Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 33 49

www.elsevier.com/locate/gloplacha

Fluvial fluxes into the Caribbean Sea and their impact on coastal
ecosystems: The Magdalena River, Colombia
Juan D. Restrepo a,*, Paula Zapata b,1, Juan M. Daz c,2,
Jaime Garzon-Ferreira b,3, Camilo B. Garca d,3
a

Departamento de Geologa, Universidad EAFIT, A.A. 3300, Medelln, Colombia

Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, Invemar, Santa Marta, Colombia
c
Instituto Alexander von Humbold, Bogota, Colombia
Universidad Nacional, Departamento de Biologa, Cecimar/Invemar, A.A.1016, Santa Marta, Colombia
b

Received 13 November 2004; accepted 9 July 2005

Available online 9 December 2005

Abstract
The Magdalena, a world-class river, in the top ten in terms of sediment load ~ 150 MT/yr, is the largest river discharging directly
into the Caribbean Sea. Data on water discharge, sediment load, and dissolved load of the Magdalena River is presented as an
initial interpretation of coastal ecosystems changes in relation to water discharge and sediment load from the Magdalena. During
the 19721998 yr-period, the Magdalena River has delivered approximately 4022 MT of sediment to the Caribbean coast. The river
reflects high inter-annual variability and delivers large portions of its fluvial discharge and sediment loads in short periods of time.
The analysis of annual deviations from the 27-yr mean sediment load indicates that 59% of the total sediment load variability of the
Magdalena at Calamar could be attributed to flashy peak events. Further analyses of sediment load anomalies suggest that there was
a high discharge period in the Magdalena River between 1985 and 1995 and another one in the Canal del Dique between 1985 and
1992. These increasing trends in sediment load coincide with the overall decline of live coral cover around the Rosario Islands, a
145 km2 coral reef complex in the Caribbean Sea that constitutes a marine protected area. The comparison of live coral: algae ratios
for the 19832004 yr-period, also indicates that there has been an associated increase in the percentage of algae cover (i.e., Grande
Island 1983 = 5%, 2004 = 59%). Other analyses show that nearly 850 ha of seagrass existing in the Cartagena Bay in the 1930s, only
76 ha remained in 2001, which is less than 8% of the original cover. There has been a mix of multiple stressors (natural and
anthropogenic; local, regional and global; temporal and chronic) affecting the coastal ecosystems in the area, but the effect of the
Magdalena River runoff has been constant and very prolonged (several decades). The impacts of heavy sediment loads and
freshwater discharges from the Canal del Dique to Cartagena Bay have greatly contributed to the partial disappearance of coral
formations and also to a considerable reduction in abundance of seagrass beds in the bay and neighboring areas.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: sediment transport; runoff; coastal environment; corals; seagrasses; Magdalena River; Caribbean Sea

* Corresponding author. Fax: +57 4 2664284.

E-mail addresses: jdrestre@eafit.edu.co (J.D. Restrepo), pzapata@invemar.org.co (P. Zapata), jmdaz@humboldt.org.co (J.M. Daz),
jgarzon@invemar.org.co (J. Garzon-Ferreira), cgarcia@invemar.org.co (C.B. Garca).
1
Fax: +57 5 4211377.
2
Fax: +57 1 6086900.
3
Fax: +57 5 4211377.
0921-8181/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.09.002

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J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

1. Introduction
The flux of sediment to the coastal ocean will continue to be influenced by human and/or climate change.
Estimating the balance between increasing and decreasing sediment loads is of utmost importance for sound
coastal zone and resource management (Syvitski,
2003). The earliest estimates of the flux of sediment
to the global coastal zone ranged from 13 to 51 Gt/yr
(Syvitski, 2001, 2003). Milliman and Syvitski (1992)
suggested a global estimate of 18 Gt/yr using a data set
of 280 rivers. More recent studies have shown that
rivers discharge more than 35  103 km3 of water and
20 Gt/yr of suspended and dissolved solids into the
coastal zone. Over the past 50 yrs, rivers have discharged between 18 Gt/yr (Farnsworth and Milliman,
2003) and 2024 Gt/yr of sediment annually to the

global coastal zone (Ludwig and Probst, 1998; Syvitski,

2003). Northeastern South America, which includes the
Parana, Amazon, Orinoco, and Magdalena rivers (Fig.
1), contributes about 12% of the total sediment load.
These basins combined drain more than half the continent, 10 of 17  106 km2 (Milliman, 1990).
The focus on rivers draining South America has
been directed toward the three large fluvial systems,
the Amazon (Meade et al., 1979, 1985; Richey et al.,
1986, Richey et al., 1989), the Orinoco (Eisma et al.,
1978; Depetris and Paolini, 1991), and the Parana
(Depetris et al., 1996; Depetris and Gaiero, 1998;
Goniadzki, 1999). However, the sediment flux for the
Magdalena River of Colombia (Fig. 1) is of the same
magnitude as that of these three rivers, all of which
have much larger drainage basins (Bassin, 1976; Milliman and Meade, 1983; Javelaud, 1987; Restrepo and

Fig. 1. Location of the Magdalena River drainage basin. (A) Map showing the major basins in South America draining into the Atlantic, including
the Magdalena River. (B) Magdalena River drainage basin, showing the upper, middle, and lower reaches. (C) Map of the Caribbean coast of
Colombia, showing the principal rivers, the main drainage basins, and the hydrological stations at Calamar and Santa Helena, where sediment load
and water discharge were measured. The location of the Magdalena delta, the Rosario Islands, and Barbacoas Bay, where the Canal Dique empties
into the Caribbean Sea, are also shown.

