
Expansion joints
Expansion joints are installed to:
Absorb expansions/contractions in the pipework

caused by liquid temperature changes
Reduce mechanical strain in connection with

pressure waves in the pipework
Isolate mechanical noise in the pipework (not for

metal bellows expansion joints)
Expansion joints should not be installed to
compensate for inaccuracies in the pipework, such
as center displacement or misalignment of flanges.
Expansion joints are fitted at a minimum distance
of 1 to 1.5 times the pipe diameter from the pump
on the suction side as well as on the discharge side.
This prevents the development of turbulence in the
expansion joints, resulting in better suction conditions
and a minimum
80
Expansion
joint
Foundation
Pump unit
Base plate
Vibration
dampeners
Floor
Fig. 2.1.11: Installation with expansion joints, vibration

dampeners and fixed pipework
Figures 2.1.12-2.1.14 show examples of rubber bellows

expansion joints with or without tie bars.
Fig. 2.1.12: Rubber bellows
expansion joints with tie bars
Expansion joints with tie bars can be used to minimize

the forces caused by the expansion joints and are
recommended for sizes larger than four inches. An
expansion joint without tie bars will exert force on
the pump flanges, which in turn affects the pump
and the pipework.
Fig. 2.1.13: Rubber

bellows expansion
joints without tie
bars
The pipes must be fixed so that they do not stress the

expansion joints and the pump, see figure 2.1.11. The
fixed points should always be placed as close to the
expansion joints as possible. Follow the expansion
joint suppliers instructions.
Fig. 2.1.14: Metal

bellows expansion
joints with tie bars
At temperatures above 212F combined with a high

pressure, metal bellows expansion joints are often
preferred, due to the risk of rupture.
Lp (dB)
120
2.1.5 Sound level

The sound level (L) in a system is measured in decibel
(dB). Noise is unwanted sound. The level of noise can
be measured in the following three ways:
100
Pain threshold
Threshold of hearing
Music
80
60
Speech
40
20
0
1. Pressure Lp : The pressure of the air waves

2. Power Lw : The power of the sound
3. Intensity - Ll: The power per m2 (will not be
covered in this book)
20
50 100 200 500Hz 1
10 20kHz
Frequency
kHz
Fig. 2.1.15: Threshold of hearing vs. frequency
It is not possible to compare the three values directly,

but it is possible to calculate between them based on
standards. A rule-of-thumb is:
Smaller pumps, e.g. 2 hp: Lw = LP + 11 dB

Larger pumps, e.g. 150 hp: Lw = LP + 16 dB
81
Section 2.1
Pump installation
Sound levels are indicated as pressure when they

are below 85 dB(A) and as power when exceeding
85 dB(A).
Noise is subjective and depends on a persons ability to
hear. Therefore, the above mentioned measurements
get weight according to the sensitivity of a standard ear,
see figure 2.1.15. The weighting is known as A-weighting
[dB(A)], expressed as: LpA, and the measurements are
adjusted depending on frequency. In some cases the
weighting increases and in other cases it decreases,
see figure 2.1.16. Other weightings are known as B and
C but they are used for other purposes not covered in
this book.
In the case of two or more pumps in operation, the
sound level can be calculated. If the pumps have the
same sound level, the total sound level can be calculated
by adding the value, see figure 2.1.17. For example, two
pumps is Lp + 3 dB, three pumps is Lp + 5 dB. If the
pumps have different sound levels, values from figure
2.1.18 can be added.
Indications of sound level should normally be stated as
free field conditions over reflecting surface, meaning the
sound level on a hard floor with no walls. Guaranteeing
values in a specific room in a specific pipe system is
difficult because these values are beyond the reach of the
manufacturer. Certain conditions could have a negative
impact (increased sound level) or a positive impact on
the sound level. Recommendations to installation and
foundation can be given to eliminate or reduce the
negative impact of sound level.
dB (A)
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
10
100
1000
10000 Hz
Fig. 2.1.16 A-weighting curve
15
10
12
16
20
24
Fig. 2.1.17 Increase of the total sound pressure level with equal
sources
3
2.5
2
1.5
Experience values:
1
Rise of

+ 3 dB
+ 5 dB
+10 dB
Perceived as:
Slightly noticeable
Clearly noticeable
Twice as loud
0.5
10
Fig. 2.1.18 Increase of the total sound pressure level with

different sources
82
Section 2.2
Pump performance
When examining a pump, several things should

be evaluated. For example, if the pump is rusty or
makes abnormal noise, a number of values must
be identified in order to determine if the pump is
performing properly. On the next pages, three values
are presented for examining a pumps performance:
Hydraulic terms, electrical terms, mechanical terms
and liquid properties.
2.2.1 Hydraulic terms

Flow, pressure and head are the most important
hydraulic terms pertinent to pump performance.
Flow
Flow is the amount of liquid that passes through
a pump within a certain period of time. Volume
flow and mass flow are the two flow parameters
considered for a performance reading.
Q
Qm = . Q ; Q = m
Volume flow
Volume flow (Q) is read from a pump curve - or, put
in another way, a pump can move a given volume
per unit of time, measured in gallons per minute, no
matter the density of the liquid. For water supply,
for example, volume flow is the most important
parameter because a certain volume of water is
needed for drinking or irrigation. Throughout this
book the term flow refers to volume flow.
Water
Examples
Unit
Volume flow Q
GPM
Density
lb/ft3
62.30
58.86
lb/h
22000
20730
lb/s
6.1
5.7
Mass flow Qm
at 68F
at 248F
44.02
Fig. 2.2.1: Calculation examples
Mass flow
Mass flow (Qm) is the mass which a pump moves per
unit of time and is measured in pounds per second. The
liquid temperature has an influence on how big a mass
flow can move per unit of time since the liquid density
changes with the temperature. In heating, cooling and
air-conditioning systems, the mass flow is essential to
identify because the mass is the carrier of energy (see
section on Heat Capacity).
83
Section 2.2
Pump performance
Pressure
Pressure (p) is a measure of force per unit area. Total
pressure is the sum of the static pressure and the

dynamic pressure:
Later in this chapter, dynamic pressure in connection

with determining the head of a pump will be
discussed.
psta
psta
Static pressure
Static pressure psta is the
1 pressure measured with a
pressure gauge placed perpendicular
to the flow or
2
in a non-moving liquid, see figure 2.2.2.
ptot
pdyn
psta
ptot
ptot
Fig. 2.2.2: How to determine the static pressure Psta, the

dynamic pressure Pdyn and the total pressure Ptot
Dynamic pressure 1
Dynamic pressure p is2 caused by liquid velocity and is
dyn
calculated by the following formula:
1
2
where:
is the density of the 1liquid in [lb/ft3]
v is the velocity of the2liquid in [ft/s]
D1
v1
1
2
So, an increase in pipe diameter, as the one shown in
figure 2.2.2 results in an increase in the static head
which is measured with the pressure gauge p2.
In most pumping systems, the dynamic pressure
pdyn has a minor impact on the total pressure. For
example, if the velocity of a water flow is 14.7 ft/s,
the dynamic pressure is around 1.45 psi, which is
considered insignificant in many pumping systems.
84
v2
A
P
Dynamic pressure can be converted into static pressure

by reducing the liquid velocity and vice versa. Figure
2.2.3 shows a part of a system where the pipe diameter
increases from D1 to D2 resulting in a decrease in liquid
speed from v1 to v2. Assuming that there is no friction
1 the sum of the static pressure and
loss in the system,
2
the dynamic pressure
is constant throughout the
horizontal pipe.
p2
p1
D2
B
ptot
psta
pdyn
Fig. 2.2.3: The static pressure increases if the liquid velocity is reduced.
The figure applies for a system with insignificant friction loss
H(m)
Duty point for diesel at 20C
12
Duty point for water at 95C
10
Duty point for brine at 20C
6
4
2
Measuring pressure
Pressure is measured in psi (Ib/in), or bar (105

Pa). When dealing with pressure, it is important
to know the point of reference for the pressure
measurement. Two types of pressure are essential
with pressure measurement: Absolute pressure and
gauge pressure.
Conversion table for pressure units

atm
bar
6.895
2.307
0.703
0.068
0.069
psi
kPa
1 kPa
0.145
0.335
0.102
0.0097
0.01
1 feet of H2O
0.4335
2.969
0.305
0.0295
0.03
1 m of H2O
1.422
9.806
3.281
0.097
0.098
1 m H 2O
14.696
101.325 33.9
10.333
1.013
33.5
10.197
0.987
1 bar
14.504
* Physical atmosphere
Absolute pressure
Absolute pressure (Pabs) is defined as the pressure
above absolute vacuum, 0 atmospheres, that is
the absolute zero for pressure. Usually, absolute
pressure is used in cavitation calculations.
ft of H2O m of H2O
1 psi
designation
100
Fig. 2.2.4: Conversion table for pressure units
34.1ft
35.4 ft
42.5 ft
Gauge pressure (Pg), often referred to as overpressure,

is higher than normal atmospheric pressure (1 atm).
Normally, pressure p is stated as gauge pressure because
most sensor and pressure gauge measurements account
for the pressure difference between the system and the
atmosphere. Throughout this book the term pressure
refers to gauge pressure.
26.1 ft
Gauge pressure
Brine at 68F
Water at 68F
Water at 203F
Diesel oil at 68F
SG = 1.3
SG = 0.997
SG = 0.96
SG = 0.80
14.7 psi = 26.1 ft
14.7 psi = 34.1ft
14.7 psi = 35.4 ft
14.7 psi = 42.5 ft
14.7 psi
14.7 psi
14.7 psi
14.7 psi
H(m)
Head
1
The head (H) of a pump 2is an expression of how high
Fig. 2.2.5: Pumping four different liquids

atfor14.7
at the
Duty point
diesel psi
at 20C
12
discharge side of the pump results in four different heads
10
(ft), hence four different duty
points
8
the pump can raise a liquid. Head is measured in

feet (ft) and is independent of the liquid density. The
1
following formula shows
2 the relationship between
pressure (p) and head (H):
Duty point for brine at 20C
6
4
2
2.307
SG
Conversion table for pressure units
where :
H is the head in [ft]
p is the pressure in psi2.31
SG is the specific gravity ofSG
the liquid
Pressure p is measured in [psi].
ft of H2O m of H2O
atm
bar
1 psi
6.895
2.307
0.703
0.068
0.069
designation
psi
kPa
1 kPa
0.145
0.335
0.102
0.0097
0.01
1 feet of H2O
0.4335
2.969
0.305
0.0295
0.03
1 m of H2O
1.422
9.806
3.281
0.097
0.098
1 m H2O
14.696
101.325 33.9
10.333
1.013
33.5
10.197
0.987
1 bar
14.504
* Physical atmosphere
100
0.4085
Other pressure units are used as well, see figure

2.2.4.
The relationship between pressure and head
is shown in figure 2.2.5, where a pump handles four
different liquids.
2.31
SG
0.4085 Q
85
Section 2.2
Pump performance
How to determine the head

The correction due to the difference in port diameter
is caused by the difference in the dynamic pressure.
Instead of calculating the correction from the formula, the
contribution can be read in a nomogram, see appendix F.
The pump head is determined by reading the pressure

on the flanges1 of the pump p2, p1 and then converting
2
the values into head, see figure 2.2.6. However, if a static
difference in head is present between the two measuring
points, as it is1 in the case in figure 2.2.6, it is necessary to
compensate 2for the difference. And if the port dimensions
of the two measuring points differ from one another, the
actual head has to be corrected for this as well.
v2
D2
p2
2.307
SG
The actual pump head1 H is calculated by the following

2
formula:
v1
h2
2.31
D1 p1
h1
SG 1
2
where :
H is the actual pump head in [ft]
2.307
0.4085
p is the pressure at the flanges in [ft]
SG
SG is the specific gravity of the liquid
g is the acceleration of gravity in [ft/s2]
h is the static height2.31
in [ft]
v is the liquid velocity in [ft/s]
SG
Fig. 2.2.6: Standard end-suction pump with dimension difference

on suction and discharge ports
v2 = 5.43 m/s2
D2= 125 mm
h2 - h1 = 355 mm
2.31
1
0.4085 Q
2
SG v is calculated by the following
The liquid velocity
formula:
D1 = 150 mm
v1 = 3.77 m/s2
0.4085
1
2
where:
2.31in [ft/s]
v is the2.307
velocity
SG
SG
Q is the volume
flow in [GPM]
D is the port diameter2.31
in [in]
A is the
area
SG
2.31
SG
0.4085 Q
0.4085 Q
2.31 (15.9 - 7.25)
1 0.4085
Combining these two formulas, head,
H, depends
1057on the
1.0pressure measurements p and p4.9
5.9
following factors: The
,
1
2
the difference in0.4085
static height between the measuring
2.31through the pump Q, and
0.4085
points h2-h1, the flow
the Q
SG
diameter of the two ports D1 and D2 .
2.31
SG
0.4085 Q
2.31 (15.9 - 7.25)

1.0
2.31
SG
86
0.4085 Q
0.4085 1057
4.9
5.9
p1 = 0.5 bar
p2 = 1.1 bar
1
2
1
2
1
Calculation
example
2
A pump2.307
of the same type as the one shown in figure 2.2.7
SG
is installed in a system with the following data:
1
2
Q = 1057
2.31GPM
p1 = 7.25 psiSG
p2 = 15.92.307
psi
SG
Liquid: Water at 680F
0.4085
Suction
port diameter D1 = 6 in
2.31
Discharge SG
port diameter D2 = 5 in
The difference in height between the two ports where the
pressure gauges are installed is h2-h1 = 1 ft
2.31
0.4085 Q
0.4085
SG
We are now able to calculate the head of the pump:
2.31
v2 = 17.8 ft/s2
D2= 4.9 in
p2 = 15.9 psi
h2 - h1 = 1 ft
D1 = 5.9 in
v1 = 12.3 ft/s2
p1 = 7.25 psi
Fig. 2.2.7: Standard end-suction pump with different

dimensions of suction and discharge ports (Example)
0.4085
Q
0.4085 Q
SG
2.31 (15.9 - 7.25)

2.31
1.0
SG
2.31 (15.9
- 7.25)
19.98
1.0
0.4085
1057Q
0.4085
4.9
1 1 5.82
0.4085 26.80
1057 ft
4.9
5.9
5.9
As it appears from the calculation, the pressure difference

measured by pressure gauges is about 1 ft lower than what
the pump is actually performing. The deviation is caused
by the difference in height between the pressure gauges (1
ft) and by the difference in port dimensions, which in this
case is 1 inch.
87
Section 2.2
Pump performance
If the pressure gauges are placed at the same static

height or if a differential pressure gauge is used for
the measurement, it is not necessary to compensate
for the difference in height (h2-h1). With in-line
pumps, where inlet and outlet are placed at the same
level, the two ports often have the same diameter.
For these types of pumps a simplified formula is used
to determine the head:
2.31 (
SG
p1
p2
h1
h2
Fig.2.2.7.a: Inline pump with same static height on inlet

and outlet. h2 = h1
H = head in ft
P = psi
SG = specific gravity
Differential pressure
The differential pressure (p) is the pressure difference
between the pressures measured at two points, that is,
the pressure drops across valves in a system. Differential
pressure is measured in the same units as pressure.
Dry cooler
System pressure
The system pressure is the static pressure, which refers
to when the pumps are not running. System pressure
is important to consider when dealing with a closed
system. The system pressure, measured in feet in the
lowest point, must always be higher than the height
of the system to ensure that the system is filled with
liquid and can be vented properly.
88
Chiller
Hsyst
Hsyst > h
Fig.2.2.8: The system pressure Hsta in a closed system

has to be higher than the physical height of the installation
Cavitation in a pump occurs when the suction pressure

is lower than the vapor pressure of the liquid pumped,
see figures 2.2.9 and 2.2.10. When the pressure on
the suction side of the pump drops below the vapor
pressure of the pumped liquid (figure 2.2.10 yellow dot),
vapor bubbles form. As the pressure in the pump rises,
the bubbles collapse releasing shock waves (figure
2.2.10 red dot) which can damage impellers. The rate
of damage depends on the properties of the impeller
material. Stainless steel is more resistent to cavitation
than bronze, and bronze is more resistant than cast
iron, see section 1.6.3. Additional damage to bearings,
shaft seals and welds may occur due to increased noise
and vibration caused by cavitation. This damage is often
only detected when the pump is disassembled. Pump
performance is harmed by cavitation due to decreases
in both flow (Q) and head (H), see figure 2.2.11.
hmax = Maximum suction head

Hb = Atmospheric pressure at the pump site; this is the
theoretical maximum suction lift, see figure 2.2.13
Hf = Friction loss in the suction pipe
NPSHr = Net Positive Suction Head read at the NPSH
curve at the highest operational flow, see figure 2.2.12.
a = Front of impeller vanes

b = Back of impeller vanes
a
b
Imploding vapor bubbles
Fig.: 2.2.9: Implosion of cavitation bubbles on the back of impeller vanes
p
Pressure [Pa]
Cavitation
To calculate the risk of cavitation, the Net Positive

Suction Head Required (NPSHr) for the pump is
compared with the Net Positive Suction Head Available
(NPSHa) of the system. NPSHr, which is the amount of
suction head required to ensure the pump performs at
full capacity, is determined by the manufacturer and
typically included on the performance curve. NPSHa
is a function of the system in which the pump will be
applied and is calculated as follows:
Net Positive Suction Head
p1
a = Front of impeller vanes

b = Back of impeller vanes
Vapor pressure
NPSH
Impeller inlet
Impeller outlet
Q
Fig.: Q
2.2.10: Development of pressure through
a centrifugal
pump
NPSHa = Hb + Hs Hf Vp
Hb = Barometric Pressure, in feet absolute

Hs = Suction Head, in feet absolute (positive or negative)
Hf = Friction loss in suction piping, in feet absolute
Vp = Vapor pressure at the maximum operating
temperature, in feet absolute
H
Curve when
pump cavitates
Fig.: 2.2.11: Pump curve when pump cavitates
NPSHa must be greater than the NPSHr to avoid cavitation.
Calculation of the risk of cavitation
NPSH
To avoid cavitation, the following formula is used to

calculate the maximum suction head:
hmax = Hb Hf NPSHr Hv Hs
Q
Fig.: 2.2.12: NPSH - curve
H
89
Section 2.2
Pump performance
The NPSH value indicates to what extent the pump is

unable to create absolute vacuum, that is to raise a
full water column 33.89 ft above sea level, see figure
2.2.13.
Height above
sea level
(ft)
Barometric
pressure
p (psi)
Water
column
H (ft)
Boiling point
of water
(f)
14.692
33.89
212
1640.4
13.567
31.92
210.2
3280.8
13.039
30.05
204.8
6561.6
11.531
26.57
199.4
NPSH can either be considered in terms of NPSHr

