Note 10

Rotational Motion I

Sections Covered in the Text: Chapter 13

Motion is classified as being of one of three types:

translational, rotational or vibrational. Translational
motion is the motion executed by the center of mass of
an object modelled as a particle (Notes 03 and 06). The
motion of a baseball hit in a line drive is largely translational. But a baseball can also rotate, so the motion
of a baseball can in general possess both translational
and rotational components. A baseball does not
usually vibrate. We shall study vibrational motion in
Note 12.
At first thought the motion of a baseball might seem
impossibly complicated to describe mathematically.
Physics shows, however, that the motion of any object
can be separated into its translational and rotational
components and those components solved for
separately. This is possible because translational and
rotational components of the motion of a rigid body
do not interact with one another.1
We have already studied a particularly simple form
of rotational motion in Note 05: a particle rotating
about a point external to it. This motion is called
circular motion. Here we survey a few aspects of the
rotational motion of a rigid extended body rotating
about a point internal to itself.
We begin by laying down the kinematics of a rotating body as we did for a body in translational
motion. We derive the kinematic equations of rotational motion and deduce the relationships between
rotational and translational quantities. We introduce
the construct of torque.

Angular Speed and Angular Acceleration

For convenience we consider a rigid extended object
whose mass is confined to a plane and whose translational motion is zero (Figure 10-1). We suppose this
object is rotating in a counterclockwise direction
about an axis perpendicular to its plane passing
through a point O. In the coordinate system of the
figure, this axis can be thought of as the z-axis.
We assume that the object is a rigid, extended body.
By this we mean it cannot be modelled as a single
particle. It can, however, be modelled (approximately)
as a collection of particles whose positions are fixed
relative to one another. A CD is a rigid body whereas
a soap bubble is not.
1

But the body must be rigid. Examples of non-rigid bodies

whose modes of translation and rotation interact are typically
studied in a higher-level course in classical mechanics.

Figure 10-1. A particle P in a rigid body is located with

respect to O by the polar coordinates (r,).
Any point P in the object can be located relative to the
point O with polar coordinates (r, ). As the object
rotates, P follows a circle of radius r. Every other point
in the object also follows a circular path, but a path
with a different radius. Let us suppose that in some
elapsed time t, P moves from a position on the
positive x-axis to the point where it is shown in the
figure. Then the subtended angle is called the
angular displacement of P measured relative to the
positive x-axis. Because the object is rigid, the angular
displacement of every particle in the object is the same
as the angular displacement of P.
Angular displacement is measured in the dimensionless unit called radian (abbreviated rad) and in the
following way. The arc length of the circle on which P
moves (the distance travelled by P) is related to the
radius r and angle by

and therefore

s = r ,

[10-1]

s
= .
r

[10-2]

(rad). If s = r then = 1 radian. If the object executes

one complete revolution, then the angular displacement of P is 2 radians. 2 radians is equivalent to
360. If the object executes two revolutions, then its
angular displacement is 4 radians. By its nature,
angular displacement is a cumulative quantity.

10-1

Note 10

We now have the tools we need to define the rotational equivalents of the translational quantities we
defined in Note 03. We begin by making Figure 10-1
more general (Figure 10-2) by supposing that in some
elapsed time t = tf ti any arbitrary point P in the
object moves from a position i to a position f. These
positions are shown as [A] and [B] in the figure. The
corresponding angular positions are i and f
respectively.

d
=
.
t 0 t
dt

lim

[10-5]

We now extend the math to allow for changes in the

instantaneous angular velocity.3 If the instantaneous
angular velocity is changing, then the object is by
definition, undergoing an angular acceleration. Let
the instantaneous angular velocity of the point P at
positions i and f be i and f respectively. The change
in the instantaneous angular velocity divided by the
corresponding elapsed time is defined as the average
angular acceleration:

f i
=
.
t f ti
t

[10-6]

