Cell theory all organisms composed of one or more cells and that new cells come

from pre-existing cells

New cells reproduction
Cell division how new cells are made
Two types of cell division in Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes organisms that are not things like bacteria
Mitosis process in which cells produce genetically identical copies of themselves
cells needed for growth, repair, asexual reproduction
Meiosis associated with sexual reproduction number of chromosomes cut in half
Cell division in prokaryotes cell division not complicated as eukaryotes
Prokaryotes prokaryotic fission splitting start with a single cell 2 cells identical
to first
First step of prokaryotic fission make a copy of circular chromosome
2nd step - Cell that has two copies divide in 2 so each cell has one circular
chromosome
Asexual reproduction no genetic exchange with other individuals

Eukaryotic cells have nucleus and organelles

Makes copy of all chromosomes divide up chromosomes each cell gets not only
right number but right kind of chromosomes
Copy and divide all organelles
Done by mitosis or meiosis
Chromosomes divided up
Cytokinesis comes at end one cell into two cells and divide up content of cell

Right number and right kind of chromosomes

Karyotype picture of all chromosomes in a cell, cells going through mitosis

We can see chromosomes only when they begin the process of mitosis when they
start cell division, we can only see them in the duplicated condition

First thing that happens every chromosome need to make a copy of it

Copy divy up chromosomes among new cells
Only see already duplicated chromosomes

X shaped structures chromosomes already duplicated

X structure already duplicated chromosome
Pair 23 different from each other
Pairs based on size and shape Constriction in middle of chromosome
Pairs of chromosomes homologous chromosomes
One chromosome from mother, one from father
23rd pair sex chromosomes male big x shape and y smaller thing

All other homologous pairs are identical, but sex chromosomes are different in
males
Diploid number chromosomes found in all the cells in your body
Haploid only found in gamete cells
Diploid number in humans 46 chromosomes 23 pairs
Haploid half 23 chromosomes
Skin cells in body, heart, most places 46 chromosomes
Only find haploid only in reproductive cells

Chromosome in unduplicated state long rod shaped thing

Can't see at this point, only see during x shaped structure

Consists of two sister chromatids identical to each other

Unduplicated rod shape make copy of it
Constriction where duplicated chromosomes are joined together
Each half sister chromatid
Place where they are joined together centromere
X shape structure already duplicated
One side chromatid
Two identical they are copies
Chromosome one we can see
Something that consists of unduplicated thing often refer to as chromosome as
well
Karyotype - 23 pairs of chromosomes in duplicated state

Key thing to remember in mitosis remember what is going on in process

Start with cell
Chromosome in unduplicated state
Make a copy of it
Chromosome in duplicated state
Copy of every chromosome
Divy up all copy
Make sure new cells have one each
Mitosis cell cycle single cell for period of time cell divides undergone mitosis
All things that happen
1. Interphrase takes up good portion of cell cycle
things that go on divided up into subphases (not concerned with specifics)
During interphase when organelles duplicate, cell grows in size, fluid is
added to insides divide into 2
Chromosomes duplicate at this point
cell in interphase doesn't look like things are going on, but a lot is going on

 if cell is going through cell division cell expand, organelles and

chromosomes duplicate longest phase
2. Mitotic phase with many phases inside
a. Prophase area where nucleus was dark strands chromosomes
nuclear envelope disappears - membrane around nucleus disappears
and chromosomes become visible and spindle fibers form stretching
from top to bottom of cell chromosomes attached to spindle fibers
transition point to metaphase chromosomes beginning to line up
b. Metaphase see dark strands lined up along the equator of cell
chromosomes are lined up on equator/center of cell chromosomes
hooked up to spindles and attached to pair centrioles x shaped
structure two sister chromatids
c. Anaphase see chromosomes being taken one set in one direction to
north and other to south chromosomes being separated into their
sister chromatids unduplicated state
d. Telophase chromosomes condensed into two regions one at top
and one at bottom see nuclear envelope reform, chromosomes less
distinct
Chromosomes separated main job
Shortest phase
3.Cytokinesis makes division between two ends of cell final process end of
this series of miotic phses divide single cell in half
Mitosis dividing up chromosomes
In animals separation comes about by pinching in at equator of cell take string
around cell at equator and make loop and pulled it tight and separate cell (more
than just analogy, fibers in cell that run around equator and constrict to separate
this cleavage forrow)
Plant cells have cell walls not only divide into two cells but form cell wall
betrween them
Cell wall begins to form by having vesicles converge on equator of cell various
kinds of materials to equator of cell cell walls built and cell plate forms and
eventually two cells completely walled off from each other
Different cells go through cell division at different rates
Skin cells every 20 hours or so replaced frequently
Red blood cells also go through cell division frequently
White blood cells about every 2 weeks