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

Kjerfve, 2000b, 2004). The Magdalena is a world-class

river due to (1) its contribution of fluxes to the global
budgets (Milliman and Meade, 1983; Milliman, 1990;
Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Ludwig and Probst,
1998); (2) its sediment yield, the largest on the South
Americas Atlantic seaboard (Restrepo and Kjerfve,
2000a,b); (3) its drainage basin, the largest of any
Andean river; and (4) its most significant contribution
of fluxes source on the Caribbean Sea (Restrepo and
Kjerfve, 2002).
The role of terrigenous sediment in controlling the
occurrence of coral reefs has been globally recognized.
Sediments have inhibitory effects on reef communities
and the sedimentary processes, including various associations between substrate type, turbidity and light
availability, affect coral distributions on all scales
from local depth restrictions to broad-scale biogeography (Mc. Laughlin et al., 2003; Wolanski et al., 2003).
According to Mc. Laughlin et al. (2003), the greater
impact of fluvial fluxes on coral reef ecosystems is
likely to occur at the scale ranging from small to
medium-sized drainage basins, where land conversion
and deforestation increase runoff and erosion, to the
detriment of near-shore reef environments. Changes at
this scale are poorly understood in the Caribbean basins
and have not been addressed for the Magdalena River,
the largest contributor of water and sediment discharges
into the Caribbean Sea (LOICZ, 2002).
Scientists and decision-makers have been debating
for the past 10 yrs as to whether and to what extent the
fluxes from the Magdalena River have impacted the
adjacent coastal ecosystems, including the Rosario
Islands, a 145 km2 coral reef complex in the Caribbean
Sea that constitutes a marine protected area. Some
studies (i.e., Daz et al., 2000; Barrios, 2000) have
shown that the current cover of live coral in El Rosario
Islands is only 33%. This is attributed to many stressors, including (1) freshwater-induced bleaching; (2)
sediment and nutrient loading enhancing the ability of
macro algae to compete with corals for benthic substrate; (3) increased anthropogenic contamination from
urban areas (sewage and toxic substances); and (4)
tourism and overexploitation of coral structures for
construction activities in the region (Garzon-Ferreira
and Kielman, 1993; Daz et al., 1996; Garzon-Ferreira
et al., 2001).
It is our objective to synthesize data on water discharge, sediment load, and dissolved load of the Magdalena River, the principal fluvial system discharging
into the Caribbean Sea. We also present an initial
interpretation of reef cover changes in relation to
water discharge and sediment load from the Magdalena

35

and show as well some implications and impacts on

seagrass ecosystems. This first exercise, assessing possible causes of coastal ecosystem deterioration (i.e.,
coral reef mortality), necessarily addresses the net combined effects of fluvial discharge-related stressors.
Therefore, the preliminary analysis presented here
may be further used in future studies to identify
approaches to separating and defining sediment-specific
controls. Finally, we make comparisons with other
major fluvial systems draining into the Atlantic Ocean
and elsewhere.
2. The Magdalena River system
Caribbean Colombia is principally drained by the
Magdalena and Sinu rivers, and also receives the Atrato
drainage from west of the Cordilleras (Fig. 1). The
Magdalena River is the largest river system of Colombia with a length of 1612 km and originates at the
Magdalena lagoon at an elevation of 3685 m. The
drainage basin area covers 257,438 km2, 24% of the
Colombia territory, and occupies a considerable portion
of the Colombian Andes (Fig. 1). The basin is characterized by high tectonic activity, hillslopes commonly
exceeding 458, landslides, steep gradients, high relief
tributary basins (71% of the catchment area corresponds to elevations N 1000 m), and moderate precipitation with an average rainfall of 2050 mm yr 1. The
basin is formed by 151 sub-catchments from which 42
are second-order watersheds. The rivers upper reaches
are 565 km long, i.e. 37% of the rivers total length, and
extend over a catchment area of 55,140 km2, comprising 22% of total catchment area. The middle reaches
are more than 540 km, comprising 35% of the rivers
total length, and with a catchment area of 105,000 km2,
or 40% of the total drainage basin area. The main
tributaries are the Cauca (the second largest river in
Colombia), Sogamoso, San Jorge, and Cesar rivers. The
Magdalena Rivers lower reaches are 430 km long,
comprising 28% of the rivers total length, with a
catchment area of 96,240 km2, or 38% of the total
catchment area. There are numerous lakes, such as
the Mompox tectonic depression, a low floodplain
with an area of 800 km2, and no large tributaries in
the lower reaches (Fig. 1) (Table 1).
The Magdalena River discharges into the southwestern Caribbean and forms a 1690 km2 triangular delta
(Coleman, 1976). The delta plain consists of alluvial
plains, marginal lagoon systems, and beach ridges
(Vernette, 1985). The receiving basin is characterized
by sedimentation, slumping, and compressional tectonics that cause the presence of mud diapirism in the delta

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J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

Table 1
River length (R L), drainage basin area (A D), and average annual precipitation (r), water discharge ( Q), runoff (Df), runoff coefficient (Df/r),
sediment load ( Q s), and suspended sediment concentration (SSC) for the upper, mid and lower basin
Basin
Upper basin
Mid basin
Lower basin (Calamara)
a

RL
(km)

AD
(103 km2)

r
(mm yr

565
1110
1540

55 441
161 300
266 540

1535
2185
1630

Df
(mm yr
900
1260
700

Df/r
()

Q
(m3 s

0.60
0.58
0.43

1390
4230
7100

Qs
(106 t yr
51.2
81.5
144.2

SSC
(kg m

1.07 F 0.64
0.60 F 0.25
0.6 F 50.78

The most downstream gauging station, Calamar, is located 112 km from the Magdalena delta (Fig. 1).

front (Shepard et al., 1968; Kolla and Buffler, 1984;