Average angular acceleration has dimension T2 and

units s2. The limit of the average angular acceleration
as t 0 is defined as the instantaneous angular
acceleration:

d
=
.
t 0 t
dt

lim
Figure 10-2. A more general representation of a rotating
body than that shown in Figure 10-1. In some elapsed time
t a particle P in the body moves counterclockwise between
two arbitrary angular positions.
The angular displacement of P in the interval chosen is
defined as the difference between the angular
positions that define the interval:
= f i

[10-7]

and are, in fact, vector quantities (pseudo-vectors)

whose complete vector nature is beyond the scope of
these notes to describe adequately.4 But you can find
the direction of the vectors with the help of the righthand rule as was introduced for the vector cross
product (Figure 10-3).

[10-3]

(rad).2 The angular displacement divided by the

corresponding elapsed time is defined as the average
angular velocity:

f i
=
.
t f ti
t

[10-4]

Average angular velocity has dimension T 1 and units

rad.s1 (or just s1 since rad has no dimension). The
limit of the average angular velocity as t 0 is
defined as the instantaneous angular velocity:

Figure 10-3. How to use the right hand rule to find the
direction of the vector of a rotating body.
3

The alert reader will notice the word displacement here

implying a vector quantity. Angular displacement is, in fact, a
vector quantity, or more correctly, a pseudo-vector. This aspect of
rotational motion is somewhat advanced and best left to a second
year course in classical mechanics.

10-2

Of course, in order for the objects angular velocity to change,

the object must be subject to a force applied to it in a special way.
For the moment we ignore this force, as we did in Notes 02 and 03,
and stay within the area of kinematics.
4
We leave this description to a higher-level course in classical
mechanics.

Note 10

To find the direction of the vector, extend your right

hand, curl your fingers as if you are to grip something
and extend your thumb. Now curl your fingers in the
direction of the angular displacement of the object
(the direction the object is rotating). Then your thumb
points in the direction of the vector. By convention,
the vector is placed on a diagram along the bodys
axis of rotation. Later in this note we shall see other
uses of the right hand rule.

Rotational Kinematics
As implied in the previous section, a set of kinematic
equations exist for rotational motion just as they do
for translational motion. They have a similar form and
are derived in a similar fashion. We shall therefore
just list them (Table 10-1).
Table 10-1. Comparison of translational and rotational kinematic equations.
Translational Motion

Rotational Motion

v f = vi + at

f = i + t

x f = xi + vi t + at

x f = xi + (vi + v f )t
2

v f = vi + 2a(x f xi )

f = i + it + t

The final angular speed is 10.0 s or 10.0 rad.s .

(b) Using the second equation in Table 10-1 we have
for the angular displacement
1
2

f = i + ( i + f )t
1
2
= 25.0 radians.

= 0 + (0 + 10.0rad.s 1 )(5.00s)

The number n of revolutions is this number divided

by the number of radians per revolution (i.e., 2):

n=

25.0(rad)
= 3.98 rev.
rad
2

rev

Thus nearly 4 revolutions are required for the wheel

to accelerate to the final angular speed of 10.0 s1.

f = i + ( i + f )t
2

f = i + 2 ( f i )

Problems in rotational kinematics can be solved much

like problems in translational kinematics. Assuming
you have memorized the translational equations and
know the rotational equivalents, you can easily
reconstruct the rotational equations. Let us consider
an example.

Relations exist between the angular and tangential

speeds of a particle in a rotating rigid body, and between the angular and tangential accelerations. Since
these relations are useful in solving rotational motion
problems we consider them next.

Relations Between Rotational and

Translational Variables
Suppose that a rigid extended body rotates about an
axis that passes through an internal point O as shown
in Figure 10-4. Consider a point P in this body.

Example Problem 10-1

A Problem in Rotational Kinematics
Starting from rest a wheel is rotated with a constant
angular acceleration of 2.00 rad.s 2 for 5.00 s. (a) What
is the final angular speed of the wheel? (b) How many
complete revolutions does the wheel execute in the
elapsed time of 5.00 s?
Solution:
(a) Using the first equation in Table 10-1 we have for
the final angular speed

f = i + t = 0 + (2.00s2 )(5.00s)
= 10.0 s1.