(required) or NPSHa (available).
NPSHrequired The required suction head for the pump
NPSHavailable The available suction head in the system
Hs Safety factor. Hs depends on the situation and

normally varies between 1.5 ft and 3 ft. For typical
curve for liquid containing gas see figure 2.2.15.
Fig.: 2.2.13: Barometric pressure above sea level
The NPSH value of a pump is determined by Hydraulic

Institute testing standards and is made as follows.
The suction head is reduced while the flow is kept
at a constant level. When the differential pressure
has decreased by 3%, the pressure at the pumps
suction side is read and the NPSH value of the pump
is defined. The testing is repeated at different flows,
forming the basis of the NPSH curve.
Hv Vapor pressure of the liquid. For more information
concerning vapor pressure of water, go to Appendix D.
tm
(F Hv
)
(m)
370
tm
(C )
150
30
32025
130
20
300
110
15
28012
10
Hf
100
8,0
2706,0
90
80
5,0
70
3,0
2504,0
2302,0
60
1,5
2121,0
50
NPSH
40
0,8
30
0,4
1940,6
Hb
1760,3
20
0,2
1580,1
10
Hv
140
122
104
Fig.: 2.2.14: System with indication

of the different values that are
important in connection with suction
calculations
86
68
50
2.2.2 Electrical terms
32
H [ft]
To examine a pumps performance, a range of values

must be considered. In this section the most important
electrical values are presented: Power consumption,
voltage, current and power factor.
45
36040
35
140
120
NPSH
Liquid with air
Vented liquid
Q [GPM]
Fig.: 2.2.15: Typical NPSH curve for liquid containing gas
90
Hv
(ft )
413
328
259
148
131
115
98
82
66
49
39
33
26
20
16
13
10
6.6
4.9
3.3
2.6
2.0
1.3
0.9
0.7
0.3
Power consumption
Pumps are made of several components, see figure
2.2.16. The power consumption (P) of the different
components is designated as follows:
P1 The power input from the mains, or the amount

of power the consumer must purchase.
P2 The power input to the pump, or the power

output from the motor, often referred to as

shaft power or brake horsepower (Bhp).
P1
P2
PH Hydraulic power; the power that the pump

transfers to the liquid in the form of flow
and head, also known as water hp (Whp).
For the most common pump types, the term power
consumption normally refers to P2. Power is measured
in horsepower (hp).
Efficiency
PH
Efficiency () normally only covers the efficiency of

the pump part, P. A pumps efficiency is determined
by several factors, including the shape of the pump
housing, the impeller and diffuser design and the
surface roughness. For typical pump units consisting
of both pump and electric motor, the total efficiency
T also includes the efficiency of the motor:
Fig. 2.2.16: Pump unit with indication of different power
consumption levels
If a frequency converter is also included, the efficiency

of the entire unit must include the efficiency of the
frequency converter (fc ):
91
Section 2.2
Pump performance
Voltage
Like pressure drives flow through a hydraulic system,
voltage (v) drives a current (I) through an electrical
circuit. Voltage is measured in volts (V) and can be
direct current (DC), e.g. 1.5 V battery or alternating
current (AC), e.g. electricity supply for houses, etc.
Normally, pumps are supplied with AC voltage
supply.
L1
L2
L3
N
}
}
480V Three-phase
supply
230V Single-phase
supply
Ground
Fig. 2.2.17: Mains supply, e.g. 3 x 480 V
The layout of an AC main supply differs from one

country to another. The most common layout is four
wires with three phases (L1, L2, L3) and a neutral (N).
A ground connection is added to the system as well,
see figure 2.2.17.
For a 3x480 V/230 V main supply, the voltage between
any two of the phases (L1, L2, L3) is 480 V. The voltage
between one of the phases and neutral (N) is 230 V.
The ratio between the phase-phase voltage and the
phase-neutral voltage is determined by the formula
at right.
The ratio between the phase-phase voltage

and the phase-neutral voltage is:
Current
Current (I) is the flow of electricity and is measured
in ampere (A). The amount of current in an electrical
circuit depends on the supplied voltage and the
resistance/ impedance in the electrical circuit.
Power and power factor

Power (P) consumption is of high importance when
it comes to pumps. For pumps with standard AC
motors, the power input is found by measuring the
input voltage and input current and by reading the
value cosj on the pump motor nameplate. The term
cosj is the phase angle between voltage and current
and is referred to as power factor (PF). The power
consumption P1 can be calculated by the formulas
shown at right for a single-phase or a three-phase
motor.
92
AC single-phase motor, e.g. 1 x 230 V
AC three-phase motor, e.g. 3 x 480 V
2.2.3 Liquid properties
Viscosity
When making system calculations, the following liquid

properties should be considered: Liquid temperature,
specific gravity, heat capacity, and viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity is measured in centiStokes [cSt]

(1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s). The unit [SSU] Saybolt Universal is
Liquid temperature
The liquid temperature (t,T) is measured in F
(Fahrenheit), C (Celcius), or K (Kelvin). Temperature
units of C and K are actually the same, but 0C is the
freezing point of water and 0K is the absolute zero;
that is -273.15C, the lowest possible temperature. The
calculation between Fahrenheit and Celcius is F = C .
1.8 + 32. Hence, the freezing point of water is 0C and
32F, and the boiling point is 100C and 212F.
also used in connection with kinematic viscosity.

For kinematic viscosity above 60 cSt, the Saybolt
Universal viscosity is calculated by the following
formula:
[SSU] = 4.62 . [cSt]
18.42
Btu/lbm F
0% pure water
16.74
20%
15.07
13.39
34%
44%
52%
11.72
Specific Gravity
The Specific Gravity (SG) is a dimensionless unit
defined as the ratio of density of the material to the
density of water at a specified temperature of 68F.
See appendix K.
10.04
8.37
-40
-4
32
68
104
140
176
212
248F
Fig. 2.2.18: Heat capacity vs. temperature for ethylene glycol
Liquid heat capacity

The heat capacity (Cp) shows how much additional
energy a liquid can contain per mass when it is
heated. Liquid heat capacity depends on temperature,
see figure 2.2.18. Heat capacity is considered in
systems for transporting energy, such as heating,
air-conditioning and cooling. Mixed liquids, such as
glycol and water for air-conditioning, have a lower
heat capacity than pure water, so higher flow is
required to transport the same amount of energy.
93
Chapter 3. System hydraulics
Section 3.1: System characteristics

3.1.1 Single resistances
3.1.2 Closed and open systems
Section 3.2: Pumps connected in parallel and series

3.2.1 Pumps in parallel
3.2.2 Pumps connected in series
Section 3.1
System characteristics
Previously, in section 1.1.2, the basic characteristics

of pump performance curves were discussed.
In this chapter the pump performance curve at
different operating conditions as well as a typical
system characteristic will be examined. Finally, the
interaction between a pump and a system will be
discussed.
System characteristic describes the relation between
flow (Q) and head (H). The system characteristic
depends on the type of system in question, closed
or open.
Closed systems
A closed system is a circulating system like heating
or air-conditioning systems, where the pump has
to overcome the friction losses in the pipes, fittings,
valves, etc. in the system.
Open systems
An open system is a liquid transport system like a
water supply system where the pump must address
the static head as well as overcome the friction losses
in the pipes and components.
When the system characteristic is drawn in the same
system of co-ordinates as the pump curve, the duty
point of the pump can be determined as the point of
intersection of the two curves, see figure 3.1.1.
Open and closed systems consist of resistances
(valves, pipes, heat exchanger, etc.) connected in
series or parallel, which altogether affect the system
characteristic. Following is a discussion on how these
resistances affect the system characteristic.
96
Fig. 3.1.1: The point of intersection between the pump curve and
the system characteristic is the duty point of the pump
3.1.1 Single resistances

Every component in a system constitutes a resistance
against the liquid flow which leads to a head loss.
The following formula is used to calculate the head
loss:
H = k . Q2
k is a constant, which depends on the component in
question, and Q is the flow through the component.
As it appears from the formula, the head loss is
proportional to the flow to the second power. So, if it
is possible to lower the flow in a system, a substantial
reduction in the pressure loss occurs.
Resistances connected in series

The total head loss in a system consisting of several
components connected in series is the sum of head
losses that each component represents. Figure 3.1.2
shows a system consisting of a valve and a heat
exchanger. If we do not consider the head loss in
the piping between the two components, the total
head loss, Htot, is calculated by adding the two head
losses:
Fig. 3.1.2: The head loss for two components connected in series
is the sum of the two individual head losses
Htot = H1 + H2
Figure 3.1.2 shows how the resulting curve will look
and what the duty point will be if the system is a
closed system with only these two components. As it
appears from the figure, the resulting characteristic
is found by adding the individual head losses, H,
at a given flow Q. The figure shows that the more
resistance in the system, the steeper the resulting
system curve will be.
97
Section 3.1
Resistances connected in parallel

Contrary to connecting components in series,
connecting components in parallel results in a
more flat system characteristic. This is because the
components installed in parallel reduce the total
resistance in the system, and thereby the head loss.
The differential pressure across the components
connected in parallel is always the same. The resulting
system characteristic is defined by adding all the
components individual flow rates for a specific H.
Figure 3.1.3 shows a system with a valve and a heat
exchanger connected in parallel.
The resulting flow can be calculated by the following
formula for a head loss equivalent to H
Q tot = Q 1 + Q2
Fig. 3.1.3: Components connected in parallel reduce the resistance in

the system and result in a more flat system characteristic
3.1.2 Closed and open systems

As mentioned previously, pump systems are split into
two types: Closed and open systems. This section will
examine the basic characteristics of these systems.
Closed systems
Typically, closed systems are systems which transport
heat energy in heating systems, air-conditioning
systems and process cooling systems. A common
feature of these closed systems is that the liquid
is circulated and is the carrier of heat energy. Heat
energy is what the system must transport.
Closed systems are characterized as systems with
pumps that overcome the sum of friction losses
which are generated by all the components. Figure
3.1.4 shows a schematic drawing of a closed system
where a pump circulates water from a heater through
a control valve to a heat exchanger.
98
Fig. 3.1.4: Schematic drawing of a closed system
All these components, along with the pipes and

fittings, result in a system characteristic as shown in
figure 3.1.5. The required pressure in a closed system
(which the system curve illustrates) is a parabola
starting at the point (Q,H) = (0,0) and is calculated by
the following formula:
H = k . Q2
As the formula and curve indicate, the pressure loss is
approaching zero when the flow drops.
Fig. 3.1.5: The system characteristic for a closed system is a

parabola starting at point (0,0)
Open systems
Open systems use the pump to transport liquid from
one point to another, e.g. water supply irrigation
and industrial process systems. In these systems, the
pump deals with the static head of the liquid and
must overcome the friction losses in the pipes and
the system components.
There are two types of open systems:
Open systems where the total required static head
is positive.
Open systems where the total required static head
is negative.
Fig. 3.1.6: Open system with positive static head
Open system with positive static head

Figure 3.1.6 shows a typical open system with positive static head. A pump transports water from a
break tank at ground level up to a roof tank on the
top of a building. The pump must provide a head
higher than the static head of the water (h), as well
as the necessary head to overcome the total friction
loss between the two tanks in piping, fittings, valves,
etc. (Hf). The pressure loss depends on the rate of
flow, see figure 3.1.7.
Q1
Q1
Fig. 3.1.7: System characteristic together with the pump performance

curve for the open system in figure 3.1.6
99
Section 3.1
Figure 3.1.7 shows that, in an open system, no water

flows if the maximum head (Hmax) of the pump is
lower than the static head (h). Only when H > h will
water start to flow from the break tank to the roof
tank. The system curve also shows that the lower
the flow rate, the lower the friction loss (Hf) and,
consequently, the lower the power consumption of
the pump.
So, the flow (Q1) and the pump size have to match
the need for the specific system. This is a general rule
for liquid transport systems: A larger flow leads to a
higher pressure loss, whereas a smaller flow leads to
a smaller pressure loss and, consequently, a lower
energy consumption.
Open system with negative static head

A typical example of an open system with negative
required head is a pressure booster system, as in
a water supply system. The static head (h) from
the water tank brings water to the consumer. The
water flows, although the pump is not running. The
difference in height between the liquid level in the
tank and the altitude of the water outlet (h) results
in a flow equivalent to Qo. However, the head is
insufficient to ensure the required flow (Q1) to the
consumer, so the pump has to boost the head to
the level (H1) in order to compensate for the friction
loss (Hf) in the system. The system is shown in figure
3.1.8, and the system characteristic and the pump
performance curve are shown in figure 3.1.9.
Fig. 3.1.8: Schematic drawing of a open system
The resulting system characteristic is a parabolic

curve starting at the H-axes in the point (0,-h).
The flow in the system depends on the liquid level
in the tank. If the water level in the tank is reduced,
the height (h) is reduced. This results in a modified
system characteristic and a reduced flow in the
system, see figure 3.1.9.
100
Fig. 3.1.9: System characteristic and the pump performance curve

for the open system shown in figure 3.1.8
Section 3.2
Pumps connected in parallel and series
To increase total pump performance in a system,

pumps are often connected in parallel or series. This
section will focus on these two ways of connecting
pumps.
3.2.1 Pumps in parallel

Pumps connected in parallel are often used when:
The required flow is higher than one single pump
can supply
The system has variable flow requirements which
are met by switching parallel-connected pumps on
and off
Normally, pumps connected in parallel are of similar type
and size. However, the pumps can be of different size, or
one or several can be speed-controlled, and thereby have
different performance curves.
To avoid bypass circulation in pumps that are not running,

a check valve is connected in series with each pump. The
resulting performance curve for a system consisting of
several pumps in parallel is determined by adding the
flow, which the pumps deliver at a specific head.
Figure 3.2.1 shows a system with two identical pumps
connected in parallel. The systems total performance
curve is determined by adding Q1 and Q2 for every
value of head which is the same for both pumps,
H1=H2 . Because the pumps are identical, the resulting
pump curve has the same maximum head, Hmax, but
the maximum flow, Qmax, is double. For each value of
head, the flow is the double as for a single pump in
operation:
Fig. 3.2.1: Two pumps connected in parallel with similar

performance curves
Q = Q1 + Q2 = 2 Q1 = 2 Q2
101
Section 3.2
Pumps connected in parallel and series
Figure 3.2.2 shows two different sized pumps

connected in parallel. When adding Q1 and Q2 for a
given head H1=H2, the resulting performance curve is
defined. The hatched area in figure 3.2.2 shows that
P1 is the only pump to supply in that specific area
because it has a higher maximum head than P2.
Speed-controlled pumps connected in parallel

For varying flow demand, speed-controlled pumps
connected in parallel offer efficient pump performance.
This method is common to water supply and pressure
boosting systems. Later in chapter 4, speed-controlled
pumps will be discussed in detail.
Fig 3.2.2: Two pumps connected in parallel with unequal

performance curves
A pumping system with two speed-controlled pumps

with the same performance curve covers a wide
performance range, see figure 3.2.3. A single pump
covers the required pump performance up to Q1.
Above Q1 both pumps must operate to meet the
performance needed. If both pumps are running at
the same speed, the resulting pump curves look like
the orange curves shown in figure 3.2.3.
Note that the duty point at Q1 is reached with one
pump running at full speed. The duty point can
also be achieved when two pumps are running at
reduced speed, see figure 3.2.4 (orange curves). The
figure also compares efficiency. The duty point for
one pump running at full speed results in low pump
efficiency because the duty point is located far out on
the pump curve. The total efficiency is much higher
when two pumps run at reduced speeds, although
the maximum efficiency of the pumps decreases
slightly at reduced speeds.
Even though one single pump is able to maintain the
required flow and head, it is sometimes necessary
due to efficiency and, thus, energy consumption to
use both pumps at the same time. Whether to run
one or two pumps depends on the actual system
characteristic and pump type.
102
Fig. 3.2.3: Two speed-controlled pumps connected in parallel (same

size). The orange curve shows the performance at reduced speed
Fig. 3.2.4: One pump at full speed compared to two pumps at

reduced speed. In this case the two pumps have the highest total
efficiency
3.2.2. Pumps connected in series

Normally, pumps connected in series are used in
systems where high pressure is required. This is also
the case for multistage pumps that are based on
the series principle; that is, one stage equals one
pump. Figure 3.2.5 shows the performance curve
of two identical pumps connected in series. The
resulting performance curve is made by marking the
double head for each flow value in the system of
co-ordinates. This results in a curve with the double
maximum head (2Hmax) and the same maximum
flow (Qmax) as each of the single pumps.
Fig. 3.2.5: Two equal sized pumps connected in series
Figure 3.2.6 shows two different sized pumps

connected in series. The resulting performance curve
is determined by adding H1 and H2 at a given common
flow Q1=Q2.
The hatched area in figure 3.2.6 shows that P2 is the
only pump to supply in that area because it has a
higher maximum flow than P1.
Fig. 3.2.6: Two different sized pumps connected in series
As discussed in section 3.2.1, unequal pumps can be

a combination of different sized pumps or of one or
several speed-controlled pumps. The combination
of a fixed-speed pump and a speed-controlled
pump connected in series is often used in systems
where a high and constant pressure is required. The
fixed-speed pump supplies the liquid to the speedcontrolled pump whose output is controlled by a
pressure transmitter, (PT), see figure 3.2.7.
Fig. 3.2.7: Equal sized fixed-speed pump and speed-controlled

pump connected in series. A pressure transmitter PT together
with a speed controller is making sure that the pressure is
constant at the outlet of P2.
103
Chapter 4. Performance adjustment of pumps
Section 4.1: Adjusting pump performance

4.1.1 Throttle control
4.1.2 Bypass control
4.1.3 Modifying impeller diameter
4.1.4 Speed control
4.1.5 Comparison of adjustment methods
4.1.6 Overall efficiency of the pump system
4.1.7 Example: Relative power consumption when the flow
is reduced by 20%
Section 4.2: Speed-controlled pump solutions

4.2.1 Constant pressure control
4.2.2 Constant temperature control
4.2.3 Constant differential pressure in a circulating system
4.2.4 Flow-compensated differential pressure control
Section 4.3: Advantages of speed control
Section 4.4: Advantages of pumps with integrated

frequency converter
4.4.1 Performance curves of speed-controlled pumps
4.4.2 Speed-controlled pumps in different systems
Section 4.5: Frequency converter

4.5.1 Basic function and characteristics
4.5.2 Components of the frequency converter
4.5.3 Special conditions regarding frequency converters
Section 4.1
Adjusting pump performance
When selecting a pump for a given application, it is

important to choose one where the duty point is in
the high-efficiency area of the pump. Otherwise, the
power consumption of the pump is unnecessarily high,
see figure 4.1.1.
However, sometimes it is not possible to select a
pump that fits the optimum duty point because the
requirements of the system change or the system curve
changes over time. Therefore, it may be necessary to
adjust the pump performance so that it meets the
changed requirements.
The most common methods of changing pump
performance are:
Throttle control
Bypass control
Modifying impeller diameter
Speed control
Choosing a method of pump performance adjustment
is based on an evaluation of the initial investment along
with the operating costs of the pump. All methods can
be carried out continuously during operation apart
from the modifying impeller diametermethod. Often,
oversized pumps are selected for the system. It is then
necessary to limit the performance primarily the flow
rate, and in some applications, the maximum head.
The four adjusting methods are discussed on the
following pages.
106
[%]
[ft]
60
50
40
30
70
60
20
50
40
10
20
30
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Q [GPM] 0
Fig.: 4.1.1: When selecting a pump it is important to choose one

where the duty point is within the high efficiency area.
4.1.1 Throttle control

A throttle valve may be placed in series with the
pump, permitting the duty point to be adjusted.
Throttling results in a flow reduction, see figure 4.1.2.
The throttle valve adds resistance to the system,
raising the system curve. Without the throttle valve,
the flow is Q2. With the throttle valve connected in
series with the pump, the flow is reduced to Q1.
Hp
Throttle valve
Hv
System
Hs
H
Pump
Throttle valves can be used to limit the maximum flow.

