Wushi vallsi alapok

Contents
1

Chinese fortune telling

1.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

A famous Chinese fortune-teller's maxim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

An example of a regional ethnic proverb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Kisaeng

2.1

Social position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.1

Becoming a kisaeng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Daily life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

Politics and diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

Regional dierences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.1

Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.2

Goryeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.3

Joseon dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.4

Modern Kisaeng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7

Literary and artistic depictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.8

Famous kisaeng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.9

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

2.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

Uinyeo

13

3.1

Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.2

Medical training and practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.3

Mobilization as entertainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

ii

CONTENTS
3.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Gungnyeo

15

4.1

Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

4.2

Election and education

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

4.3

The types of gungnyeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.3.1

In the narrow meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.3.2

In the broad meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

4.4

Gungnyeo's roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4.5

Gungnyeo's rank

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

4.6

The number of gungnyeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.7

Lifetime employment and payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

4.9

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

Sanggung

20

5.1

Types of sanggung

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.2

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.3

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.4

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.4.1

Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.4.2

Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.4.3

Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

Chapter 1

Chinese fortune telling

The dynastic chronicles preserve a number of reports
when divination was manipulated to the end of achieving a political or personal goal.

1.2 Methods
Face Reading () - This is the interpretation of
facial features of the nose, eyes, mouth and other
criteria within one's face and the conversion of those
criteria into predictions for the future. This usually
covers one phase of the client's life, and reveals the
type of luck associated with a certain age range. A
positions map also refers to dierent points on the
face. This represents the persons luck at dierent
ages. The upper region of the face represents youth,
the middle region of the face represents middle age,
and the lower region of the face represents old age.

Street fortune teller consults with client in Taichung, Taiwan

Chinese fortune telling, better known as Suan ming

(Chinese: ; pinyin: Sunmng; literally:fate calculating) has utilized many varying divination techniques
throughout the dynastic periods. There are many methods still in practice in China, Taiwan and Hong Kong today. Over time, some of these concepts have moved into
Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese culture under other
names. For exampleSajuin Korea is the same as the
Chinese four pillar method.

Palm reading () - This analyzes the positioning

of palm lines for love, personality, and other traits.
It somewhat resembles Western palmistry in technique.
Kau Cim ( ) - This requires the shaking of a
bamboo cylinder, which results in at least one modied incense stick leaving the cylinder. The Chinese
characters inscribed on the stick are analyzed by an
interpreter. The prediction is short range, as it covers one Chinese calendar year. In the West, this
method has been popularized under the trade-name
Chi-Chi sticks.

1.1 History
The oldest accounts about practice of divination describe
it as a measure forsolving doubts(e.g.Examination
of doubts part of the Great Plan zh: ). Two
well known methods of divination included b (on the
tortoise shells) and sh (on the stalks of milfoil sh
). Those methods were sanctioned by the royal practice
since Shang and Zhou dynasties. Divination of the xiang
type (by appearance - of the human body parts, animals etc.), however, was sometimes criticized (the Xunzi,
Against divination). Apparently, the later type was a
part of the medical and veterinary practice, as well as a
part necessary in match-making and marketing choices.
A number of divination techniques developed around the
astronomic observations and burial practices (see Feng
shui, Guan Lu).

Zi wei dou shu () - This procedure, sometimes loosely called (Chinese: , pik meng) or
Purple Star Astrology or Emperor/Purple (Star) Astrology, involves the client seeking an advisor with a
mastery of the Chinese calendar. Astrology is used
in combination with the Chinese constellation, four
pillars of destiny and the ve elements methods of
divination. The end result is a translation of one's
destiny path, an interpretation of a pre-determined
fate. The result of the details vary depending on the
accuracy of the original four pillars information the
client provides to the fortune-teller. This method
1

CHAPTER 1. CHINESE FORTUNE TELLING

can also verify unique events that have already happened in one's life.
Bazi () - This method is undoubtly the most
popular of Chinese Fortune Telling methods, and
the most accessible one. It has many variants in
practice the most simple one called: Ziping Bazi
, invented by Master Ziping. Generally
it involves taking four components of time, the hour
of birth, day, month and year. Each a pillar from the
Sixty Jiazi and arranging them into Four Pillars. The
Four Pillars are then analyzed against the Daymaster, the Heavenly Stem for the Day pillar. It is a form
of Astrology as opposed to Fortune Telling or Divination, and tells one about his or her destiny in life,
current situation and area for most successful occupation. Originally Bazi was read against the Year
Earthly Branch, then focus shifted to the Month Pillar, then nally Master Ziping rened and remade
the system to use the Heavenly Stem of the Day Pillar as the emphasis and focus in reading. The practice for reading against the Year Branch is the origin
of the popular Chinese Horoscopes for your Year of
Birth.
Wen Wang Gua or Man Wong Gua ( ) ,* [1]* [2] also known as Liu Yao () or Wu Xing
Yi ( ) sometimes called Wu Xing Yi Shu based on the Wu Xing.
Mei Hua Yi Shu or Mui Fa Yik Sou () FigurativelyPlum ower calculation, sometimes
called Mei Hua Xin Yi. \Mui Fa Yik Sou, Zi wei
dou shu, Tik Pan San Souzh: , North Pole
calculation, South Pole calculation are ve main calculation.* [3]
Qi Men Dun Jia () also known as Kei Mun
Tun Kap, Dun Jia or just Dunjia/DunJia or sometimes Qi Men or Qimen/QiMen - Strange Doors and
the Hidden Jia, The Hidden Jia escaping through the
Strange Doors, Jia is given priority or importance.
It is called Dun Jia because the objective of this
Divination is to protect the Jia stem and move it to a
safe place, wherever it may be found in the Qi Men
Dun Jia chart or paipan. The second highest form
of Chinese divination, according to Jack Sweeney.
Used by Liu Bo Wen to help the Ming capture the
throne.
Yik Lam ()
Yin Kam ()
Yin and Yang Bowl () - based on Yin and
yang
Tik Pan San Sou ()
Wong Kek Yin Sou ()
Seven Major and Four Minor Stars ()

Three Generation Life ()

Yin Kam Fa ()
Chin Ting Sou ()
Leung Tou Kam ( ) - Figuratively dual
headed suppress
Da Liu Ren () also known as Liu Ren Shen
Ke, or just Liu Ren, sometimes called Xiao Liu Ren
- The Six Large Rens (Heavenly Stem), Ren in this
case is given priority or importance. It is called Da
Liu Ren because in the Sexegenary cycle there are
Six Rens each with a dierent branch. The highest and most accurate form of Chinese divination,
and after the Song Dynasty, the most popular in imperial China, based on texts found in the caves of
Dun Huang. References to Da Liu Ren are found
in dynastic histories and in the Romance of Three
Kingdoms.
Tai Yi Shen Shu () also known as Taiyi
or TaiYi or Tai Yi - The Great Yi God Calculating,
Calculating the God of the Great Yi, Yi is given priority or importance. Primarily used to launch wars
or other major imperial activities, with a fortune
telling component.
Cheng Gu Ge () - Songs on Weighing Bones,
fortune telling method by Yuan Tian Gang (
), involves adding up the astrological weight
of the four time components and reading the total
weight against a certain poem, thus revealing your
life fate. Another method was by Zhang Zhong
(Taoist).* [4]
Zhou Yi () - also known as Yi Jing or I Ching,
divination according to the book of changes. Methods include: Computer casting, Yarrow stalk casting, coin casting, paper casting, manual casting involves the yarrow stalks or coins.
Yi Jing Numerology
Date and Time Yi Jing
Visual Yi Jing
Huang Ji Jing Shi ( )- Fortune telling
method based on the book by Shao Yong, the
Huang Ji Jing Shi
He Luo Li Shu - Fortune telling type numerology in
accordance with the He Tu/Hetu/HeTu Diagram or
the Yellow River Diagram
Di Li Feng Shui - A geomancy based art of divination. Similar to Qi Men Dun Jia.
Jiu Gong Ming Li () - Aka 9 Star Ki
orChi"/"Qi, also calledWhite and Purple Star
Astrology

1.6. SEE ALSO

1.3 Sociology
In Chinese society, fortune telling is a respected and important part of social and business culture. Thus, fortune tellers often take on a role which is equivalent to
management consultants and psychotherapists in Western
society. As management consultants, they advise business people on business and investment decisions. Many
major business decisions involve the input of fortune
tellers. Their social role allows decision risks to be placed
outside of the organization and provides a mechanism of
quickly randomly deciding between several equally useful options. As psychotherapists, they help people discuss
and resolve personal issues without the stigma of illness.

3
tensions in the cultural revolution of 1966, it still has great
meaning to a small minority in rural regions of Jiangxi.