Vernette et al., 1992). The present delta mouth empties
into an offshore canyon with a steep slope (408) (Shepard, 1973). Wave processes extensively rework the
shoreline. Average wave power is 206 ergs s 1 m 1
of coastline (Coleman and Wright, 1975; Coleman,
1976). The delta front experiences a microtidal range
less than 0.5 m (Kjerfve, 1981; Martnez and Molina,
1992). Strong littoral currents predominantly flow toward the west and are the result of open ocean swells,
generated by NE trade winds (Lorin et al., 1973). The
Magdalena is assumed to be the dominant source of
beach sand for the northern Caribbean coast of Colombia. The low sediment flux during the low discharge
season, combined with the wave-dominated coastline,
result in sand bar extension across the river mouth. In
addition, the delta of the Magdalena River is located in
a very arid zone, with an annual water deficit of 1031
mm yr 1. The delta comprises the largest estuarine
lagoon complex in Colombia known as Cienaga Grande
de Santa Marta (Fig. 1), a lagoonal complex surrounded
almost entirely by mangrove forests.
3. Material and methods
We have obtained daily water and suspended sediment load data in the Magdalena River from the downstream station at Calamar, which is located 112 km
upstream from the Caribbean (Fig. 1). Data were
obtained from the Institute for Hydrology, Meteorology
and Environmental Studies (Instituto de Hidrologa,
Meteoreologa y Estudios Ambientales or IDEAM,
Colombia) (IDEAM, 2003).
Water discharge data for the period 19422002 were
based on daily stage readings for the 60-yr record and
converted to discharges via the established rating curve
(Buchanan and Somers, 1969; Jansen et al., 1979).
Sediment load estimates at Calamar were based on
the measured sediment concentrations done by the
IDEAM between 1972 and 1998, cross-multiplied
with water discharge (Colby, 1956). Regression of sediment load on water discharge for the 55 measurement

occasions yielded a relationship, which was used to

estimate daily sediment loads 19721998.
Sediment load estimates in the Canal del Dique at
Santa Helena, a 114-km-long man-made channel from
the Magdalena River at Calamar to Cartagena Bay (Fig.
1), were based on the measured sediment concentrations done by IDEAM during the 19841998 yr-period,
cross-multiplied with water discharge. Bed load transport is not included in the analysis since this contribution to total load is less than 15% in the Magdalena
River (IDEAM, 2001).
The concentrations of major dissolved constituents
and mass transport rates for major Caribbean rivers of
Colombia, including the Magdalena River and the
Canal del Dique (Fig. 1), were based on averages
calculated from monthly samples from 19901993
(IDEAM, 1995). Nutrient fluxes of phosphate (PO43 )
and nitrate (NO3 ) were based on averages calculated
from monthly samples covering the 3-yr period 1998
2000 (INVEMAR, 2000, 2003).
To identify anomalies and relate trends of sediment
load to trends of coastal ecosystem composition (e.g.
structure of coral reef communities in the Rosario
Islands), we plotted the cumulative sum of the normalized sediment load ( Q s) and fitted a curve. The plots,
which summarize the variation of sediment flux in the
Magdalena River and the Canal del Dique, were developed in 5 steps: (1) normalization of the original
daily series by subtracting the inter-annual mean and
dividing by the inter-annual standard deviation; (2)
calculation of the monthly averages of sediment load;
(3) plot the F1r and F 2r confidence band around the
mean; (4) plot the cumulative normalized sediment
load; and (5) smoothing time series data based on a
4th-order polynomial fit. This method is useful in
discovering certain traits in a time series, such as
long-term trend and inter-annual components (Shumway and Stoffer, 2000).
To understand how much variability in discharge is
due to episodic events (e.g., the rivers deliver a large
proportion of their fluvial discharge in short periods of
time), we plotted annual deviations from the inter-an-

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

nual mean sediment load in the Magdalena River and

the Canal del Dique.
Also, we have plotted a double mass plot of cumulative suspended sediment load versus cumulative annual water discharge in the Magdalena River, in order
to compare the trend of sediment flux relative to that of
water discharge. If both sediment flux and flow evidence similar trends, the slope of the double mass plot
will not change, but if the sediment load increases or
decreases at a greater rate than the annual water discharge, the double mass plot will evidence a departure
from its original slope (Walling and Fang, 2003). The
plots show if trends of sediment load are due to changes
in flow or some human induced factors.
Study sites of reef development and community structure around the Rosario Islands were selected based on
previous descriptions and data availability. These areas
were at Pavitos, Baru, Grande, Rosario, and Tesoro
Islands (Fig. 2). Community composition and coral and
algal cover datasets were gathered from several studies
made during the last two decades (Ramrez et al., 1985;
Sarmiento et al., 1989; Universidad Jorge Tadeo LozanoInderena, 1989; Garzon-Ferreira and Kielman, 1993;

37

Navas et al., 1992; INVEMAR, 2002, 2003) and a

current survey carried out by the Institute of Marine
and Coastal Research of Colombia, INVEMAR (P.
Zapata and C. Garca, unpublished data). Comparisons
between data sets collected as part of the ongoing INVEMAR survey and those collected prior to the 1990s
enable an assessment of changes that have taken place
at four of the reef sites. We use algal cover as a proxy
measure of reef health.
4. Results
4.1. Water discharge, sediment flux and dissolved load
The mean annual water discharge of the Magdalena
River is 7200 m3 s 1 (Fig. 3A) with a mean low discharge
of 4068 m3 s 1 in March and a mean high discharge of
10,287 m3 s 1 in November. The annual volume of
water discharged into the Caribbean Sea is 228 km3.
The Magdalena River displays a strong seasonal
signal of discharge and sediment load variability due
to the El NinoLa Nina cycle. The water discharge at
the Calamar station (Fig. 1) and the smoothed monthly