Figure 10-4. A particle P in a rotating rigid body.

10-3

Note 10

The magnitude of the tangential velocity of P is, from

eq[10-1],

v=

ds
d
=r
,
dt
dt

since r is constant. Thus using the definition of in

eq[10-5]
v = r .
[10-8]

Table 10-2. Relationships between the magnitudes of translational and rotational variables.
Translational

Rotational

Relationship

x
v
a

x = r
v = r
a = r = 2r

Let us consider an example.

The tangential acceleration of P is, using eq[10-8],

at =

dv
d
=r
,
dt
dt

again since r is constant, or using the definition of in

eq[10-7],
at = r .
[10-9]
Now since P is moving in a circle it is undergoing a
centripetal acceleration. The magnitude of this
centripetal or radial component of the acceleration is

ac =

v2
= r z2 .
r

using eq[10-8].
The relationship between tangential and radial components of the acceleration of P can be seen with the
help of Figure 10-5. The total acceleration of P is the
sum of the at and ar vectors. The complete vector
nature of at and ac is beyond the scope of these notes
to describe. The relationships between the magnitudes
of these quantities are summarized in Table 10-2.

Example Problem 10-2

Tangential and Angular Speeds
A bicycle wheel of diameter 1.00 m spins freely on its
axis at an angular speed of 2.00 rad.s1. (a) What is the
tangential speed of a point on the rim of the wheel?
(b) What is the tangential speed of a point halfway
between the axis and the rim?
Solution:
(a) Using eq[10-8] the tangential speed of a point on
the rim of the wheel is

1.00m
v = r =
(2.00rad.s 1 ) = 1.00 m.s1.

2
(b) A point halfway between axis and rim will have a
tangential speed one half of this value, or
v = 0.50 m.s 1.
Clearly, the further a point on the wheel is from the
axis of rotation the greater is its tangential speed.
Though the two points have different tangential
speeds they have the same angular speed.

We stated in Note 07 without proof that the centre of

mass of a rigid body can be taken to be the bodys
geometric centre. We are now ready to extend the idea
of the centre of mass to a system of discrete bodies,
and to define the centre of mass in a proper
mathematical fashion.

Figure 10-5. The resultant acceleration of any particle P in a

rotating rigid body is the vector sum of the tangential and
radial acceleration vectors.

10-4

Note 10

Center of Mass Revisited

Example Problem 10-3

Finding the Centre of Mass of a System of Particles

We have all seen pictures of a body rotating in the

weightless environment of a space capsule. If the
body is a flat plate (Figure 10-6) we would see that a
point in the body doesnt rotate at all. That point is the
bodys centre of mass. If we model the body as a
collection of particles in a coordinate system (Figure
10-6b) then the coordinates of the centre of mass can
be shown to be

A 0.50 kg ball and a 2.00 kg ball are connected by a

massless rod of length 0.50 m. Where is the centre of
mass of the system located relative to the 2.00 kg ball?
Solution:
The system is shown in Figure 10-7. We model the
two balls as particles. For convenience we put the
large ball at the origin. Using eqs[10-10] (and taking
ycm = 0) we have

Figure 10-7. Finding the centre of mass of a system.

x cm =

1
m x + m2 x 2
mi x i = 1 1

M i
m1 + m2

(2.0 kg)(0.0 m) + (0.50 kg)(0.50 m)

3.0 kg + 0.50 kg
= 0.10 m

Figure 10-6. An unconstrained body rotating freely in space

rotates about its centre of mass.

x cm =

1
mi x i
M i
[10-10]

y cm

1
= mi y i .
M i

where M = m 1 + m2 + is the bodys total mass. In a

moment we shall put this definition into more general
form. (In
the event that the body has an appreciable
thickness then we would have to add an equation in z
to eqs[10-10].)
Let us consider an example.