1.6 See also

Divination
Fortune telling
Qi Men Dun Jia
Da Liu Ren
Tie Ban Shen Shu
I Ching

1.4 A famous Chinese fortune1.7 References

teller's maxim
The above quote, relating to the ve componentsof
the good or ill fortune of any given individual, is culturally believed to have come from Su Shi of the Song
dynasty.* [7] As a maxim, it continues to remain popular in Chinese culture today. Actual interpretations of
this quotation vary, as there is no classical text explaining what Su Shi really meant. Some claim that it signied
that a person's destiny is under his or her own control as
theve componentsof fortune are mathematically one
more than the classical four pillars of destiny, which implies that individuals are in control of their futures on top
of their natalbornfates.* [7] Other interpretations may
suggest that the order in which the components are stated
are important in determining the course of person's life:
For example education (the fth fortune) is not useful if
fate (the rst fortune) does not put you in the proper place
at the beginning of your life. Other interpretations may
suggest that there is no inherent order to the sequence,
but that they are just a list of the ve components of a
person's fortune.

1.5 An example of a regional ethnic

proverb
Many points lead to one pointis an ancient Chinese
proverb, originating from the Jianxi province. It refers to
an ancient battle between the powers of good and evil,
one of the founding schools of thought of the Chinese
formation myth. The giants of evil used tweezers (approximate translation) to stab their opponents, whilst the
dragon fairies had none and were losing. Wang won ju of
the Good army then devised a cunning plan to divide the
tweezers into two, wherin the giants vicariously stabbed
themselves and Good triumphed. The moral of this story
is that focusing on one task rather than two always brings
greater results. Whilst not frequently used since ethnic

[1] Misterfengshui. "Misterfengshui.Chinese metaphysics

. Retrieved on 2008-01-05.
[2] Fengshui magazine. "Fengshui-magazine.Chinese metaphysics . Retrieved on 2008-0105.
[3]
[4] ---
[5]

[6]
[7] Fsrcenter. "Fsrcenter.Su Dong Po's misinterpreted saying. Retrieved on 2008-01-05.

Smith, Richard J. Fortune-tellers and Philosophers:

Divination in Traditional Chinese Society. Boulder,
Colorado and Oxford England: Westview Press,
1991.
http://www.lz333.com/News_show.asp?Newsid=
274

Chapter 2

Kisaeng
Kisaeng (also spelled gisaeng), sometimes called ginyeo
( ), were ocially sanctioned Korean female prostitutes.* [1] Kisaeng are artists who work to entertain others, such as the yangbans and kings.

Many kisaeng were skilled in poetry, and numerous sijo

composed by kisaeng have survived. These often reect themes of heartache and parting, similar to poems
composed by scholars in exile.* In addition, some of the
most famous kisaeng poems were composed to persuade
prominent scholars to spend the night.* Indeed, the sijo
style came to be associated with kisaeng women, while
women of yangban status focused on the gasa form.*

First appearing in the Goryeo Dynasty, kisaeng were

legally entertainers of the government, required to perform various functions for the state. Many were employed at court, but they were also spread throughout the
country. They were carefully trained, and frequently accomplished in the ne arts, poetry, and prose, although
their talents were often ignored due to their inferior social
status.

Kisaeng attached to a local government oce were

known as gwan-gi, and their status was carefully dierentiated from that of the common slaves also attached to the
oce. They were separately entered on the census rolls.
Women of the kisaeng class performed various roles, al- The kisaeng were regarded as of signicantly higher staalthough technically they were all of
though they were all of the same low status in the eyes of tus than the slaves,
*
cheonmin
rank.
yangban society. Aside from entertainment, these roles
included medical care and needlework. In some cases, In Korea's structured, hierarchical society, gisaeng were
such as at army bases, kisaeng were expected to ll sev- technically slaves. For this reason, they were sometimes
eral such roles.
spoken of as possessing the body of the lower class but
*
Kisaengs play an important role in Korean conceptions the mind of the aristocrat. [2]
of the traditional culture of the Joseon Dynasty. Some of
Korea's oldest and most popular stories, such as the tale
of Chunhyang, feature kisaeng as heroines. Although the 2.2 Career
names of most real kisaeng have been forgotten, a few are
remembered for an outstanding attribute, such as talent
or loyalty. The most famous of these is the 16th-century The career of most kisaeng was very short, generally
peaking at age 16 or 17, and over by age 22.* Only a
kisaeng Hwang Jin-i.
few kisaeng were able to maintain their business for very
long beyond this time. It may be for this reason that the
kisaeng training institutes accepted entrants as young as
eight.* All kisaeng, even those who did not work as pros2.1 Social position
titute or entertainers, were obliged by law to retire at age
Throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods, kisaeng held 50. The best prospect most kisaeng had for long-term
the status of cheonmin, the lowest rank of society. They support was through becoming the concubine of a patron.
shared this status with other entertainers, as well as butch- However, even this was not an option unless their patron
ers and slaves. Status was hereditary, so the children of rst purchased them from the state, which few men of the
kisaeng
a kisaeng were also of cheonmin status, and the daugh- Joseon period could aord. Thus, most former
*
went
on
to
work
in
or
manage
a
local
tavern.
*
ters automatically became kisaeng as well. Beginning in
In the later period of Joseon, a three-tiered system developed.* The highest tier was occupied by haengsu ( ,
) who sang and danced at upper-class feasts. Haengsu
kisaeng were not permitted to entertain after they turned
thirty.* However, they could continue working in other
duties, such as dressmaking and medicine, until the age
of fty.* They received guests only by choice. Most of

the Goryeo period, the governing oces in each district

kept a registry of kisaeng, to ensure thorough oversight.*
The same practice was followed for conscripted slaves.
Kisaeng could only be released from their position if a
hefty price was paid to the government; this could usually only be done by a wealthy patron, typically a high
government ocial.*
4

2.3. DAILY LIFE

the kisaeng of the court were of the haengsu tier, also
called seonsang ( , ).* The haengsu kisaeng of each
district also took charge of discipline and training new
kisaeng.
Kisaeng of the lowest tier were called samsu ( ,
). The samsu were forbidden to perform the songs
and dances of the haengsu.* The tiered system, like other
aspects of Joseon class division, broke down in the late
nineteenth century.*
In the course of their careers, some kisaeng were able
to amass considerable personal wealth. However, these
were the exception. Kisaeng were required to meet their
expenses, including food, clothes, and makeup, out of
their own personal funds.*

2.2.1

Becoming a kisaeng

Young kisaeng receiving musical instruction, circa 1910.

Women entered the kisaeng class through various paths.

Some were the daughters of kisaeng, who inherited their
mother's status. Others were sold into the gijeok by families who could not aord to support them.* Most such
families were of cheonmin rank, but sometimes poor families of higher status sold their children in this fashion. On
occasion, even women from the yangban aristocracy were
made kisaeng, usually because they had violated the strict
sexual mores of the Joseon period.*

5
government took an early interest in ensuring correct education. This rst emerged with the establishment of
gyobang, training institutes for palace kisaeng during the
Goryeo period. During the Joseon period, this became
further codied. Instruction focused on music and dance.
In the three-tiered system of later Joseon, more specialized training schools were established for kisaeng of the
rst tier. The course of study lasted three years and
covered poetry, dance, music, and art.* The most advanced such school was located in Pyongyang. This system continued well into the Japanese colonial period, during which time the schools training kisaeng were known
as gwonbeon ( ).

2.3 Daily life

Hanbok worn by kisaengs in the Joseon era. Modern interpretation at a fashion show in Vietnam

As slaves of the government, the lives of kisaeng were

closely regulated. They were overseen by the ocer in
charge of kisaeng, known as the hojang.* The hojang was
also in charge of maintaining the kisaeng register, and ensuring that none of the district's kisaeng had ed. Kisaeng
were required to answer the requests of patrons, unless
they had previously notied the hojang.* The kisaeng of
the district were expected to appear for inspection twice
a month and also when a new ocial arrived in the area.*
As kisaeng were skilled workers from the beginning, the In addition, they were required to report for continuing

CHAPTER 2. KISAENG

education, usually focused on music and dance. The fre- ing role in the independence struggle. Aengmu, a kisaeng
quency and content of this training varied from region to of Daegu, was a major donor to the National Debt Repayregion.*
ment Movement in the early 20th century.* Some fty
as part of
However, the detailed aairs of the kisaeng were not di- kisaeng of Jinju took part in a demonstration
*
the
March
First
Movement
in
1919.
rectly overseen by the state. Order was kept within each
gyobang, which might include some tens of kisaeng, by
the haengsu kisaeng, those of the highest tier.* When
problems arose between a kisaeng and a client, or when
charges of criminal conduct were made against a kisaeng,
the haengsu kisaeng usually took the leading role in resolving the situation.*

2.5 Regional dierences

In addition, most kisaeng had a gibu, or kisaeng husband,who provided protection and economic support,
such as buying them pretty things or granting them social
status in return for entertainment.* Most gibu were former
soldiers, government enforcers, or servants of the royal
household.* At times, there was friction between wouldbe customers and possessive gibu, although the gibu was
not the kisaeng's husband and had no legal claim to her.*
The role of the gibu changed over time; at rst, many
kisaeng in government service had no such patron.* However, by the late Joseon dynasty, the gibu system was more
or less universal.*
Joseon Dynasty kisaeng houses were typically located
near the center of a town, often close to the marketplace.*
They were laid out to create a welcoming eect; in many
cases, a location was chosen with a ne view,* and the
area around the house was carefully landscaped with an
ornamental pool and plantings.*

2.4 Politics and diplomacy

Jinju kisaeng specialized in the sword dance, shown here.