Fig. 2. Satellite images showing the muddy plumes of the Magdalena River in the Caribbean Sea (A) and the Canal del Dique in the Barbacoas and
Cartagena bays (B). The plume of the Magdalena spans more than 90 km in length along the Caribbean coast. The plumes at Barbacoas and
Cartagena bays are made visible by their high turbidity. The locations of study sites of reef development and community structure around the
Rosario Islands at Pavitos (Pa), Baru (Ba), Grande (Ig), Rosario (Ro), and Tesoro (Te) are also shown. (For interpretation of the references to colour
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

38

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

Fig. 3. (A) River discharge data for the Magdalena River 19422002 at Calamar; (B) demeaned water discharge of the Magdalena River at Calamar
(thin line) and low-frequency pass filer with zero-phase (bold line) of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), 2003, database on the Internet at http://ftp.ncep.noaa.gov/pub/cpc/wd52dg/data/indices).

values of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), which

is defined as the difference in atmospheric sea level
pressure between Tahiti and Darwin (Glantz, 1997),
show very good coherence for the 60-yr period 1942
2002. Peak flows usually exceed 12,000 m3 s 1 during
La Nina years and low discharges of 20003000 m3 s 1
are observed during El Nino years (Fig. 3B). Mean
annual discharges during El Nino and La Nina years
are 5512 m3 s 1 and 8747m3 s 1, respectively.
During the 27 yrs of monitoring, the Magdalena
River has delivered approximately 4022  106 t of sediment to the Caribbean coast. The 27-yr mean sediment
load is 143.9  106 t yr 1 and is approached or
exceeded in 15 yrs. In 6 of the 27 yrs, the river
delivered less than 110  106 t yr 1, whereas in 14
yrs the load exceeded 146  106 t yr 1 (Fig. 4A).
This interannual mean of sediment load is equal to
86% of the total sediment load of all Colombian rivers
draining into the Caribbean. The main tributary, the
Cauca River, contributes 38% of the total Magdalena
sediment load. The estimate of the sediment load for the
Magdalena River implies a sediment yield of 560 t
km 2 yr 1 for the 257,438 km2 upstream basin.
The Canal del Dique annual water discharge and
sediment load at the Santa Helena station (Fig. 1) has
a mean of 397 m3 s 1 and 5.9  106 t yr 1, respectively.
Discharges as high as of 800 m3 s 1 and sediment loads
as high as 31  103 t day 1 often occur during November. During the 15 yrs of monitoring, the Canal del

Dique has discharged approximately 89  106 t of sediment to Barbacoas Bay (Fig. 1). The mean annual
sediment load of 5.9  106 t yr 1 was reached or
exceeded in 11 different years. In 3 of the 15 yrs, the
Canal delivered less than 6  106 t yr 1, whereas in 4
yrs the load exceeded 7.3  106 t yr 1 (Fig. 4B).
The Magdalena River reflects high interannual variability and delivers large portions of its fluvial discharge
and sediment loads in relatively short periods of time.
The analysis of annual deviations from the 27-yr mean
sediment load indicates that 59% of the total sediment
load variability of the Magdalena at Calamar could be
attributed to flashy peak events. The sediment load
experienced 16 deviations from the interannual-year
mean (Fig. 5A). The smaller Canal del Dique experienced 7 yrs, or 50% of the total sediment load variability, in which the annual sediment load exceeded 50% of
the mean (Fig. 5B).
The lower course of the Magdalena River has large
flood plains known as the Momposina basin (Fig. 1), a
tectonic depression (or bnatural damQ) of 800 km2 in
which much of the sediment load is stored for long time
periods. The Momposina basin concentrates around
80% of the total number of bCienagasQ, depressions
in the CretaceousTertiary bedrock with stagnant or
river-dependent bodies of water that accumulate sediments. Van der Hammen (1986) drilled 9 boreholes,
and dated 25 peat-rich horizons intercalated with clay,
recording Holocene fluctuations in the flooding inten-

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

39

Fig. 4. Annual suspended sediment load for two stations, Calamar (A) and Santa Helena (B), within the lower reach of the Magdalena River. The
mean annual loads are indicated (dashed line). The location of each hydrological station is shown in Fig. 1C.

sity of the Magdalena basin. An estimated sedimentation rate of 3.0 mm yr 1 was inferred for the last 1500
14
C yr BP. Our sediment transport estimates between
1972 and 1998 indicate that 14% of the Magdalena
sediment load, approximately 21  106 t yr 1, is
trapped in the Momposina basin with a sedimentation
rate of 2.0 mm yr 1. The sedimentation rate of 3.0 mm

yr 1 obtained by Van der Hammen (1986) differs from

our sedimentation rate by only 33% and suggests that
the Magdalena sediment load has been nearly constant
during the last 1500 yrs BP.
The fate of sediment derived from episodic hyperpycnal events in the Momposina basin at present is
difficult to ascertain and has not yet been addressed.

Fig. 5. Annual deviations from the interannual mean sediment load of the Magdalena River at Calamar (A) and the Canal del Dique at Santa Helena
(B). The location of each hydrological station is shown in Fig. 1C.

