Vozoff 1972 Geophysics, Magnetoteluric PDF

THE MAGNETOTELLURIC
MAGNETOTELLURIC
METHOD
IN THE
THE EXPLORATION
EXPLORATION
THE
METHOD
IN
OF
SEDIMENTARY
BASlNSt
OF SEDIMENTARY BASINSt
KEEVA VOZOFF*
The paper
paper describes
describes the theory
theory of
of the magnetomagnetoThe
telluric (MT)
(MT)
method, and
and some
some of
of the experiexperitelluric
method,
mental, analytical,
analytical,
and interpretive
interpretive
techniques
mental,
and
techniques
developed for its use
use in petroleum
petroleum exploration
exploration in
developed
the past
past five
five years.
years. Particular
Particular emphasis
emphasis is
is placed
placed
interpretation,
is the area
area least
least amenamenon interpretation,
since it is
able to routine
routine treatment.
treatment. \rhereas
whereas present
present interinterable
pretation techniques
techniques are adequate,
adequate, interpretation
interpretation
pretation
is the area
area of both
both the greatest
greatest progress
progress and
and the
is
greatest need for improvement.
improvement.
greatest
Field results
results are presented
presented from
from traverses
traverses in
Field
South Texas
Texas bordering
bordering on the Guli
Guli of :\Iexico,
Mexico,
South
1nadarko Basin
Hasin of southwestern
southwestern
Oklaand the Anadarko
Okla-
homa. \Vide
Divide station
station spacings
spacings were
were used, such ,t'
a>
homa.
might typify
typify basin
basin evaluations.
evaluations. The
The South
South Texas
Texas
might
results arc
arc compared
compared
directly
with smoothed
smoothetl
results
directly
with
induction logs. I\
No0 useable
useable logs could
could be found
found for
for
induction
Oklahoma.
Comparisons
\rith known
knolvn and
and ininOklahoma.
Comparisons
\\'ith
ferred geology
geology sho\\'
sho\r- that
that the
the surveys
surveys mapped
mapped
ferred
known
parts
0i
resistivity
successfully in the
the knO\\"n
resistivity
successfully
parts
oi
basins as well
\vcll as in Jlortions
portions inaccessible
inaccessible
these basins
seismically.
seismically.
0i
the :\IT
111
The capabilities
capabilities
and economics
economics oi
The
and
the
method justify
justiiy
its consideration
consitleration
for e\'aluating
evaluating
method
its
for
large unexplored
unexplored blocks
blocks and
and "no
no record"
record areas.
areas.
large
Skin depth,
86 Skin
depth, meters
meters
Apparent
resistivity,
resistivity, ohm-m
ohm-m
Po
PO .'\pparent
NOTATION
NOTATION
.r, }"
Coordinate
lositivc
north, cast,
cast,
z Coordinate
axes. Positive
north,
Z,)
Zf,
Impedance
tensor
Impedance
tensor element
element relating
relating E,
Ei
to Hj,
H), ohms
ohms
ZiJ 7- i ) after
Z,.')
after rotation
rotation through
through 0 (in
(in principal
principal
axes)
axes)
Apparent
resistivity
.'\pparent
resistivity corresponding
corresponding to
to
Pi)
P7j
zfj
Z'j
Direction of E for
for largest
largest apparent
apparent
eo Direction
00
resistivity,
resistivity, cloc!i\visc
clockwise from
irom north
north
X
) .v
x',
y',, 2z Coordinate
Coordinate syitcm
system after
aiter rotation
rotation
through 8e(principal
(principal axe,)
axes)
through
E
) II
Components
Components parallel
parallel to
to strike
strike
E,1J
Tipper azimuth
azimuth mcasured
measured cloc!il\isc
clockwise
q, Tipper
4
from
from north
north
.s
Skewness
S Skenness
T Tipper
Tipper
and down.
down.
and
Current density,
density, amperes.'square
amperes square meter
meter
j Current
Potential difference,
difference, volts
volts
T' Potential
I Current,
Current, amperes
amperes
R Resistance,
Resistance, ohms
ohms
f Frequency,
Frequency, hertz
hertz (hz)
(hz)
ecAngular frequency
frequency = 27y[,
271/, radians,
radians.'ssecw Angular
0lld
ond
Resistivity, ohm-meters
ohm-meters (ohm-m)
(ohm-m)
P Resistivity,
Conductivity, mho
mho m
'm
a Conductivity,
Permeability,
meter (Ii
m)
Permeability, henry
henry.meter
(him)
Free
Free space
space permeability,
permeability, = &rX
471' X 1W7
10- 7
h
m
him
Electric
meter
(practical
Electric field,
field, volts/
volts/meter
(practical
units
km)
units -- mv;
Ill\'/km)
IJ JIagnetic
:\1 agnetic field,
field, amperes/meter
ampere,;/ meter [prac[practical
tical units-gammas
units- gammas (y)]
(')I) 1
Ex Component
Component of
of E in
in the
the s.r direction
direction
I Electrode
Electrode separation,
separation, meters
meters
%2j
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
.\dvances
.'\dvances in
111 magnetotelluric
magnetotelluric techniques
techniques anti
and
preliminary
preliminary indications
indications of
of success
success in
in their
their use
use
it I)r.
ozoffs Jqcr
omrnittee
])r. \
Vozoff's
paper is
is the
the second
second in
in aa series
series of
of survq
survey papers
papers sponsorctl
sponsored I)?by the
the liesearch
Research (Commit
tee of
of the
the SI-G.
SEG.
The
1. 1252).
The series
series \vas
was the
the suhjrct
subject of
of im
an editorial
editorial in
in the
the Ikcemlxr.
December, 1971
1971 issue
issue of
of (;F.o1~11Yslcs
(;!-:Oi'IIYSIC; (v.
(v. 36.
3(J.p.
12'=;21.
J
resentcd at
Agary, .\llwta.
Presented
at the
the 39th
39th .\nnual
International SIIG
SEC; Meeting.
l\leeling, Scptemlxr
September Ii,
17, 1069,
1969, (Calgary,
.\Iberta. AJanuscril)t
:\lanuscripl
.\nnual International
received
1; revised
1.
received l)>.
by' the
the Miter
Editor AJn-il
.'\pril 30,
30, 197
1971;
revised manuscript
manuscript received
received Jul>
July 20,
20, 197
1971.
** Professor
113, LIustralia.
Professor of
of Geol)h>.sics,
Geophysics, School
School of
of Earth
Earth Sciences,
Sciences, Rlacquarie
l\Iacquarie Lniversitj,,
Cniversity, Sorth
:\orlh Rytle,
Rycle, X.S.\\-.
N.S.\\". 22113,
"\ustralia.
@
1972 by
the Society
of Exploration
Geophysicists. All
rights reserved.
by the
Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
All rights
reserved.
98
98
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Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
99
99
have led
let1 to an
an acceleration
accclcration in interest
interest and
and applicaapplicahave
surveys. In
In the conducting
conducting
earth, the changing
changing
sUf\"eys.
earth,
tion. .4s
rough estimate,
estimate
more than
than aa million
million
tion.
\s aa rough
more
mqnctic
induces telluric
trlluric
[ctltly) current,
currcntmagnetic
field induces
(eddy)
rlollars I\as
\vas ,;penl
sl)ent ()n
on magnetolelluric
ma~:n~tot~lluric (:'lIT)
(.\li)
COIN- and
C()Ild()"ars
iln(l 1()ltage,;;
voltaxcs:
lh(, lalll'r
lattc~r arc the
th(, declric
electric U~I
(/:I
lhe
tract field\\"ork
ficl(l\vork and
and research
research in 11060.
For 1111~
tirxl
tract
<)()<). For
he fir,;1
signals. They
They are
arc very
vcr>. similar
similar in appearance
appearance t()
to
signals.
time fieldwork
fieldwork is
is being
being supported
supported by the operatoperatII signals.
signals. ()n
On chart
chart record,;,
record>, both
both sets oi
time,
the If
divisions of major
major oil companies
companies as
as well
\vell as
as by
by
variations
look irregular
irregular
and noise-like
noise-like for
for the
the
ing divisions
variations
look
and
their research
research laboratories.
laboratories.
.At times,
times, in certain
certain
most part,
part, as in Figure
Figure 1. :\,t
their
most
This paper
paper is intended
intended to help
help fill
fill the increasing
increasing
This
frequency
bands, the
the variations
variations
may appear
appear
frequency
bands,
may
the petroleum
petroleum geophysicist
geophysicist to understand
understand
need of the
sinusoidal (Figure
(Figure 2) but
but the
the sinusoids
sinusoids are not
not an
sinusoidal
important
part of
0i
the signal
signal for
for :\1
Al?
purposes.
method so
so he can
can use it
it intelligently.
intelligently.
Field
the method
Field
important
part
the
T purposes.
Signal amplitudes
amplitudes fall
fall off rapidly
rapidly IIith
I\-ith increasing
increasing
results are included
included to illustrate
illustrate
method5
results
the method',;
Signal
frequency o\er
o\er most oi
potential
inherent limitation,;.
limitationh.
0i the
the range
range oi
0i irequencie,;
ireclucncicq
potential
and its inherent
frequency
Figure -33 shows
sho\vs typical
tyl)ical spectral
spectral behavior
behavior for
i0r
used. Figure
BASIC CONCEPTS
CONCEPTS
BASIC
R ,wd
anal If
IZ as recorded
recorded in four
i0ur o\"Crlapping
overlapping
irel~
freThe :\1'1'
111 method
metl~od is a \\"ay
\vay oj
01 determining
determining
the
The
the
clucncy bam\,;.
bands. Signal
Signal level
lel-el can increase
increase very
\-er!quency
electrical conductivity
conductivity
distribution
oi the subelectrical
distribution
of
rapidly at the
the onset oi
0i magnetic
magnetic storms,
storms, an
an ininrapidly
surface from
from measurements
mcasurementb of natural
natural transient
transient
surface
crease of
0i a
a factor
factor oi
of 10 being
being common
common and
and even
even a
crease
electric and
and magnetic
magnetic fields on the surface.
surface
electric
factor of 100 is not
not unusual.
unusual.
factor
Resultsts interpreted
interpreted
from measurements
measurements
at a
Resul
from
at
Lost o[
oi the
:\rost
the magnetic
magnetic noise
noise reaching
reaching the
the earth
earth
Angle
sometimes compared
compared to an inducinduc,;i
ngle site are sometimes
belon- 1 hz
hz is due
beloll
due to
to current
current flo\v
flow in
in the
the ioniwtl
ionized
tion log, \"Cry
very hea
heavily
smoothed, obtained
obtained wi
Jvithout
layers surrounding
surrounding
the
tion
,ily smoothed,
thou t
layers
the earth.
earth. The
The currents
currents arc
arc
ir0m
line of measuring
measuring
drilling a well.
well. Results
Results from
powered by
by solar
drilling
a line
powered
solar activity,
activity, and
and by
by the
the relative
relati,e
stations are interpreted
interpreted
give underlying
underlying
coiimotions of
0i
the
stations
to give
conmotions
the earth,
earth, sun,
sun, and
and moon.
moon. At
At frefreductivity distribution
distribution and
and structure.
structure. That
That picture
picture
quencies
above
ductivity
quencies
above 1 hz,
hz, worldGde
worlrhl"ide electrical
electrical
01 the
the subsurface
subsurface can
can in
in turn
turn be related
related to porosity
porosit>
thundcrstoi-iii
activity
'If
thunderstorm
activity \vithin
within the
the atmosphere
atmosphere is
and salinity,
salinity, since conductivity
conductivity
depends primarily
primarily
the major
major contributor.
lhe transient
and
depends
the
contribu tor. The
transient ficltls
fields due
due to
those t\\"o
t\vo factors
factors in common
common sedimentary
sctlimentar)
thunderstorms
can
on those
thunderstorm,;
can bc
be exceedingly
exceedingly large
large locally,
locally,
rocks.
while those
those associated
rocks.
associated with
with tornatlos
tornados arc
arc greater
greater
while
The time
time variations
variations of
oi the
the earth's
earths electric
electric and
and
still.