Kisaeng seem to have been relatively few in number, at

the most a few thousand. They were spread throughout
the country, with a few hundred in the larger centers and
smaller numbers in the hyeon villages.* They were also
found in the stationsand inns which provided food
and shelter to travellers along the country's arterial roads,
Thanks to their frequenting the taverns and guest-houses such as the Great Yeongnam Road.
of the town, kisaeng were often among the most knowl- The number and characteristics of the kisaeng varied
edgeable on local aairs. For this reason, they were at
greatly from region to region. During the Joseon period,
times a key source of intelligence. It was through infor- the city with the most kisaeng by far was Seoul (then
mation supplied by kisaeng that the rebel army of Hong called Hanseong), with perhaps 1,000.* Many of these
Gyeong-rae was able to easily take the fortress of Jeongju worked for the court, and helped to ll the vast numin the early 19th century.
ber of trained entertainers needed for grand festivals.*
Kisaeng played a number of important political roles, as
servants of the state and in their own right. They were
employed to entertain visiting foreign dignitaries from
parts of China, and to accompany them if they travelled
through the country.

When cities fell, as many of Korea's cities did during the

Seven Year War in the late 16th century, kisaeng were
often made to entertain the generals of the victorious
army. Some of Korea's most famous kisaeng, including
Non Gae of Jinju, are remembered today for their bravery in killing or attempting to kill leaders of the imperial
Japanese army.

Beautiful or talented kisaeng were often taken from the

provinces to Seoul.* The required training for kisaeng in
Seoul was regular and very strict, with inattentive kisaeng
sent home.*

There were also large numbers of kisaeng in the old

capitals of Gaeseong and Pyeongyang. The kisaeng of
Pyeongyang were noted for their high level of skill and
Some kisaeng were also active in the Korean indepen- beauty.* The kisaeng school of Pyeongyang was one of
dence movements of the early 20th century. In this they the country's most advanced, and continued operating unresembled other women of Joseon, who often took a lead- til late in the colonial period.* The kisaeng of Pyeongyang

2.6. HISTORY

were also known for their ability to recite the gwan scholars support this theory.
san yung ma, a song by the 18th-century composer Sin Many others trace their origins to the early years of
Gwang-su.*
Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the
Other large concentrations existed around army camps, end of the Later Three Kingdoms period in 936.* At
particularly along the northern border. For instance, this time, a large number of Baekje people wandered the
in the time of King Sejong in the 15th century, there country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was
were some 60 kisaeng attached to the army base at already established, or a consequence of the recent turYeongbyeon.* In these areas, kisaeng essentially lled the moil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and
role of wives for the army, and their role was commensu- the nomadic tribes of Manchuria has been conjectured.
rately more focused on domestic tasks than on entertain- The rst king of Goryeo, Taejo, considered these wanment.
derers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He orThe kisaeng of other regions also maintained distinctive dered that they be made into slaves of the government.
local identities. The kisaeng of Jinju were particularly Although no certain records exist, it is likely that the rst
adept at the Geommu, a traditional sword dance.* Those kisaeng were drawn from these former wanderers.
of Jeju were known for their equestrian prowess.* In many
cases, the noted skills of a region's kisaeng corresponded
with some other local claim to fame. The kisaeng of
the Gwandong region on the east coast, home to many
famous sights including Geumgangsan, memorized the
gwan dong byeol gok (Hangeul:
Hanja: ),
a poem recounting their region's scenery.* Those of the
Honam region in the southwest were trained in pansori,*
while those of the seonbi city Andong could recite the
Greater Learning by heart.*

2.6.2 Goryeo
Regardless of their origins, kisaeng rst emerged as a
class and rose to prominence during the Goryeo Dynasty,
935-1394. They are rst mentioned in the early 11th century.* At this time, they were primarily engaged in skilled
trades such as needlework, music, and medicine. The female entertainers of the court during this period lled a
role similar to that later lled by almost all kisaeng. *

Due to the growth of the kisaeng class, during the reign

of Myeongjong the state began to keep records (called
2.6 History
gijeok) of the kisaeng living in each jurisdiction. Around
this time, the state also made its rst eorts to set
up educational institutions to train kisaeng entertainers.
Main article: History of the kisaeng
These academies were known as gyobang, and rst appear in history with their abolition by King Hyeonjong
An overwhelming silence hangs over the ocial histories
in 1010. However, they were re-established in the reign
of Korea when it comes to the kisaeng.* They enter only
of Chungnyeol. The gyobang provided training in the
occasionally into ocial records such as the Goryeosa or
dangak and sogak musical styles.*
Joseon Wangjo Sillok. Yet references to kisaeng are quite
widespread in the "anecdotal histories" of later Joseon, The women trained in the gyobang were exclusively court
and Silhak thinkers such as Yi Ik and Dasan gave some entertainers. Their role in the aairs of the court became
thought to their role and station in society. Even today, increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They
many formal histories of Korea pay little or no heed to entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role
the story of the kisaeng. For example, Ki-baek Lee's New which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beHistory of Korea does not contain a single reference to the ginning in the reign of Munjong, they performed at ocial ceremonies of the state.*
kisaeng.

2.6.1

Origins

Just as the origin of the kisaeng is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively kisaeng of
the court, and are recorded as slaves of the government.*

There are various theories concerning the origin of

the kisaeng. The rst such theory was formulated by
the scholar Dasan, and theories have multiplied as the 2.6.3 Joseon dynasty
kisaeng themselves have receded further into the past.
One theory actually places their origins in the Silla dy- Goryeo was succeeded by the Joseon Dynasty, 1394nasty, among the wonhwa, female predecessors of the 1910. During the Joseon dynasty, the kisaeng system
hwarang.* However, there is little to suggest a concrete continued to ourish and develop, despite the governlink between Silla's wonhwa and the later kisaeng. Also, ment's deeply ambivalent attitude toward it.
the wonhwa seem to have been chosen from among the Joseon was founded on Korean Confucian ideals, and
aristocracy, whereas kisaeng were always members of these scholars of the time took a very dim view of profesthe lower classes.* For these reasons, few contemporary sional women and of the kisaeng class in particular. There

CHAPTER 2. KISAENG

A Kisaeng girl of Joseon, in 1910

selves, or perhaps because of fear that ocials would take

to stealing the wives of other men.* One such proposal
was made during the reign of Sejong, but when an advisor
of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would
lead to government ocials committing grave crimes, the
king chose to preserve the kisaeng.*

Kisaeng, 1890.

During the brief and violent reign of Yeonsan-gun,

14941506, kisaeng became symbolic of royal excess.
Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure, and made even the medicinal kisaeng (yakbang
gisaeng) into entertainers.* Yeonsan-gun brought 1,000
women and girls from the provinces to serve as palace
kisaeng; many of them were paid from the public treasury.* He may have been the rst to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the kisaeng of the palace
intoHeaven,those with whom he slept, andEarth,
those who served other functions.*
In 1650, all kisaeng were made slaves of the government.*
The kisaeng attached to a government oce were known
as gwan-gi, or kisaeng of the oce.Their role did
not, by law, include sexual service to the oceholder; in
fact, government ocials could be punished severely for
consorting with a kisaeng. However, in practice kisaeng
were often forced to serve the oceholder.* A distinction was sometimes made between those gwan-gi who
were obliged to sleep with the oceholder, and those who
were not.* This distinction was featured in the popular
play Chunhyangga.*
The Gabo Reform of 1895 ocially abolished the class
system of Joseon dynasty, and slavery as well. From that
year forward, all kisaeng became nominally free. In practice, many kisaeng, like many other slaves, continued in
servitude for many years. In addition, many of those
who were freed had no alternative career; they continued
as entertainers, now without the protections aorded by
kisaeng status. During the subsequent decade, many of
these kisaeng went to elsewhere to work.