In the example, the flow will never be higher than Q3
even if the original system curve is completely flat,
meaning there is no resistance in the system. When the
pump performance is adjusted with this method, the
pump will deliver a higher head than necessary for that
particular system.
Resulting characteristic
Smaller pump
System
Hv
Throttle valve
Hs
Q1
Q2
Q3
Fig.: 4.1.2: The throttle valve increases the resistance in the

system, consequently reducing the flow.
If the pump and the throttle valve are replaced by

a smaller pump, the pump will be able to meet the
desired flow Q1 at a lower pump head, resulting in less
power consumption, see figure 4.1.2.
Bypass valve
4.1.2 Bypass control

Compared to the throttle valve, installing a bypass
valve will result in a certain minimum flow, QBP, in the
pump independent of the system characteristics, see
figure 4.1.3. The flow, QP, is the sum of the flow in the
system, QS, and the flow in the bypass valve, QBP..
QBP
QP
QS
System
HP
H
Bypass valve
Hmax
Smaller
pump
The bypass valve will introduce a maximum limit of

head to the system, Hmax , see figure 4.1.3. Even when
the required flow in the system is zero, the pump will
never run against a closed valve. Like the throttling
valve method, the required flow, QS, can be met by
a smaller pump and no bypass valve, resulting in a
lower flow and less energy consumption.
System
Qs
QBP Resulting characteristic
HP
Pump
QBP
QS
QP
Fig.: 4.1.3: The bypass valve diverts part of the flow from the
pump, reducing the flow in the system
107
Section 4.1
4.1.3 Modifying impeller diameter

Another way to adjust the performance of a
centrifugal pump is to modify the impeller diameter,
reducing the diameter which, consequently, reduces
pump performance. Compared to the throttling and
bypass methods, which can be carried out during
operation, the impeller trimming has to be done in
advance before the pump is installed or in connection
with service; it cannot be done while the pump
is in operation. The following formula shows the
relationship between the impeller diameter and the
pump performance:
Note that the formulas are an expression of an ideal

pump. In practice, the pump efficiency decreases
when the impeller diameter is reduced. For minor
changes of the impeller diameter, Dx > 0.8 . Dn, the
efficiency is only reduced by a few percentage points.
The degree of efficiency reduction depends on pump
type and duty point.
Hn
Hx
Dn
Dx
As it appears from the formulas, the flow and the head

change with the same ratio: that is, the ratio change of
the impeller diameter to the second power. The duty
points following the formulas are placed on a straight
line starting in (0,0). The change in power consumption
is following the diameter change to the fourth power.
4.1.4 Speed control

The last method of controlling the pump performance
to be covered in this section is the variable speed
control method. Speed control by means of a frequency
converter is the most efficient way of adjusting pump
performance exposed to variable flow requirements.
108
Qx
Qn
Fig. 4.1.4: Change in pump performance when the impeller

diameter is reduced
The following equation applies with close

approximation to how the change in speed of a
centrifugal pump influences the performance of the
pump:
The affinity laws apply when the system characteristic

remains unchanged for nn and nx and forms a parabola
through (0,0) see section 3.1.2 (p 99). The power
equation implies that the pump efficiency is unchanged
at the two speeds.
The formulas in figure 4.1.5 show that the pump
flow (Q) is proportional to the pump speed (n). The
head (H) is proportional to the second power of the
speed (n) whereas the power (P) is proportional to
the third power of the speed. In practice, a reduction
of the speed will result in a slight fall in efficiency.
The efficiency at reduced speed (nx) can be estimated
by the following formula, which is valid for speed
reduction down to 50% of the maximum speed:
If the need for precise power saved is desired,

frequency converter and motor efficiencies must be
taken into account.
Fig. 4.1.5: Pump parameters for different affinity equations
109
Section 4.1
4.1.5 Comparison of adjustment

methods
When the pump and its performance-changing
device is considered as one unit, the resulting QHcharacteristic of this device can be compared to
The resulting performance
different systems. Overall efficiency Relative power
consumption by 20%
curve will have
of the pump
in flow
system
Relative power
Overall efficiency reduction
Throttle control Overall
powerby 20%
The
resulting
performance
efficiency Relative
consumption
curve
will have
of the pump
The throttling method
a valve
connected
Reduced
Considerably
byin20%
curve
will Q
have
94%
of
theimplies
pump
reduction
in flow
system
Relative
power
The
resulting
performance
Overall
efficiency consumption
reduced
reduction
in
flow
system
series
with
a
pump,
see
figure
4.1.6a.
This
connection
consumption by 20%
curve will have
of the pump
Reduced Q acts as a new pump
Considerably
94%
reduction
inhead
flow
system
at unchanged maximum
Reduced Q
Considerably
94%
reduced
but reduced flow performance.
For an illustration of
reduced
Reduced Q
Considerably
94%
the pump curve, Hn, the valve curve, and the curve for
reduced
Hn
the complete system, - Hx, see figure 4.1.6b.

Hx
Valve
Hn
Hnx
H
Bypass
control Considerably
110%
Reduced
H and
changed
Valve
H
x
H
When connectingreduced
a valve across the pump, the
curve
n
Valve
Hx
110%
Considerably
Reduced
H
and
changed
connection
acts
as
a
new pump at reduced maximum
Valve
110%
Considerably
Reduced
changed
reduced
curve H and
head and a QH curve
with a changed characteristic,
reduced
curve
110%
Considerably
Reduced H and
seechanged
figure 4.1.7a. The curve will be more linear than
Hn
reduced
curve
quadratic, see figure 4.1.7b.

Hx
Valve
Hn
Hnx
H
67%
Slightly reduced
Reduced
Q and H
Valve
H
x
Hn
This method does not imply extra components.
Valve
Hx
Figure 4.1.8 shows Slightly
the reduced
QH curve (Hx)67%
and the
reduced
Reduced
Valve Q and H
Slightly reduced
Reduced Q andoriginal
H
curve characteristics
(Hn).
Reduced Q and H
Slightly reduced
67%
Speed control
The speed control method results in a new QH curve at
reduced head and flow, see figure 1.4.9. The characteristics
Hn
the same.
However, when65%
speed is
Reduced
Q andofHthe curves remain
Slightly
reduced
Hnx
H
Hx
reduced
the
curves
become
more
flat
as
the
head is
Hn
65%
Reduced
Q andreduced
H
Slightly
reduced
Hx
to a higher degree than the flow.
65%
Slightly reduced
Reduced
Q and H
Hn
Slightly reduced
65%
In comparison, the speed control method also makes

it possible to extend the performance range of the
pump above the nominal QH curve by increasing the
speed above nominal speed level of the pump; see
the Hy curve in figure 4.1.9. If this over-synchronous
operation is used, the size of the motor has to be
taken into account.
Hx
Hy
Hn
Hnx
H
Hxy
H
H
Hyn
Hx
Hy
110
b
Throttle valve
Throttle valve
Throttle valve
Throttle valve
Hn
Hx
Valve
Fig. 4.1.6: Throttle valve connected in series with a pump
Bypass valve
Hn
Hn
Hx
Hx
Valve
Valve
Hn
Hx
Valve
Hn
Hx
Valve
Hn
Hx
Valve
Valve
Bypass valve
Bypass valve
Bypass valve
Hx
n
Fig. 4.1.7: Bypass valve connected across theHpump
67%
Hn
Hx
Reduced Q and H
Hn
Hx
Valve
Hn
Hx
Hn
Hn
Hx
Hx
Hn
Hx
Hn
Hx
Hy
Hn
Hn
Hx
Hx
Hy
Hy
Hn
Hx
Hy
D
D
D
D
Speed controller
Fig. 4.1.8: Impeller diameter adjustment

Speed controller
Speed controller
Speed controller
Fig. 4.1.9: Speed controller connected to a pump
4.1.6 Overall efficiency of the pump system

Both the throttling and the bypass method introduce
some hydraulic power losses in the valves (Ploss = k
Q H), therefore reducing efficiency of the pumping
system. Reducing the impeller size in the range
of Dx/Dn>0.8 does not have a significant impact
on pump efficiency and does not have a negative
influence on the overall efficiency of the system.
The efficiency of speed-controlled pumps is only
affected to a limited extent if the speed reduction
does not drop below 50% of the nominal speed. The
efficiency is only reduced by a few percentage-points,
and it does not have an impact on the overall running
economy of speed-controlled solutions, see figure
1.4.16 in section 1.4.5.
4.1.7 Example: Relative power

consumption when the flow is reduced
by 20 %
In a given installation the flow has to be reduced
from Q = 260 GPM to 220 GPM. In the original starting
point (Q = 260 GPM and H = 230 ft) the power input
to the pump is set relatively to 100%. Depending on
the method of performance adjustment, the power
consumption reduction will vary. This is further
discussed on the following pages.
111
Section 4.1
Throttle control
The power consumption is reduced to about 94%
when the flow drops from 264 to 220 GPM. The
throttling results in an increased head, see figure
4.1.10. The maximum power consumption for some
pumps is at a lower flow than the maximum flow.
If this is the case, the power consumption increases
because of the throttle.
= Modified duty point

= Original duty point
H
H [ft]
[ft]
H [ft]
249
249
249
229
229
229
180
180
180
Q
Q
Q
P
P22
P2
100%
100%
100%
94%
94%
94%
220
220
Bypass control
To reduce the flow in the system, the valve has to
reduce the head of the pump to 180 ft. This can only
be done by increasing the flow in the pump. As it
appears from figure 4.1.11, the flow is consequently
increased to 356 GPM, which results in an increased
power consumption of up to 10% above original
consumption. The degree of increase depends on the
pump type and the duty point. Therefore, in some
cases, the increase in P2 is equal to zero and in rare
cases, P2 might decrease slightly.
H
H [ft]
[ft]
H [ft]
When the speed of the pump is controlled, both the

flow and the head are reduced, see figure 4.1.13.
Consequently, the power consumption has reduced
to around 65% of the original consumption.

229
229
229
180
180
180
Q
Q
Q
P
P22
P2
110%
110%
100%
110%
100%
100%
220
220
220
264
264
264
356
356
356
Q [GPM]
[GPM]
Q
Q [GPM]
Fig. 4.1.11: Relative power consumption - bypass control

H
H [ft]
[ft]
H [ft]
When the impeller diameter is reduced, both the flow

and the head of the pump drop. By a flow reduction
of 20%, the power consumption is reduced to around
67% of its original consumption, see figure 4.1.12.
Speed control
Q [GPM]
[GPM]
Q
Q [GPM]
264
264
220 264
Fig. 4.1.10: Relative power consumption
- throttle control

229
229
229
180
180
180
Q
Q
Q
P
P22
P
100%2
100%
100%
67%
67%
67%
220
220
220
264
264
264
Q
Q [GPM]
[GPM]
Q [GPM]
Fig. 4.1.12: Relative power consumption - modifying impeller diameter

H [ft]
[ft]
H
H [ft]
To obtain the best possible efficiency, the impeller

diameter adjustment method or the speed-controlled
method of the pump are the best options for reducing
the flow in the installation. When the pump has to
operate in a fixed, modified duty point, the impeller
diameter adjustment method is the best solution.
However, in installations where the flow demand varies,
the speed-controlled pump is the best solution.

70
70
70
55
55
55
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
P
P22
P2
100%
100%
100%
65%
65%
65%
50
50
50
60
60
60
Q
Q [GPM]
[GPM]
Q [GPM]
Fig. 4.1.13: Relative power consumption - speed control
112
Summary
Figure 4.1.14 gives an overview of the different
adjustment methods that are presented in the
previous section. Each method has its pros and
cons which should be considered when choosing an
adjustment method for a system.
Continuous
adjustment
possible?
Method
Throttle control
Yes

curve will have
Reduced Q
Overall efficiency
of the pump
system
Considerably
reduced
Relative power
consumption by 20%
reduction in flow
94%
Throttl
Throttle valve
Hn
Hx
Valve
Yes
Bypass control
Reduced H and changed

curve
Considerably
reduced
110%
Slightly reduced
67%
Slightly reduced
65%
Bypass va
Bypass valve
Hn
Hx
Valve
Modifying impeller
diameter
No
Reduced Q and H
D
Hn
Hx
Speed control
Yes
Reduced Q and H
Speed con
Speed controller
Hn
Hx
Hy
Fig. 4.1.14: Characteristics of adjustment methods.
113
Section 4.2
Speed-controlled pump solutions
As discussed in the previous section, speed control

of pumps is an efficient way of adjusting pump
performance to the system. In this section the
possibilities of combining speed-controlled pumps
with PI-controllers and sensors measuring system
parameters, such as pressure, differential pressure
and temperature, are discussed. The different options
will be presented by examples.
Setpoint pset
PIcontroller
Break
tank
Actual value p1
Pressure
transmitter
Speed
controller
nn
nx
PT
pset
Taps
p1
Q1
H1
Setpoint pset
PIcontroller
Actual value p1
4.2.1 Constant pressure control

Break
water
tankfrom
Speed
break
tank
controller
As it appears from figure 4.2.1, the solution is a

speed-controlled pump with a PI-controller. The
PI-controller compares the needed pressure, pset,
with the actual supply pressure, p1, measured by
a pressure transmitter, PT. If the actual pressure is
higher than the setpoint, the PI-controller reduces
the speed and, consequently, the performance of
the pump until p1 is equal to pset. Figure 4.2.1 shows
what happens when the flow is reduced from Qmax
to Q1 . The controller reduces the speed of the pump
from nn to nx to ensure that the required discharge
pressure is p1 = pset. The pump installation ensures
that the supply pressure is constant in the flow range
of 0 to Qmax. The supply pressure is independent of
the level, (h), in the break tank. If h changes, the PIcontroller adjusts the speed of the pump so that p1
always corresponds to the setpoint.
114
Pressure
transmitter
A pump has to supply tap

a
to different taps in a building. The demand for tapPT
h
water is varying, so the system
characteristic varies
p
Q1
according to the required flow. Due to
comfort 1
H1
and energy savings, a constant supply pressure is
recommended.
nn
nx
pset
Taps
Q1
Qmax
Fig. 4.2.1: Water supply system with speed-controlled pump delivering constant pressure to the system
Q1
4.2.2 Constant temperature control

Performance adjustment through speed control is
suitable for a number of industrial applications. Figure
4.2.2 shows a system with a water-cooled injection
molding machine for high quality production.
The machine is cooled with water at 59oF from a
cooling plant. To ensure that the molding machine
runs properly and is cooled sufficiently, the return
pipe temperature has to be kept at a constant
level; tr = 68oF. The solution is a speed-controlled
pump controlled by a PI-controller. The PI-controller
compares the needed temperature, tset, with the
actual return pipe temperature, tr, which is measured
by a temperature transmitter, TT. This system has
a fixed system characteristic, and, therefore, the
duty point of the pump is located on the curve
between Qmin and Qmax. The higher the heat loss in
the machine, the higher the flow of cooling water is
needed to ensure that the return pipe temperature is
kept at a constant level of 68 oF.
Fig. 4.2.2: System with injection molding machine and temperature- controlled circulator pump ensuring a constant return
pipe temperature
4.2.3 Constant differential pressure in

a circulating system
Circulating systems, typically closed systems, are well
suited for speed-controlled pumps, see Chapter 3. A
differential pressure controlled circulator pump is
recommended for circulating systems with variable
system characteristic, see figure 4.2.3.
This figure shows a heating system with a heat
exchanger where the circulated water is heated up
and delivered to three consumers, such as radiators,
by a speed-controlled pump. A control valve is
connected in series at each consumer to control the
flow according to the heat requirement. The pump
is controlled according to a constant differential
pressure measured across the pump. As depicted by
the horizontal line in figure 4.2.3, the pump system
offers constant differential pressure in the Q-range
of 0 to Qmax.
Fig. 4.2.3: Heating system with speed-controlled circulator

pump delivering constant differential pressure to the system
115
Section 4.2
Speed-controlled pump solutions
4.2.4 Flow-compensated differential

pressure control
Setpoint Hset
The main function of the pumping system in figure

4.2.4 is to maintain a constant differential pressure
across the control valves at the consumers, such as
radiators. In order to do so, the pump must overcome
friction losses in pipes, heat exchangers, fittings, etc.
Setpoint Hset
PIcontroller
Actual value H1
Speed
controller
Q1
Hset
DPT1
Hf
DPT2
Actual value H1
PIthe
pressure loss in a
controller
As discussed in Chapter 3,
system is proportional to the flow in second power.
The best way to control a circulator pump in a system
like the one shown in the figureSpeed
at right is to allow
controller
the pump to deliver a pressure that increases when
the flow increases.
Q1
H
nn
nx
When the demand of flow is low, the pressure losses

DPT1
in the pipes, heat exchangers, fittings, etc. are low
as well, and the pump supplies only a pressure
equivalent to what the control valve requires, HsetHf. When flow demand increases, pressure losses
increase to the second power, and the pump has to
increase the delivered pressure, depicted as the blue
curve in figure 4.2.4.
Hset
Hf
H1
DPT2
Q1
Qmax
Fig. 4.2.4: Heating system with s

peed-controlled circulator pump
delivering flow-compensated differential pressure to the system
Such a pumping system can be designed as follows:
The differential pressure transmitter is placed

across the pump and the system is running with
flow-compensated differential pressure control
DPT1, see figure 4.2.4.
pump curve data has to be stored in the controller.