The
still.
magnetic
fields at
at a site
site are
arc recorded
recorded
simulmagnetic
fields
simulEFFECT
EFFECT OF
OF EARTH
EARTH CONDUCTIVITY
CONDUCTIVITY ON
ON H
taneously
taneously over
over a wide
wide range
range of frequencies,
frequencies, usually
usually
\\
h
en
the
magnetic
fluctuations
on digital
tape.
The
variations
are
analyzed
b>
\\"hen the magnetic !luctuations reach
reach the
the
digital tape. The variations are analyzed by
computer
surface of
of the
the earth,
earth, reflection
reflection and
and refraction
refraction
computer to obtain
obtain their
their spectra
spectra and
and apparent
apparent surface
occur.
resistivities
occur. r\lthough
Although there
there was
\\"as considerable
considerable disagrecdisagreeresistivities as a function
function 0i
of frequency
frequency arc
arc comcomment
ment at
at one
one time
time, itit is no\v
no\\" well
IIell established
established that,
that,
puted
puted from
from the
the spectra.
spectra. Interpretation
Interpretation consists
consists 0i
of
as a working
matching
working theory,
theory, the
the signals
signals can
can be treated
treated as
matching the
the computed
computed plots
plots of apparent
apparent resisresisplane
tivity
plane electromagnetic
electromagnetic waves.
Il"a\"C5. This
This \rill
will not
not be
tivity against
against frequency
frequency to curves
curves calculated
calculated for
for
true
simplified
true under
under all
all conditions,
conditions, but
but holds
holds for
for the
the vast
vast
simplified modelx.
model:;.
majority
The
Ihc :'lIT
JIT method
majority of
of geological
geological situations
situations of interest
interest in
in
method depends
depends on the
the penetration
penetration of
electromagnetic
petro leu m prospecting
prospecting (Gladden
(:\1 adden and
and K&on,
Kelson,
electromagnetic energy
energy into
into the
the earth.
earth. Depth
Depth petroleum
1961; Rikitake,
ozoff and
control
190-+;
Rikitake, 1966;
1%0; \Yozoff
and E3lis,
Ellis, 1966).
1966).
control comes
comes as a natural
natural consecluence
consequence of the
the
;\lthough
greater
the majority
majority 0iof the
the incident
incident energy
energy is
:'l.lthough the
greater penetration
penetration 0iof the
the low3
100\"er frequencies.
frequencies. The
The
reflected,
measurements
small portion
portion is transmitted
transmitted into
into the
the
reflected, a small
mca,mrements are
are absolute.
absolute. Their
Their interpretation
interpretation
0
gives
earth and
and slowly
slowly travels
travels vertically
vertically downward.
dO\\"I111ard. 1To
ghes true
true resistivity
resistivity values
values and
and true
true depths,
depths, not
not earth
the
just
the conducting
conducting rocks,
rocks, this
this energy
energy appears
appears as a
just anomalies.
anomalies. Depth
Depth interpretation
interpretation based
based on
on
magnetic
1I
I data
magnetic field
field which
which is changing
changing with
Il"ith time
time, and
and
:\IT
data is therefore
therefore much
much more
more definitive
definitive than
than
electric
tthat
electric fields
fields are
are induced
induced so that
that currents,
currents, called
called
ha t based
based on gravity
gra vi ty or
or magnetic
magnetic data.
da tao
telluric
telluric currents,
currents, can
can flow.
flow. These
These telluric
telluric currents
currents
THE
THE SIGNALS
SIGNALS
are
are completely
completely analogous
analogous to
to the
the eddy
eddy currents
currents
The
The time-varying
time-varying magnetic
magnetic (H)
(H) signal
signal is the
the which
which flow
!low in
in transformers
transformers due
due to
to the
the changing
changing
always
s
magnetic
magnetic
always present
present noise
"noise" in
in the
the earth
earth's
magnetic
magnetic fields
fields caused
caused by
by the
the ac
ac current
current in
in the
the
field.
hen very
field. \l
When
very large,
large, itit interferes
interieres with
with magnetic
magnetic primary
pri mary \\-indings.
II"indings.
Vozoff
Vozoff
100
100
Energy in
in the
the downgoing
downgoing disturbance
disturbance is
is quickly
quickly
Energy
dissipated as
as heat.
heat. As
As aa result,
result, the
the field
field penetrapenetradissipated
tion i,;
is relatively
relatively small
small in
in terms
terms of
of its
its wavelength
wavclcngth
tion
in
air.
h
c
penetration
mechanism
in
Chis situasitu;Lin air. The penetration mechanism in this
tion
is
actually
diffusion
rather
than
wave
propation is actually diffusion rather than wave propagation.
gation.
Currcnl density
density in
in the
lhc earth
carlh depends
tlepcntls on
on resisresisCurrent
tivity p,
p, as
as might
might be
be expected.
expected. vVithin
Within aa rock,
rock, the
the
tivity
normal
relationship
between
the
electric
field
and
normal relationship between the electric field and
the current
current density
density at
at each
each point
point is
is
the
.ij
= FJp.
I</p.
This differential
differential form
s law
This
form of
of Ohm
Ohm's
law is
is really
really aa
definition of
of resistivity,
resistivity, and
and is
is very
very similar
similar to
to the
the
definition
Ohmslaw
definition of
ofrrsistancr,
Ohm's
law definition
resistance,
I.,/?.
f/ == I',R.
In mks
mks ul\it~,
unitb,, E
fi is
is in
in vo\t<mcler;j
volls,mcLcr;j is
is in
in amperes/
amperes/
In
square
meter;
p
is
in
ohm-meters;
and
H is
is in
in
square meter; p is in ohm-meters; and H
amperes/meter.
However,
because
the
fields
are
amperes/meter. However, because the fields are
so small,
small, the
the more
more commonly
commonly used
used practical
practical
so
units are
are mv/km
mv/km for
for E
R and
and gammas
gammas for
for H.
H. The
The
units
practical
units
will
be
used
in
later
sections.
practical units will be used in later sections,
~JIG.
Typicalnoise-like
noise-liketelluric
telluricsignals,
signals.Sine
Sinewave
waveat
atbottom
bottomshows
showstime
timescale,
scale.
1.1.Typical
FIG,
101
101
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
~-.".
..
~ -: .---'- ~
--; .. ;--- ---.
. .....
- '- -
~-
~~~~~C';j~~-,
FIG. 2.
2.
FIG.
Largenear-sinusoidal
near-sinusoidal
telluricsignals
signalswith
with superposed
superposed
noise-likesignals.
signals.Time
time scale
scaleon
on boltom
bottom trace.
trace.
Large
telluric
noise-like
The EE measurement
measurement is
isactually
actually aa voltage
voltage differdiffcrThe
ence
measurement
between
two
electrodes.
In aa
ence measurement between two electrodes. In
uniform earth,
earth, the
the voltage
voltage difference
difference Vi between
between
uniform
electrodes aa distance
distance I1apart
apart would
would be
be
electrodes
v1; ==
11:.
l/~.
In the
the MT
MT method
method it
it is
is usually
usually assumed
assumed thatEi:i
that E is
In
constant over
over the
the length
length of
of the
the wire;
wire; i.e.,
i.e.,
constant
F1: == VC l.1.
The depth
depth of
of penetration
penetration of
oi the
the fields
fields into
into the
the
The
earth is
is inversely
inversely related
related (0
to rock
rock conductivity.
conductivity. In
In
earth
uniform earth
earth E
E and
and H
II weaken
weaken exponentially
exponentialI>
aa uniform
\vith depth;
depth; the
the more
more conductive
conductive the
the earth,
earth, the
the
with
lessthe
the penetration.
penetration. The
The depth
depth at
at which
which the
the fields
fields
less
have fallen
fallen off
off to
to (e)-l
(c)-l of
of their
their value:i
values at
at the
the sursurhave
face is
iscalled
called the
the skin
skin depth
depth6.
o.
face
6 = V2!w/J.u
d/2,/w/U m
Ill
"'" !Vp,]
=
$d/b,'J
km,
km,
(1)
(1)
(la)
(1
a)
102
Vozoff
Vozoff
where/is is frequency,
frequency, w == 27r/,and,u
2~/,andp is
is permeabili
permeability.ty.
where/
(J.Lin the earth
earth is
is taken
taken equal
equal to ,un
pi, except
except in
(,u
highly
highly magnetic
magnetic materials.)
materials.) Frequency
Frequency ('nter,
enters into
into
equations because
because the magnitudes
magnitudes
the equations
of the
induced telluric
telluric currents
currents depend
depend on the time
time rate
rate
induced
change of the magnetic
magnetic fields.
of change
In aa uniform
uniform or horizontally
horizontally
layered earth
earth all
In
layered
currents, electric
electric fields,
fields, and magnetic
magnetic fields
fields are
currents,
practically
horizontal, regardless
regardless of the direction
direction
practically
horizontal,
from which
\vhich these fields enter
enter the
the earth.
earth. This
This
from
comes about
about because
because of the high
high conductivity
conductivity
oi
comes
of
earth relative
relative to air.
air. IItt can be thought
thought of in terms
terms
earth
Snells law
law in optics,
optics, with
\vith the
the velocity
velocity in the
the
of Snell's
earth being
being orders
orders of magnitude
magnitude
smaller than
than
earth
smaller
that outside.
outside.
Furthcrmorc,
the currents
currents
and
that
Furthermore,
the
and
electric fields
fields are at right
right angles
angles to the
the associated
associated
electric
magnetic
is positive
lmsitive to
magnetic fields
fields at
at each point.
point. Ii
If E is
north, H is
is positi\'C
positive to the east. That
That is,
the north,
viewed from
from above,
above, E must
must 1w
he rotated
rotated 9()
!JOdegrees
degrees
\'icwed
clockwise
clockwise to obtain
obtain the direction
direction of positive
pnsitivc H.
H.
The
description
of the perThe mathematical
mathematical
description
perpcndicular E
e and
and H fields
fields in a uniform
uniform isotropic
isotropic
pendicular
conductor includes
includes all these features
features in a concise
concise
conductor
form :
form:
fI
Ify
?/
HOepiwtHS
e- iw1 !,
(i--l; '':- 6.
(i-I
o.
(2)
(1)
1,
Ff
2.r
/,Oc~iw!-_(ihI~;
6.
J':Jo
c-iw!- (i-II: O.
,
,r
(3)
(J)
(1
(1
].0
I**:
'x
--
2.
+dpcm,;
1.
i)w,uoH,?
The
The superscript
superscript indicates
indicates the
the value
value at
at the
the surface.
surface.
Particularly
interesting
Particularly
interesting is the
the ratio
ratio
]<'0
'f
(1 - i)w,uo
----
IfJ
= (1 10
?I
(.+)
(1)
oh illS
(5)
20-)l.li~.
i)(wJ.I
i) (w,u 2C)
Since E
E and
and H
Since
H are
are recorded
recorded at
at frequencies
frequencies \vhich
\\'hich
can be accurately
accurately
measured
can
measured and
and since
since p,u varies
varies
little from
from pO
little
,uo in
in most
most rocks,
rocks, the
the ratio
ratio shows
shows the
the
relationship
\vhich
relationship
which exists
exists bet\veen
between the
the conconductivity
and the
ductivity
and
the measured
measured fields.
fields. The
The equation
equation
can be solved
solved ior
can
for conductivity,
conducti\'ity, giving
giving
u1
L =
2 )1
(1 _- i)(wp
i) (w,u2)
(1
5; .
