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Vector Differential
Calculus
Structure
6.1
Introduction
Objectives
6.2
6.3
Vector Calculus
6.3.1
6.3.2
Differentiability
6.3.3
Applications of Derivatives
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.5.1
Physical Interpretation
6.5.2
Physical Interpretation
6.6.2
6.6.3
6.7
Summary
6.8
Answers to SAQs
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In physical problems we often come across quantities such as temperature of a liquid,
distance between two points, density of a gas, velocity and acceleration of a particle or a
body, tangent to a curve and normal to a surface. In Unit 5, you have learnt that physical
quantities can be categorized either as a scalar or as a vector. You might have noticed
that some physical quantities, whether scalars or vectors, are variable. That is, their
values are not constant or static but change with the change in variable. For example, the
density of a gas, which is a scalar quantity, changes from place to place and is different at
different places. Similarly, tangent to a curve may have different directions at different
points of the curve. This variable character of scalars and vectors give rise to scalar
functions and vector functions. Further, you may notice that at different positions the
temperature or velocity of a body does not remain same. The distribution of temperature
or velocity is therefore defined at each point of a given domain in space which leads to
the idea of scalar fields and vector fields. We shall discuss about scalar functions and
scalar fields, vector functions and vector fields in Section 6.2.
In Section 6.3, we shall extend, in a very simple and natural way, the basic concepts of
differential calculus to vector-valued functions. We shall also discuss about physically
and geometrically important concepts related to scalar and vector fields namely,
directional derivatives, in Section 6.4 and give their applications.
We shall introduce the vector operator in Section 6.5 and give the physical
interpretation of the divergence of a vector field and some basic formulas involving it.
Finally, the concept of curl of a vector field and its invariance is discussed in
Section 6.6. Formulas involving curl, divergence, gradient and Laplacian operator, 2,
are also developed here.
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Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to
define a scalar function, a scalar field, a vector function and a vector field,
define and compute gradient of a scalar field and divergence and curl of
vector fields,
f ( P ) = f ( x , y , z ) = ( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y 0 ) 2 + ( z z 0 ) 2
Next, consider a room fitted with an air-conditioner (A.C.). Once A.C. is switched
on for its cooling effect; the temperature of room falls down. Now, if we put off
the A.C., the temperature starts rising up till it reaches the room temperature. The
temperature further rises up if we now switch on the A.C. for its heating effect.
Thus, the temperature of the room depends on the switching system of the air
conditioner.
In this case, the temperature of the room can be considered as a function of
switching system of the A.C.
In both the exmaples taken above, you may note that distance, as well as,
temperature give us only the magnitude and not the direction. Hence both are
scalar quantities. These quantities depend either on the position of P or on the
switching system of the A.C. In both the situations, we get a function. Functions of
this type are called Scalar Functions. It may also be noted here that distance or
temperature functions do not depend on the choice of coordinate system or brand
of A.C., but only on the physical situations such as actual distance or actual
duration of switching on the A.C.
Formally, we give the following definition of a scalar function.
Definition
Vector Differential
Calculus
In the case of temperature of a room fitted with A.C., the domain of temperature
function is the set of points on the regulator of A.C., which controls the
temperature of the room.
The function f associated with each point in domain D is a scalar (a real number)
and we say that a scalar field is obtained. More formally, we have the following
definition :
Definition
Consider a curve in a plane or in space. At each point of the curve we can draw a
tangent to the curve. These tangents may have different directions at different
points.
We can assign to each point P of the curve, a tangent vector t (P ) (Figure 6.1).
Similarly at each point of a surface, we can draw a normal (Figure 6.2). These
normals may have different directions at different points of the surface. Thus to
each point Q of the surface, a normal vector n (Q ) may be assigned.
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Moreover, a vector may depend on one or more than one independent scalar
variables. The velocity of a particle, for instance, depends on the position of the
particle as well as time. The time is true for position vector and acceleration of a
particle.
We now give the following definition :
Definition
V ( x, y, z) = w r = w ( x i + y j + z k ) ,
where, x, y, z are the coordinates of any point P of the body in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation and w is the rotation vector or constant angular
velocity of the body (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3 : Field of a Body Rotating with Constant Angular Velocity in the Positive
(Counter Clockwise) Direction
62
Next consider a particle A of mass M, which is placed at a fixed point P0 and let a
particle B of mass m be free to take up various positions P in space (Figure 6.4).
Vector Differential
Calculus
GM m
r2
SAQ 1
Which of the following are scalar functions, scalar fields, vector functions and
vector fields?
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
You have already learnt about the basic concepts of limit, continuity, differentiability
and partial differentiation of scalar functions in Block 1. We shall now, in the next
section, introduce these basic concepts of calculus for vector functions in a simple and
natural way.
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6.3.1
We say that the limit of the vector f (t) as t a is the vector l if f (t) moves into the
position occupied by l as t a. In the limit, the length and direction of f should match
the length and direction of l; more precisely, we define limits of vector valued functions
in terms of the familiar limits of real-valued functions in the following way.
Definition
Let f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k be a vector valued function of t defined in
some neighbourhood of a (possibly except at a). The limit of f (t ) as t approaches
the number a is the vector l iff the limit of | f (t) l | as t approaches a is zero. In
symbols
l = lim f (t) lim | f (t) l | = 0
t a
t a
. . . (6.1)
Observe that f (t) having l as a limit means that the components of f have the
corresponding components of l as limits. In other words, if
f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k and l = l1 i + l2 j + l3 k
then
. . . (6.2)
t a
t2 + 6
sin t
Find lim f (t), if f (t) = e t i +
j+
k
t 0
t
3 + ln (1 + t)
Solution
t 0
64
t 0
t2 + 6
sin t
=2
= 1; lim
t 0 3 + ln (1 + t)
t
Vector Differential
Calculus
lim f (t) = i + j + 2k
Therefore,
The definition of continuity of a vector function f (t) is the same as the definition
for continuity of a real-valued function as can be seen below.
In the definition of a limit of a vector function, we mentioned that f (t) is defined in
the neighbourhood of a (possibly except at a). If the vector function f (t) is also
defined at a and its value at a is equal to vector l, the limit of f (t) as t a, then we
say that the vector function is continuous at t = a. We now give below the precise
definition of continuity of a vector function.
Definition
t a
. . . (6.3)
In view of the equivalence in Eq. (6.2) above, we may say that f (t) is continuous at
t = a if each component of f is continuous at t = a. Thus we may test a vector
function for continuity by applying our knowledge of real-valued functions to each
component of f.
Also f (t) is continuous function if it is continuous at every point of its domain.
Just as in the case of real valued functions, the sum, the difference, scalar product
and vector product of two continuous vector functions are also continuous. We
shall not be proving these results here. You can check them yourself.
Let us consider the following example.
Example 6.2
f (t) =
1
i + (sin t ) j + ln (1 + t 2 ) k
t
Solution
The function f (t) is continuous at every value of t > 0 because each component is
1
, the first
continuous for t > 0. However, f is discontinuous for t 0 because
t
component of f, is not defined for t 0.
You may now try the following exercises.
SAQ 2
(a)
(b)
(i)
f (t) = e t i + t e t j
(ii)
(iii)
f (t) =
t 1 cos t
i +
j+k
sin t
t
(ii)
1
j + ln |1 + t | k
f (t) = et i + cos
t
1
+
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In mechanics, if the position vector of a particle is given by r (t) and if we wish to find its
velocity, we will have to differentiate r (t) with respect to time. Similarly, if the potential
of an electric charge is given, then to determine force due to an electric charge, we shall
have to take a recourse to differentiation. We now discuss the differentiation of a vector
function.