The centre of mass of the system lies between the two

balls and 0.10 m from the 2.0 kg ball. The centre of
mass of a system of particles lies at its weighted
centre.

A solid rigid body does not consist of a collection of

discrete particles, but rather of a continuous
distribution of mass. We must therefore generalize
eqs[10-10] for a continuous distribution. To do this we
imagine the body divided up into many small cells of
boxes, each with the small mass m (Figure 10-8).
Eqs[10-10] thus become

x cm =

1
1
x imi and y cm = y imi .

M i
M i

If we now let the number of cells become larger and

larger and the size of the cells mi become smaller and
smaller these equations go over to

10-5

Note 10

Eq[10-11a] becomes

x cm

1 M
=
M L

1
xdx =
L

xdx .
0

Evaluating the integral we get

Figure 10-8. The division of a solid body into cells.

x cm

1
=
M

xdm

and y cm

1
=
M

ydm

[10-11a and b]

Eqs[10-11] is the most general definition of the centre

of mass. When evaluating eqs[10-11] you must
remember to express dm in terms of dx, dy or both and
then calculate the integrals over coordinates. Let us
consider an example.

Example Problem 10-4

Finding the Centre of Mass of a Uniform Rod
Find the centre of mass of a thin, uniform rod of
length L and mass M relative to one end.

x cm

L
1 x2
1 L2 1
= = 0 = L .
L 2 0 L 2
2

As expected, the rods centre of mass is located

midway along the rod, or at its geometric centre.

Thus far we have considered the kinematics of

rotational motion. We are now ready to broaden our
study to the dynamics of rotational motion.
We know that a bodys translational motion can only
be changed by the application of a net force to the
body. By the same token, a bodys rotational motion
can only be changed by the application of a net force.
But the force must be applied in a special way. This
warrants the definition of another tool of physics
called torque.

Torque
We shall see in what follows that the rotational equivalent of force is a construct called torque. Torque may
be thought of as the turning action that produces a
rotation in the same sense that force is the straightline action that produces a translation. Torque can be
understood with the help of Figure 10-10.

Figure 10-9. Finding the centre of mass of a long thin rod.

Solution:
The rod is an example of a body with a continuous
distribution of mass. Since it is very thin we can set
ycm = 0 (and of course zcm = 0). We put one end of the
rod at the origin and imagine the length of the rod to
be divided into increments dx. Since the rod is
uniform each increment has mass dm = (M/L)dx.

10-6

Figure 10-10. How the torque produced by a force is defined.

The figure shows a wrench whose jaws fit onto a nut
centered at the point O. We assume that the nut-bolt

Note 10

combination is a right-handed one, meaning that the

nut must be rotated counterclockwise to loosen it (so
that its translational motion along the axis of the
screw is out of the plane of the page). A force must
therefore be applied to the wrench roughly as shown.
Though the ultimate cause of rotational motion is a
force, the physical action of loosening the nut cannot be adequately described by force alone. As anyone
knows, if you apply the force in a line through O no
loosening of the nut occurs at all. Moreover, the
further away from O you apply the force, the larger is
the turning effect for the same magnitude of force.
We shall see in what follows that this rotational
action is best described by a new construct called
torque. The torque about an axis O is defined to have
the magnitude
= Fd ,
where F is the magnitude of the force applied and d is
the perpendicular distance from O to the line along
which the force acts. According to Figure 10-10 we can
also write
rFsin ,
[10-12]
where r is the distance from O to the point on the
body at which the force is applied and is the
smallest angle between the vectors r and F . The
dimension of torque is M.L2.T 2. Its units are N.m.
WARNING!
Torque is not the same as Work
Torque and work have the same units, namely
N.m. But torque is not the same as work. For one
thing, torque is a (pseudo) vector whereas work
is a scalar.