(6)
(
5)
Gluation
Equation (6)
(6) is usually
usually rwritten
rewritten in
in mks
mks units
units as
(6a)
and
and the
the superscripts
superscripts are
are omitted.
omitted,
km
In
In practical
practical units,
units, where
where EE is given
given in
in mv,
mv,'km
and
is
and H
H is in
in gammas,
gammas, the
the magnitude
magnitude of
of ppis
(6b)
\Vhen
When pp (or
(or u)
(j) is calculated
calculated from
from EE and
and H
H values,
values,
it
it is called
called an
an afipurcrzt
apparellt resistivity
resistivity pa
Pa (or
(or apparent
apparent
conductivity
conductivity a,).
(ja). pp and
and P,~
p" are
are related,
related, but
but they
they
must
must be clearly
clearly distinguished.
distinguished. pa
Pu is
i,; the
the resistivity
re,;istivity
that
that a uniform
uniform earth
earth must
mu,;t Iiave
have to
to give
give the
the meamea-
FREQUENCY Hz
sured
sured value
value of
of the
the impedance
impedance Z.
Z. pp is a property
property oi
of
the
the medium,
medium, whereas
whereas pn
Pa depends
depends on
on ho\\how itit is
i,;
1:X.
FIG. 3. Selected *lower
power spectral densities recorded in
the four
four overlapping
overlapping frequency
frequency hands
bands indicated.
indicated. Bands
Bands
were recorded at different
different times.
measured.
measured. The
The ratio
ratio of
of L;,
E, to
to ZIj
Hj at
at each
each irequenc\
irequency
is the
tbe impedance
impedance %ij
Zij for
for those
those components
components at
at
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
103
103
H CHANNEL
CHANNEL
H
I
MAGNETICC FIELD
FIELD INPUT
INPUT
MAGNETI
f--
COUPLER,
[IQIL
.--_ _ _~---<~
PRE-AMPLIFIER
r
--------r------------
:= =CHANNE[=-L
=:: ==
=== == - - - ,
I EECHANNEL
_ _ _--,
1
I /11/1/
ELECTRODE
I ELECTRODE
I
- .,
ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC
FIELD
FIELD
INPUT
INPUT
COUPLER
COUPLER
r--
ELECTRIC
FIELD
FIELD
PRE-AMPLIFIER
PRE-AMPLIFIER
A/D/A A
A/D/
FILTER a
8
FILTER
AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER
!
!:I
RECORD/REPRODUCE
REPRODUCE
I, RECORDI
,-------,
Lr-----'
COUPLER,
PRE-AMP_LlFI_ER_Il_I:1
AND POWER SUPPLY
AND POWER SUPPLY
i
i r~
JJ
___
I :CALIBRATOR - - - -- - - - ,-__ _-_-,'

I
~
I(
~AL~:C:~: C~A:E: 0 -- -- - - - - - -,
L-----1:-----i
7
MAGNETIC
CHANNEL
MAGNETIC
CHANNEL
MAGNETIC
(-10')
ATTENUATOR
ATTENUATOR (c(7 100)
IO)
.-----1
(READ/ WRITE)
(READ/WRITE)
I
I
TAPE
TAPE
RECORDER
RECORDER
I1
I----------------/ CALIBRATOR
ELECTRIC
CHANNEL
ELECTRIC
CHANNEL
ATTENUATOR (-'(- 10')
IO)
ATTENUATOR
(.,-
--.J
II
L-______p___-!
DIGITAL
DIGITAL
CHANNEL
66 CHANNEL
CONVERTER
CONVERTER
IO BITS
BITS
10
SIGNAL
SIGNAL
SIGNAL
, GENERATOR
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
--.J
I
,
CHANNEL
66 CHANNEL
STRIP
STRIP
CHART
CHART
RECORDER
RECORDER
~~:~T
LL_-___ _ _ _
4~
-+ ___ _ __JJ
_____I
I~
_
_~ 1
----------------~
I:IG. 4.
4. Block
Block diagram
diagramof
of aa oasic
basicmagnetotelluric
magnetotelluricinstrumentation
instrumentationsystem.
s)-stem.
FIG.
that frequency. Since
Since E and H are usually not
that
Zfj is
is taken to be aa complex number.
in-phase, Z,'j
In aa uniform
uniform earth,
earth, Pa
pa has
has to be the same
same at
In
frequency, and E
.E leads H in-phase by 45
every frequency,
degrees at all ffrequencies.
[That this is
is so
so can be
be
degrees
rel[uencies. [That
substituting equation
equation (5) into el[uaequachecked by substituting
(Ob)].
\ve plot Pa
pa and phase against
tion (()b)
J. Thus, if we
see that
that both are constants.
frequency, we see
In
In discussing
discussing kinds of electrical
electrical structure
structure it
it is
is
useful to define t\vo-dimensional
two-dimensional and threethreedimensional structures. In
In the two-dimensional
two-dimensional
case
case [a=~(s,
[0" = O"(x, z)], conductivity
conducti vit;; varies along one
horizontal
horizontal coordinate
coordinate and with
with depth.
depth. The
The other
other
horizontal
horizontal direction
direction is called the strike. \Vhen
When
conductivity
conductivity varies \vith
with both horizontal
horizontal coordinates and Faith
with tleptli
depth [u=u(.r,
[o-=o-(.\', ?,
y, z)],
z)]' the strucstructure is said to be three-tlimensional
three-dimensional and has no
no
strike.
If r0- depends only
only on z, the structure
structure is
strike. If
one-dimensional.
In each case,
case, c0" at each point
point
one-dimensional. In
can depend on the direction
direction of current
current flou;
flow; ifif (r
0"
does
does depend on direction,
direction, the
the medium
medium is anisotropic.
tropic.
If
If the
the conductivity
conductivity changes with
with depth,
depth, p,,
PI'
varies with
with frequency,
frequency, since lower
lower frequencies
.penetrate
.penetrate more deeply.
deeply. Apparent
_\pparent resistivity
resistivity can
,\pparent
be
be written
written and computed
computed c.rrrcllJ
exactly for
for any
any desired
combination
combination oi
of horizontal
horizontal layers,
layers, whether
whether isotropic
tropic or arbitrarily
arbitrarily anisotropic.
anisotropic. ItIt can be
be calcaiculated
culated t~~~~~.ri~t~lcI~
approximately ior
for any
any tno-dimcnsioiial
two-dimensional
model
model structure.
structure . .;\s
\s might
might be
be expected,
expected, ZZ for
for
horizontally
horizontally isotropic
isotropic and homogeneous
homogeneous layers
layers
does not depend on the directions used

used as
as long as
as
does
H.
E is
is measured perpendicular
perpendicular to H.
\Vhen due to faulting
iaulting or jointing,
laterWhen
jointing, 0"c varies laterwith direction,
ally or with
direction, the j and E
E which are ininduced by a given ZJ
H depend on their
their direction
direction relarelative to strike.
strike. In
tive
In order that
that these effects can be
sorted out, we rccortl
record complete
complete horizontal
horizontal E
E and
H fields (two
(two perpendicular
II
perpendicular components of each)
at every
every site. In
In addition,
addition, the vertical
vertical component
component
of EI
H is also
also recorded, for a total
total of five recorded
signals
signals in all. These are designated H,,
HI' II,,
II y , II;,
lIz,
E,,
Ex, and E,.
EX)
Ey.
In
In general, pU
Pa at each
each frequency
frel[uency varies with
with measurement
surement direction.
direction. \Ve
\Ye assume
assume that
that there is a
strike
strike but
but that
that its direction
direction is unkno\vn.
unknown. Then
Then E,
Ex
is due partly
partly to II,,
IIy, but
but also partly
partly to currents
currents
induced byby H,,
HI, which
which have been deflected by
by the
structure.
structure. The
The same is true
true oi
of l?,,,
R!I,
F'-!l, so
so the
the relations
relations
are written
written
I:, = %,,/I,
+ ZJi,,
(i)
(7)
I:, = Zi,,N,
+ Z,,,Z~,.
(8)
(8)
For
For example,
example, Z,,
Zyx gives the
the part
part of E,
Ey which
which is due
to H,,
HI, and so
so forth.
forth. Since E,
Ey and H,
HI are generally
generally
not
s are
not in-phase,
in-phase, the
the Z
Z's
arc complex.
complex. E
Ii and
and HH comcomponent
ponent amplitudes
amplitudes are
are obtained
obtained b!,
by computercomputeranalyzing
analyzing the
the records
records using
llsing methods
methods described
described in
in
the
the section on
on data
data analysis.
analysis. Computation
Computation oi
of the
the
Zij
Zij for tno-dimensional
two-dimensional models
models \5ill
will be
be discussed
discussed
under
under Interpretation.
Interpreta tion.
tiol1.
104
104
Vozoff
Vozoff
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION
Over most
most of
of the
the frequency
frequency range
range of
of 0.0006--10
0.000610
Over
hz used
used for
for most
most :\IT
MT work,
work, the
the signals
signals weaken
weaken
hz
rapidly with
\vith increasing
increasing frequency.
frequency. Figure
Figure 33
rapidly
shows typical
typical (smoothed)
(smoothed) power
power density
density spectra
spectra
shows
in this
this range.
range. The
The absolute
absolute levels
levels can
can rapidly
rapidly
in
increase by
by 30
30 db
db or
or more
more on
on the
the advent
advent of
of aa
increase
storm. They
They are
are also
also often
often observed
observed to
to
magnetic storm.
gradually diminish
diminish by 10-20
lo-20 db
db in
in aa matter
matter of
of
gradually
hours. Furthermore
Furthermore the detailed
detailed shape
shape of
of the
hours.
spectrum changes,
changes, with some
some frequency
frequency bands
bands
spectrum
being enhanced
enhanced relative
relative to
to the general
general trend.
being
Heirtzler and Davidson
Davidson (1%7)
(lohi) show
show aa sample of
Heirtzler
these variations
variations in If,
If, for the component along
these
the main geomagnetic field.
typical measuring system
A block diagram of aa typical
show11
4. The complete equipment
equipment set
set
is shown
is
in Figure 4.
includes three If
H channels and two E channels.
channels. Of
includes
custom-made exthe components, nearly all are custom-made
preamplifiers,
cept for the signal generator, E field preamplifiers,
strip chart recorder, and the digital
digital recording
propane-powered
system. A single 1 kva liquid propane-powered
motor generator will operate the system.
H sensors
sensors are long, slender induction
induction coils
The If
The
comprised of
of 30,000
30,000 turns
turns of
of #22
#22 copper
copper wire
wire
comprised
wound on
on cores
cores laminated
laminated of
of moly-permalloy
moly-permalloy.
wound
strips. The
The strips
strips are
are 11 inch
inch wide and
and 66 ft
it long,
long,
strips.
filling aa 1!
1% inch
inch diameter
diameter tube. Earth
Earth concon
filling
tacts for
for E
E sensors
sensors are
are nonpolarizing
nonpolarizing electrodes
electrodes
tacts
made up
up of
of cadmium
cadmium metal immersed
immersed in
in aa cadcad
made
mium chloride
chloride solution.
solution in
in porous
porous pots 1i
12 inches
inches
mium
in diameter
diameter and 2!
22 inches
inches high. (The
(The solution
in
is highly toxic!)
is
H
The other
other highly critical
critical component is
is the If
The
preamplifier. This is
is aa guarded, differential
differential input,
input,
preamplifier.
chopper carrier
carrier amplifier
amplifier with very low-noise
lon-noisc
chopper
with heat sinks
sinks and
connections and components, with
shock mounts. :\0
Xo common commercial amplifiers
amplifiers
shock
been found which can
can be fed by the
have yet been
coils while retaining
retaining the bandhigh inductance coils
width, low noise,
noise, and high gain necessary
necessary in thb
this
width,
application.
application.