6.3.2
Differentiability
We define the derivative of a vector-valued function f (t) at a point t = a by the same type
of limit equation as we use for scalar functions. Thus
f (a) = lim
h0
f (a + h) f (a)
h
. . . (6.4)
provided the limit on the right exists. We then expect that f is differentiable at t = a iff
each of its components is differentiable at t = a. In this connection we prove the
following result :
Theorem 1
A vector function f (t) = f1 (t) i + f 2 (t) j + f 3 (t) k is differentiable at t = a iff
each of its component function is differentiable at t = a. If this condition is met,
then
f (a) = f1(a) i + f 2 (a) j + f 3 (a) k
. . . (6.5)
Proof
Consider the difference quotient
f (a + h) f (a) f1 (a + h) f1 (a) f 2 (a + h) f 2 (a)
=
i +
j
h
h
h
f 3 (a + h) f 3 (a)
k
h
. . . (6.6)
The left hand side of Eq. (6.6) has a limit as h 0 iff each component on the right
hand side has a limit as h 0. The first component on the right has a limit iff f1 is
differentiable at a.
Finally, if each component is differentiable at a, then taking the limit h 0 in
Eq. (6.6) of each of the quotient, we get Eq. (6.5), thus proving the result.
Note that the differential coefficient f (a) is itself a vector and is called the
derivative of f (t) at t = a. From the definition it is clear that every derivable vector
function is continuous. Consider the following example :
Example 6.3
Obtain the derivative of f (t) = (sin 2 t ) i + (ln t) j + tan 1 (3t) k
Solution
The function and its components are defined at every positive value of t and
possess derivatives for all t. Thus
1
3
f (t) = (2 sin t cos t ) i + j +
k
t
1 + 9t 2
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Vector Differential
Calculus
Let
then
f (t + t) f (t) = OQ OP = PQ = f, (say).
Hence
df
f
= lim
dt t 0 t
df
f
is the limiting direction of
or of f . But as Q tends to
dt
t
df
tends to P, PQ tends to the tangent line at P. Hence the direction of
is along the
dt
tangent to the space curve traced out by P. Let s denote the length of the arc of this
df
curve from a fixed point on it up to P. Then the magnitude of
is given by
dt
The direction of
df
| f |
| f | s s
= lim
= lim
=
.
,
t 0 t
t 0 s
t t
dt
since the ratio
| f | chord PQ
=
1 as t 0 .
arc PQ
s
(a)
(b)
The necessary and sufficient condition for f (t) to have constant magnitude
df
is f .
= 0.
dt
(c)
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The familiar rules of differentiation of real functions yield corresponding rules for
differentiating vector functions; for example,
(i)
(Cf) = Cf (C a constant).
(ii)
(u v) = u v
(iii)
(u f) =
(iv)
(u . v) = u . v + u . v
(v)
(u v) = u v + u v
(vi)
du
df
f +u
(u is a scalar function of t).
dt
dt
In (v) above the order of the vectors must be carefully observed, as cross
multiplication of vectors is not commutative.
The chain rule of differentiation is also valid for vector valued functions. That is, if
f (t) is a differentiable function of t, and t = g (s) is a differentiable function of s,
then the composite function f (g (s)) is a differentiable function of s and
df
= f (g (s )) g (s)
ds
. . . (6.7)
. . . (6.8)
The chain rule given for vector functions by Eq. (6.8) is an immediate
consequence of the chain rule for scalar functions that applies to the components
f1, f2 and f3.
Consider the following example.
Example 6.4
df
in terms of s if f (t) = i + sin (t + 1) j + et + 1 k and
ds
t = g (s) = s 2 1 .
Express
Solution
From the chain rule we have
df
df dt
=
= (cos (t + 1) j + e t + 1 k ) (2 s )
ds
dt ds
2
= 2 s cos ( s 2 ) j + 2 s e s k
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Vector Differential
Calculus
SAQ 3
(a)
(b)
Find the derivative of the vector function f (t) in each case and give the
domain of derivative :
(i)
f (t ) = e 2t i + t e t j
(ii)
f (t ) = i + 3 j k
(iii)
1
f (t ) = i sin 1 2t + j tan 1 3t + k
t
1
Find f (x) if f (u) = i cos u + j tan 1 u k
1 + u
and
u = x2 + 2x + 1 .
As we have already mentioned, not all vector functions are functions of one variable. The
velocity of a fluid particle in motion is a function of time and position. The position
vector of a fluid particle at any time and at any position is a vector function of four
variables x, y, z and t. Thus, in any physical problem involving a vector function of two
or more scalar variables, we may be required to find the partial derivatives of this vector
function. In other words, we may be required to find the derivative of the vector function
w.r.t. one scalar variable treating the other scalar variables as constant. Partial derivatives
can be calculated for vector functions by applying the rules we already know for
differentiating vector functions of a single scalar variable.
If a vector function f (u, v) be a differentiable function of two scalar variables u, v given
in the component form as
f (u, v) = f1 (u, v) i + f 2 (u, v) j + f 3 (u, v) k ,
then partial derivatives of f w.r.t. u and v are denoted by
f f
,
u v
respectively and are defined as
f
f
f
f
= 1 i + 2 j + 3 k
u
u u
u
and
Similarly,
f
f
f
f
= 1 i + 2 j + 3 k
v
v v
v
2 f
u 2
2 f1 2 f 2 2 f 3
i +
j +
k
u 2
u 2
u 2
2 f
2 f1 2 f 2 2 f 3
i +
j +
k
=
u v u v
u v
u v
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2 f
2 f
and
u v
v u
are called mixed partial derivatives and they are equal if
f
f
and
are continuous
u
v
functions.
Physically,
f
gives the rate of change of f w.r.t. to u at a given point (u, v) in space.
u
We have
r
= a sin t1 i + a cos t1 j
t1
r
= k
t 2
SAQ 4
For each of the vector function f, find the first partial derivatives w.r.t. x, y, z,
(i)
f = x y i + y z j
(ii)
f = e y i e z j
(iii)
f = x 2 y i + y 2 z j + z 2 x k
You know that curves occur in many considerations in calculus as well as in physics; for
example, as paths of moving particles. Let us consider some basic facts about curves in
space as an important application of vector calculus about which we are going to talk in
our next section.
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6.3.3
Applications of Derivatives
Vector Differential
Calculus
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Thus, the position vector of a point on the tangent is the sum of the position vector r of a
point P on the curve and a vector in the direction of the tangent. Hence the parametric
representation of the tangent is
q () = r +
dr
,
dt
dr
depend on P and the parameter is a real variable.
dt
da
is a vector normal to a.
dt
(ii)
da
is a unit normal vector to a, being the angle through which a turns.
d
Solution
(i)
a2 = 1
. . . (6.9)
Thus a and
(ii)
da
=0
dt
da
da
are at right angles, i.e.,
is a vector normal to a.
dt
dt
Figure 6.9
Then
PQ = OQ OP = a + a a
= a
72
da
a
= lim
d 0
and
Since
Vector Differential
Calculus
a
is normal to a in the limiting position when 0, therefore
da
is normal to a.
d
da
OP .
a
= OP = 1
= lim
= lim
0
0
d
Also
da
is a unit vector normal to a.
d
Hence
dr
dt
Again, the acceleration of the point, being the rate of the change of velocity,
is given by
a=
dV d 2 r
= 2
dt
dt
= 2 r and r
dr
= (a b )
dt
Solution
and
d 2r
dt
= 2 r
Also
dr
= (a sin t + b cos t) (a cos t b sin t)
dt
= ( sin 2 t + cos 2 t) a b
= ( a a = 0 and b b = 0)
= (a b)
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A particle P moves on a disk towards the edge, the position vector being
r (t) = t b,
where b is a unit vector, rotating together with the disk with constant angular
velocity in the counter clockwise direction. Find the acceleration a of P.