Any number of forces may act on a body at the same

time. For example, Figure 10-11 shows two forces
with magnitudes, F 1 and F 2, acting on the same body.
The force F 1 tends to produce a rotation of the body
counterclockwise about O. For this reason the torque
produced by this force is arbitrarily given a positive
sign. The force F 2 tends to produce a rotation of the
body clockwise about O. For this reason the torque
produced by this force is given a negative sign. The
resultant torque has the magnitude

= Fd

1 1

clockwise about O. If the result is negative, then the

body will tend to rotate clockwise about O.
Thus far we have considered the magnitude of
torque. To understand the direction of torque we
must work with its vector definition. This brings us to
the major reason for introducing the vector cross
product:

Figure 10-11. Two forces applied to a body in arbitrary

directions.

= r F,

[10-13]

where r is the vector locating the point at which the

force F is applied relative to the axis of rotation. The
directions of the three vectors in relation to one
another can be seen with the help of Figure 10-12. Let
us suppose for convenience that a force is applied to a
point P in the xy-plane of the body. The vector r
locates the point P relative to the point O about which
the object rotates. The torque vector is then given
by the right hand rule. With reference to the figure,
the magnitude of the torque as given by eq[10-13] can
be seen to be equivalent to eq[10-12].
We now consider an example of two forces applied
to a body.

F2 d2 .

According to our sign convention, if this result is

positive, then the body will tend to rotate counter-

10-7

Note 10

(given a positive sign because it tends to produce a

counterclockwise rotation). The magnitude of the net
torque about the rotation axis is the sum

Figure 10-12. The relationahip between the vectors , r and

F.
Figure 10-13. Two torques acting on a cylinder.

Example Problem 10-5

The Net Torque on a Cylinder
A one-piece cylinder is shaped as in Figure 10-13 with
a core section protruding from a larger drum. The
cylinder is free to rotate around the central (z-) axis
shown in the drawing. Two ropes are wound, one
around the core, the other around the drum, and exert
forces T1 and T 2 on the cylinder in the directions
shown. Calculate the net torque acting on the cylinder
about the rotation axis.
Solution:
The magnitude of the torque produced by T1 is R 1T1
(given a negative sign because it tends to produce a
clockwise rotation about the axis through O). The
magnitude of the torque produced by T 2 is +R 2T2

10-8

net = 1 + 2 = R2 T2 R1 T1 ,
This result can be positive or negative depending on
the relative magnitudes of the forces and radii.
Clearly, if the sum is zero, then the body undergoes
no rotation at all.
Question. Does the body in Figure 10-13 tend to move
with translational motion? Explain.

To Be Mastered

Definitions: angular displacement, radian, average angular velocity, average angular speed, instantaneous angular
velocity, instantaneous angular acceleration, average angular acceleration
equations of rotational kinematics (to be memorized):

f = i + t

f = i + it + t
2

f = i + ( i + f )t
2

f = i + 2 ( f i )

relations between the magnitudes of translational and rotational quantities

x = r

a = r = 2r

v = r

Typical Quiz/Test/Exam Questions

1.

(a) Define torque

(b) What are the units of torque?

2.

State the following as being a vector or a scalar. Give the units of each.
(a) coefficient of friction
(b) potential energy
(c) linear momentum
(d) angular velocity

3.

A body is subject to non-concurrent forces. Write down the conditions for the body to be in a state of
mechanical equilibrium. Explain the meaning of each quantity in your expressions.

4.

A uniform plank of length 2.00 m and weight 100.0 N is to be balanced on a fulcrum or support point (see the
figure). A 500.0 N weight is suspended from the right end of the plank and a 200.0 N weight suspended from
the left end. Answer the following questions.

right

left
fulcrum

(a) Describe the state of the plank when it is balanced.

(b) What are the conditions for this state?
(c) How far from the left end of the plank must the fulcrum be placed?
(d) What is the reaction force exerted by the fulcrum on the plank?

10-9