A Kisaeng girl circa 1910

2.6.4 Modern Kisaeng

were many calls for the abolition of the kisaeng, or for After becoming an independent country from Japan and
their exclusion from court, but these were not successful enduring the subsequent Korean War, the Republic of
perhaps because of the inuence of the women them- Korea inherited the formidable task of reconstructing its

2.7. LITERARY AND ARTISTIC DEPICTIONS

war-torn nation. The Treaty on Basic Relations between
Japan and the Republic of Korea in part provided funding
to the government, but President Park Chung looked for
additional funding for the reconstruction in the USFK.
Post-Korean War brothels primarily serviced the U.S.
Military, and were organized by a crime syndicate called
the Korean yakuza. This underground prostitution circle
had a sizable ow of revenue. When the Korean government systematically raided and shut down prostitution
circles, they created a new system of state run prostitution
to attract tourism. This project was called the National
Kisaeng in an attempt to leverage this already known language and thus attract additional foreign interest. Some
kisaeng were sent to foreign countries, such as Vietnam.

9
today.
In North Korea, all kisaeng descendants were labelled as
members of the 'hostile class' and are considered to have
'bad songbun', i.e. tainted blood.* [4]

2.7 Literary and artistic depictions

Kisaeng have played important roles in Korean popular

literature since the mid-Joseon Dynasty. As popular literature such as novels and pansori emerged, kisaeng often
took a leading role. This was in part due to their unique
role as women who could move freely in society. Kisaeng
appear as heroines in stories such as Chunhyangga, and as
Kisaeng tourism was endorsed by the post-World War II important gures in many other Joseon-era narratives.
South Korean Government, which eectively was state
sponsored sex tourism. The North Korean government Kisaeng also began to appear in the vernacular art of
promoted kisaeng travel into South Korea. The word later Joseon. They are particularly common in the work
Kieseng was acronym of Korean prostitute in many coun- of the famed early 19th-century painter Hyewon, whose
tries. The government of the Republic of Korea also work focused on both the life of the cheonmin and erotic
promoted prostitution trips to other countries. For many themes.
male foreigners in the far east and Oceania, travelling in Kisaeng continue to be central to the understanding and
Korea had an implied meaning of sex tourism.
imagining of Joseon Dynasty culture in contemporary
The 1970s onward saw kisaeng dances and vocabulary South and North Korea. For example, the female lead in
partially preserved in the contemporary Korean dance the lm Chwihwaseon was a kisaeng, the companion of
and theatre scene observed in the gwnbn, kisaeng painter Owon. Fresh treatments of popular kisaeng stoschools, that predominated during the Japanese colonial ries, including the ctional Chunhyang and the historical
period, between 1910 and 1945. Although the gwn- Hwang Jin-Yi, continue to emerge in popular novels and
bn no longer existed, an academic convention developed cinema.
where students would study privately with former kisaeng
or gwnbn entertainers.* [3]

During a period known as the miracle of the Han River, 2.8 Famous kisaeng
in the 1980s, the South Korea economy began to grow.
A shortage of native prostitutes in the wake of this eco- Notable kisaeng include:
nomic upturn prompted the government to begin toimportwomen from southeast Asian countries, such as the
Du-hyang, lover of Toegye Yi Hwang, committed
Philippines and Indonesia. After the collapse of the Sosuicide in a river* [5] in her hometown Danyang after
viet Union, Russian women were also the subject of these
Toegye's death.
imports. However, illegal actions against foreign prostitutes became frequent, enough so to become a social
Sangchunrim, kisaeng of Seoul during Jungjong, asproblem. In 2004, the Congress of South Korea signed
sociated with many scholars.* [6]
into law an amendment which closed all state brothels and
Gang-a, kisaeng of Jeolla during Seonjo, Jeong
made prostitution illegal.
Cheol's lover.
Very few traditional kisaeng houses continue to operate in South Korea, and many traditions and dances are
Juk-hyang, kisaeng during Sunjo, Kim Jeong-hui's
considered to be lost forever. Some South Korean busilover.
nesses continue to escort visiting foreign businesspeople
to a kisaeng house, but these locations are mostly modern
Chu-hyang, Sim Yook's lover, best female poet durinterpretations of old kisaeng houses. The oldest tradiing her time.
tional kisaeng house in Korea, Ohjinam ( ), was closed
in 2010. Today the kisaeng's evolution and impact on
Yi Mae-chang, poet of Buan
Korean society is receiving new attention as Koreans in Hong Rang
crease eorts to rediscover and revitalize their cultural
and historical heritage. However, this interest is focused
Seol-mae, noted wit.
almost entirely on the historical kisaeng of the Joseon period, and not on the traces of the kisaeng which endure
Hwang Jin-i, musician and intellectual of Gaeseong.

10
Non Gae, remembered for killing a Japanese general
during the battle of Jinju.
Gyewolhyang, who attempted to have the Japanese
general Konishi Yukinaga killed in Pyeongyang.

CHAPTER 2. KISAENG
18. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 86.
19. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 82.
20. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 82.

Man-hyang of Hamheung

21. ^ Song (1999, p. 35).

Yuji of Hwangju

22. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 98.

Kim Ja-ya, the last classically trained kisaeng in

South Korea.

23. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 98.

Lee Hwajungseon, a kisaeng who gave an interview* [7] on the March 1923 issue of Contemporary
Review.

25. ^ Ahn (2000b), pp. 99100.

Garr Dicesan, intellectual, noted for musing on social interactions.

27. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 99.

24. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 98.

26. ^ Ahn (2000b), pp. 9899.

28. ^ Ahn (2000b), pp. 9192.

29. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 92-93.

2.9 Notes

30. ^ Kim (1976), p. 140.

1. ^ Specically, the rst syllable meansentertainer 31. ^ Kim (1976), p. 139.

and the second meanslifeor sometimesperson.
32. ^ Kim (1976), pp. 139140; Ahn (2000b), pp. 91
See Wiktionary entries for (gi) and (saeng).
92.
The term ginyeo ( /) is likewise composed of
the Sino-Korean elements gi for entertainer and nyeo 33. ^ Ahn (2000b), pp. 8990.
for woman.
34. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 94.
2. ^ Hwang (1997), Ahn (2000b).
35. ^ Ahn (2000b), pp. 8990.
3. ^ Lee (2002), p. 90.
36. ^ Daegu Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society
4. ^ Lee (2002), pp. 8990; Ahn (2000b), p. 82.
(1999), p. 219.
5. ^ McCann (1974), p. 42.
6. ^ These include Hwang Jin-i'sI will break the back
of this long winter nightand Han-u's You will
freeze to death.See McCann (1974), Kim (1976).
7. ^ Kim (1963), p. 34.
8. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 83.
9. ^ Hwang (1997), p. 451.
10. ^ Song (1999), p. 35.
11. ^ Lee (2002), p. 90; Ahn (2000b), p. 82.
12. ^ Hwang (1997), p. 452.
13. ^ Lee (2002), p. 89; Hwang (1997), p. 452.
14. ^ Lee (2002), p. 89.

37. ^ "
02.

".

. Retrieved 2006-02-

38. ^ Hwang (1997), p. 450; Ahn (2000b) notes that

some estimates place the total as high as 20,000,
but ultimately concurs with Hwang that the total was
probably less than 10,000.
39. ^ So estimated by Hwang (1997), also Ahn (2000b,
p. 101).
40. ^ This practice was at its height under the reign of
Yeonsan-gun, but continued in other periods.
41. ^
42. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 100.
43. ^ Kim (1976), p. 142.
44. ^ Song (1999), p. 35.

15. ^ Lee (2002), p. 89.

45. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 100.

16. ^ Kim (1976), p. 140.

46. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 102.

17. ^ So claimed by Kim (1976, p. 140); but Song

(1999, p. 35) seems to state that the system continued into the early 20th century.

47. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 100.

48. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 100; Kim (1976), p. 144.

2.11. REFERENCES
49. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 100; Kim (1976), p. 144.
50. ^ Ahn (2000b), p. 100.
51. ^ Kim (1976), p. 144.
52. ^ Remarked upon by Ahn (2000b), p. 79.
53. ^ Specically during the reigns of Hyeonjong and
Munjong (Hwang 1997, p. 450).
54. ^ This was asserted by Yi Neung-hwa, author of the
rst history of the kisaeng (Hwang 1997, p. 449).
55. ^ Hwang 1997, loc. cit.
56. ^ The Silhak scholar Dasan traced the origin of the
class to Myeongjong's creation of the gijeok, but
most contemporary scholars believe that the class
had already emerged earlier in the dynasty (Hwang
1997, p. 450).
57. ^ Kim (1976), p. 54.