Solution
Since the particle is rotating with constant angular velocity , therefore b is of the
form
b (t ) = cos t i + sin t j
. . . (6.10)
. . . (6.11)
. . . (6.12)
. . . (6.13)
In the last term of Eq. (6.13), using Eq. (6.10), we have b = 2 b . Hence the
acceleration t b is directed towards the centre of the disk and is called the
Centripetal Acceleration due to the rotation.
The most interesting term in Eq. (6.13) is 2b , which results from the interaction of
the rotation of the disk and the motion of P on disk. It has the direction of b, i.e., it
is tangential to the edge of the disk and it points in the direction of rotation. This
form, 2b , is called Coriolis Acceleration.
You may now try the following exercises.
SAQ 5
(a)
74
(b)
Vector Differential
Calculus
(c)
Find the Coriolis acceleration when the particle moves on a disk towards the
edge with position vector
r (t ) = t 2 b
where b is a unit vector, rotating together with the disk with the constant
angular speed in the anti-clockwise sense.
The limit
f
f (Q) f ( P )
= lim
,
s 0
s
s
. . . (6.14)
(Q P )
if it exists, is called the directional derivative of the scalar function f at P in the direction
of b.
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r ( s ) = x ( s) i + y ( s ) j + z ( s ) k = a + s b ( s 0)
. . . (6.15)
f
is the derivative of f [x (s), y (s), z (s)] with respect to arc-lengths of ray C.
s
Hence assuming that f has continuous first partial derivatives and applying the chain rule,
we obtain
Now
f
f dx f dy f dz
=
+
+
s x ds y ds z ds
where
. . . (6.16)
dx dy
dz
,
and
are evaluated at s = 0.
ds ds
ds
f f f
i +
j+
k
s
y
z
f
is the resolved part of grad f in the
s
We see that the gradient of a scalar field f is obtained by operating on f by the vector
operator
Vector Differential
Calculus
i
+ j
+ k
x
y
z
This operator is denoted by the symbol (read as del or nabla) and it operates
distributively.
In terms of , we write
f
f
f
grad f = i
+ j
+ k
x
y
z
= i
+ j
+ k f
y
z
x
f
= b . f
s
Solution
grad f = i
+ k (2 x 2 + 3 y 2 + z 2 )
+ j
z
y
x
Here
= 4 x i + 6 y j + 2 z k
At P (1, 2, 3), (grad f )P = (4 x i + 6 y j + 2 z k) x = 2, y =1, z = 3
= 8i + 6 j + 6 k
a = i 2k
Now
| a | = 12 + 2 2 = 5
Therefore,
1
1
1
2
a=
(i 2k ) =
i
k
|a |
5
5
5
1
f
2
4
= (8i + 6 j + 6k ) .
i
k =
s
5
5
5
The minus sign indicates that f decreases in the direction under consideration.
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Example 6.10
Find the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) = x2 y2 z2 at the point (1, 1, 1) in the
direction of the tangent to the curve x = et, y = 2sin t + 1, z = t cos t, 1 t 1.
Solution
Here
+ j
+ k x 2 y 2 z 2
grad f = i
y
z
x
= 2 x y 2 z 2 i + 2 x 2 y z 2 j + 2 x 2 y 2 z k
dr
= e t i + 2 cos t j + (1 + sin t) k
dt
i + 2 j + k
=
t
6
at t = 0
1
(t) at (1,1, 1) =
| t |
= ( f ) at (1,1, 1) . ( t) at (1,1, 1)
i + 2 j + k
= (2i + 2 j 2k) .
2+42
6
4
6
SAQ 6
78
(a)
(b)
(c)
We shall now discuss some of the important properties of gradient of a scalar field
functions.
Vector Differential
Calculus
Consider a differentiable scalar function f (x, y, z) in space. For each constant C the
equation
f (x, y, z) = C = constant
represents a surface S is space. Thus, by letting C assume all values, we obtain a family
of surfaces, which are called level surfaces of the function f. Since, by the definition of a
function, our function f has a unique value at each point in space, it follows that through
each point in space there passes one, and only one, level surface of f.
If (x, y, z) denotes the potential, the surface
(x, y, z) = C
is called an equipotential surface. The potential of all points on this surface is equal to the
constant C.
Important geometrical characterization of the gradient of a scalar function f is in terms of
a vector normal to a level surface or an equipotential surface. This property can also be
used in obtaining the normal to a given surface at a given point. We shall now take up
this property.
Property 1 : Gradient as Normal Vector to Surfaces
Figure 6.12
Now
f
f
f
. (i x + j y + k z )
f . r = i
+ j
+ k
f
f
f
x +
y +
z
x
y
z
= f
. . . (6.17)
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f
f
= lim
n n 0 n
= lim f .
n0
r
,
n
= lim | f | n .
n0
r
n
= lim | f |
| r cos ( NPQ)!
n
= lim | f |
n
n
n0
n0
using (6.17)
= | f |
f
. Thus the gradient of a scalar field f is a
n
vector normal to the surface f = constant and having a magnitude equal to the rate
of change of f along this normal.
Hence the magnitude of f is equal to
Let us take up an example for the better understanding of what we have discussed above.
Example 6.11
Find a unit vector normal to surface x 2 y = 2 x z = 4 at the point (2, 2, 3).
Solution
Let
f = x2 y = 2x z = 4
f
grad f = i
( x 2 y + 2 x z ) + j
( x 2 y + 2 x z ) + k
( x 2 y + 2 x z)
x
y
z
= (2 x y + 2 z ) i + x 2 j + 2 x k
At (2, 2, 3), (grad f )at (2, 2, 3) = 2i + 4 j + 4k
| (grad f ) |at ( 2, 2, 3) = 4 + 16 + 16 = 6
Hence a unit vector normal to the surface
1
1
2
2
( 2i + 4 j + 4k) = i + j + k
6
3
3
3
Some of the vector fields occurring in physics and engineering are given by vector
functions which can be obtained as the gradients of suitable scalar functions. Such a
scalar function is then called a potential function or potential of the corresponding vector
field. The use of potentials simplifies the investigation of those vector fields
considerably. To understand this let us consider the gradient of a potential due to an
electric charge.
80
Vector Differential
Calculus
e
where OP = r (Figure 6.13).
r
Figure 6.13
d e
e
= 2
dr r
r
. . . (6.18)
e
e
=1
=
2
2
2
2
x r x (x + y + z )
e . 2x
2
2 3
(x + y + z )
ex
r3
ey
r
and
ez
r3
respectively.
ex ey ez
i 3 j 3 k
r3
r
r
=
=
e
r
( x i + y j + z k)
er
r3
e
by , then the force on the particle is
r
i
+ j
.k
, i.e. grad
x
y
z
The physical definition of potential shows that this will be true for all cases.