This data is used to calculate the flow as well as how
much the setpoint Hset must be reduced at a given
flow to ensure that the pump performance meets
the required blue curve in figure 4.2.4.
The differential pressure transmitter is placed close

to the consumers and the system is running
with differential pressure control DPT2, see fig.
4.2.4.
The first solution places the pump, PI-controller,
speed control and the transmitter close to one
another providing easy installation and making it
possible to get the entire system as one single unit,
see section 4.4. To get the system up and running,
116
The second solution requires more installation costs

because the transmitter has to be installed at the
installation site, and the necessary cabling has to be
added. Both systems are equal in performance. The
transmitter measures the differential pressure at the
consumer and compensates automatically for the
increase in required pressure in order to overcome
the increase in pressure losses in the supply pipes,
etc.
H1
Section 4.3
Advantages of speed control
A large number of pump applications do not require full

pump performance 24 hours a day. Therefore, it is an
advantage to be able to adjust the pumps performance
in the system automatically. As seen in section 4.1, the
best possible way of adapting the performance of a
centrifugal pump is by means of speed control of the
pump. Speed control of pumps is normally made by a
frequency converter unit.
Reduced energy consumption

Speed-controlled pumps use only the amount of
energy needed to address a specific pump installation.
Compared to other control methods, frequencycontrolled speed control offers the highest efficiency
and the most efficient utilization of the energy, see
section 4.1.
Low life cycle costs

On the following pages, speed-controlled pumps
in closed and open systems will be examined. The
advantages that speed control provides and the
benefits that speed-controlled pumps with frequency
converters offer are presented first.
As we will see in Chapter 5, the energy consumption

of a pump is a very important factor when calculating
a pumps life cycle costs. Therefore, it is important to
keep the operating costs of a pumping system at
the lowest possible level. Efficient operation leads
to lower energy consumption and results in lower
operating costs. Compared to fixed-speed pumps, it
is possible to reduce the energy consumption by up
to 50% with a speed-controlled pump.
Environment protection
Energy-efficient pumps cause less pollution and
harm to the environment.
Increased comfort
Speed control in different pumping systems provides
increased comfort in water supply systems, automatic
pressure control, and where the soft-start of pumps
reduce water hammer and noise generated by too
high pressure in the system. In circulating systems,
speed-controlled pumps ensure that the differential
pressure is kept at a level so that noise in the system
is minimized.
Reduced system costs

Speed-controlled pumps can reduce the need for
commissioning and control valves in the system,
thus reducing the total system costs.
117
Section 4.4
Advantages of pumps with integrated
frequency converter
In many applications, pumps with integrated frequency

converters are the optimum solution. These pumps combine
the benefits of a speed-controlled pump solution with
the benefits gained from combining a pump, a frequency
converter, a PI-controller and sometimes a sensor/pressure
transmitter in one single unit, see figure 4.4.1.
A pump with an integrated frequency converter
is not just a pump, it is a system that can solve
application problems or save energy in a variety of
pump installations. Pumps with integrated frequency
converters are ideal because they can be used instead
of fixed-speed pumps in replacement installations at
no extra installation cost. The only requirement is a
power supply connection and a fitting of the pump
with an integrated frequency converter in the pipe
system, and then the pump is ready for operation.
After adjusting the required setpoint pressure, the
system is operational.
What follows is a brief description of the advantages
that pumps with integrated frequency converter
have to offer.
Setpoint
PIcontroller
Frequency
converter
PT
Easy to install
Pumps with integrated frequency converters are just
as easy to install as fixed-speed pumps. The motor
is connected to the electrical power supply, and the
pump is in operation. The manufacturer has made all
internal connections and adjustments.
Optimal energy savings

Because the pump, the motor and the frequency
converter are designed for compatibility, operation
of the pump system reduces power consumption.
One supplier
One supplier can provide the pump, frequency
converter and sensor which naturally facilitate the
sizing, selection, and ordering procedures, as well as
maintenance and service procedures.
118
Fig. 4.4.1: Pump unit with integrated

frequency converter and pressure transmitter
Wide performance range

Pumps with integrated frequency converters have
a broad performance range which enables efficient
performance under widely varied conditions and
meets a wide range of requirements. Fewer pumps
can replace many fixed speed pump types with
narrow performance capabilities.
performance curve and the system characteristic of a

closed and an open system.
H
[ft] 100%
320
280 90%
240
4.4.1. Performance curves of speedcontrolled pumps
80%
200
70%
160
60%
120
50%
80
The following is a discussion of how a speed-controlled

pumps performance curve is read.
40
25%
P
[hp]
20
40
60
80
100
120
140 Q [GPM]
Figure 4.4.2 provides an example of the performance

curves of a speed-controlled pump. The first curve shows
the flow-head (QH) curve, and the second curve shows
the corresponding power consumption curve.
10
8
6
4
2
0
Q [GPM]
Fig 4.4.2: Performance curve for a speed-controlled pump
The performance curves are plotted for every 10%

decrease in speed from 100% down to 50%. Likewise,
the minimum curve represented by 25% of the
maximum speed is also shown. As indicated in the
diagram, you can select a specific duty point, QH,
and find out at which speed the duty point can be
reached and what the power consumption, P1, is.
4.4.2 Speed-controlled pumps in

different systems
Speed-controlled pumps are used in a wide range
of systems. The change in pump performance and,
consequently, the potential energy savings depend on
the system in question.
Pump curve
System
characteristic HO
Closed system
HO
Pump curve
System
characteristic
Open system
Fig 4.4.3: System characteristic point of a closed and an

open system
As discussed in Chapter 3, the characteristic of a

system is an indication of the required head a pump
has to deliver to transport a certain quantity of
liquid through the system. Figure 4.4.3 shows the
119
Section 4.4
Advantages of pumps with integrated frequency converter
Speed-controlled pumps in closed systems

In closed systems, like heating and air-conditioning, the
pump has to overcome the friction losses in the pipes,
valves, heat exchangers, etc. In this section, an example
of a speed-controlled pump in a closed system will be
presented. The total friction loss by a full flow of 66 GPM
is 39.3 ft, see figure 4.4.4.
The system characteristic starts in the point (0,0),
shown by the red line in figure 4.4.5. Control valves
in the system always need a certain operating
pressure, so the pump cannot work according to
the system characteristic. That is why some speedcontrolled pumps offer the proportional pressure
control function, which ensures that the pump will
operate according to the orange line shown in the
figure. As you can tell from figure 4.4.5, the minimum
performance is around 57% of the full speed. In a
circulating system, operating at the minimum curve
(25% of the full speed) can be relevant in some
situations, such as night-time duty in heating systems.
Q = 66 GPM
Boiler
or like
Consumers
Fig. 4.4.4: Closed system
H
[ft] 100%
320
99%
280
90%
240
80%
200
70%
160
60%
120
50%
80
40
25%
P
[hp]
20
40
60
80
100
120
140 Q [GPM]
10
8
6
4
2
0
Fig. 4.4.5: A speed-controlled pump in a closed system
120
Q [GPM]
Speed-controlled pumps in open systems

The system characteristic as well as the operating
range of the pump depend on the type of system in
question. Figure 4.4.6 shows a pump in a pressure
boosting / water supply system. The pump has to
supply Q = 29 GPM to the tap which is placed h = 65 ft
above the pump. The inlet pressure to the pump, ps,
is 14.5 psi, the pressure at the tap, pt, has to be 29 psi
and the total friction loss in the system by full flow,
pf, is 18.8 psi.
Figure 4.4.7 shows the QH curve of a pump which
meets the requirements described. The required head
can be calculated by using the equation at right.
For maximum head at a flow, Q, of 29 GPM, the
equation to use follows:
H = He +
2.31 (pt)
SG
2.31 (ps)
SG
pt = 29 psi
Fig. 4.4.6: Pump in a water supply system
he = 65.6 ft
SG
pf = 18.8 psi
ps = 14.5 psi
Q = 29 GPM
H

pt - Pressure at tapping point
ps - Suction pressure
pf - Friction loss
Q - Flow rate
h - Static lift
2.31 (pf)
SG
H = 65.6 + 2.31 (pt ps + pf)
pt - ps
(2-1) . 105
H+ .
= 20 +
= 99.08 ft
g
998 . 9.81
SG
H = 65.6 + 2.31 (29 14.5 + 18.8)

1.0
H = 65.6 ft + 76.9 ft
200
99%
175
90%
H = 142.5 ft
125
H
[ft] 100%
150
80%
70%
HO
60%
75
To address this application from zero to maximum

flow Q = 29 GPM, the pump operates in a relatively
narrow speed band, from about 65%-99% of the full
speed. In systems with less friction loss, the variation
in speed will be even smaller. If there is no friction
loss, the minimum speed in the above case is about
79% speed.
As seen in the previous two examples, the possible
variation in speed and power consumption is highest
in closed systems. Therefore, the closed system
accounts for the highest energy saving potential.
50%
50
25
25%
P
[hp]
10
15
20
25
30
35
Q [GPM]
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Q [GPM]
Fig. 4.4.7: A speed-controlled pump in an open system
121
Section 4.5
Frequency converter
As mentioned, speed control of pumps involves a

frequency converter. This section will provide a closer
look at frequency converters, how they operate, and
related precautions associated with using them.
4.5.1 Basic function and characteristics

The speed of an asynchronous motor depends
primarily on the pole number (2-pole, 4-pole, etc.) of
the motor and the frequency of the voltage supplied.
The amplitude of the voltage supplied and the load
on the motor shaft also influence the motor speed,
however, not to the same degree. Changing the
frequency of the supply voltage is ideal for achieving
asynchronous motor speed control. To ensure correct
motor magnetization, it is also necessary to change
the amplitude of the voltage.
f2
f1 > f2
f1
n
Fig. 4.5.1: Displacement of motor torque characteristic
Use of frequency/voltage control results in a change

in torque which, in turn, changes speed. Figure
4.5.1 shows the motor torque characteristic (T)
as a function of the speed (n) at two different
frequencies/voltages. The load characteristic of the
pump is also shown. As it appears from the figure,
the speed is changed by changing frequency/voltage
of the motor.
The frequency converter changes frequency and
voltage, so it can be concluded that the task of a
frequency converter is to change the fixed supply
voltage/frequency; for example, 3x480v/60 Hz into
a variable voltage/frequency.
122
4.5.2. Components of the frequency

converter
In principle, all frequency converters consist of the
same functional blocks. The basic function, as
mentioned, is to convert the main electric supply
into a new AC voltage with another frequency and
amplitude. The frequency converter rectifies the
incoming main electric supply and stores the energy
in an intermediate circuit consisting of a capacitor.
The DC voltage is then converted into a new AC
voltage with another frequency and amplitude.
The rectifier can handle 50 Hz or 60 Hz frequencies.
Additionally, the incoming frequency will not
influence the output frequency, as this is defined
by the voltage/frequency pattern which is defined
in the inverter. Using a frequency converter in
connection with asynchronous motors provides the
following benefits:
The system can be used in both 50 and 60 cycleareas without modifications
The output frequency of the frequency converter is
independent of the incoming frequency
The frequency converter can supply output
frequencies higher than mains supply frequency
making over synchronous operation possible
As seen in figure 4.5.2, the frequency converter
consists of three other components: An EMC filter, a
control circuit and an inverter.
Mains supply AC
EMC
filter
Rectifier
Intermediate
circuit DC
Inverter
Control circuit
Fig. 4.5.2: Functional blocks of the frequency converter
The EMC filter

This block is not part of the primary function of the
frequency converter and, in principle, could be left
out. However, in order to meet EMC requirements
and local requirements, the filter is necessary. The
EMC filter prevents high noise signals from going
back to the main electric supply and disturbing
other electronic equipment connected to it. It also
ensures that noise signals in the main electric supply
generated by other equipment do not enter the
electronic devices of the frequency converter, and
cause damage or disturbances.
The control circuit

The control circuit block has two functions. It controls
the frequency converter and provides communication
between the product and the surroundings.
The inverter
The output voltage from a frequency converter is not
sinusoidal like the normal mains voltage. The voltage
supplied to the motor consists of a number of squarewave pulses, see figure 4.5.3. The mean value of these
pulses forms a sinusoidal voltage of the desired
frequency and amplitude. The switching frequency
can range from a few kHz up to 20 kHz, depending
on the brand. To avoid noise in the motor windings,
a frequency converter with a switching frequency
above the range of audibility (~16 kHz) is preferable.
This principle of inverter operation is called Pulse
Width Modulation control (PWM), and it is the control
principle most often used in frequency converters
today. The motor current itself is almost sinusoidal.
This is shown in figure 4.5.4a, indicating motor
current (top) and motor voltage. In figure 4.5.4b, a
section of the motor voltage is shown, indicating
how the pulse/pause ratio of the voltage changes.
Vmotor
Mean value of voltage
0
0
t
T = 1/fm
Fig 4.5.3: AC voltage with variable frequency (fm) and
variable voltage (Vmotor)
0
a
b
*
* Detail
Fig 4.5.4: a) Motor current (top) and motor voltage at Pulse

Width Modulation control. b) Section of motor voltage
123
Section 4.5
Frequency converter
4.5.3 Special conditions regarding

frequency converters
There are some conditions which the installer and
user should be aware of when installing and using
frequency converters or pumps with integrated
frequency converters. A frequency converter will
behave differently than a standard asynchronous
motor at the main electirc supply side.
Fig 4.5.5 a): Three-phase, twopole standard asynchronous

motor
Non-sinusoidal power input, three-phase supplied frequency converters

This type of frequency converter will not receive
sinusoidal current from the electrical supply. This
influences the dimensioning of the main elecrical cable,
electric switch, etc. Figure 4.5.5 shows how the current
and voltage appear for a:
a) Three-phase, two-pole standard asynchronous
motor
b) Three-phase, two-pole standard asynchronous
motor with frequency converter.
In both cases the motor supplies 4.08 hp to the
shaft.
A comparison of the current shows the following
differences, see figure 4.5.6:
Fig 4.5.5 b): Three-phase, twopole standard asynchronous

motor with frequency
converter
Mains voltage
Standard motor
460 V
Motor with frequency

converter
460 V
Mains current RMS
6.4 A
6.36 A
Mains current, peak
9.1 A
13.8 A
3.68 KW
3.69 KW
cos = 0.83
PF = 0.86
Power input, P1
cos ,
power factor (PF)
Fig. 4.5.6: Comparison of current of a standard motor and a

frequency converter
The current for the system with frequency

converter is not sinusoidal
The peak current is much higher (approx. 52%)
for the frequency converter option
124
PF
V
V
PF
(
This is due to the design of the frequency converter

connecting the electric supply to a rectifier followed
by a capacitor. The charging of the capacitor occurs
during short time periods where the rectified voltage
is higher than the voltage in the capacitor at that
moment. As mentioned, the non-sinusoidal current
causes other conditions at the electric supply side of
the motor. For a standard motor without a frequency
converter, the relation between voltage (V), current
(I) and power (P) is shown in the formula at right. The
same formula cannot be applied for calculating the
power input for motors with frequency converters.
PF
4.93 hp
Because these are not sinusoidal, there is no accurate

way of calculating the power input based on simple
current and voltage measurements. Instead, the
power must be calculated by means of instruments
and on the basis of instantaneous measurements of
current and voltage.
If the power (P) and the RMS value of current and
voltage are known, the power factor (PF) can be
calculated by the formula at right.
The power factor has no direct connection with the
way in which current and voltage are displaced in
time.
When measuring the input current in connection with
installation and service of a system with a frequency
converter, it is necessary to use an instrument that
is capable of measuring non-sinusoidal currents. In
general, current measuring instruments for frequency
converters must be able to measure True RMS.
Frequency converters and earth-leakage circuit

breakers
Earth-leakage circuit breakers (ELCB) are used as extra
protection in electrical installations. If a frequency
converter is to be connected, the ELCB installed must
be able to brake. If failure occurs on the DC side of
the frequency converter, the ELCB must be able to
brake. To ensure that the ELCB will brake in case of
earth-leakage current, it must be labeled as shown in
figures 4.5.7 and 4.5.8
Both types of earth-leakage circuit breakers are
available on the market today.
Fig 4.5.7: Labelling of the ELCB for single-phase frequency converters
Fig 4.5.8: Labelling of the ELCB for three-phase frequency converters
125
Chapter 5. Life cycle costs calculation
Section 5.1: Life cycle costs equation

5.1.1 Initial cost, purchase price
5.1.2 Installation and commissioning costs
5.1.3 Energy costs
5.1.4 Operating costs
5.1.5 Environmental costs
5.1.6 Maintenance and repair costs
5.1.7 Downtime costs (loss of production)
5.1.8 Decommissioning or disposal costs
Section 5.2: Life cycle costs calculation an example
Energy costs 90%
Maintenance costs 2-5%

Initial costs 5-8%
Section 5.1
Life cycle costs equation
In this section the elements that make up a pumps life

cycle costs (LCC) as well as how to calculate LCC will
be addressed. Finally, an example will be presented to
demonstrate how the LCC formula is applied.
The life cycle costs of a pump are an expression
of how much it costs to purchase, install, operate,
maintain and dispose of a pump during its lifetime.
The Hydraulic Institute, Europump and the US

Department of Energy have developed the Pump Life
Cycle Costs (LCC) guide, see figure 5.1.1., This tool
was designed to help companies minimize waste
and maximize energy efficiency in different systems
including pumping systems. Life cycle cost calculations
aid in decision making associated with design of new
or repair of existing installations.
Fig. 5.1.1: A guide to life cycle costs analysis for pumping systems
Typical life cycle costs
Initial costs
The life cycle costs (LCC) consist of the following:
Maintenance costs
Energy costs
Cic
Cin
Ce
Co
Cenv
Cm
Cs
Cd
Initial cost, purchase price