11

2.11 References
[1] Kim, Nam-joong (2011-08-20). Around the world,
money follows sex. Joongang Daily. Retrieved 201304-12.
[2] Gisaeng
[3] Loken-Kim, Christine; Crump, Juliette T. (Autumn
1993). Qualitative change in performances of two generations of Korean dancers. Dance Research Journal (Congress on Research in Dance) 25 (2): 1314.
doi:10.2307/1478550.
[4] Demick, Barbara (2010). Nothing to Envy: Real Lives in
North Korea (UK ed.). Granta Publications. ISBN 9781-84708-141-4.
[5] Her tomb still stands near where she committed suicide.
[6] Sin Jong-ho, Jeong Sa-yong, Hong Eon-pil, Kim Han-guk,
& Jeong Sun-yeong.
[7] Hers was unprecented at that time.

58. ^ Song (1999), p. 35.

59. ^ Kim (1976), pp. 5455.
60. ^ Kim (1976), p. 55.
61. ^ Kim (1976), p. 139.
62. ^ Hwang (1997), p. 450. The advisor was Heo Jong.
63. ^ Kim (1976), p. 138.
64. ^ Kim (1976), p. 139.
65. ^ Hwang (1997), p. 451.
66. ^ Breen (2004), p. 88.
67. ^ So asserted by Ahn (2000a), p. 94.
68. ^ Hwang (1997), p. 452. According to Hwang, he
terms used were
, or surface government servants,and
, or esh government servants.
69. ^ Hwang (1997). However, according to Ahn
(2000a, p. 298), Chunhyang could refuse the magistrate's advances because her body-price had already
been paid and her name had been removed from the
gijeok, meaning she was no longer a kisaeng.

2.10 See also

Geisha

2.12 Further reading

Ahn, Gil-jeong (
) (2000).
(Joseon
Sidae Saenghwalsa) (Lifestyle history of the Joseon
period). Seoul: Sakyejul. ISBN 89-7196-701-3. (In
two volumes).
Breen, Michael (2004). The Koreans (rev. ed.).
New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-31232609-2.
Daegu-Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society (
) (1999).
,
(Yeoksa sogui
Daegu, Daegu saramdeul) (Daegu and its people in
history). Seoul: Jungsim. ISBN 89-89524-09-1.
Hwang, Won-gap (
) (1997).
(Hanguksareul bakkun yeonindeul) (The women
who changed Korean history). Seoul:
.
ISBN 89-5639-014-2.
Kawamura, Minato (2001).
:
(Gisaeng:
Malhaneun kkot) (Kisaeng: The speaking owers).
Seoul: Sodam. ISBN 89-7381-474-5. (Tr. from
Japanese original)
Kim, Dong-uk. (1963). Women's literary achievements (Yi Dynasty). Korea Journal 3(11), 33-36.

Korean culture
History of Korea
Kippumjo

Kim, Kichung (1996). An introduction to classical Korean literature from hyangga to p'ansori. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe.

12

CHAPTER 2. KISAENG

Kim, Yung Chung (1976). Women of Korea: A history from ancient times to 1945. Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press. ISBN 89-7300-116-7.
Lee, Younghee (2002). Ideology, culture and han:
Traditional and early modern Korean women's literature. Seoul: Jimoondang. ISBN 89-88095-43-X.
McCann, David. (1977). Traditional world of
kisaeng. Korea Journal 14(2), 40-43.
Song, Bang-song (1999). Korean music: Historical
and other aspects. Seoul: Jimoondang. ISBN 8988095-13-8.

Chunhyang before the magistrate, from an anonymous Joseon

Dynasty painting.

Chapter 3

Uinyeo
Uinyeo (literally medicine women* [1]) were female
physicians who specialized in the treatment of women
during the Joseon Dynasty (1392 1910) of Korea.* [2]
The uinyeo were established as a solution to social taboos
against women receiving treatment from male physicians.
The uinyeo system rst appeared in 1406 after King Taejong ordered its establishment within the Jesaengwon (
health care centers for commoners).* [3]

(inner uineyo), ganbyeong uinyeo (nursing uinyeo) and

chohak uinyeo (beginner uinyeo) according to their educational grade.* [4]

According to records of the Sokdaejeon (, Supplement to the Nation code"* [8]) uinyeo were generally
divided into two types; naeguk yeoui (, female
physicians at naeuiwon) or called naeuinyeo and hyeminseo yeoui (, female physicians at hyeminseo).
The distinction was made to encourage uinyeo since King
Yeongjo's reign and had lasted until the end of the Joseon
Dynasty. While naeuinyeo worked within the palace, the
3.1 Establishment
other group of uinyeo worked for hyeminseo, the statesponsored health clinics located in certain areas of the
The proposal for establishing Uinyeo originated with Heo
country.* [2]* [4]
Do (), a government ocer who held the title of Jijesaengwonsa (). He suggested to the king
that a number of intelligent young women should receive
medical training to treat women. Although the uinyeo
3.3 Mobilization as entertainers
system started to practise medicine, it was deeply related
to a Korean traditional custom at the time. The Joseon
Dynasty was a strict Confucian state that strengthened the In the end of King Seongjong's reign, while uinyeo were
distinction between the sexes which was called naeoe ( sent to attend parties and feasts held for ocial and pri; sex segregation). Therefore there were many cases vate occasions, they were not invited along with gisaeng
in which female patients died without receiving proper (female entertainers). King Yeonsangun, however, was a
treatment because they felt ashamed of being examined tyrant ruler known for enjoying parties changed this pracby a male doctor.* [2] On the other hand, jungin (middle- tice. In June 1502, the king's 8th year, uinyeo were sent to
class people) and sangmin (commoners) did not want to families who were holding a wedding to investigate marbecome a uinyeo for the custom, so young girls who be- riage presents on the day that the family sent the dowry.
longed to stores and oces in the palace as slaves were The rationale for the investigation was that the rich people at that time wasted money for too luxurious wedding
trained in medicine for this purpose.* [4]* [5]
items. From that time onward, whenever a feast was held,
uinyeo participated openly together with gisaeng, sitting
on stone steps to the present of the king. They also began
3.2 Medical training and practice to learn music in addition to medicine.* [2]* [4]
When the successor, King Jungjong ascended to the
The Jesaengwon chose uinyeo and taught Maijing (; throne, uinyeo still served as uigi (medical entertainer) at
Pulse Classic* [6]) and the practice of acupuncture and court ocers' parties. After 1510, the fth year of the
moxibustion.* [4]* [5]
King's reign, the government prohibited uinyeo from atIn July 1434, the 16th year of Sejong the Great's reign, tending parties by law several times, and forced them to
the government gave uninyeo of Jesaengwon a stipend go back to their original mission in medicine. In spite
of rice twice a year as an incentive, based upon prece- of this eort, the once strict morality was not rectied,
dents of payments to female slaves. In February 1498, and uinyeo still attended parties. At feasts, uinyeo who
the 9th year of the King Seongjong, Yejo (Ministry of worked at naeuiwon (royal health clinic) wore a garima
Rites* [7]) revised six clauses of law to codify a sys- (a kind of crown) made with a black silk, while gisaeng
tem that divided uinyeo into the three grades: naeuinyeo wore a black po on their head. As uinyeo who belonged
13

14

CHAPTER 3. UINYEO

to hyeminseo (clinics for the public) were called yakbang gisaeng (entertainers of the medicine room) and
regarded the rst rated entertainers over other female ofcial entertainers assigned to government oces.* [4]
Due to their lowborn origin, uinyeo did not gain the same
social status as male doctors and barely retained their existence as a group of the lowest class of society.* [4]

3.4 See also

Gungnyeo
Kisaeng
Musuri
Heo Jun
Traditional Korean medicine
Dae Jang Geum

3.5 References
[1] Kim, Ai Ra (1996). Women Struggling for a New Life:
The Role of Religion in the Cultural Passage from Korea to
America. SUNY Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-7914-2737-4.
[2] Han, Hee-sook (December 2004). Womens Life during the Chosn Dynasty6. International Journal of Korean History. pp. 3134.
[3] " (), uinyeo(in Korean/English). The Academy
of Korean Studies.
[4] "

()" (in Korean). Empas / EncyKorea.

[5] "

()" (in Korean). Empas / Britannica.

[6] " " (in Chinese). National Research Institute Of

Chinese Medicine.
[7] "
(), Yejo (in Korean/English). The Academy
of Korean Studies.
[8] "
(), Sok-daejeon (in Korean/English). The
Academy of Korean Studies.

"
,
()" (in Korean).
KBS Health 365. 2008-06-14.