Similarly, the gradient of the potential due to a number of charges placed at
various points will give force due to these charges.
In the fluid flow, the gradient of the velocity potential will give the velocity at a
point.
Also the gradient of gravitational potential will give the force due to the gravity.
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Property 4 : The Length and Direction of Grad f are Independent of the Particular
Choice of Cartesian Coordinates
We shall give the proofs of Property 3 and Property 4 in Appendices I and II
respectively.
You may now try the following exercises.
SAQ 7
(a)
Find grad rm, where r is the distance of any point from the origin.
(b)
Find the directional derivative of the function xy2 + yz2 + zx2 along the
tangent to the curve x = t , y = t 2 , z = t 3 at (1, 1, 1) and at ( 1, 1, 1).
(c)
(d)
Find the gravitational potential when the force of attraction between two
r
particles, distance r apart, is proportional to 3 .
r
In Section 6.4, we have developed a tool for determining the rate of change of a scalar
field in space and time in the form of directional derivative and gradient. A natural
question arises How fast a vector field varies in a given region? Another questions,
which may be asked is Can we extend the analysis of gradient to a vector field? The
answer to the second question is that it is not possible to extend the analysis of gradient
to a vector field. For a vector field, we can find two types of derivatives.
(i)
(ii)
rate of change of components in directions other than their own, called the
curl. Let us first study the concept of divergence of a vector field.
Definition
If f (x, y, z) be any given continuously differentiable vector function, then the
function
82
f
f
f
+ j .
+ k .
i .
x
y
z
Vector Differential
Calculus
f
f
f
+ j .
+ k .
x
y
z
. f
= i
+ j
+ k
y
z
x
=. f
The symbol . is pronounced as del dot.
Let us consider a cartesian coordinate system Oxyz. Let f have the scalar field
components f1, f2, f3 along the directions of x, y, z axes respectively, so that
f = i f1 + j f 2 + k f 3
div f = . f = i
+ j
+ k . (i f1 + j f 2 + k f 3 )
y
z
x
=
f1 f 2 f 3
+
+
x
y
z
While writing in the above form, we have the understanding that in the dot product
f1
etc. (It may be understood that i, j, k
i
. (i f1 ) means the partial derivative
are constant vectors and their partial derivatives w. r. to x, y, z are zero.) It is a convenient
notation that is being used.
From the definition and the notation used, i.e. . f, it is clear that the divergence of a
vector field function is itself a scalar field. Thus we can construct a scalar field from a
vector field by taking its divergence.
The meaning of divergence of a vector field is indicated in the name itself. div f is a
measure of how much the vector field f diverges (or spreads out) from a point.
We shall now give the physical interpretation of divergence. But before that we would
like to mention that the function div div f is a point function. By a point function we
mean that the value of div f is independent of the particular choice of coordinates, i.e., its
value is invariant w. r. t. coordinate transformation. Learner interested in knowing the
details about the invariance of the divergence may see Appendix-III.
6.5.1
Physical Interpretation
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Let
Figure 6.15
The velocity component parallel to y-axis at any point of the face ABCD.
1
= V y x, y + y , z
2
= V y ( x, y, z )
Vy
1
y
,
y
2
1
= V y ( x, y, z ) + y
x z t
2
y
Similarly, the mass of the fluid that enters through the face A B C D in time t.
Vy
1
= V y ( x, y, z ) y
x z t
2
y
Thus the net mass of the fluid that moves out through the faces ABCD and A B C D
perpendicular to y-axis.
Vy
Vy
1
1
= V y ( x, y, z ) y
x z t V y ( x, y, z ) y
x z t
2
y
2
y
84
Vy
y
x y z t
Similarly, considering the other two pairs of faces, we see that the total mass of fluid
flowing out of the parallelopiped in time t
V y Vz
V
= x +
+
z
y
x
Vector Differential
Calculus
x y z t
Vx V y Vz
+
+
= div V
x
y
z
Thus div V = div ( v) gives the net rate of fluid outflow per unit volume per unit time at
a point of the fluid.
The outflow will cause a decrease in the density of the fluid inside the parallelopiped, say
in time t. Thus loss of mass per unit time per unit volume at a point
=
.
t
= div V
t
div ( v ) +
=0
t
. . . (6.19)
This important relation is called the condition for conservation of mass or the continuity
equation of a compressible fluid flow.
Similarly, we can discuss the flow of electricity or the flow of heat or flow of particles
from a radioactive source or water flowing into a drain. Thus, in general, if F is any
vector field defined at all points in a given region, then the divergence of F at any point
represents the flux per unit volume out of the volume dV enclosing the point, as dV is
made smaller and smaller, i.e., dV 0.
You may note that the net rate of fluid outflow at a point P is positive i.e., div V > 0
when the fluid has the tendency to diverge away from P, but if the fluid flows towards
the point, then div V < 0. Thus a point of positive divergence means that there is a net
outflow from that point. Similarly a point of negative divergence implies a net inward
flow.
If we consider the steady fluid motion of an incompressible fluid, so that
= 0 and
t
Definition
A vector field F is called divergence free or solenoidal in a given region if for all
points in that region
85
.F=0
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M th
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Thus magnetic field or velocity of a steady flow of compressible fluid are examples
of solenoidal vector fields.
We now apply the concepts discussed in this section to some examples.
Example 6.12
Find the divergence of the vector A = x 2 y i + 2 y z k 2 x z j .
Solution
From definition,
div A =
(x 2 y) +
( 2 y z) +
(2 y z)
z
x
y
= 2x y + 0 + 2 y
= 2 y ( x + 1)
Example 6.13
Show that div (grad r n ) = n (n + 1) r n 2 .
Solution
Let r be the distance of a point P (x, y, z) from a fixed point A (x0, y0, z0)
r = ( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2
r = [( x x0 ) + ( y y0 ) + ( z z0
Now
grad (r n ) = i
[( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 ] 2
x
n
2 2
) ]
n
2
n
= i {( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 } . 2 ( x x0 )
2
n
[n {( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 } 2 ( x x0 )
x
n
2
n
= n 1 {( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 }
2
2
+ {( x x0 ) + ( y y0 ) + ( z z0
= n (n 2)
2 2
2
n
1
2 2
) }
( x x0 ) + n
1 1
. 2 ( x x0 ) 2
. 1
n
2 1
r 2
= n (n 2) r n 4 [( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y0 ) 2 + ( z z0 ) 2 ] + 3 n r n 2
= r n 2 [n (n 2) + 3n]
= r n 2 [n 2 2n + 3n]
86
= r n 2 [n 2 2n + 3n]
Vector Differential
Calculus
= n (n + 1) r n 2
Now
( x + 3 y) +
( y 3 z) +
( x 2 z)
x
y
z
= 1 + 1 2 = 0.
Hence A is solenoidal vector.
Example 6.15
A rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis with a constant angular speed . The
velocity vector field V of the rigid body at any point r is given by V = r. Show
that V is a divergence free vector.
Solution
V = velocity of P = r
= k ( x i + y j + z k)
= x j y i
Now, by definition,
div V =
( y) +
( x) +
(0)
z
x
y
=0+0+0=0
Hence velocity vector V is a divergence free vector.
How about trying a few exercises now.