Installation and commissioning costs
Energy costs
Operating costs including labor
Environmental costs
Maintenance and repair costs
Downtime costs (loss of production)
Decommissioning or disposal costs
In the following paragraphs, each of these elements

is described. As it appears from figure 5.1.2, energy
costs, initial costs and maintenance costs are the most
important.
Fig. 5.1.2: Typical life cycle costs of a circulating

system in the industry
LCC is calculated by the following formula:

LCC = Cic + Cin + Ce + Co + Cm + Cs + Cenv + Cd
128
5.1.1 Initial cost, purchase price

The initial cost (Cic) of a pump system includes all
equipment and accessories necessary to operate the
system, such as pumps, frequency converters, control
panels and transmitters, see figure 5.1.3.
Control
panels
Pump
Initial costs
Often, there is a trade-off between the initial cost

and the energy and maintenance costs. For example,
expensive components often have a longer lifetime
or a lower energy consumption than inexpensive
components.
5.1.2 Installation and commissioning

costs
Frequency
converter
Transmitter
Fig. 5.1.3: Equipment that makes up a pumping system
8000
7000
6000
The installation and commissioning costs (Cin) include

the following:
5000
4000
3000
Installation of the pumps

Foundation
Connection of electrical wiring and instrumentation
Installation, connection and set-up of transmitters
and frequency converters, etc
Commissioning evaluation at start-up
2000
1000
0
Initial costs
System 1
5200
System 2
7300
Fig. 5.1.4: Initial costs of a constant speed pump system

(System 1) and a controlled pump system (System 2)
As in the case for initial costs, it is important to consider

the trade-off options. Pumps with integrated frequency
converters often have components integrated in the
product. This kind of pump often has a higher initial cost
but lower installation and commissioning costs.
129
Section 5.1
Life cycle costs equation
5.1.3 Energy costs
Other use
80%
In most cases, energy consumption (Ce) is the largest

cost in the life cycle costs of a pump system, where
pumps often run more than 2000 hours per year.
In fact, around 20% of the worlds electrical energy
consumption is used for pump systems, see figure
5.1.5. Some of the factors influencing the energy
consumption of a pump system includes:
Load profile
Pump efficiency (calculation of the duty point,
see figure 5.1.6)
Motor efficiency (the motor efficiency at partial
load can vary significantly between high efficiency
motors and normal efficiency motors)
Pump sizing (often margins and round-ups tend to
suggest oversized pumps)
Other system components, such as pipes and
valves
Use of speed-controlled solutions. By using speed controlled pumps in the industry, it is possible to
reduce the energy consumption by up to 50%
5.1.4 Operating costs including labor

Operating costs (Co) cover labor costs related to the
operation of a pumping system, and, in most cases,
are modest. Today, different types of surveillance
equipment allow connection of the pump system to
a computer network, lowering operating costs.
5.1.5 Environmental costs

The environmental costs (Cenv) include the disposal
of parts and contamination from the pumped liquid.
This contribution to the life cycle costs of a pumping
system in the industry is modest.
130
Pump systems
20%
Fig. 5.1.5: Energy consumption worldwide
[%]
80
New
Existing
60
40
20
0
22
44
66
88
110
132
154
176
198
220
242
Q [GPM]
Fig. 5.1.6: Efficiency comparison of a new and an existing
pump
5.1.6 Maintenance and repair costs

Maintenance and repair costs (Cm) relate to
maintenance and repair of the pump system and
include: Labor, spare parts, transportation and
cleaning. Preventive maintenance will extend pump
life, optimize pump performance and prevent pump
breakdowns.
5.1.7 Downtime costs (loss of production)

Downtime costs (Cs) are extremely important to pump
systems used in production processes. Production
stoppage is costly, even for a short period of time.
Though one pump may be enough for the application,
it is a good idea to install a standby pump that can
take over in the event of an unexpected failure, see
figure 5.1.7.
5.1.8 Decommissioning or disposal

costs
Depending on the pump manufacturer, decommissioning
or disposal costs (Cd ) of a pump system varies. This cost
is seldom taken into consideration when calculating
LCC.
Calculating the life cycle costs

The life cycle costs of a pump system are made up of
the summation of the aforementioned components
over the systems lifetime. Typically, the lifetime
range is 10 to 20 years. In the pump business, life cycle
costs are normally calculated by a simplified formula
with fewer elements to consider. This formula is
shown at right.
Fig. 5.1.7: A standby pump assures that production continues in

case of pump breakdown
Simplified: LCC = Cic + Ce + Cm

Cic Initial costs, purchase price

Ce Energy costs

Cm Maintenance and repair costs
131
Section 5.2
Life cycle costs calculation an
example
A fixed speed multistage centrifugal pump

A variable speed multistage centrifugal pump
According to the calculations, the variable speed
pump consumes 40% less energy than the fixed
speed pump. However, the initial cost, Cic, of the
variable speed pump is twice that of the fixed speed
pump.
Life cycle costs calculations will help determine which
pump to install in the system. The application has
the following characteristics:
12 operating hours per day
220 operating days per year
Lifetime of 10 years (calculation period)
kw
18.76
11.31
Operating hours per day

Working days per year
hours
days
12
220
12
220
Calculation period
years
10
10
Total energy consumption
kwh
495,264
298,584
Electrical power price

Pump types
Pump price
Maintenance
costs
Average power
consumption
Energy costs
Operating hours per day
Total costs
Working
days per year
USD/kwh .07
Fixed
USD
3602
speed
USD
1417
kw
18.76
USD
33,284
hours
12
USD
38,303
days
220
years
Total energy
45,000consumption
40,000
Electrical power price
Pump 35,000
price
30,000 costs
Maintenance
Energy25,000
costs
kwh
495,264
Pump price
USD/kwh .07
Maintenance costs
USD
3602
Energy costs
USD
1417
USD
33,284
.07
7204
1417
20,066
Total costs
20,000
USD
28,688
10
132
298,584
38,303
Pump price
40,000
5,000
Maintenance costs
0
35,000
Energy
costs speed
Variable
Fixed speed
30,000
Fig. 5.1.8:
Life cycle costs of a fixed and a variable speed pump
25,000
USD
45,000
20,000
40,000
15,000
35,000
10,000
30,000
5,000
25,000
0
20,000
Fixed speed
Variable speed
15,000
Fixed speed
10,000
45,000
Variable speed
40,000
5,000
0
35,000
30,000 0
Years
10
25,000
20,000
15,000
Fixed speed
10,000
Variable speed
5,000
The payback time of the variable speed pump

solution is a bit longer because the pump is more
expensive. As you can tell from figure 5.1.9, the
payback time is around 2 years, and in general
industrial applications, this is considered to be a
good investment.
10
15,000
10,000
45,000
USD
Besides the lower life cycle costs the variable speed

pump provides, as discussed in chapter 4, some
operational benefits, such as constant pressure in
the system.
.07
Variable
7204
speed
1417
11.31
20,066
12
28,688
220
Calculation period
Based on this data, it is possible to calculate the life

cycle costs of the two solutions.
Even though the initial cost of a variable speed pump
is twice as high as a fixed speed pump, the total cost
of the variable speed solution is 25% lower than the
fixed speed pump solution after 10 years.
Variable
speed
Average power consumption
USD
An industry needs a new water supply pump and two

solutions are taken into consideration:
Fixed
speed
Pump types
USD
The example using the LCC formula mentioned on

the previous page follows:
0
0
Years
Fig. 5.1.9: Payback time for a fixed and a variable speed pump
10
Appendix
A) Notations and units
B) Unit conversion tables
C) SI-prefixes and Greek alphabet
D)
Vapor
pressure and specific gravity of water at different temperatures
E) Orifice
F) Change in static pressure due to change in pipe diameter
G) Nozzles
H) Nomogram for head losses in bends, valves, etc.
I) Periodical system
J) Pump standards
K) Viscosity for different liquids as a function of liquid temperature
Appendix A
Notations and units

The table below provides an overview of the most
commonly used notations and units for pumps and pump
systems.
U.S.
unit
ft
GPM
psi
psi
SI
unit
gph
ft
psi
ft
ft
lb ft
lb gal
ft
lb ft
in
in
ft
g = 32.174 ft/s
m
ft
RPM
hp
134
745.7 w = 1 hp
Appendix B
Unit conversion tables

The conversion tables for pressure and flow show the most
commonly used units for pumping systems
CONVERSION FACTORS - UNITS OF LENGTH

Examples: 2 Yards x 3 = 6 Feet x 0.333 = 1 Yard
Unit
Inch
Foot
Yard
Inch
1
0.0833
0.0278
Foot
12
1
0.333
Yard
36
3
1
Centimeters
0.3937
0.0328
0.0109
Meter
39.37
3.281
1.094
1 Mile = 5280 ft. = 1760 yards = 1609.3 meters = 1.61 Kilometers
1 Kilometer = 1000 meters = 1093.6 yards = .62137 miles
Centimeter
2.54
30.48
91.44
1
100
Meter
0.0254
0.3048
0.9144
0.01
1
CONVERSION FACTORS - UNITS OF FLOW

Examples: 500 U.S. Gpm x .00144 = .72 U.S. Mgd. x 694.5 = 6945 U.S. Gpm
U.S.
Imp.
U.S. Mgd Imperial
Cu. Ft. Cu. Meters Liters Barrels/Min. Barrels/24 Hrs.
Unit
Gpm
Gpm
(2)
Mgd (2)
/Sec.
/Hr.
/Sec.
(3)
(3)
U.S. Gal./Min.
1
0.833
0.00144
0.0012
0.00223
0.227
0.0631
0.0238
34.25
Imp. Gal./Min.
1.2
1
0.00173
0.00144
0.00268
0.272
0.0757
0.0286
41.09
U.S. Mgd (2)
694.4
578.7
1
0.833
1.547
157.73
43.8
16.53
23786.6
Imperial Mgd (2)
833.4
694.5
1.2
1
1.856
189.28
52.56
19.83
28544
Cu. Ft./Sec.
448.8
374
0.646
0.538
1
101.9
28.32
10.68
15360.4
Cu. Meters/Hr.
4.403
3.67
0.00634
0.00528
0.00981
1
0.2778
0.1047
150.8
Liters/Sec.
15.85
13.21
0.0228
0.019
0.0353
3.6
1
0.377
542.86
Barrels/Min. (3)
42
34.99
0.0605
0.0504
0.0937
9.534
2.65
1
1440
Barrels/24 Hrs.(3)
0.0292
0.0243
0.000042 0.000035 0.000065
0.00662
0.00184 0.000694
1
(1) US Mgd = Million U.S. gallons per 24 hr. day.
Imp Mgd = Million Imperial gallons per 24 hr. day.
(2) 42 gal. bbl.
CONVERSION FACTORS - UNITS OF PRESSURE

Examples: 15 Ft. Water x .433 = 6.49 Psi
15 Psi x 2.31 = 34.65 Ft. Water
In.
Water
In. Water
Ft. Water
Psi.
In. Hg.
Mm. Hg.
Bar
atm
Kilopascal
1
12
27.72
13.596
0.5353
401.86
407.19
4.0186
Ft.
Water
0.0833
1
2.31
1.133
0.0446
33.49
33.93
0.3349
Psi
0.0361
0.433
1
0.4906
0.0193
14.503
14.696
0.1451
In.
Hg.
0.0736
0.883
2.04
1
0.03937
29.54
29.92
0.2954
Mm.
Hg.
1.87
22.43
51.816
25.4
1
750.5
760
0.7505
Bar
2.538
30.45
70.31
34.49
1.357
1
1.0133
atm
0.0025
0.0304
0.0703
0.0345
0.0014
0.987
1
135
Appendix C
SI-prefixes and Greek alphabet

Factor
9
10
106
103
102
10
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
1,000,000,000
1,000,000
1,000
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000.001
0.000.000.001
Prefix
Symbol
giga
mega
kilo
hekto
deka
deci
centi
milli
mikro
nano
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
Greek alphabet
136
Alfa
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Jota
Kappa
Lambda
My
Ny
Ksi
Omikron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Ypsilon
Fi
Khi
Psi
Omega
Appendix D
Vapor
pressure and specific gravity of water at different temperatures
This table shows the
specific gravity [sg], vapor
pressure p [psi] and the
density [lb/ft3] of water
at different temperatures
t [oF].
Properties of Water at Various Temperatures

WATER TEMPERATURE
0
32
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
212
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
0
4.4
7.2
10.0
12.8
15.6
18.3
21.1
23.9
26.7
29.4
32.2
35.0
37.8
43.3
48.9
54.4
60.0
65.6
71.1
76.7
82.2
87.8
93.3
98.9
100.0
104.4
110.0
115.6
121.1
126.7
132.2
137.8
143.3
1.002
1.001
1.001
1.001
1.000
1.000
.999
.999
.998
.998
.997
.996
.995
.994
.992
.990
.987
.985
.982
.979
.975
.972
.968
.964
.960
.959
.956
.952
.948
.943
.939
.933
.929
.924
VAPOR PRESSURE
PSIA
0.0886
0.1217
0.1474
0.1780
0.2139
0.2561
0.3056
0.3629
0.4296
0.5068
0.5958
0.6981
0.8153
0.9492
1.2750
1.6927
2.2230
2.8892
3.7184
4.7414
5.9926
7.5110
9.3400
11.5260
14.1230
14.6960
17.1860
20.7790
24.9680
29.8250
35.4300
41.8560
49.2000
57.5500
FEET
0.204
0.281
0.340
0.411
0.494
0.591
0.706
0.839
0.994
1.172
1.379
1.617
1.890
2.203
2.965
3.943
5.196
6.766
8.735
11.172
14.178
17.825
22.257
27.584
33.983
35.353
41.343
50.420
60.770
73.060
87.050
103.630
122.180
143.875
DENSITY
lb/ft3
62.400
62.425
62.420
62.410
62.390
62.370
62.340
62.310
62.270
62.220
62.170
62.120
62.060
62.000
61.980
61.710
61.560
61.380
61.190
60.990
60.790
60.570
60.340
60.110
59.860
59.810
59.610
59.350
59.080
58.800
58.520
58.220
57.920
57.600
137
Appendix E
Orifice
Nipple orifices are typically used in boiler feed
applications when boiler feed pumps need to discharge
built-up pressure. These boiler feed pumps operate
continuosly in order to provide on-demand hot water;
but when no hot water is needed, the valve to the boiler
is closed and the pump ends up operating under a
harmful shut-off condition during extended periods of
time in which there will be a rise in liquid temperature
in the pump because the input horsepower being
converted to heat in the pump is not dissipated. For that
reason, in order to increase the run life of the pump and
control the temperature rise, the system is designed to
allow the feed pump to discharge its build-up pressure
through a bypass line in which a nipple orifice is
installed. The orifice dissipates the high pressure and
allows water to flow back to the reservoir tank. During

feed pump system design, nipple orifices are sized
using performance charts, like the ones shown in the
figure below, derived from an acceptable mathematical
approach that assumes a constant discharge coefficient
(Cd) of 0.61 for all orifices in the general equation Q =
19.636 Cd d2 H0.5, where Q is in gpm, d is the nipple
orifice diameter in inches, and H is the differential head
in ft. of water.
Orifice
size
Approximate Discharge Through Bypass Nipple Orifice
1000
1/8"
3/16"
1/4"
5/16"
1/2"
1"
7/16"
7/8"
3/8"
13/16"
3/4"
11/16"
5/8"
Head (Feet)
9/16"
100
10
10
100
Flow (GPM)
138
1000
Appendix F
Change in static pressure due to change in pipe diameter

As described in Chapter 2.2, a change in pipe dimension results in a change in liquid velocity and consequently, a
change in dynamic and static pressure.
When head has to be determined (see page 86), the difference in the two port dimensions requires a correction
of the measured head.
Approximate Sudden Expansion Head Loss
100
H[ft]
10
0.1
10
100
Q[GPM]
1000
10000
d/D=1/1.5
d/D=1.25/2
d/D=2/2.5
d/D=2/3
d/D=2.5/3
d/D=2.5/4
d/D=3/4
d/D=3/5
d/D=4/5
d/D=4/6
d/D=5/6
d/D=5/8
d/D=6/8
d/D=8/10
d/D=8/12
d/D=10/12
d/D=10/14
d/D=12/14
d/D=12/16
d/D=14/16
d/D=14/18
d/D=16/18
d/D=16/20
d/D=18/20
Approximate Sudden Contraction Head Loss
100
H[ft]
10
1
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Q[GPM]
139
Appendix G
Nozzles
The relationship between the nozzle diameter d [inches],
the needed flow Q [GPM] and the required pressure before
the nozzle p [psi] is found by the nomogram below. We
assume that the nozzle has a quadratic behavior, and d /
D is less than 1/3.
Q1
Q2 =
p1
p2
Nozzle
Diameter (inch)
( )
1/8
3/16
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
where n = 0.5. Some nozzles have a lower n value (check

with the supplier).
Pressure
p [psi]
1/16
Nozzle diameter
d [inch]
Flow
Q [GPM]
1 1/8
1 1/4
1 3/8
1 1/2
1 3/4
2 1/4
2 1/2
2 3/4
3 1/2
4 1/2
5 1/2
Approximate discharge of a nozzle
PSI
400
100
10
5
0.1
10
100
Q [GPM]
140
1000
10000
100000
Appendix H
Friction Loss for Water in New Sch. 40 Steel Pipe at 60 F

(Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
1/8 (0.26 ID)
1/4 (0.36 ID)
gpm
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
12
14
15
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
0.57
1.13
1.69
2.26
2.82
3.39
3.95
4.52
5.08
5.65
6.77
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
1.36
2.72
9.70
16.2
24.2
33.8
44.8
57.4
71.6
87.0
122
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.31
0.62
***
1.23
***
1.85
***
2.47
***
3.08
3.70
4.32
***
4.93
5.55
6.17
7.71
9.25
10.8
12.3
13.9
15.4
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.41
0.81
***
3.70
***
7.60
***
12.7
***
19.1
26.7
35.3
***
45.2
56.4
69.0
105
148
200
259
326
396
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
3/8 (0.49 ID)

Vel.
0.84
1.01
***
1.34
***
1.68
***
***
2.52
***
***
3.36
4.20
5.04
5.88
6.72
7.56
8.40
9.24
10.1
***
11.8
***
13.4
***
15.1
***
16.8
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
Frict.
1.26
1.74
***
2.89
***
4.30
***
***
8.93
***
***
15.0
22.6
31.8
42.6
54.9
68.4
83.5
100
118
***
158
***
205
***
258
***
316
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
1/2 (0.62 ID)