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J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

How long does it stay in the Momposina basin, how

does it mobilize and where does it go? The effect of such
episodic sediment discharges to the shoreline, benthos,
water column and the coastal zone must be very great.
The concentrations of major dissolved constituents
and mass transport rates for major Caribbean rivers of
Colombia, including the larger Magdalena, the Canal
del Dique, Sinu, and Atrato (Fig. 1), are shown in Table
2. Estimates are based on averages calculated from
monthly samples from 1990 to 1993 (IDEAM, 1995).
Ca2+, Mg2+ are the dominant ions (Table 2), indicating
that the water corresponds to the rock-dominated type.
The hydrological regime of rivers is a major regulator of their chemical composition. For each chemical
element or TDS value, concentrations and fluxes are
discharge-dependent (Meybeck, 1996, 2001a,b). The
estimates of dissolved materials exported to the Caribbean basins are controlled mainly by water discharge.
Thus, the Magdalena transports 30  106 t yr 1 of
dissolved materials into the Caribbean (Table 2). The
specific transport rate is highest in the Sinu basin, 167
t km 2 yr 1, followed by that of the Magdalena with
117 t km 2 yr 1.
4.2. Impacts on coastal ecosystems
The Rosario Islands (Fig. 1) are located about 25 km
SW of the city of Cartagena and occupy a tropical
Table 2
Basic hydrochemical data and dissolved solutes of major Caribbean
rivers of Colombia for the 19901993 period
River
Parameter

pH
Na+ (mg l 1)
K+ (mg l 1)
Mg2+ (mg l 1)
Ca2+ (mg l 1)
Cl (mg l 1)
SO24 (mg l 1)
Total ALKAL ()
SiO2 (mg l 1)
TDS (mg l 1)
Transport TSS (106 t yr 1)
Transport TDS (106 t yr 1)
Transport TSS/TDS
Net CO2 (mg l 1)

Caribbean

Colombia

Magdalena

Dique

Sinu

Atrato

7.1
4.6
1.7
11.7
36.2
9.0
6.0
60.8
...
131
144
30.0
4.8
1.6

7.1
3.9
2.0
11.6
30.1
7.2
8.5
59.7
...
123
4.8
1.6
3.0
7.9

7.0
4.6
1.6
22.0
34.0
9.4
8.4
62.5
...
142.3
6.1
1.7
3.6
18.1

5.9
1.1
1.6
1.5
4.4
2.8
0.2
18.9
...
30.5
11.3
1.1
10.3
4.6

Solute values are expressed as discharge-weighted mean (modified

from Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2004).
TSS = total suspended solids; TDS = total dissolved solids; (. . .) = no
available data.
Source: IDEAM (1995).

climatic zone influenced by NE trade winds. This coralline complex is one of the most important reef areas of
the Colombian coast because it is characterized by coral
growth up to 50 m in depth and high biodiversity with
approximately 53 species of stony corals (Daz et al.,
2000). Also, these coralline islands have supported a
growing tourism industry for more than 30 yrs. Although
the coral reefs and associated marine environments of the
archipelago have been under governmental protection
since 1985, enforcement has been very limited and the
coastal environment has been impacted by human activities. The muddy plumes of the Magdalena River and the
Canal del Dique have largely affected water quality and
both the entrained mud and reduced salinity may have
caused acute damage to the coral reefs (Fig. 2).
The comparison of live coral: algae ratios indicates
that significant changes are taking place at Pavitos,
Baru, Grande, and Rosario (Fig. 2), where there have
been marked reductions in live coral cover (i.e., Grande
Island 1983 = 95%, 2004 = 41%) and an associated increase in the percentage of algae cover (1983 = 5%,
2004 = 59%) (Fig. 6). Indeed, the most abundant constituent of the shallow reef in the north side of Grande
Island at present is dead, in situ coral, most of which is
covered by filamentous algae (Figs. 6 and 7) and much
of which shows evidence of intense bioerosion (mainly
by the sponge Cliona sp.) (Cendales et al., 2002).
Clearly, in the analyzed period (19832004), major
changes in reef structure and cover have occurred at
many sites around the Rosario Islands.
Average community composition analysis in the
Rosario Islands also suggests that natural disturbances
have largely impacted coral reefs (Fig. 7). The 1982
1983 ENSO event largely affected the reefs and many
bleaching events on stony corals were reported (i.e.,
Alvarado et al., 1986; Solano et al., 1993). Other
bleaching events also occurred during the 19861987
and 19891990 yr-periods. At the same time, as occurred in most coralline areas of the wider Caribbean, it
seems that white band disease strongly affected the
populations of two of the main reef-builders (Acropora
palmata and Acropora cervicornis) in the Rosario
Islands and many other reef areas of Colombia (Garzon-Ferreira, 1997; Garzon-Ferreira et al., 2001; Garzon-Ferreira and Daz, 2002). At present, the formerly
extensive Acropora spp. formations at the islands are
nearly 100% dead and reduced to algae-covered rubble
(Cendales et al., 2002). In addition, algal cover in the
area increased up to 75% soon after the 19821984
massive mortality of Diadema antillarum along the
Caribbean (Lessios et al., 1984; Liddell and Ohlhorst,
1986).

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

41

(Figs. 2 and 8B). Although Fig. 8 is only a rough

estimation of the relationship between fluvial fluxes
and coastal ecosystem health, it confirms that water
and sediment discharges from the Canal del Dique
and the Magdalena River appear to be one of the
stressors impacting the coral communities in the
Rosario Islands.
As shown above, suspended sediment loads from the
Canal del Dique to Barbacoas Bay have impacted the
coral reef formations of El Rosario Islands (Fig. 8). Not
less important have been the impacts of heavy sediment
loads and freshwater discharges from the Canal del
Dique to Cartagena Bay, which have greatly contributed not only to the total disappearance of coral formations but also to a considerable reduction of seagrass
bed abundance in the bay and neighboring areas.