The rest of the system was
was designed
designed for geogeoThe
use. Its
Its response
response is
is accurately
accurately
physical field use.
known, but its specifications are not otherwise
remarkable.
remarkable.
Rather than record the entire
entire frequency range
Rather
3 to 10
at once,
once, the 1010P3
10 hz band is
is recorded in
Db
180
SC
-30
-90
-40
-180
-50
-270
-60
-360
>"
-...
:;
0
LLJ
.O!
.-ml
0.1
1.0
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
FIG.
FIG. 5.5.
IO.
450
Hz
Hz
Responses
Responses of commercial
commercial 1:
E and IIII systems
systems in
in one
one typical
typical recording
recording band.
band.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
105
105
,001
,01
,I
1.0!
10
100
10-'2-r--"E""""--..L-------'------'-----..L----....,..10-2
IOo-2
IO- b
IO- 4
1010-33
\
\
10-4
",X
\'.
IO 5
10-s
MT
MEASUREME
MT NOISE
NOISE
MEASUREMENTNT
2/cps
H
IN
Ii CHANNELS
CHANNELS
IN r*/CPS
VI
DU
;;::..
,;
[....
L
6
1010-e
10
IO d
IO t
*L
10-T
I
:.
.
-:
. . .
.. .
k - " " - - - - - . . , - - - - - - . - - - - - - r - - - - - ' - r - - - - - - - ' - 1 010-a
1
-a
IO0
I
I
I
I
,001
,01
,I
,001
.Ol
1.0
10
*I
1.0
100
IO
100
FREQUENCY.
CPS
FREQUENCY.
CPS
FIG. 6. 1\oise
Kc&e power spectral density
density of commercial
commercial H system. Obtained
FIG.
Obtained using naisc
noise
measurement procedures of Hopkins
(1965).
Hopkins (1965).
narrower, overlapping
three narrower,
overlapping segments. ComCommonly
monly these are (nominal)
(nominal) 0.002-0.025,0.01-0,5,
0.002-0.025, 0.01-0.5,
and 0.1-7.5
/::"t=
0.1-7.5 hz, with
with At
= 10
10 sec,
set, 0.5 sec,
see, and 1/30
1,/30
sec,
set, respectively.
respectively. (/::"t
(At is
is the sampling rate
rate of the
digital
digital equipment.)
equipment.) Other
Other filter
filter settings can be
used
used when desired,
desired. The
The actual frequency
frequency range
analyzed
analyzed extends from 0,0006
0.0006 to 9.8 hz. In
In areas
areas
of high ncar-surface
near-surface resistivity,
resistivity, a still
still higher frequency band is
is recorded, extending
extending from 0.33 to
15.5
15.5 hz (/::,,1=
(At= 1/37,5
l/37.5 sec),
set). The
The frequency
frequency range is
is
divided
divided this way for two important
important reasons:
reasons: to
make best use
use of the available
available dynamic
dynamic range and
for economy in digital
digital recording. That
That is,
is, dividing
dividing
the frequency
frequency range permits
permits the use
use of large gains
in some parts
parts of the spectrum and lower gains in
others, according to the signal levels actually
actually
present at recording time.
time The
The economic aspect
enters, since the total
total recording duration
duration is a
multiple
period which is being
multiple of the longest period
recorded, whereas digitizing
digitizing rate
rate is at least twice
twice
the highest frequency being recorded. If
If the band
is
data will
will be
is very
very wide, far more short period data
acquired than
than is necessary
necessary while
while waiting
waiting for
adequate
sampling of long periods. The
The 1adequate sampling
I- to 2decade segments used
used are a compromise.
Total
number of samples
samples to be recorded in a
Total number
data set is selected in this equipment
equipment by means of
commonly, data sets
sets
a front
front panel switch. :\10st
Most commonly,
multiplexed scans.
scans. Each voltage
voltage
consist
consist of 4096 multiplexed
sample is converted
converted to a 10 bit
bit binary
binary number,
number,
giving a full
full scale
scale resolution
resolution of 22
2- 10 or about
about 60 db.
Typical
normalized system response
response curves are
Typical normalized
shown in Figure
Figure 5.
S. In
In terms of the parameters
parameters
measured, the maximum
maximum full scale
scale sensitivities
sensitivities
equipment are H =9
= 9 X 10-I
for this equipment
1OF4 gammas at 1
hz and E =
= 12.5 pv/km
tlV /km at 1 km electrode spacing.
106
106
Vozoff
Vozoff
Noise power
power spectral
spectral densities
densities for
for this
this equipment
equipment
Noise
are
sho\\n
in
Figure
6.
are shown in Figure 6.
Quoted sensitivities
sensitivities for
ior other
other magnetometers
magnetometer:,
Quoted
made for
for exploration
exploration Wie
usean:
are in
in the
the neighborhood
ncighborho~otl
made
1 gammas full scale ior optically pumped
of 1010~
of
gammas full scale for optically pumped
devices, and
and 11 gamma
gamma full
full scale
scale for
for proton
proton prepredevices,
cessionand
and fluxgate
tluxgate magnetometers.
magnetometers. K
Koise
levels
cession
oise levels
in each
eachcase
caseare
are 10
10to
to 20
20 percent
percent of
of full
full scale.
scale.The
The
in
that frequency
frequency- responses
responses of
oi these
these other
other magnemagneflat
tometers gi\'es
gives them
them the
the advantage
advantage at
at periods
periods
tometers
longer than
than 30-100
30-100 sec.
sec. Superconducting
Superconducting magmaglonger
netometers have
have been
been built
built with
with noise
noiselevels
levels comcomnetometers
parable to
to those
those of
of the
the induction
intluction coil
coil system
sy.stemde
de
parable
scribed
here,
but
they
do
not
?.et
seem
suitable
ior
scribed here, but they do not yet seem suitable for
usein
in the
the field
field (see
(see.'\isenoff,
Sisenoff, 1969,
1969,for
for example).
example).
use
From the
the practical
practical point
point of
of view,
view, there
there are
are
From
several improvements
improvements which
\vhich \\"ould
~vouldbe
bedesirable
desirable in
in
several
present state-of-the-art
state-of-the-art equipment.
equipment. Induction
Induction
present
coilsof
oiadelJuate
adequate sensitivity
sensitivity are
areclumsy
clumsy and
and heavy,
heavy,
coils
and the
the vertical
vertical component
component coil
coil requires
requires that
that aa
and
holesix
sixft
it deep
deepbe
beaugered.
augered. Several
Several smaller
smaller coils
coilsin
in
hole
combination might
might be
be much
much more
more convenient
convenient to
to
combination
use. A
A large
large loop
loop laid
laid flat
flat on
on the
the surface
surface isis the
the
use.
only alternative
alternative at
at this
this time
time to
to the
the vertically
vertically ememonly
planted coil.
coil.
planted
For
work
in loose
looseor
or unsteady
unsteady surface
surface materials
materials
For work in
(marsh, ice-floes,
ice-floes, loose
loosesoil
soil near
near trees),
trees), aa system
system of
of
(mar:;h,
motion stabilization
stabilization or
or compelbation
compensation would
~voultl be
be
motion
very
helpful.
very helpful.
Hopkins (1965)
(1965) discusses
discussesthe
the engineering
engineering and
anti
Hopkins
design problems
problems associated
associated \\i
\vith
.\11 instruinstrudesign
(h :\1'1'
mentation.
mentation.
FIELD PROCEDURE
PROCEDURE
FIELD
Although basically
basically simple,
simple, field
field procedures
procedures
Although
require aa great
great deal
deal of
of planning
planning and
and attention
attention to
to
require
detail, since
since they
they dominate
dominate the
the cosb;
costs; and
and the
the
detail,
sensitivity of
of the
the measurement
measurement makes
makes it
it highly
highI?
sensitivity
vulnerable
to disturbances
disturbances at
at the
the measuring
measuring sisite.
vul
nerable to
te.
Tn-o pairs
pairs of
of electrodes
electrodes aligned
aligned at
at right
right angles
angles
T\\,o
must be
be laid
laid out
out at
at each
each site,
site, as
as must
must three
three mumumust
tually perpendicular
perpendicular magnetometers.
magnetometers. A..I setup
setup isis
tually
shown schematically
schematically in
in Figure
Figure 7.
7. The
The electrodes
electrodes
shown
pro\-ide low
low resistance,
resistance, low
low noise
noiseelectrical
electrical connecconnecprO\'ide
tions with
with the
the earth,
earth, for
for the
the EE measurements.
measurements. The
The
tions
inputt to
to each
each of
of the
the E-signal
E-signal channels
channels isis the
the voltvoltinpu
age difference
difference between
between an
an electrode
electrode pair.
pair. (Al(.\Iage
though one
one usually
usually thinks
thinks of
of the
the earth
earth as
asbeing
being at
at
tbough
zero potential,
potential, voltage
voltage differences
differences must
must exist
exist ifii
zero
telluric currents
currents flo\\"
flow because
because the
the earth
earth has
has aa
telluric
finite resistivity,
resistivity, and
andj=Ec.)
The farther
farther apart
apart aa
j = E<T.) The
finite
pair of
of electrodes,
electrodes, the
the larger
larger the
the signal
signal voltage
voltage
pair
measured,
so
it
is
usually
desirable
to
put
the
measured, so it is usually desirable to put the
electrodes as
as far
far apart
apart as
as possible,
possible, subject
subject to
to
electrodes
Recor$mg Truck
Truck
Coils
Cd -1CdCl,
CdClp
Cd
Porous
PO1
Porous
Pot
Electrodes
Electrodes
!
1:X. 7.7. Field
Iield setup.
setup
FIG.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
.. '"
CONDUCTIVE
SEDIMENTS
CONDUCTIVE
SEDIMENTS
''
.'",'
,:
,,
..,..
-_
1.
..-.
,-,.;.
j
:
2
.; >
.L,<.
,
>
.:
-RESISTIVE
-RESISTIVE
..
BASEMENT.
8ASEMENL
,-I.
,: ,.
I-
I-
(f)
~
A
if)
0:
IZ
o:
0:Q
-pI
<l:
LOW
107
107
or aa T,
T, (Swift,
(Swift, 1967),
1967), and
and that
that the coib
coils be ncar
near
or
the center.
center.
the
Topographic
features can
can cause
cause distortion,
distortionTopographic
features
similar to
to those caused
caused by
b!. resistivity
resistivity
heterosimilar
heterocwleities. \\"hile
\Vhile these can
can also
also be modeled,
modeled, it
it is
is
geneities.
0
better to
to avoid
avoid them
them if
if possible,
possible, especially
especially if
ii the
better
relief is
is more
more than
than 10
10 percent
percent or
or so
so of
of the electrode
electrotl~
relief
spacing.
spacing.
Induction
magnetometers
even mure
more
Induction
coil magnetometers
are even
sensitive to motions
motions than
than are the
the ,,-ires
wires connecting
connecting
sensitive
electrodes. To
To prevent
prevent their
their moving
moving or vibratvibratthe electrodes.
to wind,
wind, the
the two
t\vo horizontal
horizontal
are
ing due tu
coils arc
buried in shallo\\'
shallo\\- trenches
trenches 12
IL to 18 inches
inches deep.
cleep.
buried
The Hrtical
vertical coil is
is placed
placed in a hole dug
dug by auger.
auger.