Vel.
1.06
***
***
1.58
***
***
2.11
2.64
3.17
3.70
4.22
4.75
5.28
5.81
6.34
6.86
7.39
7.92
8.45
8.98
9.50
10.0
10.6
12.7
14.8
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
Frict.
1.86
***
***
2.85
***
***
4.78
7.16
10.0
13.3
17.1
21.3
29.8
30.9
36.5
42.4
48.7
55.5
62.7
70.3
78.3
86.9
95.9
136
183
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
3/4 (0.82 ID)

Vel.
0.60
***
***
0.90
***
***
1.20
***
1.81
***
2.41
***
3.01
***
3.61
***
4.21
***
4.81
***
5.42
***
6.02
7.22
8.42
9.02
9.63
10.8
12.0
15.1
18.1
***
***
***
***
***
Frict.
0.26
***
***
0.73
***
***
1.21
***
2.50
***
4.21
***
6.32
***
8.87
***
11.8
***
15.0
***
18.8
***
27.0
32.6
43.5
50.0
56.3
70.3
86.1
134
187
***
***
***
***
***
1 (1.04 ID)
Vel.
0.37
***
***
***
***
***
0.74
***
1.11
***
1.48
***
1.86
***
2.23
***
2.60
***
2.97
***
3.34
***
3.71
4.45
5.20
***
5.94
6.68
7.42
9.27
11.1
13.0
14.8
16.7
18.6
22.3
Frict.
gpm
0.11
***
***
***
***
***
0.38
***
0.78
***
1.30
***
1.93
***
2.68
***
3.56
***
4.54
***
5.65
***
6.86
9.62
12.8
***
16.5
20.6
25.1
38.7
54.6
73.3
95.0
119
146
209
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
12
14
15
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
141
Appendix H

gpm
5
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1100
1200
1400
142
1 1/4 (1.38 ID) 1 1/2 (1.61 ID)

Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
2 (2.07 ID)
2 1/2 (2.47 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
3 (3.07 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
1.07
2.15
2.57
3.00
3.43
3.86
4.29
5.37
6.44
7.52
8.58
9.66
10.7
12.9
15.0
17.2
19.3
21.5
25.7
30.0
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.48
0.96
1.15
1.34
1.53
1.72
1.91
***
2.87
3.35
3.82
4.30
4.78
5.74
6.69
7.65
8.60
9.56
11.5
13.4
15.3
17.2
19.1
21.0
22.9
24.9
26.8
28.7
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.43
***
***
***
***
0.87
***
1.30
***
1.82
***
2.17
2.60
***
3.47
***
4.34
5.21
6.08
6.94
7.81
8.68
9.55
10.4
11.3
12.2
13.0
15.2
17.4
19.6
21.7
23.9
26.0
28.2
30.4
***
34.7
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.52
1.77
2.48
3.28
4.20
5.25
6.34
9.66
13.6
18.5
23.5
29.5
36.0
51.0
68.8
89.2
112
138
197
267
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.79
1.58
1.89
2.21
2.52
2.84
3.15
3.94
4.73
5.52
6.30
7.10
7.88
9.46
11.0
12.6
14.2
15.8
18.9
22.1
25.2
28.4
31.5
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.25
0.83
1.16
1.53
1.96
2.42
2.94
4.50
6.26
8.38
10.8
13.5
16.4
23.2
31.3
40.5
51.0
62.2
88.3
119
158
199
241
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.07
0.25
0.35
0.46
0.59
0.73
0.87
***
1.82
2.42
3.10
3.82
4.67
6.59
8.86
11.4
14.2
17.4
24.7
33.2
43.0
54.1
66.3
80.0
95.0
111
128
146
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.67
0.80
0.94
1.07
1.21
1.34
***
2.01
2.35
2.68
3.02
3.35
4.02
4.69
5.36
6.03
6.70
8.04
9.38
10.7
12.1
13.4
14.7
16.1
17.4
18.8
20.1
23.5
26.8
30.2
33.5
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.31
0.36
***
0.75
1.00
1.28
1.57
1.94
2.72
3.63
4.66
5.82
7.11
10.0
13.5
17.4
21.9
26.7
32.2
38.1
44.5
51.3
58.5
79.2
103
132
160
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.04
***
***
***
***
0.13
***
0.27
***
0.55
***
0.66
0.92
***
1.57
***
2.39
3.37
4.51
5.81
7.28
8.90
10.7
12.6
14.7
16.9
19.2
26.3
33.9
43.0
52.5
63.8
75.7
88.6
101
***
131
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
4 (4.07 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
0.50
***
0.76
***
1.01
***
1.26
1.51
1.76
2.02
2.27
2.52
3.02
3.53
4.03
4.54
5.04
5.54
6.05
6.55
7.06
7.56
8.82
10.1
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.1
16.4
17.6
18.9
20.2
21.4
22.7
23.9
25.2
27.7
30.2
35.3
0.04
***
0.07
***
0.12
***
0.18
0.25
0.33
0.42
0.52
0.61
0.86
1.16
1.49
1.89
2.27
2.70
3.19
3.72
4.28
4.89
6.55
8.47
10.5
13.0
15.7
18.6
21.7
25.3
28.9
32.8
37.0
41.4
46.0
50.9
61.4
72.0
97.6
gpm
5
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1100
1200
1400
Appendix H

gpm
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
5 (5.05 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
0.64
0.96
1.28
1.60
1.92
2.25
2.57
2.89
3.21
3.53
3.85
4.17
4.49
4.81
5.61
6.41
7.22
8.02
8.81
9.62
11.2
12.8
14.4
16.0
***
19.2
***
22.5
***
25.7
***
28.8
***
32.1
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.04
0.08
0.14
0.21
0.29
0.39
0.48
0.60
0.73
0.87
1.03
1.19
1.37
1.58
2.11
2.72
3.41
4.16
4.94
5.88
7.93
10.2
12.9
15.8
***
22.5
***
30.4
***
39.5
***
49.7
***
61.0
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
6 (6.07 ID)
8 (7.98 ID)
10 (10.02 ID) 12 (11.94 ID)
14 (13.12 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
1.11
1.33
1.55
1.78
2.00
2.22
2.44
2.66
2.89
3.11
3.33
3.89
4.44
5.00
5.55
6.11
6.66
7.77
8.88
9.99
11.1
12.2
13.3
14.4
15.5
16.7
17.8
18.9
20.0
21.1
22.2
27.7
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.09
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.36
0.41
0.48
0.54
0.62
0.85
1.09
1.36
1.66
1.97
2.33
3.13
4.04
5.08
6.23
7.49
8.87
10.4
12.0
13.7
15.6
17.5
19.6
21.8
24.1
37.2
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
1.15
1.28
1.41
1.54
1.67
1.80
1.92
2.24
2.57
2.89
3.21
3.53
3.85
4.49
5.13
5.77
6.41
7.05
7.70
8.34
8.98
9.62
10.3
10.9
11.5
12.2
12.8
16.0
19.2
22.4
25.7
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.07
0.08
0.10
0.11
0.13
0.15
0.17
0.22
0.28
0.34
0.42
0.50
0.59
0.79
1.01
1.27
1.55
1.86
2.20
2.56
2.96
3.38
3.83
4.29
4.81
5.31
5.91
8.90
12.8
17.5
22.0
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
1.22
1.42
1.63
1.83
2.03
2.24
2.44
2.85
3.25
3.66
4.07
4.48
4.88
5.29
5.70
6.10
6.51
6.92
7.32
7.73
8.14
10.2
12.2
14.2
16.3
18.3
20.3
24.4
***
***
***
***
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.12
0.14
0.17
0.20
0.25
0.33
0.41
0.49
0.59
0.70
0.81
0.94
1.07
1.21
1.38
1.52
1.68
1.86
2.86
4.06
5.46
7.07
8.91
11.0
15.9
***
***
***
***
1.43
1.58
1.72
2.01
2.29
2.58
2.87
3.15
3.44
3.73
4.01
4.30
4.59
4.87
5.16
5.45
5.73
7.17
8.60
10.0
11.5
12.9
14.3
17.2
20.1
22.9
***
***
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.18
0.21
0.25
0.29
0.34
0.39
0.44
0.50
0.57
0.64
0.70
0.78
1.19
1.68
2.25
2.92
3.65
4.47
6.39
8.63
11.2
***
***
1.90
2.14
2.37
2.61
2.85
3.08
3.32
3.56
3.80
4.03
4.27
4.51
4.74
5.93
7.12
8.30
9.49
10.7
11.9
14.2
16.6
19.0
21.4
23.7
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.16
0.18
0.21
0.24
0.28
0.31
0.35
0.39
0.43
0.48
0.73
1.04
1.40
1.81
2.27
2.79
4.00
5.37
6.98
8.79
10.8
gpm
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
143
Appendix H

gpm
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
50,000
16 (15.00 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
1.82
2.72
3.63
4.54
5.45
6.35
7.26
8.17
9.08
10.9
12.7
14.5
16.3
18.2
21.8
25.4
29.0
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
0.07
0.14
0.25
0.38
0.54
0.72
0.92
1.15
1.41
2.01
2.69
3.49
4.38
5.38
7.69
10.4
13.5
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
16 (15.00 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
2.87
3.59
4.30
5.02
5.74
6.45
7.17
8.61
10.0
11.5
12.9
14.3
17.2
20.1
22.9
25.8
28.7
***
***
***
***
***
0.14
0.21
0.30
0.40
0.51
0.64
0.78
1.11
1.49
1.93
2.42
2.97
4.21
5.69
7.41
9.33
11.5
***
***
***
***
***
20 (18.81)
Vel.
Frict.
2.31
2.89
3.46
4.04
4.62
5.19
5.77
6.92
8.08
9.23
10.4
11.5
13.8
16.2
18.5
20.8
23.1
28.9
34.6
***
***
***
0.08
0.12
0.17
0.23
0.30
0.37
0.46
0.65
0.86
1.11
1.39
1.70
2.44
3.29
4.26
5.35
6.56
10.2
14.6
***
***
***
24 (22.62 ID)
Vel.
Frict.
2.39
2.79
3.19
3.59
3.99
4.79
5.59
6.38
7.18
7.98
9.58
11.2
12.8
14.4
16.0
20.0
23.9
27.9
***
***
0.07
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.26
0.34
0.44
0.55
0.67
0.96
1.29
1.67
2.10
2.58
4.04
5.68
7.73
***
***
30 (29.00 ID)* 36 (35.00 ID)*

Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
1.94
***
2.43
2.91
3.40
3.89
4.37
4.86
5.83
6.80
7.77
8.74
9.71
12.1
14.6
17.0
19.4
***
0.03
***
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.16
0.20
0.28
0.37
0.48
0.60
0.73
1.13
1.61
2.17
2.83
***
1.58
1.89
2.21
2.52
2.84
3.15
3.78
4.41
5.04
5.67
6.30
7.88
9.46
11.0
12.6
15.8
gpm
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
0.02 5000
0.03 6000
0.04 7000
0.04 8000
0.06 9000
0.07 10,000
0.09 12,000
0.13 14,000
0.16 16,000
0.20 18,000
0.25 20,000
0.38 25,000
0.54 30,000
0.72 35,000
0.94 40,000
1.45 50,000
Note:
1. Table based on Darcy-Weisback formula; with no allowance for age, differences in diameter, or any other
abnormal condition of interior surface. Any Factor of Safety must be estimated from the local conditions and
the requirements of each particular installation. For general purposes, 15% is a reasonable Factor of Safety.
2. The friction loss data is based on seamless Sch. 40 steel pipe. Cast iron (CI) pipe has a slightly larger ID than
steel pipe in the 3 to 12 dia. range, which generally makes no practical difference with respect to water
supply pumping problems.
3. Ductile Iron (DI) has a larger ID than both Sch. 40 steel and CI pipes for the same nominal diameter. Friction
Losses in DI pipe can be approximated by multiplying the tabulated value by .75 in the 4 to 12 size range
and .60 for 14 and larger sizes.
4. Velocity head values are not included in the table, as they are normally not considered as a component of
Total Head (TH) calculations to solve water supply pumping problem. Velocity and Velocity head can be
calculated using the following formulas:
Vel. (fps) = gpm (.410)/(ID) 2 = gpm (.321)/Area (in. 2); where: Area (in 2) = (ID) 2/4
Vel. Head (ft.) = (Vel.) 2 /2g = (Vel.) 2/64.4
5. Velocity within column (vertical drop/riser pipe) should be kept within the range of 4 - 15 fps (5.0 fps is optimum).
Velocity within horizontal distribution piping should be kept within the range of 1 - 6 fps (3.0 fps is optimum).
6. Tabulated friction loss values are calculated based on water at 60F and a kinematic viscosity = 0.00001217 ft
/sec. (31.2 SSU). Correct tabulated values for fluid temperatures other than 60F as following:
Temp (F)
Correction factor
32
1.20
40
1.10
50
1.00
60
1.00
80
1.00
100
.95
150
.90
200
.85
212
.80
* The ID value specified for 30 and 36 sizes are for Sch. 20 pipe. Sch. 40 pipe is not available in diameters
greater than 24
144
Appendix H
Friction Loss for Water in New Type L. Copper Tubing and Sch. 40 PVC Pipe
1/2
gpm
Tubing
.545 ID
Vel.
Pipe
.622 ID
Frict.
Vel.
3/4
Frict.
gpm
Tubing
.785 ID
Vel.
Pipe
.824 ID
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.69
1.38
2.06
0.75
2.45
4.93
0.52
1.04
1.57
0.40
1.28
2.58
1
2
3
0.66
1.33
1.99
0.44
1.44
2.91
0.60
1.21
1.81
0.35
1.16
2.34
2.0
2.5
3.0
2.75
3.44
4.12
8.11
11.98
16.48
2.09
2.61
3.13
4.24
6.25
8.59
4
5
6
2.65
3.31
3.98
4.81
7.11
9.80
2.42
3.02
3.62
3.86
5.71
7.86
3.5
4.0
4.5
4.81
5.50
6.19
21.61
27.33
33.65
3.66
4.18
4.70
11.25
14.22
17.50
7
8
9
4.64
5.30
5.96
12.86
16.28
20.06
4.23
4.83
5.44
10.32
13.07
16.10
5.0
6.0
7.0
6.87
8.25
9.62
40.52
56.02
73.69
5.22
6.26
7.31
21.07
29.09
38.23
10
11
12
6.92
7.29
7.95
24.19
28.66
33.47
6.04
6.64
7.25
19.41
22.99
26.84
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.4
13.8
93.50
115.4
139.4
8.35
9.40
10.4
48.47
59.79
72.16
13
14
15
8.61
9.27
9.94
38.61
44.07
49.86
7.85
8.45
9.05
30.96
35.33
39.97
12.6
14.7
115.6
157.4
16
17
18
10.60
11.25
11.92
55.97
62.39
69.13
9.65
10.25
10.85
44.86
50.00
55.40
12.0
14.0
16.0
1
gpm
Tubing
1.03 ID
Vel.
Frict.
Pipe
1.05 ID
Vel.
Frict.
1 1/4
gpm
Tubing
1.27 ID
Vel.
Frict.
Pipe
1.38 ID
Vel.
Frict.
2
3
4
0.78
1.17
1.56
0.41
0.82
1.35
0.72
1.08
1.45
0.35
0.70
1.14
5
6
7
1.28
1.53
1.79
0.74
1.01
1.32
1.09
1.31
1.53
0.51
0.70
0.91
5
6
7
1.95
2.34
2.72
2.00
2.75
3.60
1.81
2.17
2.53
1.69
2.32
3.04
8
9
10
2.04
2.30
2.55
1.67
2.06
2.48
1.75
1.96
2.18
1.15
1.42
1.71
8
9
10
3.11
3.50
3.89
4.56
5.61
6.76
2.89
3.25
3.61
3.85
4.74
5.71
12
15
20
3.06
3.83
5.10
3.42
5.07
8.46
2.62
3.27
4.36
2.35
3.49
5.81
12
14
16
4.67
5.45
6.22
9.33
12.27
15.56
4.34
5.05
5.78
7.88
10.36
13.13
25
30
35
6.38
7.65
8.94
12.59
17.44
23.00
5.46
6.55
7.65
8.65
11.98
15.79
18
20
25
7.00
7.78
9.74
19.20
23.18
34.56
6.50
7.22
9.03
16.20
19.55
29.15
40
45
50
10.2
11.5
12.8
29.24
36.15
43.71
8.74
9.83
10.9
20.06
24.80
29.98
30
35
40
11.68
13.61
15.55
47.96
63.31
80.58
10.84
12.65
14.45
40.43
53.37
67.90
60
70
80
15.3
17.9
20.4
60.78
80.38
102.5
13.1
15.3
17.5
41.66
55.07
70.16
145
Appendix H
Tubing
1 1/2
Tubing
1.61 ID
Frict.
Frict.
Pipe
1.98 ID
2.07 ID
Vel.
gpm
Vel.
8
9
10
1.44
1.62
1.80
0.73
0.90
1.08
1.27
1.43
1.59
0.55
0.67
0.81
16
18
20
1.66
1.87
2.07
0.66
0.82
0.98
1.53
1.72
1.92
0.55
0.68
0.82
12
15
20
2.16
2.70
3.60
1.49
2.21
3.68
1.91
2.39
3.19
1.12
1.65
2.75
25
30
35
2.59
3.11
3.62
1.46
2.01
2.65
2.39
2.87
3.35
1.22
1.68
2.21
25
30
35
4.51
5.41
6.31
5.48
7.58
9.99
3.98
4.78
5.58
4.09
5.65
7.45
40
45
50
4.14
4.66
5.17
3.36
4.15
5.01
3.83
4.30
4.80
2.80
3.46
4.17
40
45
50
7.21
8.11
9.01
12.68
15.67
18.94
6.37
7.16
7.96
9.45
11.68
14.11
60
70
80
6.21
7.25
8.28
6.95
9.16
11.65
5.75
6.70
7.65
5.79
7.63
9.70
60
70
80
10.8
12.6
14.4
26.30
34.74
44.24
9.56
11.2
12.8
19.59
25.87
32.93
90
100
110
9.31
10.4
11.4
14.41
17.43
20.71
8.61
9.57
10.5
12.00
14.51
17.24
90
100
110
16.2
18.0
19.8
54.78
66.34
78.90
14.4
15.9
17.5
40.76
79.34
58.67
120
130
140
12.4
13.4
14.5
24.25
28.04
32.07
11.5
12.5
13.4
20.18
23.33
26.69
Tubing
2.46 ID
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
gpm
2 1/2
gpm
146
Pipe
1.51 ID
Pipe
2.47 ID
Vel.
Frict.
3
gpm
Frict.
Tubing
2.95 ID
Vel.
Frict.
Vel.
Frict.
Pipe
3.07 ID
Vel.
Frict.
20
25
30
1.34
1.68
2.02
0.35
0.52
0.72
1.31
1.63
1.96
0.33
0.49
0.67
20
30
40
0.94
1.41
1.88
0.15
0.31
0.51
0.87
1.30
1.74
0.13
0.25
0.42
35
40
45
2.35
2.69
3.02
0.94
1.19
1.47
2.29
2.61
2.94
0.88
1.12
1.38
50
60
70
2.35
2.82
3.29
0.76
1.05
1.38
2.17
2.61
3.04
0.63
0.87
1.15
50
60
70
3.36
4.03
4.70
1.77
2.46
3.24
3.26
3.92
4.57
1.66
2.30
3.03
80
90
100
3.76
4.23
4.70
1.75
2.16
2.61
3.48
3.91
4.35
1.45
1.80
2.17
80
90
100
5.37
6.04
6.71
4.12
5.08
6.15
5.22
5.88
6.53
3.85
4.75
5.74
110
120
130
5.17
5.64
6.11
3.10
3.63
4.19
4.79
5.21
5.65
2.57
3.01
3.47
110
120
130
7.38
8.05
8.73
7.30
8.54
9.87
7.19
7.84
8.49
6.82
7.92
9.22
140
150
160
6.58
7.05
7.52
4.79
5.42
6.09
6.09
6.52
6.95
3.97
4.50
5.05
140
150
160
9.40
10.1
10.8
11.28
12.78
14.36
9.14
9.79
10.45
10.54
11.94
13.42
170
180
190
7.99
8.46
8.93
6.80
7.54
8.32
7.39
7.82
8.25
5.64
6.25
6.89
170
180
190
11.4
12.1
12.8
16.03
17.79
19.62
11.1
11.8
12.4
14.98
16.61
18.33
200
220
240
9.40
10.3
11.3
9.13
10.85
12.70
8.70
9.56
10.40
7.56
8.99
10.52
200
220
240
13.4
14.8
16.1
21.54
25.61
30.01
13.1
14.4
15.7
20.12
23.93
28.03
260
280
300
12.2
13.2
14.1
14.69
16.81
19.06
11.3
12.2
13.0
12.17
13.93
15.79
Appendix H
3 1/2
gpm
Tubing
Pipe
Tubing
3.43 ID
Vel.
Frict.
3.55 ID
Vel.
Frict.
4
gpm
Vel.
Pipe
3.91 ID
Frict.
4.63 ID
Vel.
Frict.
60
70
80
2.09
2.44
2.78
0.51
0.67
0.85
2.00
2.33
2.66
0.46
0.60
0.77
100
110
120
2.68
2.94
3.21
0.68
0.80
0.94
2.55
2.81
3.06
0.60
0.71
0.83
90
100
110
3.13
3.48
3.82
1.05
1.27
1.50
3.00
3.33
3.67
0.95
1.14
1.35
130
140
150
3.48
3.74
4.01
1.08
1.23
1.40
3.31
3.57
3.83
0.96
1.10
1.25
120
130
140
4.18
4.52
4.87
1.76
2.03
2.32
4.00
4.33
4.66
1.58
1.83
2.09
160
170
180
4.28
4.55
4.81
1.57
1.75
1.94
4.08
4.33
4.58
1.39
1.56
1.73
150
160
170
5.21
5.56
5.91
2.62
2.95
3.29
5.00
5.33
5.66
2.36
2.66
2.96
190
200
220
5.08
5.35
5.89
2.14
2.35
2.79
4.84
5.10
5.61
1.91
2.09
2.48
180
190
200
6.26
6.60
6.95
3.64
4.02
4.41
6.00
6.33
6.66
3.28
3.62
3.97
240
260
280
6.42
6.95
7.49
3.26
3.77
4.31
6.12
6.63
7.14
2.90
3.36
3.84
220
240
260
7.65
8.35
9.05
5.24
6.13
7.09
7.33
8.00
8.66
4.72
5.52
6.39
300
350
400
8.02
9.36
10.7
4.88
6.46
8.23
7.65
8.92
10.2
4.35
5.75
7.33
280
300
350
9.74
10.4
12.2
8.11
9.19
12.16
9.33
10.0
11.7
7.30
8.28
10.95
450
500
550
12.0
13.4
14.7
10.20
12.36
14.71
11.5
12.8
14.1
9.08
11.00
13.09
400
450
500
13.9
15.6
17.4
15.51
19.23
23.32
13.3
15.0
16.7
13.97
17.32
20.99
600
650
700
16.0
17.4
18.7
17.24
19.96
22.86
15.3
16.6
17.9
15.35
17.77
20.35
Note: 1. The friction losses listed under the pipe heading is approximately valid for Regular Weight Copper and
Brass Pipe, in addition to Sch. 40 PVC Pipe
2. Table based on Darcy - Weisback formula
3. No allowance has been made for age, difference in diameter, or any abnormal condition of interior
surface. Any factor of safety must be estimated from the local conditions and the requirements of each
particular installation. It is recommended that for most commercial design purposes a safety factor of
15 to 20% be added to the values in the tables.
147
Appendix H
Friction Losses Through Pipe Valves and Fittings