(2003-08-13). "( )
Korean) (472). Hankyoreh 21.

" (in

Chapter 4

Gungnyeo
Gungnyeo (literally palace women)* [1] is a Korean
term referring to women waiting on the king and other
royalty in traditional Korean society. It is short for
gungjung yeogwan, which translates as a lady ocer of the royal court.* [2] Gungnyeo includes sanggung
(palace matron)* [3] and nain (assistant court ladies), both
of which hold rank as ocers. The term is also used
more broadly to encompass women in a lower class without a rank such as musuri (lowest maids in charge of odd
chores), gaksimi, sonnim, uinyeo (female physicians) as
well as nain and sanggung.* [4]* [5]

4.1 Establishment

period, and it is not known how they came to serve the

court and what procedures applied to them. The use of
the term during that period is therefore assumed to refer
to all women in the king's service in the court. In documents related to Goryeo, the social status of gungnyeo was
generally commoner or lower class, such as the daughters
of slaves, concubines, or cheonmin (the despised). In the
22nd year of King Uijong gungnyeo roles were divided
into sanggung (, managing the palace), sangchim (
, managing bedding), sangsik ( managing food),
and another type of sangchim (, managing sewing).
Female musicians called yeoak were also a part of the
gungnyeo.* [5]
During the Joseon Dynasty, court life was centered on
the King, so many court women were necessary. They
were assigned to the Daejeon (; the Great Hall* [7]),
Naejeon (, private inner royal hall* [8]), the Daebijeon (the Queen dowager's quarter), or the Sejajeon (the
crown prince's quarter) of the palace.* [5]

4.2 Election and education

In the Dae Jang Geum theme park, a model of the royal kitchen
in which gungnyeo worked is displayed.

The appointment of gungnyeo usually occurred one year

in ten, but there were exceptions; the method of appointing gungnyeo and their social status diered from time
to time, so the process was not systematized. In general,
gungnyeo were chosen from among female slaves who belonged to the governing class rather than from daughters
of the sangmin (common people in rank). However, if
circumstances allowed, people around the king wanted to
pick gungnyeo from commoners' children, using a custom
of early marriage in households that had a daughter over
ten years old. As a result, since King Gyeongjong's reign,
daughters from the lower class were prohibited to be appointed as gungnyeo. According to the Sokdaejeon (Supplement to the National Code), some female slaves of
each government oce were chosen to become gungnyeo
since the reign of King Yeongjo.

Although the rst record of gungnyeo appears in

Goryeosa, a compilation on the history of Goryeo, a provision was rst made in 1392 by King Taejo per Jo Jun
() and other ocers' suggestions after the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty. In 1428 Sejong the Great
set up a detailed system regulating gungnyeo, in which
female ocers were divided into naegwan (internal ofces, concerned with the royal court)* [6] and gunggwan
(palace ocers), and dened their ranks, titles, and social status. He further institutionalized the system, with While this restriction on class applied to common
revisions, in the Gyeongguk daejeon (Complete Code of gungnyeo, the appointment of those in important roles,
Laws).* [5]
closely waiting on the king and queen, such as jimil nain,
The gungnyeo were not clearly dened during the Goryeo was dierent. The standard for choosing jimil nain was
15

16

CHAPTER 4. GUNGNYEO
examples of the palace literature.* [5]* [10]

4.3 The types of gungnyeo

4.3.1 In the narrow meaning
Gungnyeo always distinguished themselves from the
sanggung and nain because the role and social status of
the groups were greatly dierent. The latter groups can
be divided into three types; trainee nain, nain, and sanggung. They were treated dierently according experience and length of service at court and in aliated departments. Even the sanggung group was divided by
rank according to their experience, and sanggung with
the same rank did not always have the same social standing. Trainee nain referred to young girls who had not yet
passed the gwallye ( , a coming-of-age ceremony)
and they were divided into saenggaksi and gaksi. The
term, saenggaksi derives from that fact that the girls had
a hairstyle called saengmeori. Only three departments,
jimil, chimbang, and subang had the saenggaksi. After
fteen years service in the palace the trainee nain became
an ocial nain. Nain wore a jade-colored dangui (a variety of jeogori, a short jacket) and a navy blue chima (a
bulky skirt) and decorated their head with a frog-shaped
cheopji (a hairpin).* [4]

4.3.2 In the broad meaning

Gyechuk ilgi, Diary of 1613

so high that sanggung tended to go out recruiting candidates through personal connections and by family custom. There were many gungnyeo in service who recommended their relatives for the position. The social status of the gungnyeo who were assigned to jimil, chimbang
(the sewing department), and subang (the embroidery department) came from the jungin class (literally middle class); the others mostly came from commoner's
class. Common gungnyeo entered the palace at the age
of twelve to thirteen, whereas jimil nain entered there at
the age of four to eight, and nain for the sewing and embroidery departments began to serve the court at six to
thirteen.
Such trainee gungnyeo" received the necessary education to become gungnyeo, such as learning court language, required daily conducts and behaviors, and writing
gungche (palace-style font). Some gungnyeo left rened
calligraphy works written in hangul (the Korean alphabet) with the gungche or Gyechuk ilgi (Diary of the Year
Gyechuk, 1613* [9]) and Inhyeon wanghujeon (Tales of
Queen Inhyeon), all of which are regarded as excellent

Gaksimi is a generic term collectively referring to a

housemaid, kitchen-maid, seamstress or others working at a sanggung's private residence on sanggung's days
o. Their monthly salary was paid by the state, so
they were also called bangja. The term bangja
means a clerk working at a government oce and is the
same as the male character called bangja who appears in
Chunhyangjeon (Story of Chunhyang).* [4] Musuri refers
to women in charge of miscellaneous jobs (such as drawing water, making a re, etc.) at every residence at
court.* [4]
Sonnim is a type of housemaid who took charge of housekeeping at the king's concubine's residence. They were
generally related to the concubine's family, and their
salary was paid from the concubine's living expenses. The
term means a person from outside of the palace and is a
courtesy title, unlike musuri and gaksimi.* [4]
Uinyeo literally means medicine womenand they
usually treated gungnyeo with acupuncture and acted as
midwife when the king's consort or concubine gave birth.
Whenever a feast was held at court they transformed
themselves into gisaeng (female entertainers). For such
occasions, they wore wonsam (a female ceremonial garment), hwagwan (an elaborate coronet) on their head
and colorfully striped hansam (fabric extensions on the
sleeves of the costume)* [11]* [12]* [13] on their hands

4.5. GUNGNYEO'S RANK

just like dancers, so they were also called yakbang gisaeng
and consequently yakbang is another name for naeuiwon
(royal health clinic). Although uinyeo's aliation was
to the naeuiwon, their predecessors were gisaeng. The
uinyeo system was originally established during King
Taejong's reign because sick consorts, concubines and
gungnyeo preferred to die rather than to be seen by a
male doctor, due to the strict naeoebeop (sex segregation), based on Confucianism, at that time. Young slave
girls who belonged to storage or government oces were
therefore chosen to train in medical practices such as
pulse-checking, acupuncture and others. Because they
were originally uneducated cheonmin (the despised), the
uinyeo system was not very fruitful. During King Yeonsangun's reign, whenever a feast was held at each government oce, uinyeo were told to participate in it as
gisaeng with makeup. The system lasted until the end of
the dynasty and the number of uinyeo was about eighty
during King Gojong's reign. The uinyeo system disappeared when western doctors entered the court.* [4]

4.4 Gungnyeo's roles

17
sojobang and oesojubang, one for preparing daily meals,
another for preparing food for banquets, saenggwabang
(the dessert department), and sedapbang (the laundry department).* [14]
In addition to those seven departments, four other
departments existed: sesugan ( , the department in charge of the king and queen's washing and
bathing* [15]), toeseongan (; a food arrangement
room* [2]), bogicheo (, the department for making
res* [16]), deungchokbang ( the department for
lanterns and candlelight* [17]).
In terms of a more common individual's household jimil
nain, who had the highest standing in gungnyeo society,
acted like a personal maid to the mistress. Nain (assistant court ladies) at chimbang, and subang were like
seamstresses while nain at sojubang and saenggwabang
were like kitchen-maids. Sedapbang managed the laundry; in common families, female slaves generally did
the cleaning, while experienced housewives ironed and
smoothed laundry by pounding. Jimil nain had the highest social status while nain at chimbang, and subang were
next in status. They could wear a chima (a bulky skirt) in
the way which yangban women did, and were allowed as
a privilege to let it down long without wearing an apron.
Since they worked on a oor or in a room, these nain did
not need to fold up their skirt, unlike nain at sojubang,
and sedapbang. Nain at the other departments rolled up
their skirt with an apron. Likewise, only the former three
departments could have saenggaksi ( , young nain with
a hairstyle called saengor sayang), while young
nain at the others could not bind their hair with saeng but
had to let it down in long braids.* [4]

4.5 Gungnyeo's rank

In a reenactment of a royal wedding ceremony, two models acting

as gungnyeo assist the model of the queen in the red robe.

