Introduction :

Widespread interconnection of power stations and

substations and the greatly increased size of individual
generating and transforming units has made the
protection of each component of a system a necessity ,
without which unlimited damage with frequent and
lengthy interruptions of service would result . The
fundamental requirements of system protection are
that faults must be cleared with the minimum of
dislocation of system plant and in the shortest possible
time .
Two basic types of protection are known as unit and non-unit systems. A unit
system compares quantities (usually current) at both ends of the zone which it
protects , these quantities
remaining balanced under all through-fault conditions, with the resulting
imbalance from internal disturbances providing the
basis of discrimination , which is the property of protective

139

equipment to operate only on the occurrence of a particular fault or faults within its
own zone . Discrimination is important since
it implies the disconnection of faulty equipment only, with the minimum
disturbance to the rest of the system .A non-unit protective system compares
,quantities at the relaying point only
usually current , voltage or phase angle , and provides discrimination by
time or level grading or by assessing the distance of the fault from the
relay point. It follows that non-unit schemes may respond to faults beyond
the actual zone of protection but the relay in the faulty zone will normally
. have cleared the fault before relays in other zones operate

Thus, protection is the art or science of detecting the

presence of a fault and initiating the correct tripping of the
circuit breaker (C.B) .
A protective system comprises protective current transformers (C.T),
potential transformers (P.T) , and protective relays with their associated
wiring and the relay contacts which close a circuit from the station battery
. to the C.B trip coil

: Conditions to be Protected Against And Methods of Protection (9.2)

Conditions to be protected against vary with the

equipment but in general the following faults are covered
by protective equipment in any system .

(a) Persistent overload which leads to the damage of

thermally
rated plant.
(b) Short-circuit between phases (line to line) complete or
partial .
(c) Short-circuit to earth complete or partial .
(d) Reduction in system voltage to the point at which
motors stop this is normally the result of faults (b) and
(c) .
The main methods of protection are overload , balance
and distance , there being a large variation of types within
each of the above groups depending on the nature of the
equipment to be protected , the faults to be protected
against , the permissible time delay , the operative
quantity and the means of signal transmission, where
required , such as pilot wire or carrier current .

(9.3)Relays :
A relay is a device adjusted of certain value of current or
voltage or power factor , if the value increased or decreased
above or under the adjusted value , it gives a signal , the relay
current will increase , thus closing the relay contacts , and
current will pass in the tripping coil , causing the C.B to open ,
thus the fault will be disconnected . Relays are classified
according to :
(a)

The Function of The Relay :

Over voltage , over current ; in which the relay operates

when the voltage or current rises above a specified limit .

-

Under voltage , under current and under power ; in which

the operation takes place when the voltage , current or power

falls below a specified value .
-

Directional power ; in which operation occurs when the

power reverses its direction .

-

Distance ; in which the operation is governed by the ratio

of the voltage to the current or the component of the current

having some specified relation to the voltage .
(b)

The Time Characteristics of The Relay :

- Instantaneous :
In this type of relay no time is lost between operation of the
relay and tripping of the contacts .
- Definite time :
142

In this type a definite time elapses between relay operation and

operation of the tripping contact .
- Inverse time :
Here the time elapsed between the relay operation and
operation of contact is inversely proportional to the magnitude
of the fault current .
- Inverse - definite - minimum time :
In this case the operation of the relay is inversely proportional
to the value of current or any other quantity . The operation
time of the relay tends to a definite minimum time .
(c)

Construction And Theory of Operation :

- Solenoid type .
- Attracted armature type .
- Moving coil type .
- Thermal type .
Fig. (10.1) shows some of these types .

(9.4)Differential Protection of Power Systems :

If a fault occurs on any section of a transmission or
distribution system , it is essential that the faulty section should
be rapidly isolated automatically from the remainder of network
. Hence preventing the damage resulting from the fault and to
localize the area of disturbance .
The ideal characteristics of switchgear are :
1-

It must be sufficiently sensitive to detect the presence of a

fault.
143

2-

It must discriminate between currents fed to faults in

different sections in order to prevent the isolation of healthy

feeders .
3-

It must operate in the shortest possible time .

4-

It must be absolutely reliable in operation, simple and

robust.
Protective system may be divided broadly into two broad classes
; namely pilot systems and pilotless systems . Pilot systems are
those which employ pilot wires . In general , pilot systems are
more simple and reliable than pilotless systems , but the cost of
pilot wires limit their use on transmission lines .

(9.4.1) Merz-Price Differential Protection :

This method of protection is based on the fact that the
current entering one end of a healthy feeder is equal to that
leaving the other end. If a fault occurs , this equality will not be
maintained and the difference between the two currents is
arranged to operate relays which consequently trip the circuit
breaker and hence the faulty section is isolated .
There are two methods for applying the Merz-price differential
protection ; namely the circulating current method and the
opposed voltage method .
(9.4.1.1) Advantages of the Merz-Price System :
1-

The operation is reliable .

2-

The discrimination is ideal .

144

3-

No potential transformers are required .

4-

The operation is practically instantaneous .

5-

The method is applicable to all kinds of systems , e.g.

overhead line, underground cable , alternator , transformer , ...

etc.
6-

It operates for all types of faults whether to earth or

between phases .

145