(Straight Pipe in Feet - Equivalent Length)
SIZE OF
PIPE
(inches)
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1 1/4
1 1/2
2
2 1/2
3
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
WIDE
OPEN
.14
.21
.27
.33
.46
.61
.79
.93
1.21
1.39
1.69
2.40
3.40
4.40
5.70
6.80
8.20
9.10
GATE VALVE
1/4
1/2
CLOSED
CLOSED
.85
5.0
1.25
7.0
1.80
9.0
2.10
12.0
2.9
14.0
3.4
18.0
4.8
24.0
5.6
28.0
7.0
36.0
8.4
41.0
10.0
52.0
14.0
70.0
20.0
105
26.5
136
33.5
172
40.6
196
48.5
233
53.0
274
3/4
CLOSED
19
26
36
44
59
70
96
116
146
172
213
285
425
555
703
815
978
1110
GLOBE
VALVEWIDE
OPEN
9
12
16
18
23
29
38
46
58
69
86
116
175
225
285
336
395
435
ANGLE
VALVEWIDE
OPEN
5
6
8
9
12
15
20
23
29
35
43
57
86
115
141
166
195
220
CHECK
VALVEWIDE
OPEN
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
9.0
11.0
15.0
17.0
21.0
27.0
39.
53.
65.
78.
92.
106.
ORDINARY
ENTRANCE
TO PIPE
LINES
.46
.60
.75
.90
1.4
1.6
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.5
9.5
14.
16.
18.
21.
26.
STD.
90
ELBOW
.74
1.0
1.4
1.6
2.3
2.7
3.6
4.5
5.4
6.5
8.5
12.0
17.
22.
27.
33.
37.
43.
MEDIUM
SWEEP
90
ELBOW
.65
.86
1.15
1.50
2.0
2.5
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
9.5
15.
19.
23.
27.
31.
36.
LONG
SWEEP
90
ELBOW
.50
.70
.90
1.10
1.5
2.0
2.5
2.9
3.6
4.4
5.5
7.2
11.2
15.3
18.2
20.2
23.3
27.5
Use the smaller diameter in the column for pipe size.

d
Smaller diameter
=
D
Larger diameter
45
ELBOW
.40
.50
.65
.80
1.0
1.5
1.7
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
8.0
11.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
SQUARE
90
ELBOW
1.6
2.3
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
9.5
13.0
15.0
18.0
23.0
34.0
44.0
57.0
66.0
79.0
88.0
CLOSED
RETURN
BENDS
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
9.0
11.0
14.0
16.0
19.0
25.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
72.0
84.0
99.0
STD.
TEE
.50
.70
.90
1.10
1.5
2.0
2.5
2.9
3.6
4.4
5.5
7.2
11.2
15.3
18.2
20.2
23.3
27.5
STD.
TEE
1.6
2.3
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
9.5
13.0
15.0
18.0
23.0
34.0
44.0
57.0
66.0
79.0
88.0
ABRUPT CONTRACTION
d
d
d
D
D
D
1/4
1/2
3/4
.40
.30
.16
.50
.40
.22
.65
.50
.29
.80
.60
.36
1.0
.80
.48
1.5
1.0
.62
1.7
1.4
.83
2.0
1.6
.97
2.5
2.0
1.30
3.0
2.5
1.50
4.0
2.9
1.80
5.0
4.0
2.40
8.0
5.9
3.60
11.0
7.6
4.50
14.0
10.2
5.70
16.0
12.3
6.70
18.0
14.3
8.20
20.0
15.4
9.30
ABRUPT ENLARGEMENT
d
d
d
D
D
D
1/4
1/2
3/4
.74
.46
.16
1.0
.62
.22
1.4
.83
.29
1.6
1.2
.36
2.3
1.4
.48
2.7
1.6
.62
3.6
2.3
.83
4.5
2.7
.97
5.4
3.5
1.30
6.5
4.0
1.50
8.0
4.8
1.80
12.0
6.4
2.40
17.0
10.5
3.60
22.0
14.2
4.50
27.0
16.5
6.80
33.0
18.4
7.50
37.0
22.3
9.00
43.0
25.5
10.20
Note: 1. 1/8 to 12 nominal sizes are based on standard steel pipe, 14 to 24 sizes are ID pipe.
2. Friction losses are based on screwed connection from 1/8 to 4 sizes and flanged connections from 6 to 24
7-21
148
Section 7
SIZE OF
PIPE
(inches)
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1 1/4
1 1/2
2
2 1/2
3
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Appendix H
Typical Check Valve Friction Loss Chart
Typical Surface Plate / 90 Discharge Elbow Friction Loss Chart

SURFACE PLATE / 90 DISCHARGE FRICTION LOSS CHART
149
Appendix H
Steel Pipe Friction Loss & Velocity Chart
Note: Above chart indicates average values for standard weight steel pipe. Hazen - Williams roughness constant
(C) = 140.
Equivalent Pipe Capacity Comparison

Main
Size
2
3
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Smaller Pipe Size

(Number of smaller pipes required to provide carrying capacity equal to a larger pipe)
3/4
13
39
84
247
530
957
6
18
39
115
247
447
724
1,090
1
2
6
18
39
71
115
174
247
338
447
1
2
6
13
24
39
59
84
115
153
1
2
6
11
18
27
39
53
71
1
2
3
6
9
13
18
24
10
1
1
2
4
6
8
11
1
1
2
3
4
6
150
Section 7
NOTE: Comparing the ratio of the square of diameters will provide the capacity equivalent relationship (ie. how
many 12 lines will be required to equal the capacity of a 16 line? - (16 ) / (12 ) = 1.77 or 2 - 12 lines
Appendix I
Periodic system
1
H
2
He
Hydrogen
Helium
3
Li
4
Be
5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
11
Na
12
Mg
13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
Potassium
Calcium
Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
37
Rb
Rubidium
38
Sr
39
Y
40
Zr
41
Nb
42
Mo
43
Tc
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd
47
Ag
48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe
Strontium
Yttrium
Zirconium
Niobium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
55
Cs
56
Ba
57
La
72
Hf
73
Ta
74
W
75
Re
76
Os
77
Ir
78
Pt
79
Au
80
Hg
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn
Caesium
Barium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
87
Fr
88
Ra
89
Ac
104
Rf
105
Db
106
Sg
107
Bh
108
Hs
109
Mt
110
Ds
111
Rg
113
Uut
114
UUq
115
UUp
116
UUh
117
UUs
118
UUd
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
58
Ce
59
Pr
60
Nd
61
Pm
62
Sm
63
Eu
64
Gd
65
Tb
66
Dy
67
Ho
68
Er
69
Tm
70
Yb
71
Lu
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Cerium
Molybdenum Technetium
Praseodymium Neodymium
112
Uub
Meitnerium Damstadtium Roentgenium Ununbium
Ununtrium Ununquadium
90
Th
91
Pa
92
U
93
Np
94
Pu
95
Am
96
Cm
97
Bk
98
Cf
99
Es
100
Fm
101
Md
102
No
103
Lr
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fernium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
151
Appendix J
Pump standards
Pump standards:
ASME B73.1-2001

ASME B73.2-2003
EN 733
EN 22858

Specifications for horizontal end suction centrifugal pumps for chemical

process
Specifications for vertical in-line centrifugal pumps for chemical process
End-suction centrifugal pumps, rating with 145.03 psi with bearing bracket
End-suction centrifugal pumps (rating 232.06 psi) - Designation, nominal
duty point and dimensions
Pump-related standards:
ANSI/HI 1.6

ANSI/HI 1.3

ISO 3661
EN 12756
EN 1092

ISO 7005
DIN 24296
Centrifugal tests; detailed procedures on the setup and conduction of

hydrostatic and performance tests
Rotodynamic (centrifugal) pump applications; the standard cover the design
and application of centrifugal pumps, pump classifications,
impeller types, casing configurations, mechanical features, performance,
selection criteria, and noise levels
End-suction centrifugal pumps - Base plate and installation dimensions
Mechanical seals - Principal dimensions, designation and material codes
Flanges and their joints - Circular flanges for pipes, valves, fittings and
accessories, PN-designated
Metallic flanges
Pumps, and pump units for liquids: Spare parts
Specifications, etc:
ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996
ISO 9905
ISO 5199
ISO 9908
ISO 9906
EN 10204
ISO/FDIS 10816

Pipe flanges and flanged fittings

Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class 1
Rotodynamic pumps - Hydraulic performance tests -Grades 1 and 2
Metallic products - Types of inspection documents
Mechanical vibration - Evaluation of machine vibration by
measurements on non-rotating parts
Motor standards:
Nema MG 1-2007

EN 60034/IEC 34
152
Information guide for general purpose industrial AC small and medium

squirrel-cage induction motor standards
Rotating electrical machines
Appendix K
Viscosity
Viscosity of typical liquids as a

function of liquid temperature
The graph shows the viscosity of typical liquids
at different temperatures. As it appears from the
graph, the viscosity decreases when the temperature
increases.
Kinematic viscosity is measured in centiStokes [cSt]

(1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s). The unit [SSU] Saybolt Universal
is also used in connection with kinematic viscosity.
The graph below shows the relationship between
kinematic viscosity in [cSt] and viscosity in [SSU]. The
SAE-number is also indicated in the graph.
For kinematic viscosity above 60 cSt, the Saybolt
Universal viscosity is calculated by the following
formula: [SSU] = 4.62 . [cSt]
cSt
10000
8
6
The densities shown in

the graph are for 68 F
Glycerol
: 1260
Kinematic viscosity
centiStokes cSt
1000
8
6
4
Silicone oil
4
5
Fuel oil
2
100
8
6
Cottonseed oil
: 900
Fruit juice
: 1000
20
Mean
: 955
Spindle oil
: 850
Gas and
diesel oil
: 880
100
30
40
50
200
300
100
Silicone oil : 1000

Milk : 1030
Petroleum
: 800
Aniline : 1030
SAE 10
200
1000
Ethyl Alkohol : 770
2000
1000
4000
5000
SAE 40
Water : 1000
Acetone : 790
10000
SAE 60
Ether : 700
Acetic acid
: 1050
Mercury : 13570
10
20
30
40
2000
3000
SAE 50
50
60
70
80
90
100C
SAE 70
4000
5000
20000
10000
40000
50000
20000
100000
30000
0.1
0
SAE 30
Silicone oil
Petrol : 750
SAE 20
400
500
3000
1.0
SAE no.
o
( at 68 F)
400
500
300
- 10
40
Light
: 930
6
4
35
10
32
50
Olive oil
: 900
Heavy
: 980
10
Sekunder Saybolt
Universal SSU
30000
40000
50000
200000
100000
153
Appendix K
Ethylene glycol
Density of Aqueous Solutions of Ethylene Glycol
Concentrations in Volume Percent Ethylene Glycol
Temp.,
F
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
63.69
63.61
63.52
63.42
63.31
63.19
63.07
62.93
62.97
62.63
62.47
62.30
62.11
61.92
61.72
61.51
61.29
61.06
60.82
60.57
60.31
60.05
59.77
64.83
64.75
64.66
64.56
64.45
64.33
64.21
64.07
63.93
63.77
63.61
63.43
63.25
63.06
62.86
62.64
62.42
62.19
61.95
61.71
61.45
61.18
60.90
60.62
65.93
65.85
65.76
65.66
65.55
65.43
65.30
65.17
65.02
64.86
64.70
64.52
64.34
64.15
63.95
63.73
63.51
63.28
63.04
62.79
62.53
62.27
61.99
61.70
61.40
67.04
66.97
66.89
66.80
66.70
66.59
66.47
66.34
66.20
66.05
65.90
65.73
65.56
65.37
65.18
64.98
64.76
64.54
64.31
64.07
63.82
63.56
63.29
63.01
62.72
62.43
62.12
68.12
68.05
64.98
67.90
67.80
67.70
67.59
67.47
67.34
67.20
67.05
66.90
66.73
66.55
66.37
66.17
65.97
65.75
65.53
65.30
65.05
64.80
64.54
64.27
63.99
63.70
63.40
63.10
62.78
40%
0.0132
0.0092
0.0068
0.0052
0.0041
0.0033
0.0027
0.0023
0.0019
0.0017
0.0014
0.0013
0.0011
0.0010
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
50%
0.0428
0.0271
0.0183
0.0130
0.0096
0.0073
0.0057
0.0045
0.0037
0.0031
0.0026
0.0022
0.0019
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
0.0011
0.0010
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
Note: Density in lb/ft3.
Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Ethylene Glycol