Fig. 6. Comparison of live coral: algae ratios at different locations

around the Rosario Islands, Caribbean coast of Colombia, including
Pavitos (A), Baru (B), Grande (C), Rosario (D), and Tesoro (E). The
specific location of each study site is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 8 shows the anomalies of sediment load above

or below the inter-annual average. The result is a synthetic index with a zero mean and cumulative values of
the normalized monthly averages (z-scores) of sediment
discharge. It also shows the overall covertures of live
and dead coral between 1983 and 2004 for the whole
archipelago. There has been a relatively high discharge
period between 1985 and 1995 in the Magdalena River
(Fig. 8A). The Canal del Dique also evidences an
increasing trend in sediment load between 1985 and
1992 (Fig. 8B). In addition, there was a marked reduction in live coral cover between 1983 and 1990 (Fig.
8C), a period that coincides with the increased sediment
flux from the Canal del Dique into Barbacoas Bay

Fig. 7. Annual surveys of community structure around the Rosario

Islands at Grande (A) and Tesoro (B). The specific location of each
study site is shown in Fig. 2.

42

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

Fig. 8. Anomalies of sediment load ( Q s) for two stations, Calamar (A) and Santa Helena (B), showing the interannual trend by using a 4-degree
polynomial fit. The average cover (%) of live and dead coral for the Rosario Islands is shown in C. This regional mean was obtained by averaging
the covertures of the five study sites around the Rosario Islands between 1983 and 2004 (Figs. 2 and 6).

A retrospective survey of seagrass distribution and

abundance in the Cartagena Bay has shown that this
critical habitat has almost disappeared from the area in
the course of the last six decades. The study, based on a
sequential comparative analysis of series of panchromatic aerial photographs and satellite imagery taken
between 1935 and 2001, allowed a decadal reconstruction of the spatial distribution of seagrasses in the area.
From nearly 850 ha of seagrass existing in the bay in
the 1930s, only 76 ha remained in 2001, which is less
than 8% of the original cover. The loss rate of seagrass
within the bay exhibited an inverse exponential pattern,
whereas in the neighboring, more exposed areas the
tendency was linear (Fig. 9). The loss rate within the
bay was particularly high in the 1940s and 1950s (about
42 ha yr 1), so that by 1957, more than 60% of the
seagrasses existing in 1935 were already eradicated, the
great majority from the southeastern sector of the bay,
where the Canal del Dique empties into it.

Fig. 10 shows the timing of the major human

induced events that have caused environmental degradation. Since the 1930s, the government of Colombia has dredged and reopened the Canal del Dique
(Figs. 1 and 2). Because of increased sedimentation
in Cartagena Bay between the 1940s and 1960s, new
channels were constructed from El Dique to Barbacoas Bay. This clearly suggests that the near-disappearance of seagrass beds in the bay and surrounding
areas was probably encouraged by the reopening of
the Canal del Dique early in the 1930s. In addition,
there was a drastic decrease in seagrasses in the
1950s (Fig. 9), an event clearly associated with the
introduction of important amounts of turbid freshwater and sediments into the Cartagena and Barbacoas
bays (Fig. 10). The reduction of seagrass has been
accompanied evidently by changes in the structure of
the animal community, which has become apparent
through the disappearance of benthic suspension feed-

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

43

Fig. 9. Plot showing percentage of seagrass cover in the Cartagena Bay and surrounding areas for the 19452001 yr-period (modified from Daz and
Gomez, 2003).

ing invertebrates which dominated the animal community some decades earlier.
4.3. Further comparisons
Our data indicates that the Magdalena River contributes approximately 10% of the total sediment load
discharged from the east coast of South America. The
Magdalena River has the highest sediment yield of the
large rivers along the Caribbean and Atlantic coasts of
South America. Its yield is almost three times greater
than the yield of the Amazon, 190 t km 2 yr 1, Orinoco, 150 t km 2 yr 1, Negro (Argentina), 140 t km 2
yr 1 (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992), and much greater
than the yield of the Parana, 30 t km 2 yr 1 (Milliman
and Syvitski, 1992; Goniadzki, 1999), Uruguay, 45 t

km 2 yr 1, and Sao Francisco, 10 t km 2 yr 1 (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992) (Table 4). The dissolved load
for the Magdalena, 30  106 t yr 1 (Table 3), is of the
same magnitude as the Orinoco (30.5  106 t yr 1;
Depetris and Paolini, 1991), ten times lower than that
of the Amazon (259  106 t yr 1; Meybeck, 1976), and
similar to that of the Parana River (38.3  106 t yr 1;
Depetris, 1976; Depetris and Paolini, 1991) (Table 4).
In Colombia, pristine fluvial systems like those
draining the Pacific basins have much less PO43 and
NO3 loads when compared to the Caribbean rivers.
The Magdalena and Atrato rivers are by far the Colombian systems which contribute the highest P and N
fluxes to the sea, with total phosphate and nitrate fluxes
up to 186  103 t yr 1 and 47  103 t yr 1, respectively
(Table 3). There are many causes responsible for these

Fig. 10. Timing of the major human induced events that have caused environmental degradation in the coral reefs of the Rosario Islands and
seagrass beds of the Cartagena Bay and neighboring areas.