The
Coils are leveled
leveled to within
\vithin a fraction
fraction of
oi one degree
degree
Coils
means of
oi sensiti\'e
sensitive level
level bubbles.
bubbles. Horizontal
Horizontal
by means
azimuth
adjusted to similar
similar accuracy
accuracy
by a
azimuth
is adjusted
by
simple transit.
transit. Burying
Burying the
the coils has the added
addetl
simple
advantage of reducing
reducing thermal
thermal transients
transients and
and the
the
advantage
resulting
noise.
resulting
noise. Coils
Coils 1
having
permeable cores
cores
laving
permeable
HIGH
HIGH
frequency
FREQUENCY
Diagrammatic two-layer
two-layer apparent
annarent resisti~-ity
resistivity
FIG. 8_
8. Diagrammatic
FIG_
models shmvn.
shown.
curves for the models
other factors,
factors,
obstructions,
property
other
such as obstructions,
property
boundaries, the
the time
time needed
needed to layout
lay out connecting
connecting
boundaries,
ITires, and
and the
the minimum
minimum
spacing tolerable
tolerable bewires,
spacing
tween adjacent
adjacent measurement
measurement
For routine
routine
tween
sites. For
operations, it
it is desirable
desirable to usc
use fixed
fixed wire
wire lengths.
lengths.
operations,
Finally,
Finally, since
since the
the \vires
wires must
must not
not be permitted
permitted to
to
move
s main
move in
in the
the earth
earth's
main magnetic
magnetic field
field as this
this
induces
induces noise,
noise, clods
clods of
dirt are
arc placed
placed every
every few
fe\\"
of dirt
feet
feet along
along the
the wire
wire to
to restrain
restrain it,
it, a nontrivial
nontrivial
task.
task. A
A. 2000.it
2000-ft spacing
spacing is common
common because
because itit
fits
fits conveniently
conveniently within
within a quarter
quarter section.
section.
The
The two
two electrode
electrode pairs
pairs are
are intended
intended to
meato measure
surc the
the two
two perpendicular
perpendicular components
components of an
an
electric
electric field
field vector
vector nhicli
which exists
exists at
at each
each site.
site.
However,
However, itit is possible
possible for
for the
the electric
electric field
field on
the
on the
surface
surface to
to change
change in
in both
both direction
direction and
and intensity
intensity
over
over very
very short
short distances
distances, due
due to
to large
large lateral
lateral
resistivity
resistivity changes
changes near
near the
the surface.
surface. Large
Large elecelectrode
trode spacings
spacings should
should be
used in
in this
this situation
situation to
to
be used
average
average over
over as
much of
of the
thc variation
variation as
possible,
as much
as possible,
or
or the
the resulting
resulting data
data will
will apply
apply to
to condition::
conditions
\'which
vhich are
arc too
too localized
localized to
to be
o[ use.
usc. l:or
For best
best
be 0i
averaging
averaging in
these circumstances,
circunbtanccs, itit is
alsu inimin these
is also
portant
portant that
that the
the two
two electrode
electrode pairs
pairs form
form aa cross
cross
whose
four arms
arms are
arc as
nearly equal
equal in
in length
length as
whose four
as nearly
as
possible,
possible, rather
rather than
than being
being arranged
arranged to
to form
form an
an LL
/
CONDUCTIVE
CONDUCTIVE
SEDIMENTS
SEDIMENTS
r;
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
LOW
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
IhG.
rc. 9.
9. Diagrammatic
Diagrammatic three-layer
three-layer apparent
apparent resistivit)
resistivity
curve
curve for
for the
the model
model shown.
sho\\"n.
Vozoff
Vozoff
108
108
must be
be separated
separated from
from each
each other
other by
by several
several
must
times their
their length
length when
when they
they are
are emplaced,
emplaced, to
to
times
avoid the
the effects
efYectson
on each
each of
of the
the local
local field
field distordistoravoid
tionssurrounding
surrounding the
the others.
others.
tions
Sitesmust
must be
bechosen
chosenwith
with care,
care,to
toavoid
avoid possible
possible
Sites
sourcesof
oidisturbance
disturbance such
suchas
ascathodic
cathodic protection
protection
sources
circuitry, power
poner and
and fence
fence lines,
lines, unprotected
unprotected
circuitry,
pipelines,
and
vehicle
and
pedestrian
traffic.
pipelines, and vehicle and pedestrian traftlc.
By the
the use
use of
of separate
separate but
but well-coordinated
\vell-coordinated
By
and sensor
sensor emplacement,
emplacement,
crews for
for recording
recording and
crews
efficient field
field operations
operations can
can be
be achieved.
achieved. For
For
effIcient
further
eficicncy,
recordings
can
be
scheduled
so
further eftlciency, recordings can be scheduled so
as to
to avoid
avoid known
known or
or anticipated
anticipated noise.
noise. CustoCustoas
marily, several
several recordings
recordings are
are obtained
obtained in
in each
each
marily,
frequent!. band,
band, because
becausenoise
noiseand
anti signal
signal arc
arc both
botk
frequency
variable and
and largely
largely unpredictable.
unpredictable.
variable
DATA
ANALYSIS
DATA ANALYSIS
The purpose
purpose of
of data
data analy,;is
analybih isis to
to extract
extract
The
reliable values
values of
of impedances,
impedances, apparent
apparent resisresibreliable
tivities,
and
the
other
earth
response
functions
tivities, and the other earth response functiOlb
(ERF) from
from the
the field
field records,
records, and
and to
to present
present them
them
(ERF)
in aa form
form convenient
convenient for
for interpretation.
interpretation. OperaOperain
oi(a)
(a) manual
manual editedittionally, data
data analysis
analysis consists
consistsof
tionally,
ing
of
records,
to
reject
those
judged
to
be
COIIing of records, to reject those judged to be contaminated
by
noise;
(b)
computer
manipulation
d
taminated by noise; (b) computer manipulation of
tape-recorded data
data to
to transform
transform all
all records
records into
into
tape-recorded
the frequency
frequency domain,
domain, to
to derive
derive the
the ERF
ERF \\'hich
n-hi&
the
DISTANCE
DISTANCE
DEPTH
DEPTH
!
1
LOG
LOG
pa
Po
I Hz I
~
IHl I
DE
TH
DTTH
I
DEPTH
DEPTH
1
1
MODEL
~:t
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
El
TIPPER
:I
~ <::::
RELATIVE
I Hli
l~~
0
-aaaaaaaa00
--.. . . . .~~"'~::!I. . . . --
1
<:>
<:>
<:>
LINES OF H
0
0
0
CURRENT
FLOW
El
CURRENT
FLOW
Ell
0
<:>
FIG.10.
10.Diagrammatic
Diagrammaticresponse
response
curvesfor
for
FIG.
curves
simplevertical
verticalcontact
contac(at
at frequenc)
frequencyHorizontal
aasimple
f.,i.Horizontal
scales
aredistance.
distance.
scales
are
109
109
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
SITE B
SIT.E
SITE A
SITE
A
DEPTH
MODEL
Pol.
SITE
t-~::::=====- SITE
PII
LOG
LOG
Po
Pa
A
A
- - : : : : - - - - - SIT
SITEE B
B
LOW
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
LOG
LOG
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
--,
-
FIG. 11.
resistivity versus frequency.
11. Diagrammatic
Diagrammatic response
response curve for a simple vertical
vertical contact. ,\pparent
_Ipparent resistivity
DISTANCE
DISTANCE
DEPTH
LOG
LOG
---+
-
p2 (>pI)
NI]
APPARENT
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY
FREQUENCY
frequency
E II
MIN
LOG
LOG
MAXi
FREQUENCY
frequency
MIN
MA
LOG
LOG
MODEL
MA]
FREQUENCY
frequency
MIN
~ t.>p~P2
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
E .1.
T.~~
TI PPE R
FlG. 12.
12. Diagrammatic
Diagrammatic pseudosections
pseudosections for a simple
simpk vertical
FIG.
vertical contact.
110
110
Vozoff
Vozoff
used for interpretation,

interpretation,
value
are u,;ed
to screen each value
computed, and
and to plot
plot in aa form
form convenient
con\-enient jor
ior
computed,
interpretation
the values
values which
which pass the screenscreew
interpretation
ing; and
and (c) manual
manual evaluation
evaluation of the results
results so
so as
as
ing;
reject suspect
suspect data
data and
and to attempt
attempt to extract
extract
to reject
useful portions
portion5 of
0i previously
previousI>- rejected
rejected data
data \\'hen
\rhcn
u,;ciul
necessary.
necessary,
Later, in the interpretation
interpretation
stage, the
thv ERF
E:RF
Later,
,;tage,
arc compared
compared with
\vith tho,;e
those computed
computed for
iOr model,;.
models.
arc
These
These earth
earth re,;ponse
response function,;
functions arc
are cu,;tomarily
customaril!
(1) horizontal
horizontal
direction eo
Ou of
oi large,;t
largest apparent
apparent
(I)
direction
resistivity,
(2) impedance,;
resistivity,
impedances and
and apparent
apparent re,;i,;resistivities for
for E in the direction
direction OOand
and for
ior E perpertivities
pendicular
Bo, (3) pha,;es
phases oi
0i the
the t\\'O
two apparen
apparent t
pendicular
to eo,
resistivities, (-)
(4) the portion
portion of
Of lIz
Hz that
that i,;
is linearly
linearI!re,;istivities,
related to the
the horizontal
horizontal field,
field, (.1)
(5) the
the direction
direction of
oi
related
the horizontal
horizontal
magnetic field
field component
component
most
the
magnetic
most
highly coherent
coherent \\'ith
I\-ith (-),
(4), and
and (el)
(0) the phase
phase diftliihighly
ference bet\\'een
bet\\-een (-t)
(4) and
and (5),
(5). :'Ifoti\'ation
1IotivatiOn
and
ference
and
theory for
for the
the first
first three
three function,;
functions can be
1~ found
found
theory
~Iadden and
and S\\'ift
Swift (19()9),
(1900), Cantwell
Cantwell
(IWJ),
in :'IIadden
(1
<)()O),
Madden
and :\elson
Sclson (I
(106-L),
and Swift
S\vift (1967),
(1967).
:'Iladden
and
<)()-l), and
Some of the
the analytical
analytical
techniques
for their
their
Some
techniques
for
computation
are summarized
summarizetl
anti di,;cu,;,;ed
discussed by
by
computation
are
and
Sims and
and Bostick
Bostick (1
(1909),
and \\'ord
\\-ord et al (1%9),
(IOOO).
Sims
<)()9) , and
Motivation
and theory
theory for
for the
the last
last three
three funcfunc:'IIotivation
and
tions are
are discussed
discussed in \-ozoff
\*ozoff and
and Swift
S\r-ift (I
(196X),
tions
961l),
Sims 2nd
2nd Bostick
Bostick (1969),
(1969), and
and Word
\Vord et al (1%9),
(1969).
Sims
Their computation
computation
was devised
devised by
by T,
T. R,
R. Madden
~Iatltlcn
Their
was
and is summarized
summarized
below. Rankin
Rankin
(1969) and
and
and
below.
(1969)
Kunetz
Kunetz (1969)
(1969) have
have suggested
sugge,;ted techniques
techniques for
for
and
and advantages
advantages of extracting
extracting the
the I<RF
ERF in
in the
the time
time
domain.
domain,
The
The first
first phase,
phase, manual
manual editing,
editing, involves
invoh'es the
the
examination
examination of both
both recording
recording log
log hooks
book,; anti
and chart
chart
records
records for
for evidence
evidence that
that artificial
artificial or
or \vind
\\'ind noise
noise is
large enough
enough to dO\\'I1gradl'
do\vngratlr
record
Recortllarge
a record.