Nerve cells hardly ever go through cell division

Cancer cells undergo cell division very very rapidly

Process of meosis quite different

Number divided in half
Certain 23 Way division occurs All chromosomes come in pair
Each pair refered to as homologous pair of chromosomes
What happens new cells get one representative of each homologous pair of
chromosomes
Not just random set
Cancer - Control cell cycle - number of factors that determine cell cycle
Some internal factors - cell have checkpoint genes - spots in cell cycle - gene
activity, gene products made - proteins - tell cell to speed up or slow down or stop
cell cyycle
Cells get signals from other cells
Contact inhibition when cells bump into each other they sense that contact and
chemical signals are involved and cells stop growing for example you can grow
cells in culture culture divide and cover bottom of a dish but just one cell thick
one cells bump into other cells chemical cells that tell to stop dividing
Cancer cells out of control cells lack contact inhibition
Don't stop dividing when they bump into each other Mass of cancer cells called tumor
Many cells require substrate to attach to to start dividing
Cancer cells divide even if they are floating around in blood stream
Cancer cells don't stop dividing, just keep going

Most mammal cells divide only around 20-50 times under conditions before they
stop, age, and die
Limit to lifetime of cells
Cancer cells divide indefinitely

Why do cells get out of control? Number of possibilities mutation most common
reason
Check point genes determines when cell divides or how frequently
If those genes become damaged or mutated checkpoints not there anymore cell
free to go on its way

Can be inheretide from parents

Carcinogens or mutagens variety of chemicals, radiation, viruses Lso from nuclear waste
Viruses insert DNA into DNA of host
Viral genes in middle of normal gene
What happens when we have cancer cells - some cases cell remains localized
adhere to home tissue just get tumor can be dealt with, surgical removal of
tumor

Malignant cells in tumor no longer are wedded to home tissue migrate to

neighboring tissues and can move around body and establish strongholds around
and create new tumors
Spread of cancer referred to as metastasis
Cancer 2nd leading cause of death
25% of all US deaths
Lung cancer smoking rates increased in women now top in men and women
Cancer reatments attempt to kill cancer using same mutagens or carcinogens that
caused cancer in first place but not always successful

Radiation, chemotherapy cause mutations in dividing cells

Rapidly dividing cancer cells more affected than normal cells
Cell divides lots of things going on
Chromosomes go into right places
Very vulnerable time for cells
Chemicals or radiation present may make mistakes when cell is making copy of
DNA
Causes cancer cells fight fire with fire
Bombarded cancer cells suffer mutation and can't function as dividing cells
But putting normal cells at risk But cells that are rapidly dividing - more at risk
Hair cells fall out and so on
Malignant melanoma - very serious can go to other places
Skin cancer most frequent 1 in 6 Americans develop skin cancer
Damage happen before 20, but you get the cancer around 40-50
All cells have suicide switch gene responsible for assessing general health of cell
Cripled by mutations
Suicide = pulls lever on unhealthy cell and it dies
Skin cancer suicide switch gene gets mutated
Cell without switch continues on duplicating even though it is unhealthy
Main source ultraviolet radiation from sun
Avoid ultraviolet hard to do
Use sunscreen
30% smoking cause 3 million worldwide 1-% from secondhand
Causes lung cancer
27% of Americans smoke
20% of high school seniors smoke daily

Quitting smoking can lower risk of death to that of non smokers 10-15 years
Damage to lungs not reversible
Don't recruit new smokers
Meiosis involved in reproduction
Sexual or asexual reproduction
Sexual involves 2 parents
Offspring combination of genes from each parents
Meiosis comes in
Gametes by each of parents
Gametes come together to form zygote
Asexual reproduction
Involves single parent
Offspring produced by mitosis identical to parent
Many species do sexual and asexual
Some species that do exclusevly sexual or exclusivley asexual
In hydra organism cells that bud off from main body form a brand new little
hydra
Vegetative very common in plant
Strawberry plant send out runner new planet let now offspring genetically
identical
Little runner severed and can be free living
Meiosis sexual reproduction
Produces gamete cells
Gamete cells haploid
Half number of chromosomes
Haploid made in one particular part of body by germ cells