SAQ 8
(a)
If r = x i + y j + z k show that
(i)
div r = 3
(ii)
r
div 3 = 0
r
(iii)
87
Engineering
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(iv)
dir (r ) =
2
x2 + y2 + z 2
(b)
(c)
2a 3
potential = r2 and = a 2 +
.
6.5.2
(ii)
(iii)
div (grad ) =
2
x
2
y
2
z
Learner interested in knowing the proofs of these formulas may see Appendix-IV.
As mentioned earlier, we now discuss the derivative of vector field involving the rate of
change of components of a vector field in directions other than their own, i.e. we discuss
the curl of a vector field.
is called the curl of f or curl of the vector field defined by f and is denoted by
curl f.
In terms of operator , we write
f
f
f
curl f = i
+ k
+ j
z
y
x
88
f
+ k
+ j
= i
z
y
x
=f
The symbol is pronounced as del cross. Curl f can also be obtained in the form of
a determinant as follows :
Vector Differential
Calculus
fx fz
+ j
f y fx
+ k
In the case of a left handed Cartesian coordinate system, the determinant for curl f is
preceded by a minus sign.
What does curl f represents physically? We shall answer this question in the next
subsection.
6.6.1
Physical Interpretation
Fy
F
Curl F = F = i z
z
y
Fx Fz
+ j
x
z
Fy Fx
+ k
Fy
x
Fx
y
(ii)
Fy
x
Fy
x
increases and
>
Fx
decreases or
y
Fy
Fx
Fx
, when both
and
are positive.
y
x
y
Fy
x
Fx
dy due to displacement (dx, dy, 0) in A. Hence at the point
y
B (x + dx, y + dy, 0),
by the factor
Fy
Fx
OB = Fx
dy i + Fy +
dx j
y
x
and the resultant displacement is AB, which has turned left. If we give a further
displacement, Fy would increase and Fx would decrease, giving a further resultant BC.
Thus in going from point A to C, the field vector has rotated anti-clockwise.
89
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We can relate this rotation of F to the z-component of Curl F. From the right-hand rule,
the direction of ( F) z will be along the z-axis. The magnitude of ( F) z tells us
how the magnitude of the field vector F changes as it rotates.
We can extend this argument to the x and y components of F and can say that the x
and y components of F represent the rotation about x and y-axes, respectively.
Thus curl of a vector field gives us an idea of its rotation about an axis. It is termed as
VORTEX field. The direction of F (i.e., curl F) is along the axis about which the
vector field F rotates (or curls) most rapidly and | F | is a measure of speed of this
rotation.
The sense of rotation (clockwise or anti-clockwise) is determined by the right-hand rule.
The curl of a vector functions plays an important role in many applications. Its
significance will be explained in more detail in Unit 7. At present we confine ourselves to
some simple examples.
6.6.2
A rotation of a rigid body B in space can be simply and uniquely described by a vector .
The direction of is that of the axis of rotation and is such that the rotation appears
clockwise if we look from the initial point of to its terminal point. The magnitude of
is equal to the angular speed (> 0) of the rotation, i.e. the linear (or tangential) speed of
a point of B divided by its distance from the axis of rotation (Figure 6.16).
Let P be any point of the body B and let d be the distance of P from the axis of rotation.
Let r be the position vector of P referred to some origin O on the axis of rotation. Then
d = | r | sin , where is the angle between and r.
From above and the definition of vector product, the velocity vector V of P is given by
V=r
Let the axis of rotation be along the z-axis and we choose right-handed Cartesian
coordinates such that = k .
Then
V = r = ( k) ( x i + y j + z k)
= y i + x j
Now
90
j k
i
Curl V =
x y z
y x 0
= i
( x) + j ( y ) + k ( x) +
( y )
y
z
= 0 + 0 + (2) k
Vector Differential
Calculus
(Here is a constant)
= 2 k = 2
Hence in the case of rotation of rigid body, the curl of the velocity field has the direction
of the axis of rotation and its magnitude equals twice the angular speed of the rotation.
We can also say that the curl of a velocity vector field at a point of a rotating body
represents twice the rate at which a material element occupying the point is rotating.
This result justifies the term rotation which is sometimes used for curl. We sometimes
write rot f instead of curl f.
It may be remarked that a similar velocity field is obtained by stirring coffee in a cup. We
know take up another property of curl.
For any twice continuously differentiable scalar field f,
grad f = f = i
and
Curl (grad f) =
x
f
x
y
f
y
f
f
f
+ j
+ k
z
x
y
z
f
z
2 f
2 f 2 f
2 f 2 f
2 f
= i
+ j
+k
y z z y
z x x z
x y y x
= 0 + 0 + 0 ( f is twice continuously differentiable)
=0
Hence if a vector function is the gradient of a scalar function, its curl is the zero vector.
Since curl characterizes the rotation in a field, we may say that gradient fields describing
a motion are irrotational.
If a vector field occurs which is the gradient of a scalar field and if such a field occurs not
as a velocity field, then it is usually called conservative.
We can now give the formal definition of irrotational vector field.
Definition
K
r3
r,
91
Engineering
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Q1
Q2
and is the dielectric constant. Is p an irrotational field?
where K =
(4 )
Solution
K
r
r=
K
2
(x + y + z 2 )3 / 2
(x i + y j + z k )
Then, by definition,
x
Kx
y
Ky
z
Kz
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2
curl p =
= i
y
Kz
Ky
2
(x + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2
+ j
z
Kx
Kz
2
2
2
2 3/ 2
2
2
3
/
2
(x + y + z ) x (x + y + z )
+ k
x
Ky
Kx
2
2
2
2 3/ 2
2
2
3
/
2
(x + y + z ) y (x + y + z )
3
3
kz . 2 y
ky . 2 z
2 22
= i 2 2 2
2 5/ 2
2 5/ 2
(x + y + z )
(x + y + z )
3
3
kx . 2 z
kz . 2 x
2
2
+ j 2
2
2 5/ 2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5 / 2
(x + y + z )
3
3
ky . 2 x
kx . 2 y
2
2
+k 2
2
2
2 5/ 2
2
2 5/ 2
(x + y + z )
(x + y + z )
Example 6.17
Show that the vector field defined by
F = 2 x y z 3 i + x 2 z 3 j + 3 x 2 y z 2 k
is irrotational. Find a scalar potential u such that F = grad u.
Solution
By def.,
92
j
i
k
curl F =
x
y
z
3
2 3
2
2 x y z x z 3x y z 2
Vector Differential
Calculus
= i (3 x 2 z 2 3 x 2 z 2 ) + j (6 x y z 2 6 x y z 2 ) + k (2 x z 3 2 x z 3 )
= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
Hence F is irrotational and hence F can be expressed as grad u.
u u u
+ j
+k
z
x
y
Let,
F = i
Also
F = 2 x y z 3 i + x 2 z 3 j + 3 x 2 y z 2 k
du =
u
u
u
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z
= 2 x y z 3 dx + x 2 z 3 dy + 3 x 2 y z 2 dz
= y z 3 d (x 2 ) + x 2 z 3 dy + x 2 y d ( z 3)
= d (x2 y z3 )
u = x 2 y z 3 + constant
You may now try the following questions and see whether you have understood the
concepts given in this section.
SAQ 9
(a)
(b)
(c)
If V = r show that V = 0.
You know that the operator is a vector operator. You can use this operator to prove
some formulae on gradient, divergence and curl. We shall state these formulae in the next
section.