Record,
degraded by
by noi:ie
noise arc
are not
not u,;ed
used ii
ii their
their u,;e
use can
can Ill'
I,(
degraded
avoided, although
although it
it is
is ,;ometime,;
sometimes necessary
neceshar!. to
avoided,
reconsider using
using their
their quieter
quieter parts
parts \\'hen
\I-hen ininreconsider
buliicient quiet
quiet data
data exist.
exist.
sut1icient
Fourier transformation
transformation
oi each of
Oi the
the fi\'e
five reFourier
oj
cordctl field
field component,;
components is
ib thc
the second
wcond step in
corded
analysis. Thi,;
This ,;tep
-tep yields
yields in-pha,;c
inbphaw and
and quadraquatlraanaly,;is.
ture values
values for
ior each
each componcnt
component at a,;
as many
many freireture
quencies as there
there are
arc samples.
samplcy. The
The ERF
E:RF an:
are
quencies
derived from
from the,;e
these number,;"
numbcr~..
derived
It is
is helpful
helpful at
at thi,;
this point
point to de,;crihe
de>cril)e a ie\\'
ie\v of
0i
It
the properties
properties of the
the ERF,
I*:RE, anticipating
anticipating
the secwcthe
the
tion on interpretation,
interpretation,
order to explain
explain some oi
cli
tion
in order
the procedures
procedures \\'hich
lvhicli are
are used in data
data analysis.
analysis. In
In
the
t\\-o~dimcnsion~~l structure,;
structures \\'hen
\vhen neither
neither of
0i the
the
t\\'o-dimensional
coordinate axes is along
along strike,
strilie, all
all four
iour elemenb
elements oi
Of
coordinate
the impedance
impedance tensor
tenior 7.
Z,,ij are nonzero
nonzerc, and
and han'
have
the
different \alues.
\.alues. :'Ifagnetic
l\Iagnetic
field components
components
in
different
field
the .r
.i direction
direction give
s,
the
gi\'e rise
ri,;e to
to some
some currents
currents along
along.Y,
in addition
atltlition
to the
in
the y-directed
y-directed currents,
currents, \vhich
which
would be
bc the
the only
would
only ones iiif the
the earth
earth \verc
were uniform
uniform
horizontally
layered.
.\Iagietic
?
or horizontally
layered . .\lagnetic
y components
components
are likewise
like\vis;e associated
are
a:iSociated \vith
\\'ith both
both EJ
EI and
and E,,,
E", so
so
that 7.
Z=.,,
Z,!,, Z,,.,-,
Z!,!, \vill
that
Z!I.,., and
and 7.!I!I
will all
all have
have some
some finite
finite
u , 7.'<!I'
values. :\011'
So\v ii
values.
ii the
the coordinate
coordinate axes are
are rotated
rotated
(either phy,;ically
physically or by
(either
by computation)
computation) until
until one
one 0i
of
them is along
along strike,
Ii, I can
them
strike, then
then currents
currents due
due to
to If
can
longer be
bc deflectecl
no longer
deflected into
into the
the .r direction
direction and
and
those due to H!,
.x direction.
those
HlI fo\r
tlo\\' only
only in
in the
the .r
direction, In
In
this
this situation,
situation, Z.,,
Z.," and
and Z],?,
7.'1JJ must
must be zero.
zero. The
The other
other
pail
pair are
are nonzcro
nonzero and
and unequal,
unequal, since
since current
current
densities
densities will
will differ
differ in
in the
the t\\o
two directions,
directions, and
and the
the
R
E components
components must
must alho
also differ.
differ. If
If the
the coordinates
coordinates
are
are rotated
rotated a further
further 90
90 degrees,
degrees, the
the same
same situasituation
tion is loud,
iound, except
except that
that the
the Z7. values
values are
are interinter-
eo
DISTANCE
DISTANCE
DEPTH
DEPTH
!
I
LOG
Po
pI
MoDEL
pQ
MODEL
pz
~II
~IZ ~I---_______
r_
4-
Po
(>pI)
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
I:IG.
igure 10
FIG, 13.
13. Effect
Effect of burial
burial on the apparent
apparent resistivity
resistivity of a contact.
contact. Comlw-r
Compare \\ith
with IFigure
10
at the same frequency.

frequency.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
the other
other properties
properties of the imimchanged. Some of the
elements are not
not so
so apparent.
apparent. One
()ne of
pedance elements
that
these is that
%,., = -
A!,!,
X1,,
XIii -
XUI =
ziil
XljI
= constant
constant
(10)
a t all orientations.
orien ta t ions.
at
structures, the tensor eleIn three-dimcilsional
three-dimensional structures,
In
ments are still
still well behaved,
behaved, according to Sims
(1969). By
arguments,
Bostick (1969).
By plausibility
plausibility arguments,
and Bostick
they arrived
arrived at
they
constant
%,, + LU,, = constant
(11 )
(11)
LIJ,
ZI." -
(12)
(12)
and
Z,,
ZYI = constant.
constant.
greater degree of independence

independence (smaller
(smaller
have a greater
have
cross !lower)
than any
other pair.
The denomidenomicross
power) than
any other
pair. The
nator of (lath
each wwltinji
resulting c~lualion
cqua tion is
nator
(9)
(
4
the angle between

the coordinate
between the
coordinate
regardless of the
strike. Equation
(9) was also
found by
by
axes and strike.
Equation (9)
also found
axes
for an arbitrary
computation to be valid
valid for
arbitrary number
number
computation
horizontal layers, each of which is arbitrarily
arbitrarily
of horizontal
anisotropic. Another
Another important
important property
property is that
that
anisotropic.
The
The Zij
Zij are first found from the transformed
transformed
(8). This
This inindata by solving equations (7) and (8).
volves using two equations in four unknowns.
The apparent
apparent discrepancy is resolved by taking
taking
The
advantage
advantage of the facts that
that the Zo
Zij change very
very
with frequency
frequency and can therefore
therdore be comslowly with
puted at far fewer frequencies than there are
transform values. That
That is,
is, the ZiJ are
are calculated
calculated as
as
transform
averages
averages over frequency bands with each
each band
including many points of the transform.
transform. This has
has
been done
done in a number
number of different
different ways, the most
common of which is
is that
that described by Madden
Madden
and ~elson
Nelson (19M).
(1904). Each equation
equation is
is written
written as
as
111
(ff,.4*)(rf,/3*j - (ff,/3*)(ff,.4*).
(16)
If
strongly dependent,
dependent, the two terms
terms
If A and B are strongly
denominator become
nearly equal. AlAlthe denominator
become nearly
in the
other pairs
pairs can and have occasionally been
though other
used, the (ZZ,,
(III, B,)
Hy) pair
pair is found
practice to
used,
found in practice
that are as
as good or
or better
better than
than any
any of
give results that
in terms of the numbers
numbers of points
points
the others in
passing acceptance tests. Exceptions
Exceptions have
have been
passing
particularly when one If
H channel
channel has
observed, particularly
been contaminated
contaminated by artificial
artificial noise.
noise. The
The nadiscussed below.
ture of the acceptance tests is discussed
Performing the
multiplications and solving
the multiplications
solving the
the
Performing
equations give the follo\ving
following four expressions
expressions to
equations
evaluated:
be evaluated:
(/';"./1 *)(H"B*)- (FxB* )(HyA
*>
(lIT-A *)(lIyB*) - (lIxB* ) (lI y/l
*)
= ----- n
--
--------.
(RxA *)(HIB*)*)(HxB*)- (FI8*)(HIA

(FIB*)(HIA *)
= ----~---~---~
- - - - - - - - -----
-~
--
- ----.
~---.
(HyA*)(IIIB*)-(HyH*)(HIA*>,
(H
y A*)(III8*)-(Hy H*)(H I A*/
X1l
(Hy,1
(Fy,1 *)(H"B*)- (/';,J3*)(IIvA *)
11'
XII'
(II~A*)(jj,);*>- (Hx8*)(HyA*)'
(H x B*)<Hy,1*)'
(17)
(18)
(19)
%ij
(/ii.l*)
= %,.~((IZ,A*) + e,,,(z/,.l*)
(13)
= %,,(H,H*j
(11)
and
(/LB*)
+ Zi,(H,H*),
where
A * and H*
where A*
H* are the complex conjugates of
any two of HI,
H,, H
H,,
E,, and
and E
ET,,
and CD*
CD* is the
the
HlIlI ,, Ex,
1I
1I ,, and
cross power
power of C and
and D,
D,
f),
(CD*&,)
(CD*)(Wl)
1
=
&J
---
L1w
W1
+ C..IW!2 1
w+(iwi21CD*
CD* tlw.
dw.
Wl-(..Iw 1
21)
w,p(Aw
((15)
15)
Six different
different combinations
combinations are possible,
possible, so
so that
that
six different
different values
values of each
each Z;j
Z,j can
can be
be calculated
(HI'
; etc). Most commonly, the two H
(H,, Hy;
H,; HT-,
H,, E
E,,;
(HI)
1I
1I ; etc). Most commonly,
components are used,
used, as
as they arc
are expected to
Zjj, WC
Having computed
Having
computed the %ij,
Xij,
we can then substitute
stitu
te back into
into equations (7) and (8) to
to comcompute values
values oi
pute
of E,
Ex and
and E,.
Ey. These
These values,
values, which
which are
are
predicted from
II,
II,,
predicted
from III
IIx and
and II
fly,
have the
the interesting
interesting
y , have
characteristic that
characteristic
that they
they must
must be wholly
wholly dependent
dependent
the horizontal
horizontal
13
on the
H field.
field. Thus,
Thus, any
any differences
differences
between the
the observed
between
observed E and the predicted
predicted E must
must
be
contamination of
of either
either E or
or 11
by
bc due to contamination
H by
For this
noise. For
this reason,
reason, the
the coherency
coherency between
between
predicted and
and observed
predicted
observed E components
components has
has proven
proven
bc the most
most sensitive
sensitive measure
measure of noise availavailto be
able. It
It is loosely
loosely called
called the
the predictability.
predictability.
At
able.
At
normal
predictability
0.95 or greater
greater
"normal"
sites a predictability
of 0.95
required of an E component
component as one of the
the cricriis required
teria for
for the
the corresponding
corresponding apparent
resistivity to
teria
appear on
on the final plots.
appear
Once the Zij
Z;, have
have been
been found
iountl in the
the original
original
Once
(s, y, z) coordinate
coordinate system,
system, they
they can be rotated
rotated to
(x,
any other
other system
system (x',
(x, y
, z')
z) by an angle
angle ()0 in
in the
the
any
y',
clockcvise direction.
direction. The
The rotated
rotated impedances
impedances are
are
clocbvise
Vozoff
Vozoff
112
= (zu
(Z,, + zYY)
Z,,) + (Zxx
(Z,, - ZyJ
Z,,) cos
cm 2fJ
28
225,(e)
L&(O)
+ (Xm
(Zc, +
+ XYI)
&) sin 2fJ,
28,
+
(21)
(21)
(ZIY - Xyx)
ZJlr) +
t- (Z.ry
(Z.y!,+
+ L".r)
Z,.i) co;;
cos 2fJ
2O
(X.rJl
-
(ZII: -
(22)
(22)
Z,,,) sin 28,
= - (Zxy
(Z,, - ZYx)
Z,,) + (X
(Zzg
Z,,) cos
cos 2fJ
28
Xy + ZYx)
2&,(O)
- (Zxx
(Z,, - Zyy)
Z,,) sin 2fJ,
28,
= (Zxx
(L + ZUy)
Z,,) -
2&(O)
(23)
(23)
(ZXT
(Z,, - Zyy)
Z,,) cos
cos 2fJ
28
- (ZXy
(Z,, + Zyx)
Z,,) sin 2fJ.
28.
(24)
(24)
The
The principal
principal axes
axes of Z are the values of fJ0 at
which Z;'v
Z&, and Z~x
ZLz take on their
their largest and smallest values, respectively.
respectively. One way of finding these
these
directions is
is to compute Z for many values of fJO
interpolate to find maxima
maxima and minima.
minima. It
It is
is
and interpolate
preferable
preferable to use
use an analytical
analytical technique if possible, to reduce computation.
computation. However,
However, the only
such
such technique which has
has thus far been developed
does not directly
directly maximize
maximize either Z:"v
Z&, (fJ)
(0) or Z~x
Z& (fJ).