Germ cells found in particular structures of body called gonands - testies (males)
or ovaries (females) of animals
Gamete producing cells haploid structures of plants
Flowering plant ovary at base of flower
Main job of meiosis produce haploid cells
Have half number of chromosomes as original cell
Not just randomly half of chromosomes
Each gamete one representative of each homologous pair of chromosome
23 pairs one representative from each pair 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
gamete has one of two doesn't matter which one, but one and only one
Purpose half number of chromosome of original cell
And have gametes of original cell
Sexual reproduction joining genetic information
Make sure we maintain constant amount of genetic information from generation to
generation
What happens in mitosis
1.
2.
3.
4.

Duplicate chromosomes
Homoloogus pairs line up (synapsis)
Separate homologues meiosis 1
Separate chromatids meiosis 2

See with evolutionary kinds of things not most efficient evolution takes
preexisting systems modifies to produce new kinds of things
Same phases in mitosis different things are happening at different times
Meiosis 1 1. Prophase homologous chromosomes pair up we call that synapsis
coming together
2. Metaphase pair of homologues line up on equator
3. Anaphase and telophase homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles
which homologue ends up at which pole is random
Result 2 cells each with one representative of each homologous pair
But chromosomes still in duplicated state

Must be separated in meiosis II

Meiosis II like miosis 1 but no duplication event already duplicated each
chromosome on equator of cell
1. Metaphase each chromosome attached at the equator
2. Anaphase and telophase sister chromatids separate
4 cells, each with the haplid number of chromosomes
Each gamete has one representative of each homologous pair
Other aspects of meiosis Events in male and female (animals)
Differ a little bit
Male gamete formation 4 cells single cell
Female gamete formation 1 big cell, 3 other cells thrown out polar bodies not
functional gametes
Single cell
Undergoes first meiotic division produces 2 cells
Two cells produce two cells 4 cells
Female single cell 2 cells
Each becomes 2 cells
Only one becomes functional
Remaining 3 things don't act as gametes at all
3 thrown away reason one of things fact that female gamete cell much larger
Cytokenesis unequal in female gametes
Cell on top a lot smaller than cell on bottom
Next division bigger cell discrepency
Consolidating all of cytoplasmic material in one larger cell
3 other cells discarded
Ultimate purposes of meiosis produce gametes with a lot of genetic variability -

See how it can happen by considering one of things that occurs independent
assortment
Chromosomes - x
Pairs of homologous chromosomes two pairs of x's
Sister chromatids not x's
Move to opposite poles of cell
Independent assortment one representative of each pair of homologues chosen at
random
Possible combinations
6 chromoses (3 pairs) 2 to the power of 8
Humans 23 pairs 2 to the 23 power 8 million
Reshuffles genetic material
Crossing over occurs while homologues are in synapsis Equivalent portions of chromosomes are exchanged
Results in new genetic combinations further shuffling genetic material
Why are offsrping different from each other
Indpeendent assortment each gamete gets random representatives from each
homologous pair of chromosomes
Corssing over
Random pairing of gametes from mom and dad
Only certain cells undergo meiosis germ cells producing gametes
Each chromosome duplicated during interphase
Beigin process of duplicated chromosome
Each cell one pair of homologous chromosome

Each chromosome is duplicated

Two x shaped structures- duplicated condition
In meiosis 1
Pair up on equator of cell
Than separate
At end of meiosis 1 two cells one representative of each homologous
chromosmes
Meiosis ii take those cells contain chromosome in duplicated state
Sister chromatids are separated
Two new cells each has sister chromatid one line
4 gamete cells each chromosome

Genetics how traits are pasesed on to offspring

Study of heredity
Gregor mendel rules of inheritcance
Experiments with garden peas
Garden pea self fertilizing
Pevent flowers from self fertilizing
Mendel bred plants with other plants
Look at trait of flower color
75% purple 25% white
Allow to self fertilize
Heredity factors genes have more than one form or version (called alleles)