6.6.3
You already know from Sections 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 that
93
Engineering
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(i)
The operator, when operated on a scalar field f gives rise to a vector field
f (gradient of f).
(ii)
(iii)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
div (curl A) = 0
(vi)
div (f grad ) = f 2 + f . g
SAQ 10
(a)
(b)
Show that
(i)
div [(r a) b] = 2 (a . b)
(ii)
grad [r, a, b] = a b
(iii)
curl (r a) = 2 a
(iv)
div (r a) = 0
(v)
grad (a . r) = a,
6.7 SUMMARY
We will now summarise the result of this unit.
94
Vector Differential
Calculus
lim = f (t ) = l
t a
t 0
f (t + t ) f (t )
t
df
or f (t ) .
dt
f
gives the rate of change of f (u, v) w.r.t. u at a
u
given point (u, v) in space.
The vector
f
f
f
grad f = i
+ j
+ k
=f
x
y
z
i
+ j
+ k .
y
z
x
The directional derivative of a scalar function f along the vector b can be
written as
f
= b . grad f
s
The divergence of a vector field represents the net outward flux per unit
time at any point of the vector field.
95
Engineering
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Vector function
Vector function
Scalar field
Scalar function
Vector function
(i)
t 0
lim f (t ) = i
(ii)
t 0
t 0
lim f (t ) = j k
(iii)
t 0
t 0
t
1 cos t
0 + sin t
= 1, lim
= lim
= 0, lim 1 = 1
t 0
t 0
t 0
t
1
sin t
(b)
(i)
t 0
lim f (t ) = i + k
t 0
The function
f (t ) = (cos t ) i + (sin t ) j + k
(ii)
SAQ 3
96
(a)
(i)
The derivative of f (t ) = e 2t i + t e t j is
f (t ) = 2e 2t i + (e t t e t ) j . The function f (t ) and its derivative
f (t ) are defined at every value of t.
(ii)
(iii)
Here f (t ) =
2
1 4t 2
i +
3
1 9t
Vector Differential
Calculus
j 1 k
t2
1
1
1
1
j +
.
= (sin u ) .
i +
k ( 2 x + 2)
2
2 u
(1 + u ) 2 2 u )
(1 + u )
= i sin ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) .
+k
2 ( x + 1)
2
2 x + 2x + 1
2 ( x + 1)
2 ( x + 1)
1 + ( x + 1)
2 ( x + 1)
1 + ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) 2
2 x 2 + 2 x + 1 (1 +
= i sin ( x + 1) + j
+ j
x 2 + 2 x + 1) 2
+ k
1
( x + 2) 2
SAQ 4
(i)
f
f
f
= y j
= x i + z j,
= y i,
z
y
x
(ii)
f
f
f
= e z j
= e y i,
= 0,
z
y
x
(iii)
f
f
f
= y 2 j + 2 xz k
= x 2 i + 2 yz j,
= 2 xy i + z 2 k,
z
y
x
SAQ 5
(a)
r (t ) = e t i + 2 cos 3t j + 2 sin 3t k
(b)
d
r (t ) = e t i 6 sin 3t j + 6 cos 3t k
dt
Velocity
V (t ) =
Hence
V (0) = i + 6 k
d
V (t ) = e t i 18 cos 3t j 18 sin 3t k
dt
Acceleration
a (t ) =
a (0) = i 18 j
Here
r = cos t i + sin t j
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Engineering
M th
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dr
= sin t i + cos t j
dt
V =
V is perpendicular to r
i
Also
r V =
cos t
sin t 0
sin t cos t 0
= k ( cos 2 t + sin 2 t) = k
which is independent of t.
Hence r V is a constant vector.
(c)
Here r (t ) = t 2 b
Velocity = V = r = 2t b + t 2 b
Here 2 t b is the velocity of any point P relative to the disk and t 2 b is the
additional velocity due to rotation.
Also
Acceleration = a = V = 2 b + 4t b + t 2 b
= 2 b + 4t b + t 2 b
b = sin t i + cos t j
and
b = 2 cos t i 2 sin t j = 2 b
SAQ 6
(a)
Here f = x 2 + y 2 + 4 xyz
grad f = 2 x i + 4 yz i + (2 y + 4 xz) j + 4 xy k
(grad f ) (1, 2, 2) = {2.1+ 4 . ( 2) . 2} i + {2 . ( 2) + 4 . 1.2} j + 4.1 ( 2) k
= 14 i + 4 j 8 k
Here
a = 2 i 2 j + k
|a | = 4 + 4 + 1 = 3
a =
2 2 1
i j+ k
3
3
3
f
s
2
1
2
= ( 14 i + 4 j 8 k) . i j + k
3
3
3
=
Vector Differential
Calculus
28 8 8 44
=
3
3 3
3
The minus sign indicates that and decreases in the direction under
consideration.
(b)
Here f ( x, y ) =
x2 y2
xy
grad f =
x y x y
i +
j
y y x
y x
x
1
y
1
= + 2 i + 2 j
x
y x
y
(grad f ) (1,1) = 2 i 2 j
(a i + a2 j )
(2 i 2 j) . 1
=0
a12 + a22
2a1 2a2 = 0
(c)
a1 = a2
a1 i + a1 j
a1 (i + j )
a12 + a22
( 2 a1 )
1
2
(i + j )
Here f = 4 x z 3 3x 2 y 2 z 2
grad f =
f f f
i +
j+
k
x
y
z
= (4 z 3 6 x y 2 z 2 ) i 6 x 2 y z 2 j + (12 xz 2 6 x 2 y 2 z) k
Now
(grad f ) ( 2, 1, 2) = (4.8 6 . 2 . 1.4) i {6 . 4 . ( 1) . 4} j + (12 . 2.4 6 . 4 . 1.2) k
= 16 i + 96 j 48 k
Directional derivative along z-axis
= ( 16 i + 96 j 48 k ) . k
= 48
SAQ 7
99
Engineering
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(a)
Here | r | =
= (x + y +
Hence grad r m =
m
2 2
z )
r m r m r m
i +
j+
k
x
y
z
m
1
m 2
( x + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 [2 x i + 2 y j + 2 z k ]
2
=m
m
2 1
r 2
[ x i + y j + z k ]
( r = x i + y j + z k )
= m rm 2 r
(b)
r (t ) = t i + t 2 j + t 3 k
r = i + 2t j + 3t 2 k
( i 2 j + 3 k )
Now
f = xy 2 + yz 2 + zx 2
(grad f) = ( y 2 + 2 xz ) i + ( z 2 + 2 xy ) j + ( x 2 + 2 yz ) k
(grad f) (1,1,1) = 3 ( i + j + k )
and
(grad f) ( 1,1, 1) = 3i j k
1+ 4 + 9
14
3
14
(1 + 2 + 3) =
18
14
100
(c)
1
14
(3 + 2 3) =
Let f = x 3 + y 3 + 3xyz 3
2
14
Vector Differential
Calculus
At (1, 2, 1)
(grad f ) (1, 2, 1) = (3.12 + 3.2 . ( 1) i + (3.2 2 + 3.1 . ( 1)) j + (3.1 . 2) k
= 3 i + 9 j + 6 k
Also
r
Here force of attraction = 3 where is a constant of
r
proportionality.