(0).
does
Instead it
it solves
solves for the angle fJo
O0at which
Instead
Z:,(OO) 12
I2 +
1 Z~y(fJo)
Z:,(O,) 12
Iz =
= maximum.
maximum.
1 Z~x(fJo)
(25)
(25)
Setting the derivative

derivative with
with respect to fJO of this
Setting
(Swift, 1967)
1967)
sum equal to zero gives (Swift,
of analysis and plotting

plotting is
is to permit
permit interpreta.
intcrprctation, which is
is now possible
possible only for two-dimentwo-dimcnsional
ructures. Hence, only p~y
sional st
structures.
p:,. ami
and p~x
p{,, are
routinely
routinely plotted,
1)loticd, since
since they are
arc the only two
which appear in two-dimensional
two-dimcnsion;tl l11ooels.
models. The
Ilic
other pair of clements,
elements, p~x
p:, and P;y,
pj,, is
is also
also useful
useful in
interpreting
interpreting data from the field. Although
Although p~x
p:, and
p~y
p(yyare often small compared with
with the larger of the
others, they are never found to be zero. This
This fact
can be used
judge the degree
used to judge
degree to which the
structure
structure at a site departs from true two-dimentwo-dimensionality.
sionality. If
If p~x
p:, and p~y
p[,,, are both very small, we
have either
either a well-defined
well-defined strike or horizontal
horizontal
layers.
As noted above, both (X.cx+Zyy)
and (ZXy
- Zyx)
(&+Z,,)
(Z,,-ZU,)
are independent
independent of fJ,
8, as
as is
is their
their ratio.
ratio. The
The magnitude of the complex ratio of the quantities
quantities is
is
called the skewness,
skewness,
1 Xu + X"y
= ----
X yr
,ley -
If
structure at
at the site must appear to
If S is
is large, structure
be three-dimensional
that frequency
frequency range.
three-dimensional in that
An aspect of this method
method is
is that
that it
it must USC
usc a
very wide frequency
frequency range to be cffcctively
effectively interinter- - - - - - - - - ----
-----
+
+
+ z:-F-----
(LIX
ZlIY)*(ZXY + zj,J)
ZI//)
G -- Zyy)
&a>(ZXy
G, + ZYx)*
G/B)*+ (Zxx
(Z,, + z,,)*(z,,
tan 4fJ
400
tan
o = ~~~~~______~
I zz.r - Z!lJ~rzXY
zww12 - j z,, + ZilI 1LT
----1 z.::-
This
This same
same value of Oo
fJo also
also satisfies
satisfies
I3 +
I? = minimum,
Z:x(fJ o) 12
+ 1.&(OO)
X~!I(fJo) 12
minimum,
11Z:,(O,)
(27)
(27)
so
so that
that in the case
case of two-dimensional
two-dimensional structures
the scheme
scheme finds the true principal
principal axes.
axes. In
In the
three-dimensional
three-dimensional case,
case, the method
method picks a
slightly
maximum, i.e.,
i.e.,
slightly more general maximum,
1I
Z:,(O)
Z~y(fJ) + Z;,(O)
Z~(fJ) 1I = mnvimum
maximum
(28)
(28)
(Sims and Bostick,

Bostick, 1969). The
The results are seldom
shown as
as impedance
impedance values. Instead,
Instead, the Z:,
Z;j are
converted
converted to apparent
apparent resistivities
resistivities pi?,
pij , with
with
I
P:j
2.
Z~.
I z:,;1z.
Sf
Pt., = ;
Apparent
Apparent resistivity
resistivity has the phase of Z:,,
Z;j, that
that is,
the phase difference
difference between
between EC
Ei and Hi.
Hj .
Four
Four different
different Z$
Z;j are extracted
extracted at
at each frequency
Z~x, Z:,,
Z~y, Z;,,
Z~x, and Zi,,.
Z~y. The
The main purpose
quency:: Z:,,
(26)
(26)
preted. Apparent
Apparent resistivity
reslsttvlty curves are smooth
preted.
regular when they
they arc plotted
plotted on log-log
and regular
linear scales
scales give very
very steep
scales. Semilog
scales.
Scmilog or linear
very low frequencies and uselessly
uselessly flat
flat
slopes at very
slopes
slopes at
at high irequcncics.
frequencies. Since Fourier
Fourier transtransslopes
normally appear on a linear
linear frequency
frequency
forms normally
scale but
but interpretation
interpretation is done on a log-frequency
log-frequency
scale
it is helpful
helpful to do the integrations
integrations of equabasis, it
basis,
tion (15) with
with bands whose center
center frequencies are
tion
logarithmic scale. If
If IIn such bands
equispaced on a logarithmic
frequency decatle,
decade, the
the ratio
ratio of
are desired in each frequency
center frequencies of adjacent
adjacent bands is
center
fitl
fi
11
log-= - .
(29)
(29)
(30)
(31)
(31)
Bandwidth, in
in terms
terms of the
the number
number of points
points of
Bandwidth,
the transforms,
transforms, must
must also increase with
with frequency
frequency
the
consistent smoothing
smoothing on a log-frequency
log-frequency scale.
for consistent
This is the
the frequency
frequency domain
domain equivalent
equivalent of the
the
This
time domain
domain constant
constant Q
Q filters
filters used by
by Swift
Swift
time
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
(1967). The
The bandwidth
bandwidth consideration
consideration explains
explains the
the
(1967).
spacing of
of points
points on
on the
the plot
plot in
in this
this and
and some
some
spacing
other papers
papers on
on :'lIT.
1\Il.
other
111~other
other ERF
l:RI arc
arc*designcd
tlesigne~lto
to usc
use the
die \'('rtical
\.ertical
The
nlagnetic component
coml~onent liz
I!, to
to help
help determine
determine which
\vliich
magnetic
0i the
thetwo
twoprincipal
1)rincipal impedance
impedance axes
axes is
is the
the strike
strike
of
direction. At
At the
the same
same time,
time the
the remaining
remaining ERF
ERF
direction.
aid the
the interpreter
interpreter in
in understanding
understanding the
the cause
cause of
of
aid
apparent anisotropy,
anisotropy, point out
out distant
distant lateral
lateral
apparent
conductivity changes,
changes, and
and often
often provide addiaddiconductivity
tional warning when three-dimensional
three-dimensional structural
structural
tional
conditions occur.
occur. The
The concept
concept which guides
guides the
the
conditions
use of
of lIz
Hi is
is the
the same
same as
as that
that behind the
the AF::\IAG
AFM4G
use
some YLF
VLF techniques of electromagnetic
electromagnetic
and some
VLF freljuencies.
frequencies.
propsecting at audio and \'LF
\vc want to find the horiFrom the field data we
is
zontal direction in which the magnetic field is
II?. In two-dimensional
t\~o-tlim~llsional
most highly coherent with lIz.
be constant, perstructures that direction will be
pendicular to strike, for reasons
reasons discussed
discussed in the
pendicular
section. It
It is
is assumed
assumed that,
that, if we wished, the
next section.
axes could be
be physically
physically rotated
rotated at
measurement axes
each frequency to find this direction.
direction.
each
R. ::\Iadden
Madden (1968,
The procedure, due to T. R,
unpublished), is
is to assume
assume that
that Hz
H, is
is linearly
linearly
unpublished),
related to Hx
H, and Hy
H, and to write
write at each
each frefrcrelated
quency
-1 (.l.;B,)
113
113
tipper. Its
Its magnitude
magnitude in
in each
each frequency
frequency band,
band,
'tipper."
(.I? + .1;+ m +
'/
<)
8~)1
sho\vs the
the relatil,(,
relati1.e strcngth
strength of
0iflo.
II;. lts
Ltsphase
l)hasc is
is
sholl's
+ 1'2)
/$!),
-I [(
[(.I?
ttan-
~ 12
an
r +
)r
2 + 1'2)JI,2
(.1
(_I,2
R,2)]1,2.
~ i +
)
t
(37)
(3
i)
For aa two-dimensional
two-dimensional structure
structure striking
striking in the
For
direction (
($*90)
degrees from .r,
.I, A
;1 and B
B will
direction
90) degrees
the same
same phasesif we
we assume
assume noise-free data,
data.
have the
so that A
A/B
is aa real number and the tipped
so
/ B is
horizontal component Hq,
H, is
is at an angle
angle 4 from
horizontal
axis, where
the xx:axis,
arctan (8/.0.
(/<,.I).
+ == arctan
(38)
(38)
(It is
is important
important in the use
use of
0i the tipper
tipper to kno\\'
knon
(It
whether the phase
phase difference between Hz
H, and II>
II,
whether
lies near 0 degrees
degrees or near 180
180 degrees,
degrees, since,
since, for aa
lies
contact, phase at a single site can be used
used
simple contact,
determine both strike
strike of the contact
contact and
to determine
direction to the contact
contact from the site.)
direction
In the three-dimensional
three-dimensional case,
case, when A and 15
H
In
different phases,
phases,
4 can be defined in several
have different
For example, the definition
+ which
ways. For
definition of
maximizes the cross
maximizes
cross power
power of horizontal
horizontal and ververtical components is
tical
+
(-1; + Hq)
tan-'
(.li
H,)
(39)
(39)
H, = AH, + RH,,
C.32)
(32) This
This is
is a weighted
weighted average of rotation
rotation angles for
where A and B
B are unknown
unknown complex coefficients.
coeffIcients.
+
13,
l3 +
+ iH,.
iB,.
.1 = .IT
-1, + i.l,,
.1
i.I.,
H
B =
(33)
(33)
Following
Following the derivation
derivation of the Zijj
Zu, we integrate
integrate
(H~H$~ = A.t(~,~,*) + B(H,N,*)
(34)
the real and imaginary

imaginary parts
parts of the horizontal.
horizontal.
Another
Another rotation
rotation criterion
criterion is maximum
maximum coherency
of a horizontal
horizontal component
component and 11,.
lIz. Pleasures
J\Ieasures of
three-dimensionality
three-dimensionality are the
the differences between
between
the principal
principal axis direction
direction obtained
obtained by
by impedance
impedance
tensor rotation
rotation and those obtained
obtained from
from ververtical-horizontal
tical-horizontal field relationships.
relationships, An
An indicator
indicator
of the variations
variations in the
the latter
latter is the
the tipper
tipper skew,
defined as
definedas
(A.1,2
(A; + B,2)
Bn tan-
tan- I (-1r/Br)
(...J r / Br) -Tipper
Tipper Skew
Skew = ~~
________~_
and
(H,H,*) = A(H,H,*) + I~(~Y,FI,*) (35)

and
for A
A and
and B. This
This pair
pair of coefficients
coefficients
and solve for
can be
be thought
thought of as operating
operating on the
the horizontal
horizontal
magnetic
magnetic field
field and tipping
tipping part
part of itit into
into the
the
vertical.
vertical. For
For that
that reason,
reason, (A.
(A, B) is called the
the
B~) tan-*
en + ,!$)
tan-
(_lS +
(-1
~~Hi)
(.1,/8,)
---.
(-to)
(10)
Tipper
Tipper skew is zero
zero ifif both
both the
the real
real and imaginary
imaginary
parts
parts of HZ
Hz are
are most
most coherent
coherent nith
with the
the SUVZ~
same horihorizontal
zontal component,
component, as
as for
for t\vo-dimensional
two-dimensional strucstructures.
tures.
From
From A
A and
and B
B we
we can
can also
also calculate
calculate aa predicted
predicted
H,,
Hz, and
and determine
determine its
its coherency
coherency with
with the
the meameasured vertical
vertical component
component by
by
Vozoff
114
114
+ B*\lI,Ify*1
~1.l.l*<flJI,*) + IW*(HJI,,*)jl
.1*(H,H/)
--~
([{,If/) I
Taken together,
together,
quantities
clcscribc tile
the
Taken
these 4uanlltles
describe
relation
of Hz
component:;.
relation
H, to the two
two horizontal
horizontal
components.