Each flower color gene has a purple version (purple allele) and a white version
(white allele)
For any gene an individual has two alleles one fromeach parent
One allele from each homologous chromosome
What happens when 2 alleles in an individual are different
When one allele is for purple flower color and other allele white verison
For some genes one allele is dominant and the other is recessive
Means that an individual with 2 different alleles only the dominant allele will show
This means only way to see recessive trait in offsrping both alleles are recesive

Dominant / recessive
Flower color
Purple dominant white recessive
If plant has one puple allele and one white allele color will be purple
Only when both alleles are white will the flower color be white
Law of segregatin 2 alleles for each gene segregation during gamete formation
If an individual has one allele for purple and one for white 50% of their gametes will
have a white allele and 50% a purple allele

Gene unit of heredity

Gene locus place on one chromosome where gene is located
Allele form of a gene (white or purple)
Phenotype what the individual looks like
Genotype what the individuals 2 alleles are

Homozygote both alleles are same

Heterozygote 2 alleles are different
P generation parent generation
F1 generation 1st generation of offspring
F2 2nd generation of offspring
Monohybrid corss involving one trait flower color
Dihybrid corss involving 2 traits at same time

Using punnet square

Hen individual has dominant phenotype homozygous or heterozygous
Test cross cross individual to homozygous recessive to discover genotype
Dihybrid cross
Consider 2 characteristics at the saem time
Flower color or plant height
True breeding purple tall plant AABB crossed with white dwarf aabb
In a cross between 2 heterozygotes we expect 25% of offspring to have the
recessive phenotype 3:1 ratio
This does not mean that if 2 heterozygote parents have 4 children, 1 will have
recessive phenotype
Each child born 25% chance of having the recessive phenotype
But possible all 4 children have dominant phenotype
Possible all 4 will have recessive phenotype
2 alleles involved
1 allele dominant over other allele

Not all traits have a simple dominant/recessive nature

Incomplete dominance Heterozygote intermediate instead of being like the dominant allele
heterozygote intermediate
Snapdragon flower color
Red crossed with white gives pink
Pink crossed with pink gives red, pink, and white
Red snapdragon with white snapdragon like mendells cross purple flowers and
white flower peas
Mendel got purple flowered plants all like dominant phenotype
In snapdragon red with white flower get pink flowered plants
One of things we mentioned that mendel was able to do
Show that the prevailing notion about inheritance blended together incorrect
Blending didn't occur
This case blending might happen
Not correct phenotype is blend of two
Haven't lost white allele
Pink flower crossed with each other
Get red and white colors back, although some individuals that are pink
Closer look
Notatiuon different
Don't have dominance recesive situation
Use letter C for color gene
Superscript red allele or white allele

Codominance In heterozygotes both alleles expressed

ABO blood group gene
3 alleles possible
A and B are codominant
O allele is recessive to A and B
AO, AA type A
BO, BB type B
OO type O
AB type AB

Interaction between genes

Traits determined by 2 or more genes
Hair color by mammals
2 gene responsible for melanin production
A second gene responsible for deposition of melanin in hair
A third gene is also involved when it is recessive the individual is an albino
Melanin pigment
Polygenic inheritance
Polygenic traits
Traits that are combined effects of many genes
Additive effects human skin color
Alleles at several gene loci contribute to the amount of melinin in skin

Polygenetic traits show continuous variation white skin to very dark skin
Rather than either or
Pleiotroppy a single gene may affect more than one characteristic
The gene responsible for the coloration pattern of siamese cats is also responsible
for the crossed eyes of siamese cats
Environmental effct on a single gene trait some cases not just genes that
determine trait but environment has effect as well
Siamese cats or rabbit fur color
Expression of coloration in siamese cat or rabbit is determined by the environment
Rabbit dark nose, dark ears, dark paws, dark tail
Not different genes in each of these
Same coloration genes are there
Those genes affected by temperature of cells that those genes are found in
For example body of animal such as rabbit
Tend to be warmer than extremeties
Paws, ears, nose, tail cooler
These genes operating in cool cells instead of making white they make dark
Gene expression determined by temperature
Many traits influenced by environment
Polygenitc traits
Human height, weight, IQ are determined by a number of genes
All of these also affected by the environmen
Human height Genetic component but also environmental component

Doesn't get sufficient nutritien stunted in growth potential genes have for height
Weight polygenic trait environment have significat effect on weght
Affect our overall weight
IQ another environment affect outcome
Nutritionally straved or starved for metntal challenges