r
i +
j+
k = 3
x
y
z
r
x i
y z
j 3 k
r
r3
r
( x i + y j + z k
3
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2
i +
j
x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
y (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
x + y +z
k
z (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
SAQ 8
(a)
.F
Here r = x i + y j + z k and div F = . F = i
+ j
+ k
y
z
x
x y z
+
+
=1+1+1= 3
x y z
(i)
div r =
(ii)
x i + y j + z k
r
div 3 = i
+ j
+ k . 2
y
z ( x + y 2 + z 2 )3 / 2
r x
=
x
y
+
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 y (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2
3
= (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 . 1 + x . . 2 x . (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2
2
101
Engineering
M th
ti
3
+ (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 . 1 + y . . 2 y . (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2
2
3
+ (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 . 1 + z . . 2 z . (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2
2
= 3 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 3 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 5 / 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
=0
(iii)
div (r ) = . ( x i + y j + z k )
=
(x ) +
(y ) +
(z )
x
y
z
=+x
+ z+
++ y
y
z
x
+ y
+z
x
y
z
= 3 + x
= 3 + ( x i + y j + z k ) . i
+ j
+k
y
z
x
= 3 + r . grad
(iv)
Here | r | =
x2 + y2 + z 2
r =
x i + y j + z k
div r =
x2 + y2 + z 2
x
y
+
x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) y (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
2
2
2
(x + y + z )
1
= (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1 / 2 + x . ( 2 x) (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 + . . . +
2
= 3 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1 / 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3 / 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
= 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1 / 2 =
(b)
x2 + y2 + z 2
c c c
c
Here p = grad = i
+k
+ j
z r
y r
x r
r
=
c
1 c
1 c
1
i 3 2 x j 3 2 y k 3 2 z
2 r
2 r
2 r
( r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2 )
102
div p =
cx cy
=
+
x r 3 y r 3 z
cz
3
r
=
=
=
r3
3 cx . 2 x
c
3 cy . 2 y
c
3 cz . 2 z
3 +
3 +
5
5
2 r
2 r
2 r5
r
r
Vector Differential
Calculus
x2 + y2 + z 2
c
3
+
5
r3
r
3c
3c
3c
r3
=0
When = r2
( r 2 ) j
( r 2 ) k
( r 2 )
Electric field E = = i
x
y
z
= (i [2 x] + 2 y j + 2 z k )
= 2 ( x i + y j + z k )
= 2 r
Charge distribution
. E = ( 2 x) +
( 2 y ) +
( 2 z )
y
z
x
= ( 2 2 2 )
= 6
2a 3
= a2 +
when
Electric field
E = = i
+ j
+ k a 2 +
y
z
x
=
=
2
2
2
x + y +z
2a 3
3
3
2a 3 1
+ 2a . 1 . 2 y j + 2a . 1 . 2 z k
x
.
.
2
i
r3 2
r3 2
r3 2
2a 3
r3
2a 3
( x i + y j + z k ) = 3 r
r
Charge distribution
.E =
x
2a 3 x 2a 3 y 2a 3 z
r 3 y r 3 z r 3
2a 3 2a 3 2a 3 2a 3 x 3
2a 3 y 3
2a 3 z 3
2z
= 3 + 3 + 3 3 . . 2x 5 . . 2 y 5
2
2
2
r
r
r
r
r
r
6a 3 6a 3
= 3 5 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0
r
r
SAQ 9
(a)
Here F = ( x 3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz)
103
Engineering
M th
ti
=0
(b)
Here q = ( y + z ) i + ( z + x) j + ( x + y ) k
j
i
k
curl q =
x
y
z
y+z z+x x+ y
= i (1 1) + j (1 1) k (1 1)
=0
q = = i
j
k
x
y
z
Now
= y + z,
z + x,
x+ y
x
y
z
d =
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z
(c)
Here
V = r =
r
=
r
x
2
x + y +z
i +
y
2
x + y +z
j +
z
2
x + y +z
j k
i
Curl V =
x y z
x y z
r
r
r
1 z . 2 y 1 y
1 x . 2z 1 z
. 2 x
. 2 z + j
= i
+
+
3
3
3
3
2 r
2 r
2 r
2 r
1 y . 2x 1 x . 2 y
+ k
+
2 r 3
2 r3
=0+0+0=0
SAQ 10
(a)
104
Here f = (a r) r n
Vector Differential
Calculus
= a r rn
We know that div (A B) = B . curl A A . curl B
div f = div (a r r n )
= r r n . curl a a . curl (r r n )
a is a constant vector,
curl a = 0
r = x i + y j + z k
Now
r r = (x + y +
n
n
2 2
z )
( x i + y j + z k)
curl (r r n ) =
2
x (x + y
y
n
2 2
+z )
y (x + y
z
n
2 2
+z )
z (x + y
n
2 2
+z )
n
n
n
1
1
n
= i z ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 . 2 y y ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 . 2 z
2
2
=0+0+0=0
div f = r r n . 0 a . 0
=00=0
f = {(a r) r n } = i
{(a r) r n }
x
Now curl
Now
{(a r) r n } = n r n 1
(a r) + r n a
x
x
x
= n r n 2 x (a r) + r n a i
i
{(a r) r n } = x n r n 2 i (a r) + r n i (a i)
x
= n . r n 2 . x [(i . r) a ( i . a) r]
+ r n [(i . i) a (i . a) i]
= n . r n 2 . x 2 a n . r n 2 ( x i . a) r
+ r n a r n (i . a) i
i
[(a r) r n ] = n r n 2 a ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
x
n r n 2 r ( r . a ) + 3r n a r n a
= r n a ( n + 2) n r n 2 ( a . r ) r
Hence the result.
(b)
(i)
div [(r a ) b]
= div [(r . b) a (a . b) r ]
105
If r = x i + y j + z k, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
Engineering
M th
ti
[(r a ) b] =
[a1 ( x b1 + y b2 + z b3 )]
x
[a2 ( x b1 + y b2 + z b3 )]
y
x y z
+
+
[ a3 ( x b1 + y b2 + z b3 )] (a . b)
z
x y z
= (a . b) 3 (a . b)
(ii)
= 2 (a . b)
grad [r, a, b]
= [(r . (a b)]
= [ x (a b) i component + y (a b) j component + z (a b) k component ]
curl (r a) = i
( r a)
x
r
= i a
x
= i (i a)
= ((i . a ) i (i . i) a
(iv)
= a 3 a = 2a
div ( r a) = a . curl r r . curl a
Now
j k
i
curl r =
x y z
x y z
= i (0 0) + i (0 0) + k (0 0)
(v)
and
=0
curl a = 0
div ( r a) = 0
grad (a . r ) = (a1 x + a2 y + a3 z)
if
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
and
r = x i + y j + z k
grad (a . r ) = i
( a1 x + a2 y + a3 z)
x
= i a
1
=a
106
( a is a constant vector)
Vector Differential
Calculus
r ( s ) = F ( s ) = f1 ( s ) i + f 2 ( s ) j + f 3 ( s ) k
Let Q be a neighbouring point of P, such that AQ = s + s. Then from calculus, by the
definition of differential of a scalar function, we have
lim =
QP
f (Q ) f ( P )
PQ
= lim =
s 0
f (s + s) f (s)
s
df
ds
f dx f dy f dz
+
+
x ds y ds z ds
f
f dx dy dz
f
. i
+ j
+k
+ k
+ j
= i
z ds
y
ds
ds
x
= (grad f ) . t ,
where t denotes unit tangent to the curve.