Concentrations in Volume Percent Ethylene Glycol
Temp.,
F
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
154
10%
0.0015
0.0012
0.0010
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
20%
0.0026
0.0021
0.0017
0.0015
0.0012
0.0011
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0007
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0002
0.0002
30%
0.0046
0.0036
0.0029
0.0024
0.0020
0.0017
0.0014
0.0012
0.0011
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0007
0.0006
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
Appendix K
Propylene glycol
Density of Aqueous Solutions of Propylene Glycol
Concentrations in Volume Percent Propylene Glycol
Temp.,
F
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
10%
63.38
63.30
63.20
63.10
62.98
62.86
62.73
62.59
62.44
62.28
62.11
61.93
61.74
61.54
61.33
61.11
60.89
60.65
60.41
60.15
59.89
59.61
59.33
20%
64.23
64.14
64.03
63.92
63.79
63.66
63.52
63.37
63.20
63.03
62.85
62.66
62.46
62.25
62.03
61.80
61.56
61.31
61.05
60.78
60.50
60.21
59.91
59.60
30%
65.00
64.90
64.79
64.67
64.53
64.39
64.24
64.08
63.91
63.73
63.54
63.33
63.12
62.90
62.67
62.43
62.18
61.92
61.65
61.37
61.08
60.78
60.47
60.15
59.82
40%
65.71
65.60
65.48
65.35
65.21
65.06
64.90
64.73
64.55
64.36
64.16
63.95
63.74
63.51
63.27
63.02
62.76
62.49
62.22
61.93
61.63
61.32
61.00
60.68
60.34
59.99
50%
66.46
66.35
66.23
66.11
65.97
65.82
65.67
65.50
65.33
65.14
64.95
64.74
64.53
64.30
64.06
63.82
63.57
63.30
63.03
62.74
62.45
62.14
61.83
61.50
61.17
60.83
60.47
60.11
40%
0.0275
0.0183
0.0124
0.0089
0.0065
0.0049
0.0037
0.0029
0.0024
0.0019
0.0016
0.0013
0.0011
0.0010
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
50%
0.1049
0.0645
0.0412
0.0273
0.0187
0.0132
0.0096
0.0072
0.0055
0.0043
0.0034
0.0027
0.0023
0.0019
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
0.0010
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0007
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
Note: Density in lb/ft 3.
Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Propylene Glycol

Concentrations in Volume Percent Propylene Glycol
Temp.,
F
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
10%
0.0019
0.0015
0.0013
0.0011
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
20%
0.0036
0.0028
0.0023
0.0019
0.0016
0.0013
0.0011
0.0010
0.0008
0.0007
0.0007
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0002
0.0002
30%
0.0090
0.0067
0.0050
0.0039
0.0030
0.0024
0.0020
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
0.0010
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
155
Appendix K
Sodium hydroxide
[lb/ft3]
Concentration
wt % =
Temperature
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
5%
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
10%
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
[lb/ft3]
[cSt]
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
55%
32
66.17
69.73
73.29
76.78
80.21
83.27
86.40
89.58
92.58
95.51
41
66.04
69.60
73.16
76.59
80.09
83.15
86.21
89.20
92.39
95.38
97.13
50
65.98
69.48
73.04
76.41
79.90
83.02
85.96
88.83
92.26
95.20
96.95
59
65.92
68
65.79
72.85
69.35
1.3
69.23
1.7
72.66
79.72
76.28
2.5
76.09
3.6
79.53
82.77
6.2
10.1
91.83
88.64
85.65
82.52
85.33
16.8
88.39
25.4
97.32
94.76
91.39
38.2
96.51
94.32
51.8
77
65.67
1.1
69.10
1.5
72.54
2.1
75.97
3.1
79.34
5.1
82.34
8.3
85.15
13.3
88.21
19.9
91.20
29.0
94.14
39.0
86
65.54
1.0
68.92
1.3
72.35
1.8
75.78
2.7
79.15
4.0
82.09
6.5
84.90
9.9
88.02
14.4
90.95
19.9
93.89
26.2
95
65.42
0.9
68.79
1.2
72.22
1.6
75.60
2.3
78.97
3.4
81.90
5.5
84.71
8.2
87.83
11.6
90.77
15.9
93.70
20.5
104
65.29
0.8
68.67
1.1
72.04
1.4
75.41
2.0
78.78
2.8
81.71
4.5
84.46
6.6
87.58
8.9
90.52
12.0
93.45
14.7
113
65.17
0.7
68.48
1.0
71.85
1.3
75.22
1.8
78.59
2.6
81.53
3.9
84.09
5.6
87.14
7.5
90.08
9.9
93.01
12.1
122
65.04
0.7
68.29
0.9
71.66
1.2
75.03
1.6
78.40
2.3
81.28
3.3
83.65
4.6
86.71
6.0
89.64
7.8
92.58
9.4
131
64.86
0.6
68.17
0.8
71.48
1.0
74.85
1.5
78.22
2.0
81.09
2.9
140
64.67
0.6
67.98
0.7
71.35
0.9
74.66
1.3
78.03
1.8
80.84
2.4
149
64.48
0.5
67.79
0.7
71.16
0.9
74.47
1.2
77.78
1.6
158
64.30
0.5
67.60
0.6
70.98
0.8
74.28
1.1
77.59
1.5
167
64.11
67.42
70.79
74.03
77.41
176
63.98
67.23
70.60
73.85
77.22
95
104
113
cSt
lb/ft3
99.88
100
55%
50%
93.64
50%
45%
40%
45%
35%
40%
87.39
10
30%
35%
25%
30%
81.15
96.13
20%
15%
10%
5%
25%
20%
74.91
15%
68.67
10%
5%
0
68
62.42
32
156
50
68
86
104
122
140
158
176
77
86
122
131
140
149
158
F
Appendix K
Calcium chloride
[lb/ft ]
3
Concentration
wt % =
Temperature
[cSt]
[lb/ft ]
10%
Sodium chloride
[cSt]
[lb/ft ]
15%
[cSt]
[lb/ft ]
20%
[cSt]
[lb/ft ]
7.7
77.66
6.3
14
77.53
5.2
23
77.72
-4
74.22
4.3
Concentration
wt % =
Temperature
25%
-13
[cSt]
[lb/ft ]
5%
[cSt]
[lb/ft ]
10%
[cSt]
[lb/ft ]
15%
[cSt]
20%
72.54
4.0
69.91
2.9
72.41
3.2
2.4
72.29
2.7
2.3
67.54
2.2
69.79
71.04
3.0
74.16
3.6
77.47
4.4
32
65.11
1.8
67.42
1.8
69.66
2.0
72.10
23
68.04
2.3
70.98
2.6
74.10
3.1
77.34
3.8
41
65.04
1.5
67.35
1.6
69.54
1.7
71.97
1.9
32
67.92
2.0
70.85
2.2
74.03
2.6
77.22
3.3
50
64.98
1.3
67.23
1.4
69.41
1.5
71.85
1.7
14
41
67.79
1.7
70.79
1.9
73.91
2.3
77.09
2.9
59
64.92
1.1
67.11
1.2
69.29
1.3
71.66
1.5
50
67.73
1.5
70.66
1.7
73.78
2.0
76.97
2.5
68
64.86
1.0
67.04
1.1
69.17
1.2
71.54
1.3
59
67.60
1.3
70.60
1.5
73.66
1.8
76.78
2.2
77
64.73
0.9
66.92
0.9
69.04
1.0
71.41
1.2
68
67.54
1.1
70.48
1.3
73.54
1.6
76.66
2.0
86
64.67
0.8
66.79
0.9
68.85
0.9
71.23
1.1
77
67.54
1.0
70.35
1.2
73.41
1.4
76.53
1.8
86
67.48
0.9
70.23
1.0
73.22
1.3
76.34
1.6
157
Index
A
Absolute pressure
Aluminum
ATEX (ATmosphre EXplosible)
Austenitic (non-magnetic)
Axial flow pumps
Axial forces
85
106
70
41
68
46
8
14
B
Balanced shaft seal
Basic coupling
Bearing
Insulated bearing
Bellows seal
Groundwater pump
Bypass control
31
16
51
48
30
23
106
Constant differential pressure control

Constant pressure control
Constant temperature control
Copper alloys
Corrosion
Corrosion fatigue
Crevice corrosion
Erosion corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Pitting corrosion
Selective corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
Uniform corrosion
Corrosion fatigue
Coupling
Basic coupling
Flexible coupling
Spacer coupling
Crevice corrosion
115
114
115
69
60
63
64
62
63
64
62
61
62
63
61
64
16
16
16
16
62
C
Canned motor pump
Cartridge seal
Casing
Double-volute
Single-volute
Return channel
Cast iron
Cavitation
Centrifugal pump
Ceramics
Close-coupled pump
Closed system
Coatings
Metallic coatings
Organic coatings
Computer-aided pump selection
Control
Throttle control
Bypass control
Speed control
18
32
15
15
15
15
66
10, 89
63
8
71
12, 13, 16
96, 98
73
73
74
74
58
106
107
107
108
D
Decommissioning and disposal costs
131
Deep well pump
23
Density
10, 93
Density of water
Appendix D
Density of brine
Appendix K
Diaphragm pump
25
88
Differential pressure control
116
Dilatant liquid
55
46
Dosing pump
25
Double mechanical shaft seal
33
Double seal in tandem
33
Double seal in back-to-back
34
Double-channel impeller
21
Double-inlet
17
Double-suction impeller
11, 17
Double-volute casing
15
Downtime costs
131
Index
Duty point
Dynamic pressure
Dynamic viscosity
Index
96
84
54
E
Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
125
Efficiency
10
Efficiency at reduced speed
109
Efficiency curve
10
Electric motor
40
Flameproof motor
42
Increased safety motor
42
Non-sparking motor
42
EMC directive
123
EMC filter
123
Enclosure class (IP), motor
43
End-suction pump
12
Energy costs
130
Energy savings
111, 114, 117
Environmental costs
130
Erosion corrosion
63
Ethylene propylelediene rubber (EPDM)
72
Expansion joints
80
F
Ferritic (magnetic)
68
Ferritic-austenitic or duplex (magnetic)
68
Ferrous alloys
65
Flameproof motor
42
Flexible coupling
16
Floating foundation
79
Flow
83
Mass flow
83
Volume flow
83
Units
Appendix B
Fluoroelastomers (FKM)
72
Flushing
32
Foundation
78
Floating foundation
79
Floor
79
foundation
79
Vibration dampeners
79
Frame size
44
Frequency converter
47, 108, 118
G
Galvanic corrosion
Gauge pressure
Grey iron
64
85
66
H
Head
Heat capacity
Hermetically sealed pump
Horizontal pump
Hydraulic power
9, 85
93
18
12, 13
10, 91
I
IEC, motor
Immersible pump
Impeller
Double-channel
Single-channel
Vortex impeller
Increased safety motor
Initial costs
In-line pump
Installation and commissioning costs
Insulation class
40
22
14, 21
21
21
21
42
129
12, 13
129
44
62
K
Kinematic viscosity
54, Appendix K
L
Life cycle costs
Example
Liquid
Dilatant
Newtonian
Non-Newtonian
Plastic fluid
Thixotrophic
Viscous
Long-coupled pump
Loss of production costs
N
117, 128
132
54
55
55
55
55
55
54
12, 13, 16
131
40
55
69
72
66
78
74
55
124
42
10, 89
M
Magnetic drive
Maintenance and repair costs
Martensitic (magnetic)
Mass flow
Measuring pressure
Mechanical shaft seal
Bellows seal
Cartridge seal
Metal bellows seal
Rubber bellows seal
Function
Flushing
Metal alloys
Ferrous alloys
Metal bellows seal
Metallic coatings
Mixed flow pumps
Motors
Motor efficiency
Motor insulation
Motor protection
Motor start-up
Star/delta starting
Frequency converter
Soft starter
Mounting of motor (IM)
Multistage pump
NEMA, motor standard

Newtonian fluid
Nickel alloys
Nitrile rubber
Nodular iron
Noise (vibration)
Non-Newtonian liquid
Non-sinusoidal current
Non-sparking motor
NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head)
19
131
68
83
85
18, 28
30
32
32
31
29
32
65
65
32
73
8
108, 110
40
49
48
49
46
46
46
46
46, 47
46
43
11, 12, 13, 16
Open system
Operating costs
Organic coatings
O-ring seal
Oversized pumps
96, 99
106, 130
74
30
106
P
Paints
Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM)
Phase insulation
PI-controller
Pitting corrosion
Plastic fluid
Plastics
Positive displacement pump
Power consumption
Hydraulic power
Shaft power
Pressure
Absolute pressure
Dynamic pressure
Gauge pressure
Measuring pressure
Static pressure
System pressure
Units
Vapor pressure
74
72
48
114
61
55
71
24
10, 91
10, 91
91
84
85
88
84
85
85
84
88
85, Appendix A
90, Appendix D
Index
Pressure control
Constant differential pressure control
115
Constant pressure
114
Constant pressure control
114
Constant supply pressure
114
Pressure transmitter (PT)
114
Proportional pressure control
120
PTC thermistors
50
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
123
Pump
Axial flow pump
8
Borehole pump
23
Canned motor pump
18
Centrifugal pump
8
Close-coupled pump
12, 13, 16
Diaphragm pump
25
Dosing pump
25
Hermetically sealed pump
18
Horizontal pump
12, 13
Immersible pump
22
Long-coupled pump
12, 13, 16
Magnetic-driven pump
19
Mixed flow pump
8
Multistage pump
11, 12, 13, 16
Positive displacement pump
24
Radial flow pump
8
Sanitary pump
20
Single-stage pump
15
Split-case pump
12, 13, 17
Standard pump
17
Vertical pump
12, 13
Wastewater pump
21
Pump casing
15
Pump characteristic
9, 96
Pump curve
9
Pump installation
77
Pump performance curve
9, 96
Pumps connected in series
103
Pumps in parallel
101
Pumps with integrated frequency converter 118
Purchase costs
129
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
123
Index
Q
QH curve
R
Radial flow pump
Radial forces
Reinforced insulation
Resistances connected in parallel
Return channel casing
Rubber
Ethylene propylelediene rubber (EPDM)
Fluoroelastomers (FKM)
Nitrile rubber (NBK)
Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM)
Silicone rubber (Q)
Rubber bellows seal
8
15
48
98
97
15
72
72
72
72
72
72
30
S
Sanitary pump
Seal face
Seal gap

Selective corrosion
Setpoint
Shaft
Shaft power
Shaft seal
Balanced shaft seal
Silicone rubber (Q)
Single resistances
Single-channel impeller
Single-stage pump
Single-suction impeller
Single-volute casing
Soft starter
Sound level
Sound pressure level
Spacer coupling
Static head
Static lift
20
28
29
62
114
11
91
28
31
31
72
97
97
21
11, 12, 13, 15
11
15
46
81
82
16
99
99
Speed control
106, 108, 110
Variable speed control
108
Speed-controlled pumps in parallel
102
Split-case pump
12, 13, 17
Stainless steel
66
Standard pump
17
Standards
40
IEC, motor
40
NEMA, motor
40
Sanitary standards
20
Standstill heating of motor
51
Star/delta starting
46
Static pressure
84
Steel
65
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
63
Stuffing box
28
Submersible pump
23
System characteristic
96
Closed system
96, 98
Open system
96, 99
System costs
117
System pressure
88
T
Temperature
Units
Thermoplastics
Thermosets
Thixotrophic liquid
Throttle control
Throttle valve
Titanium
Twin pump
93
Appendix B
71
71
55
106, 110-113
107
70
11
U
Uniform corrosion
31
61
V
Vapor pressure
Variable speed control
Vertical pump
Vibration dampeners
Vibrations
Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity
Viscous liquid
Viscous liquid pump curve
Voltage supply
Volume flow
Units
Volute casing
Vortex impeller
Wastewater pump
90, Appendix D
108
12, 13
79
78
54, Appendix K
54
54
55
47
83
Appendix A
11
21
21
www.grundfos.com
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GRUNDFOS Canada Inc.
2941 Brighton Road
Oakville, Ontario
L6H 6C9
Phone: (905) 829-9533
Telefax: (905) 829-9512
Mexico
Bombas GRUNDFOS de Mexico S.A. de C.V.
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Parque Industrial Stiva Aeropuerto
C.P. 66600 Apodaca, N.L. Mexico
Phone: 011-52-81-8144 4000
Telefax: 011-52-81-8144 4010
L-IND-HB-01 8/2008 (US)
U.S.A.
GRUNDFOS Pumps Corporation
17100 West 118th Terrace
Olathe, Kansas 66061
Phone: (913) 227-3400
Telefax: (913) 227-3500
PUMP HANDBOOK
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GRUNDFOS PUMP HANDBOOK

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L-IND-HB-01 8/2008 (US)

Being responsible is our foundation

GRUNDFOS PUMP HANDBOOK

Copyright 2008 GRUNDFOS Pumps Corporation. All rights reserved.

Grundfos Pumps Corporation

Chapter 1 Design of pumps and motors. .....................7

Section 1.1 Pump construction............................................................. 8

Section 1.5 Liquids........................................................................................53

Chapter 2 Installation and performance

Chapter 3 System hydraulics.................................................. 95

Chapter 5 Life cycle costs calculation .........................127

Section 3.1 System characteristics ..................................................96

Section 5.1 Life cycle costs equation. ........................................... 128

Section 3.2 Pumps connected in parallel and series. ..................101

Chapter 4 Performance adjustment

Section 5.2 Life cycle costs calculation

Section 4.3 Advantages of speed control..................................117

Chapter 1. Design of pumps and motors

Section 1.1: Pump construction

The centrifugal pump

Section 1.2: Types of pumps

1.1.1 The centrifugal pump

The construction is fairly inexpensive, robust and

Radial flow pump

Mixed flow pump

Axial flow pump

Fig. 1.1.2: Different kinds of centrifugal pumps

If a pressure difference occurs in the system while the

Mixed flow pumps

Axial flow pumps

Fig. 1.1.3: Flow and head for different types of centrifugal

1.1.2 Pump curves

Fig. 1.1.4: Typical performance curves for a centrifugal

In some pump types with integrated motors and possibly

Normally, pump curves in Grundfos product guides

Fig. 1.1.5: The curves for power consumption and

Following is a brief presentation of the different pump

Head, the QH-curve

The QH-curve shows the head, identifying where the

Fig. 1.1.6: A typical QH-curve for a centrifugal pump;

Efficiency, the -curve

side of the pump to avoid cavitation (see section

Fig. 1.1.7: The efficiency curve of a typical centrifugal

PH = lb of liquid per minute . H

Power consumption, the P2-curve

The relationship between the power consumption of

Fig. 1.1.8: The power consumption curve of a typical

As it appears from the efficiency curve shown in figure

NPSH - curve (Net Positive Suction Head

The NPSHr value of a pump is the minimum absolute

Fig. 1.1.9: The NPSH curve of a typical centrifugal

1.1.3 Characteristics of the

The number of stages

The position of the pump shaft

Single-suction or double-suction impellers

Construction of the pump casing

1.1.4 Most common end-suction and in-line pump types

Pump with an axially divided pump housing. See section 1.2.2

Pump with a horizontal pump shaft

Pump with a vertical pump shaft

Pump with a single impeller. See section 1.1.7