Gungnyeo can be described as a type of luxurious slaves

for royal private life, needed in departments in charge
of clothing, cooking and housing among others. Such
places were jimil (the innermost quarter, waiting
closely on royalty), chimbang (the sewing department),
subang (the embroidery department), two sojubang; nae-

Gungnyeo society had supervisors who acted as the head

of the gungnyeo group, and sanggung who received special treatment according to the importance of their job.
Jejo sanggung (), also called Keunbang sanggung were senior among gungnyeo and received the king's
orders and managed properties in the queen's quarter.
They exercised political power at the time. Bujejo sanggung also called Arigo sanggung () took charge
of items in stores attached to the queen's quarter. Jimil
sanggung also called Daeryeong sanggung waited closely
on the king. Bomo sanggung took charge of nursing
princes or princesses, and among them those who served
the crown prince had the highest standing among the
group. Sinyeo sanggung were in charge of assisting the
king, queen and queen dowager whenever a national ceremony or feast occurred. They also managed books and
documents of the Jimil sanggung and did gokeup (mourning and crying loudly). Gamchal sanggung gave rewards
or punishments to relevant gungnyeo, acting as a supervisors, and were held in awe by other gungnyeo. Some
gungnyeo who were favoured by the king could take po-

18

CHAPTER 4. GUNGNYEO

litical power and improve their rank.* [4]

seven jimil nain and the other places would have fteen
*
Palace ladies were subordinated to the queen, and were to twenty. [4]
ranked below the Royal Noble Consorts (ne-gwan ). The total number diered from time and was increased
The ranks for gungnyeo would could reach the 5th rank or decreased depending on circumstances at court. While
at the highest, but typically started much lower in the 9th the number of gungnyeo in the early period of the Joseon
rank.
Dynasty was not great, it tended to increase as time
went by. During King Seongjong's reign (14691494),
There were 5 ranks for palace ladies with two level each.
105 gungnyeo in total served the palace, with 29 for the
mother of the previous king, 27 for the queen dowager's
Fifth rank upper - Royal concubine (sang-gung
quarter and 49 for the king's quarter. During the reign of
) was a special palace lady who already had sexual King Gojong (18631907), the total number of gungnyeo
relationship with the king. The appointment decree reached 480; 100 for the king's quarter, 100 for the queen
was issued by the queen.
dowager's quarter, 100 for the queen, 60 for the crown
Fifth rank lower - First Palace Lady (leading prince, 40 for the consort of the heir apparent, 50 for the
the Royal/Queen's Secretariat): Sang-bok ( ) and seson, the son of the prince successor, and 30 for the wife
of the seson.* [5]
Sang-shik ( )
Sixth rank upper - Chief Palace Lady (e.g. leading
the royal kitchen): Sang-chim ( ) and Sang-gong
( )
Sixth rank lower - Sang-jeong (
)

) and Sang-gi (

4.7 Lifetime employment and payment

All gungnyeo within the palace were basically tied for life,
Seventh rank upper - Leading Palace Lady (being from their acceptance into the palace until the time at
charge of a specic activity): Chon-bin ( ), Chon- which they had to leave. Once they entered service they
ui ( ) and Chon-son ( )
had to live inside the palace for their whole life, except
for special occasions. Apart from the king and his imme Seventh rank lower - Jeon-seol ( ), Jeon-je ( ) diate household, nobody, not even his concubines, could
and Jeon-eon ( )
die in the royal court, so when gungnyeo became old or
Eighth rank upper - Jeon-chan ( ), Jeon-shik ( ) ill, they had to leave the palace. There were other reasons
to release gungnyeo from the palace, such as when their
and Jeon-yak ( )
superior or master was ill, or when a drought happened,
Eighth rank lower - Jeon-deung ( ), Jeon-che ( ) a certain number of gungnyeo were released in appeaseand Jeon-jeong ( )
ment of the natural calamity. In the latter case, such released gungnyeo were restricted in their actions, prohib Ninth rank upper - Ju-gung ( ), Ju-sang ( ) and
ited from marrying, and would be harshly punished if they
Ju-gak ( )
violated these rules. Thus gungnyeo lived completely iso Ninth rank lower - Ju-byeon-chi (
), ju-chi ( ), lated from outside life, and were not allowed to contact
men, or even other women, except by release from serju-oo ( ) and Ju-byeon-gung (
)
vice. The life of gungnyeo is depicted in an ancient novel
by an anonymous
The palace ladies were followed by lower rank ladies-in- titled Unyeongjeon () written
*
writer
during
the
Joseon
Dynasty.
[5]
waiting (e.g. palace lady candidates), servants and slaves.

4.6 The number of gungnyeo

The total number of gungnyeo included not only gungnyeo
at the main palace where the king resided but also at Jesagung, palaces for jesa, (ancestor veneration) and Byeolgung, (annexed palaces). Gungnyeo who worked within
the main palace despised those who worked in annexed
palaces, calling them gunggeot (the one at the palace). In
the main palace, the king's quarter was managed as an independent household, and all of the king, queen, queen
dowager's quarters had the same number of gungnyeo. It
has been suggested that gungnyeo numbered 90 in total.
Each of these residences would have twenty to twenty

Gungnyeo received a graded monthly salary according to

rank and living necessities as their payment, but the price
was not xed. It varied according to economic circumstances at that time. Service was assumed to be on a dayshift basis.* [5]

4.8 See also

Lady-in-waiting
Related lms: Dae Jang Geum, Shadows in the
Palace, Dong Yi
Joseon Dynasty politics

4.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

19

4.9 References

4.10 External links

[1] Han, Hee-sook, pp. 141146

[2] Korean Food Culture Series Part 5; Royal Cuisine
Who made royal cuisines?". Korea Tourism Organization.
[3] "
( ), Sanggung (in Korean/English).
Academy of Korean Studies.

The

[4] "

()" (in Korean/English). Empas / EncyKorea.

[5] "

()" (in Korean/English). Empas / Britannica.

[6] "
( ), naegwan (in Korean/English).
Academy of Korean Studies.

The

[7] " (), daejeon(in Korean/English). The Academy

of Korean Studies.
[8] " (), naejeon(in Korean/English). The Academy
of Korean Studies.
[9] Glossary of Korean Studies. The Academy of Korean
Studies. Retrieved 2010-01-07.
[10] Kichung Kim (1996). An Introduction to Classical Korean
Literature: From Hyangga to Pansori. M.E. Sharpe. p.
96. ISBN 1-56324-786-0.
[11] Rajini Srikanth; Esther Yae Iwanaga (2001). Bold Words:
A Century of Asian American Writing. Rutgers University
Press. p. 425. ISBN 0-8135-2966-2.
[12] Lee, Esther Kim (2006). A history of Asian American
theatre. Cambridge University Press. p. 193. ISBN 0521-85051-7. Retrieved 2010-01-07.
[13] Zile, Judy Van (2001). Perspectives on Korean dance.
Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6494-X. Retrieved 2010-01-07.
[14] Glossary of Korean Studies. The Academy of Korean
Studies. Retrieved 2010-01-07.
[15] "'
'
01-07.

". Kordic.empas.com. Retrieved 2010-

[16] "'
'
01-07.

". Kordic.empas.com. Retrieved 2010-

[17] "'
'
01-07.

". Kordic.empas.com. Retrieved 2010-

Han, Hee-sook (December 2004). Women's Life

during the Chosn Dynasty 6. International Journal of Korean History. pp. 141146 & 152153.
Shin, Myung-ho (
) (20 April 2004). Gungnyeo
The Flower of the Palace (
) (in Korean).
Sigongsa. ISBN 978-89-527-3671-0.
Prof. Jo Mun-su (
). Korean royal court cuisine (
) (in Korean). Jeju University.