Thus the derivative along a curve is the dot product of the unit tangent to the curve and
gradient of the function, defining the curve.
Now if the function f is constant along the curve, then its gradient is zero. This shows that
The derivative ( t . grad f ) along a curve is zero if and only if, the function f is constant
along the curve.
107
Engineering
M th
ti
f
f
f
+ k
+ j
z
y
x
. . . (1)
where i, j , k are unit vectors in the direction of x, y and z-axes of a Cartesian coordinate
system, say 0xyz and (x, y, z) are the coordinates of any point P referred to 0xyz (see Figure
6.12).
Since Eq. (1) involves partial derivatives, which depend on the choice of the coordinates,
hence the result is not obvious.
Now, by the definition of a scalar function, the value of f at a point P depends on the
location of P but is independent of the coordinates. Also the arc length s of ray C is
independent of the choice of coordinates.
Hence
f (Q) f ( P )
f
= lim =
s
s s 0
QP
contains only the quantities which are independent of the choice of coordinates.
Also
f
= b . grad f = | b | | grad f | cos
s
= | grad f | cos ,
f
where is the angle between grad f and b . From above,
is maximum when
s
f
= | grad f | . This shows that the length and the direction
cos = 1, i.e. = 0 and then
s
of grad f is independent of the choice of coordinates.
108
Vector Differential
Calculus
Let i, j , k be unit vectors along a cartesian orthogonal coordinate system Oxyz. Let
i, j , k be any other set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors along system O
.
x y z
QP
f
f (Q) f ( P ) f1
f
f
f
f
+ m 1 + n 1 + j l 2 + m 2 + n 2
= i l
PQ
z
y
z
y
x
x
f
f
f
+ k l 3 + m 3 + n 3
z
y
x
f
f
f
f
f
f
= l i 1 + j 2 + k 3 + m i 1 + j 2 + k 3
y
y
x
x
x
y
f
f
f
+ n i 1 + j 2 + k 3
z
z
z
=l
[ f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k ] + m
[ f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k ]
y
x
+n
=l
[ f1 i + f 2 j + f 3 k ]
z
f
f
f
+ n f
+m
= l
+n
+m
z
y
z x
y
x
= (a . ) f , where a = (l i + m j + n k)
which gives the directional derivative of f along the direction of a .
Thus the directional derivatives of f along the directions of vectors i, j , k are
(i . ) f, ( j . ) f, (k . ) f,
i.e.
f
f
f
(i . i )
,
+ (i . k )
+ (i . j )
z
y
x
f
f
f
(j . i )
,
+ (j . k )
+ (j . j )
z
y
x
f
f
f
(k . i )
+ (k . j )
+ (k . k )
x
y
z
109
Engineering
M th
ti
f
f
f
= i . (i . i)
+ (i . j )
+ (i . k )
x
y
z
(since
f
is directional derivative along x axis, i.e. along i direction)
x
f
f
f
= (i . i) i .
+ (j . j ) j .
+ (k . k ) k .
x
y
z
f
,
= i .
x
= expression of div f in term of i, j , k
Thus div f is independent of the choice of coordinates i.e. div f is essentially a point
function.
110
Vector Differential
Calculus
div (k f) = . (k f )
= i . k f
x
= i .
(k f) = i . k
( f)
x
x
( f)
= k i .
x
= k i . f
x
=k . f
= k div f
(II)
div ( f) = . ( f )
= i .
. ( f)
x
= i .
( f)
x
f
= i .
f +
x
x
f
f + i .
= i .
x
x
f
= i
. f + i .
x
x
= (grad ) . f + i . f
x
= f . grad + . f
= div f + f . grad
(III) Here is twice differentiable scalar function. By definition,
grad = i
+ j
+k
x
y
z
By definition,
div (grad ) =
=
+
x x y y z z
2
x 2
2
y 2
2
z 2
The expression on the right hand side is called the Laplacian of scalar function
and is denoted as 2 .
Thus
div (grad ) = 2 .
111
Engineering
M th
ti
grad ( ) = i
( )
x
= i
+
x
x
= i
+ i
x
x
= i
+ i
x
x
= grad + grad
(II)
grad ( A . B ) = i
( A . B)
x
B A
= i A .
. B
+
x
x
= i A .
. B
+ i
x
Now
B
B
B
A i
i ( A . i)
= A.
x
x
B
B
B
A.
i = A i
+ ( A . i)
x
x
x
B
B
B
i A .
+ ( A . i)
= A i
x
x
. . . (1)
= A i B + A . i B
x
x
= A curl B + (A . ) B
. . . (2)
i B .
= B curl A + (B . ) A
x
curl (curl A) = ( A)
= ( . A) ( . ) A ,
(applying the triple vector product formula and taking care that the variable
follows the del operator).
= grad (div A) 2 A
112
. . . (3)
(IV)
Vector Differential
Calculus
div ( A B ) = i
( A B)
x
B
A
= i .
B + A
x
x
A
B
= i .
B + i . A
x
x
A
B
. B i
.A
= i
x
x
(applying property of scalar triple product)
A
B
= i
. B i
. A
x
x
= (curl A) . B (curl B ) . A
(V)
A A A
i
+ j
+k
div (curl A) = i .
x
y
z
x
2 A
2 A
2 A
+ k
= i . i 2 + j
x z
x y
x
2 A
2 A
2 A
= 2 . (i i) +
. ( i j) +
( i k)
x z
x y
x
2 A
2 A
j .
= k .
x y
x z
=0
2 A
2 A
2 A
2 A
because = k .
and similar expression
+ j .
+ i .
= k .
x z
y z
x y
x y
2 A
.
for j .
x z
(VI)
+ j
+k
div ( f grad ) = div f i
y
z
x
= i
.f
x
f
= i .
x
+ j
+k
y
z
x
i
+ f i
+k
+ j
z
y
x
x
. i
+k
+ j
z
y
x
f
2
+ f
. i
= i
+ j
+k
. ( i . j = 0 = i . k and i . i = 1).
2
x x
y
z
x
f
2
+ f 2
= i
+ j
+k
. i
x x
y
z
x
= ( . f ) . ( ) + f 2
113
Engineering
M th
ti
(VII) curl ( A) = ( A)
= i ( A)
x
A
= i
A+
x
x
= i
x
A + i
x
= (grad ) A + curl A
(VIII) curl ( A B ) = ( A B )
Assume = A + B , where we consider only A as variable while operating A
and only B is to be considered as variable when operating by B . Since this takes
care of the product as far as differentiation is concerned and the A and B can
be treated as vectors and rules of multiplication of vectors can be applied.
curl ( A B ) = ( A B )
= A ( A B) + B ( A B)
= ( A . B ) A ( A . A) B + ( B . B ) A ( B . A) B
= ( B . A ) A B ( A . A) + A ( B . B ) ( A . B ) B
= ( B . ) A B ( . A) + A ( . B ) ( A . ) B
= A div B B div A + ( B . ) A ( A . ) B
Note that you should exercise special care to avoid inadvertent mistakes. For this
reason, in the first two steps, the variable A, B are both written to the right of del
operator. In the next step, we have brought all those vectors which can be treated
as constant to the left of the operator. Since
. A = A . A + B . A = A . A + 0
and similarly . B = B . B , therefore in the final step A and B have been
replaced by as this makes no difference.
114