44

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

Table 3
Nutrient fluxes of phosphate (PO34 ) and nitrate (NO3 ) in non-pristine
fluvial systems of the Caribbean basins of Colombia
River

Caribbean
Magdalena
Dique
Sinu
Leon (Uraba Gulf)
Atrato (Uraba Gulf)
Turbo (Uraba Gulf)

Water
discharge
(km3 yr 1)

Total nitrate
(NO3 )
( 103 t yr 1)

Total phosphate
(PO4 3)
(103 t yr 1)

228
9.4
11.8
2.1
81
12

186
12
1.5
2.5
58
0.1

47
3.0
0.07
0.7
2.4
0.003

5. Discussion
In the Magdalena basin tributaries, many natural
factors may be responsible for the high sediment
loads. Most of the tributary basins are small (220 km2
to 1400 km2), with narrow alluvial plain surrounded by
steep slopes, frequently steeper than 358, and with
limited deposition/storage within the drainage basin.
These catchments are also characterized by high rates
of precipitation (2000 mm yr 1) with strong patchy
storms."
Besides the above natural factors controlling sediment transport, the large-scale changes in land use
practices and resource exploitation in the Andes section
are particularly significant for the Magdalena basin and
have altered the sediment flux. Ongoing trends in the
drainage basin include (1) escalating population densities along the basins and at the river mouths. Eighty
percent of the population of Colombia lives in the
Magdalena watershed, corresponding to a density of
120 inhabitants/km2 (Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2004),
which is very high when compared to 0.24 inhabitants/km2 in the Amazon basin as a whole (Serruya
and Pollingher, 1984; Depetris and Paolini, 1991); (2)
accelerating upland erosion rates due to increasing
deforestation and mining and poor agricultural practices. A recent examination of spatial and temporal
variability of sediment discharges in the Magdalena
drainage basin indicates that a large portion of the
drainage basin (68%) shows an increasing trend in
sediment load. The extent of erosion within the catchment has increased over the last 1020 yrs (Restrepo et
al., in press). Also, the percentage of forest cover in the
basin was estimated to have declined from 46% in 1970
to 27% in 1990, with an annual deforestation rate of

Nutrient values are based on averages calculated from monthly samples covering 3-yr period 19982000 (modified from Restrepo and
Kjerfve, 2004).

high nutrient loads, including massive sewage collection in cities and towns for NH4+ and PO43 , mainly in
the Magdalena basin, and also the fertilization of banana plantations in the lower course of the Atrato River.
The Magdalena River fits well into the global river
chemistry classification developed by Gibbs (1970),
with Ca2+ and HCO3 dominating the ionic composition. Also, values of dissolved solutes are in the range
of the most common natural concentration (MCNC)
found in most rivers. This classification was proposed
by Meybeck and Helmer (1989) to replace the baverage
world riverQ, which is greatly influenced by a few
rivers of extreme concentrations. Thus, MCNC
is simply the median value of the distribution of concentrations found in pristine major rivers, weighted
by the river discharge. The ionic natural composition
of the Caribbean rivers of Colombia, with respect to
Ca2+ N Mg2+ N Na+ N K+ and HCO3 N SO4 is similar to
the MCNC of other world rivers (cf. Meybeck, 1996).

Table 4
Drainage basin, water discharge, sediment and dissolved loads, calculated yields, and receiving basin for some rivers of South America (from
Depetris, 1976; Meybeck, 1976; Milliman and Meade, 1983; Depetris and Paolini, 1991; Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Goniadzki, 1999; Restrepo
and Kjerfve, 2000a,b, 2004)
River

Basin area
(106 km2)

Water discharge
(km3 yr 1)

Sediment load
(106 t yr 1)

Sediment yield
(t km 2 yr 1)

Dissolved load TDS

(106 t yr 1)

Receiving
basin

R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.

6.15
0.99
2.60
0.25
.035
0.24
0.10
0.64
0.014
0.014
0.020

6300
1100
470
228
81
253
30
97
82
10
5

1200
150
79
144
11
11
13
6
16
14
20

190
150
30
560
315
45
140
10
1150
972
1000

290
30
38
30
1.0
6
...
...
...
0.8
...

N. Atlantic
N. Atlantic
S. Atlantic
Caribbean
Caribbean
S. Atlantic
S. Atlantic
S. Atlantic
N. Pacific
N. Pacific
S. Pacific

Amazon (Brazil)
Orinoco (Venezuela)
Parana (Argentina)
Magdalena (Colombia)
Atrato (Colombia)
Uruguay (Uruguay)
Negro (Argentina)
S. Fran (Brazil)
San Juan (Colombia)
Pata (Colombia)
Chira (Peru)

(. . .) = no available data.

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

1.9%, or 234  103 ha yr 1. A recent estimate indicates

that between 1990 and 1996, total forest cover declined
by 15%, or 3.8  103 ha, an annual average loss of
2.4%. This deforestation rate in the Magdalena River
basin is considered to be among the highest in the world
(Restrepo and Syvitski, in press); and (3) as a result of
poor agricultural practices and deforestation, river-induced impacts have produced distortion of natural
hydrographs and altered material transport.
To confirm if trends of sediment load are due to
changes in flow or some human-induced factors, the
double mass plot of cumulative suspended sediment
load versus cumulative annual water discharge for the
Magdalena River shows the trend of sediment flux
relative to that of water discharge (Fig. 11). The analysis suggests that the increase in sediment flux for the
Magdalena commenced in the mid-1980s and its progressive steepening further indicates that the impact of
land use change and intensification is increasing.
Recent studies (e.g. Hughes et al., 2003; Pandolfi et
al., 2003; Gardner et al., 2003) claim that coral reefs are
highly degraded throughout the world, and that there
are no pristine reefs left anywhere. Some countries have
seen 50% of their coral reefs destroyed by human
activities in the past 15 yrs. The coral reefs of the
Caribbean Sea and portions of Southeast Asia have
suffered the greatest rates of degradation and are
expected to continue to be threatened (Gardner et al.,
2003). In addition, field studies have provided large
information showing that sedimentation, nutrient enrichment and turbidity can degrade coral reefs at local