(Korean) TV clip for the program, Gungnyeo during

the Joseon Dynasty were professionals at Women's
History Knowledge System
(Korean) Titles of gungnye at MBC

Chapter 5

Sanggung
Sanggung was an ocial title of the senior 5th rank
( ; Jong 5 pum), the highest attainable for
gungnyeo, a lady-in-waiting during the Joseon Dynasty
of Korea.* [1]* [2] Female ocers with the title were assigned to govern the inner aairs of the palace. When
a regular nain served for more than 15 years, she would
be awarded with an ornamental hairpin for a sanggung.
Therefore, a newly appointed sanggung was usually 35
45 years old. A court lady at the rank of sanggung was
treated well enough to live in her own house with servants.* [3]
The title rst appears in Goryeosa History
(
of Goryeo),
a complied book about the Goryeo period. In the chapter of the book titled Baekgwanji (), regarding
all ocial titles, there were posts named sanggung (
, managing the palace), sangchim ( , managing
bedding), sangsik ( managing food), and another
sangchim (, managing sewing) during the reign of
King Hyeonjong. The book also has another record that
Lady Han was appointed as sanggung in March 1031, the
22nd year of the king's reign. These records prove that
the sanggung system had existed since the Goryeo period.* [4]* [5]
As a system on naemyeongbu () which refers to
women at court with a rank including queen and ladyin-waiting* [6] was revised since the foundation of the
Joseon Dynasty, female ocers with the title, sanggung
began to manage inner aairs of the court in general as
the highest position of the gunggwan (literally a palace
ocer). The naemyeongbu was largely divided into naegwan (literally internal oces* [7]) and gunggwan according to Gyeongguk daejeon. The former refers to a
king's concubines or a crown prince's consort while gunggwan are female ocers with a rank.* [4]

gungnyeo, and they are responsible for the management of properties. They serve the king with
many other ladies-in-waiting in his palace, receive
the king's order and have political power.
Bujejo sanggung () - also called Arigo
sanggung () manages the properties in
the warehouse of palace.
Jimil sanggung () - also called Daeryeong
sanggung () waited closely to the king.
Bomo sanggung () - literally meaning a
nurse sanggungtook care of princes and princesses.
Sinyeo sanggung ( ) - literally meaning
a maid-in-waiting sanggungassists jimil saggung
with books and ceremony.
Gamchal sanggung () - literally meaning
an inspector sanggunginspected and give the punishment to gungnyeo.* [9]

5.2 See also

Gungnyeo
Dae Jang Geum
Shadows in the Palace
Korean royal court cuisine

5.3 References

The social status of sanggung generally belonged to the

yangin (common people) class, distinguished from naegwan in policy.

[1] Hyegynggung Hong Ssi; JaHyun Kim Haboush (translation) (1996). The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyng: The Autobiographical Writings of a Crown Princess of Eighteenthcentury Korea. University of California Press. p. 62.
ISBN 0-520-20055-1.

5.1 Types of sanggung

[2] "
( ), Sanggung (in Korean/English).
Academy of Korean Studies.

Jejo sanggung () - also called Keunbang

sanggung.* [8] They had the highest position among
20

[3] http://www.food.co.kr/english/05_5.html
[4] "

()" (in Korean). Empas / Britannica.

The

5.3. REFERENCES

[5] "
[6] "

()" (in Korean). Empas / EncyKorea.

()" (in Korean). Doosan Encyclopedia.

[7] http://www.aks.ac.kr/glossary/glossary_detail.asp?g_
code=1370&page=1&c_code=&search_field=all&
keyword=naegwan&order=g_korean&kanada=
[8] "

()" (in Korean). Doosan Encyclopedia.

[9] http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=
255134&v=42

Han, Hee-sook (December 2004).Womens Life

during the Chosn Dynasty 6. International Journal of Korean History. pp. 141146 & 152153.
Shin, Myung-ho (
) (2004-04-20). Gungnyeo The Flower of the Palace ( ) (in Korean).
Sigongsa. ISBN 978-89-527-3671-0.
Prof. Jo Mun-su (
). Korean royal court cuisine (
) (in Korean). Jeju University.

21

22

CHAPTER 5. SANGGUNG

5.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

5.4.1

Text

Chinese fortune telling Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20fortune%20telling?oldid=626442303 Contributors: Shizhao,

Ukexpat, Hintha, Benjwong, Bgwhite, Drmies, Ernobe, Editor2020, BRPXQZME, Addbot, Smithrjs, Yobot, FrescoBot, Shanghainese.ua,
GoingBatty, Vegetarianjovfg320, Eciency290, Yipsw14 and Anonymous: 5
Kisaeng Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisaeng?oldid=628237388 Contributors: PuzzletChung, Rich Farmbrough, Kwamikagami,
Kappa, Visviva, Cecil, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Geraldshields11, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, FayssalF, FlaBot, Chobot, Conscious, Gaius Cornelius, FFLaguna, CaliforniaAliBaba, Carl Daniels, Morgan Leigh, Enni84, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, HalfShadow, Hmains,
Chris the speller, Endroit, TimBentley, Teemeah, Writtenright, Kingshiadric, Puddingpie, Hateless, Only, Ligulembot, Megamanic, Heran
et Sang'gres, Bedens67, Tortfeasor, Kbarends, KnightLago, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Janviermichelle, Missvain, Heroeswithmetaphors,
WinBot, Smith Jones, Ilha Youn, Geishainkyoto, Odst, Erkan Yilmaz, PC78, Rumpelstiltskin223, 2812, ACSE, ^demonBot2, Crispy park,
Ourdestiny, Hugh16, Mercenario97, Angelo De La Paz, ClueBot, PixelBot, Ervaude, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Mintyziggy, LinkFA-Bot, Dziwka, Ws227, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Mmoo123, Markashworth, Masonfamily, Melonbarmonster2, Citation bot, Christian140, J04n,
Phoenix7777, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, EWVGN3T0, Syngmung, Winchester91, Oleg-ch, Dixtor, Mogism, Koo Richard, Strangejames
and Anonymous: 57
Uinyeo Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uinyeo?oldid=542864767 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Timrollpickering, Klemen Kocjancic, Rjwilmsi, Pigman, Asarelah, SmackBot, Durova, Caspian blue, Charlesdrakew, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot 1, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Khazar2, FoCuSandLeArN and Anonymous: 1
Gungnyeo Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gungnyeo?oldid=612615600 Contributors: Timrollpickering, Rjwilmsi, Pigman, Gaius
Cornelius, Welsh, Tony1, Chris the speller, Teemeah, Ph0kin, Missvain, Robertgreer, Jevansen, Caspian blue, Charlesdrakew, Mazarin07,
Finetooth, Xavexgoem, Addbot, MadaMag, KamikazeBot, Xqbot, Citation bot 1, Gzhao, Evawen, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1, GaHee
Park, Monkbot and Anonymous: 3
Sanggung Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanggung?oldid=586905793 Contributors: Timrollpickering, Klemen Kocjancic,
Rjwilmsi, Pigman, Clarityend, Missvain, Caspian blue, Charlesdrakew, BotKung, SieBot, Addbot, ArthurBot, Citation bot 1, Evawen,
Henry Pei, Helpful Pixie Bot, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 2

5.4.2

Images

File:1910 _ _ .jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/1910%EB%85%84%EB%8C%80_%EC%

A1%B0%EC%84%A0_%EA%B8%B0%EC%83%9D.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.kobay.co.kr/servlet/
wsauction/item/itemView%3Bjsessionid=BFEIKJBBNLJF?item.itemseq=1104UL5JQQU Original artist: Unknown
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Fortune_teller_taiwan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Fortune_teller_taiwan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Gagokhunjang.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Gagokhunjang.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Visviva at en.wikipedia
File:Gyechuk_ilgi-Dairy_of_1613.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Gyechuk_ilgi-Dairy_of_1613.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: anonymous ' (maid-in-waiting) of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea
File:Hyewon-Ssanggeum.daemu-detail-01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Hyewon-Ssanggeum.
daemu-detail-01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist:
(: 1758-19
)
File:KOCIS_Korea_Hanbok-AoDai_FashionShow_27_(9766155131).jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e2/KOCIS_Korea_Hanbok-AoDai_FashionShow_27_%289766155131%29.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.0 Contributors:
Korea_Hanbok-AoDai_FashionShow_27 Original artist: Korea.net / Korean Culture and Information Service (Jeon Han)
File:Korea-Dae_Jang_Geum_Theme_Park-41.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Korea-Dae_Jang_
Geum_Theme_Park-41.jpg License: CC-BY-2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as IMG_5742 Original artist: karendotcom127
File:Korea-Kisaeng-01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Korea-Kisaeng-01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital
ID cph.3b26987.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: No known restrictions on publication

File:Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1334-06.JPG
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/
Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1334-06.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Steve46814
File:Pyongyangkisaeng.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Pyongyangkisaeng.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:PC78. Original artist: Original uploader was
Visviva at en.wikipedia
File:Translation_to_english_arrow.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Faigl.ladislav using
CommonsHelper.
Original artist: tkgd2007. Original uploader was Tkgd2007 at en.wikipedia
File:Unknw13t.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Unknw13t.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Visviva at en.wikipedia

5.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

5.4.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

23