45

scales (Fabricius, 2005). Many assessments on the

impacts of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of coral
reefs have been documented in many places, including
Japan (Shimoda et al., 1998), Philippines (Hodgson and
Walton Smith, 1993), Indonesia (Edinger et al., 1998),
Great Barrier Reef Fabricius and Death (2004), and
Costa Rica (Cortes and Risk, 1985).
Ecosystem change is a complex process subject to
both natural and human induced factors. The cumulative effects of anthropogenic disturbances superimposed on natural disturbances make recovery less
likely and, in some cases, result in stable states dominated by algae (Figs. 6 and 7). According to Fabricius
(2005), as nutrients increase, coral reef communities
change from dominance of nutrient-recycling symbiotic
organisms such as corals to increasing proportions of
macroalgae (on eastern continental margins naturally
exposed to river runoff). The prevalence of macroalgae
adds strong evidence to the conclusion that terrestrial
runoff can limit or increase macroalgal biomass, and
that they can have a negative effects on reef development (e.g., Birkeland, 1987). Thus, dead corals are
colonized by filamentous or fleshy algae after the occurrence of natural and/or human-induced disturbances.
The in situ character of the dead coral framework in the
Rosario Islands suggests that mortality cannot be linked
only to natural disturbances (Figs. 6 and 8). High
sediment and freshwater inputs into the Barbacoas
and Cartagena bays (Figs. 2 and 8) create additional
stress (both at ongoing background levels and, occasionally, at dramatic levels), which may periodically

Fig. 11. Double mass plot of cumulative suspended sediment load versus cumulative annual water discharge for the Magdalena River at Calamar.
This figure shows the trend of the sediment flux relative to that of water discharge.

46

J.D. Restrepo et al. / Global and Planetary Change 50 (2006) 3349

push local environmental parameters beyond the thresholds for coral survival.
An important factor that has been identified to determine the risk of degradation is the level of exposure
(concentration and duration) to terrestrial flux of a reef
system. This exposure is spatially controlled by the
downstream distance between a reef and the major
sources of discharge. Also, the mean annual load
from the source and dilution processes have strong
effects on coral degradation (West and Van Woesik,
2001; Fabricius, 2005). The muddy plumes of the
Magdalena River and the Canal del Dique, which
have largely affected water quality in the Rosario
Islands, have been constant and very prolonged (several
decades) and therefore their impact could be one of the
most significant (Fig. 8).
The best way to measure the influence of terrestrial
runoff and sediment load on coral reefs and seagrasses
is to analyze data of suspended sediments in waters
overlying these ecosystems. Other methods include the
analysis of accumulated sediments in sediment traps
deployed in specific places. Research focusing on the
environmental conditions in Barbacoas Bay and Baru
Island (Figs. 1 and 2) (Alvarado, 2001), indicates that
levels of suspended sediments during high river discharge periods range from ~ 70 mg l 1 to b370 mg l 1.
These levels are much higher than the normal value of
~ 510 mg l 1, which has been quoted for fringing reefs
(Larcombe et al., 1995; Gilmour, 1999). In addition,
many fringing reefs are frequently exposed to high
levels of re-suspended sediments resulting from tidal
and wave movements. Under these natural conditions,
re-suspension of sediments may frequently exceed 20
mg l 1 and reach levels N 200 mg l 1 during times high
energy swells (Kleypas, 1996). Suspended sediment
concentrations resulting from terrestrial fluvial discharge have been reported to fall between 10 and
N200 mg l 1 (Miller and Cruise, 1995; Kleypas,
1996; Gilmour, 1999). The quoted environmental survey in the Rosario Islands (Alvarado, 2001) suggests
that coral reef formations in the area are exposed to
increased levels of turbidity and sedimentation.
6. Conclusions
Although live coral cover remains relatively high in
some sites of Rosario such as Tesoro Island (Figs. 6 and
7), a no-take area of the natural park and located
relatively away from the impact of the Canal del
Dique (Fig. 2), the immediate future of the reefs, particularly at Grande Island, gives cause for concern.
Therefore, reef communities in the archipelago have

been under threat for many years and are showing

clear signs of stress and decline, including a considerable loss of living coral cover and overgrowth by algae
(Figs. 6 and 8). The disturbing consequences on trophic
links need close scrutiny but it can be postulated that
current trophic structure has been distorted. Clearly,
there has been a mix of multiple stressors (natural and
anthropogenic; local, regional and global; temporal and
chronic) affecting the coral reefs in the area. In order to
provide direct evidence of impacts of sedimentation,
national coastal surveys should measure and analyze
water-quality parameters in undisturbed and impacted
places of the Rosario Islands.
The Magdalena River deserves international attention. It is the largest fluvial system discharging directly
into the Caribbean Sea. Thus, the synthesis and preliminary analysis presented in this article are just first steps
toward understanding the natural and anthropogenic
factors that have produced the observed patterns of
water discharge, sediment load, and biochemical fluxes
of the Magdalena River into the Caribbean Sea, and to
relating these processes to the impact on the natural
aspects of coastal ecosystems.
Our preliminary results allow us to formulate a
hypothesis that, with increasing human activities on
the Magdalena catchment (Fig. 11), the area of damage
has already grown much larger than the natural state
area and will continue to increase in both size and
intensity unless human influences are curtailed. Further
studies should develop models to enable quantification
of the effect of various scenarios for control of land-use
activities anywhere. These investigations should also
offer decision-makers and the public a science-based
tool to decide what activities should be allowed, and
how they should be controlled, on drainage basins and
at sea, in order to produce a desired state of health for
coral reefs and other coastal ecosystems.
Acknowledgements
This study was done with support from the Instituto
Colombiano para el Desarrollo de la Ciencia y Tecnologa bFrancisco Jose de CaldasQCOLCIENCIAS,
Grant COLCIENCIAS 121609-12105 (Proyecto Ro
Magdalena), and Universidad EAFITDepartamento
de Geologa.
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