They
and
They show
show the
the importance
importance
and locations
locations of lateral
lateral
conductivity
changes
of H,
conductivity
changes and
and the
the reliability
reliability
N, for
for
interpretive
purposes.
interpretive
purposes. For
For nearly
nearly two-dimensional
two-dimensional
structures,
the tipper
tipper can
can be compared
compared
directly
structures,
the
directly
with
the
field
comwith
the vertical/horizontal
vertical/horizontal
field ratios
ratios
compu
ted for
models.
The
absence
of
aa
oi
puted
for various
various
models.
The
absence
significant
(i.e.,
and
tipper
significant
(i.e., smooth
smooth
and consistent)
consistent)
tipper
permits
one
model
permits
one to use layered
layered
model interpretation
interpretation
with
tipper
with some
some confidence.
confidence. IThe
h
e
tipper is also
also a sensisensitive
of certain
tive indicator
indicator
certain noise
noise sources.
sources.
It
grounds
It has
has been
been pointed
pointed out
out on theoretical
theoretical
grounds
that
that tippers
tippers could
could be caused
caused by
by factors
factors external
external
to the
earth.
Fortunately
for
the conducting
conducting
earth.
Fortunately
for the
the
method,
and
method,
and for
for several
several possible
possible reasons,
reasons, the
the :\IT
,\IT
data so far
far studied
studied by
by the
the writer
writer
havre shown
shonn no
data
have
evidence of
of tippers
tippers of external
external origin.
origin.
evidence
INTERPRETATION
INTERPRETA
TION
The general
general
procedures
interpretation
are
The
procedures
of interpretation
arc
discussed in
in this
this section.
section.
Fxamples
of their
their apapdiscussed
Examples
of
plication
to field
field results
results
\vill he
be shO\nl
sho\r-ii in the
the
plication
to
\\ill
iollo\vmg section.
section.
iollO\nng
Interpretation
consists of
Oi three
three stages.
stages. These
lhese
Interpretation
consists
are (1)
(1) a general
o\-crvie\v
of the
the rereare
general qualitative
4ualitative o\'enie\\
of
sults,
sults, (2)
(2) fitting
fitting layered
layered models
models at
at each
each site,
site, and
and
(3)
(3) t\vo-dimensional
two-dimensional and
and three-tlimcnsional
three-dimensional intcrinterpretation.
pretation. i$%en
\Vhen properly
properly carried
carried out,
out, this
this interinterpretation
pretation sequence
se4uence results
results in
in the
the best
best possible
possible
estimate
estimate of
of coiiductivity
conductivity structure
structure Tvithin
\\'ithin the
the
survey
survey area.
area. In
In practice,
practice, the
the third
third stage
stage is 0itcll
often
followed
followed by
by an
an attempt
attempt to
to assign
assign rock
rock types
types and
and a
structure
structure to
to the
the results,
results, when
\\hen experience
experience indiindicates
cates the
the attempt
attempt may
may bc
be warranted.
warranted. InterpretaInterpretation
tion may
may draw
draw on other
other sources
sources of information
information
about
about the
the area
area or
or about
about similar
similar areas.
areas.
Since
Since all
all geophysical
geophysical interpretation
interpretation is based
based on
on
comparing
comparing ob.scrved
observed earth
earth response
response data
data with
with
model
model data,
data, this
this section
section \vill
will begin
begin with
with a tlisdiscussion
cussion of models.
models. In
In horizontally
horizontally layered
layered strucstructures,
t!lres, a single
single apparent
resistivity curve,
curve, or
or its
its
phase,
phase, contains
contains all
all information
iniormation oi
of significance.
significance.
Strike
Strike and
and tipper
tipper are
are undefined.
undefined. 1)crivation
Derivation of
of
apparent
resistivity and
and phase
phase curves
curves for
for the
the
layered
layered model
model appear
appear in
in several
several published
published referreferences,
ences, for
for example
example Madden
;\Iadden and
and Swift
Swift (1969),
(1969),
Tikhonov
Tikhonov (1950),
(1950), and
and 1Vait
W ai t (1962).
(1962). Layered
Layered
----------
(.+1)
model curves
curves can
can be calculated
calculate(l as
as accurately
accurately
model
as
desired,
desired, for as many
many layers
layers as desired,
desired, at compu
comput-ting
ing costs of a few
fe\v cents
cents each.
each. Suites
Suites of
0i cunTS
curves
appear
(1953),
appear in Cagniard
Cagniard
(19.5.3), Yungul
Yungul (1961),
(1961), and
and
Srivastava
(1967).
Srivastava
(1967).
Figure
a pair
models
Figure 8 compares
compares
pair of
oi two-layer
two-layer
models
and
and their
their idealized
idealized apparent
resistivity cunes.
curves. A.t
At
a sut1lciently
sutiiciently high
/fig/l frequency,
frequency, the
the skin
skin depths
depths are
are
small
no energy
small enough
enough that
that practically
practically
energy penepcnetrates
resistivity
is
tratcs to the
the basement.
basement. A.pparent
.\pparent
resistivity
therefore
therefore asymptotic
asymptotic to Pl
pi at high
high frequencies
frequencies and
and
the
When
the upper
upper layer
layer is not
not penetrated.
penetrated.
\\Tlien frefre4uencies
quencies are
are low enough,
enough, the
the top
top layer
layer has little
little
effect
effect and
and the
the apparent
resistivity approaches
approaches P1.
pr,
The
with
gradual, so
,,0
The transition
transition
with frC4uency
frequency. is gradual,
smooth
result. The
greater layer
layer thickness
thickness
smooth curves
curves result.
Ihe greater
model B requires
lower frequency
of model
rC4uires going
going to
to a 100yer
frequency to
to
obtain the
the samc
same amount
obtain
amount of basement
basement influence
influence on
on
the
the cune.
curve.
:\
three-layer curve
curve is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 9
-1 typical
typical three-layer
for a second
second layer
for
layer \vhich
\yhich is more
more conductive
conductive than
than
the other
other t\\'o.
t\vo. :\s
-1s expected,
the
expected, the
the curve
curve approaches
approaches
pi at
at high
high frequencies,
frequencies, drops
Pl
drops toward
toward pZ
P' at
at lower
lower
frectuencies, and
;\lthough
pU
frequencies,
and then
then goes to p:l,
P:j. :\Ithough
Pu
never reaches
reaches ~2,
never
P2, the
the presence
presence Oi
of aa conductive
conductive
second layer
layer is obvious
second
obvious as long
long as it
it is not
not too
too
thin.
thin. (\Vays
(\Yays oi
of interpreting
interpreting its
its thickness
thickness and
and reresisitivity
sisitivity are
are discussed
discussed belon-.)
belo\\.) The
The extension
extension to
to
four or
or more
more layers
layers is clear.
clear.
cases of four
The
The gradual
gradual way
way in
in which
which the
the effect
effect of
of each
each
layer
layer appears,
appears, as contrasted
contrasted with
with the
the abrupt
abrupt onset
onset
of
of a reflection
reflection in
in a seismic
seismic record,
record, characterizes
characterizes
the
the n-eakncsses
\\'eaknesses and
and the
t he strengths
strengths of this
this method.
method.
Ii, for
If,
for example,
example, the
the second
second layer
layer I\-cre
\\'cre thin
thin enough,
enough,
the
the apparent
resisti\'ity curve
cun'e would
would go smoothly
smoothly
from
irom p,
PI to ~3:
P3: the
the second
second layer
layer would
would not
not be seen
unless it
it were
were extremely
extremely conductive.
conductive. On
On the
the other
other
unless
hand,
hand, this
this tendency
tendency to
to average
a \'erage together
together the
the minor
minor
features permits
permits the
the method
method to
to show
sho\\' up
up weakly
weakly
features
systematic variations
variatiom; which
which might
might be
be lost
lost with
with a
systematic
higher
higher resolving
resolving po\vcr.
power. ItIt can
can be
be thought
thought of
of as
emphasizing
emphasizing the
the grosser
grosser (longer
(longer n-avclength)
\\'avclength)
structural ieatui-es
features at
at the
the expense
expense 0iof the
the finer
finer tlcdestructural
tails. This
This characteristic
characteristic carries
carries over
over to
to the
the twotwotails.
dimensional case.
case. so that
that structural
st ructural features
features ma!
may
dimensional
sho\y up
up even
even though
though traverses
traverses do
do not
not cross
cross
show
directly
directly over
over them,
them, justifying
justifying large
large traverse
traverse
spacings.
spacings.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Figure 10
10 shows the simplest
simplest t\yo-dimensional
tn-o-dimensional
Figure
structure, the vertical
vertical fault.
fault. It
It displays
displays all of the
structure,
characteristics
oi more
more complicated
complicated
tn-o-dimencharacteristics
of
two-dimensional models,
models, but
but is
is one of the few
fen for which
which any
an!
sional
theoretical
solutions have
have been found.
found. ConseConsetheoretical
solutions
quently it
it makes
makes aa very
very instructive
instructive
example.
quently
example.
The gross differences
differences between
between this and
and the
The
horizontally
layered models
models examined
examined earlier
earlier are
horizontally
layered
that (1) apparent
apparent resisti\'ity
rcsistivit!- and
and phases
phases \'ary
vary with
\vith
that
rotation of measurement
measurement axes and
and (2) the tipper
tipper is
is
rotation
noi1zero. \Ye
\Ve consider
consider lIl"()
two sites, onc
one on each
each side
nonzero.
the fault
fault (see Figure
Figure 11).
11). Whcn
\Vhen measurement
measurement
of the
at site .\
;\ are aligned
aligned with
with the
the structural
structural
axes at
two apparent
apparent re,;i,;ti\'ity
rebistivity
curves which
which
axes, the two
curvc,;
result are shOlm
shown (labeled
(labelctl .\)
.I) in Figure
Figure 11.
Il. :\IeaArearesult
surements made
made at point
point B
H gi\'e
give the t\\o
t\\-0 cun'es
curves
,;urements
labeled B,
B. The
The subscript
subscript for
ior each cun'c
curve reicrs
reiers
labeled
the direction
direction of E relative
relative to strike.
strike. Hz
II; and
and the
to the
tipper approach
approach zero
zero with
rvith increasing
increasing frequency
frequenq
tipper
at each
each location
location. ..At
10~ frequencies,
frequencies
the tippers
tippers
at
\t low
the
at both
both sites are asymptotic
asymptotic
the same
same constant
constant
at
to the
values.
values.
nhen
the \'alues
values of several
several quantities
quantities
are
\Yhen
the
are
plotted versus
versus location
location along
along a traverse
traverse crossing
crossing
plotted
the fault,
fault, cun'e:;
curves such as the
the apparent
apparent resistivity,
resistivitv,
the
tipper, and
and relati\'e
relati\-e
/ H~I
Nll of
oi Figure
Figure 10 are obtipper,
tained. The
The features
features to note
note are the
the following:
following:
tained,
pU varies
varies smoothly
smoothly for
for currents
currents ROIying
flon-ing along
along
1. Pu
to strike,
strike, but
but varies
varies discontinuously,
discontinuously.
with
with
an
an overshoot,
overshoot, for
for currents
currents across
across strike.
strike,
2.
2, Pa
p" is asymptotic
asymptotic to
to the
the appropriate
appropriate resistivresistivit,ity \-aluc
value at
at large
large distances
distances from
from the
the fault,
fault.
3. ZIz
lIz is largest
largest near
ncar the
the fault
fault, decreasing
decreasing
smoothly
smoothly to zero
zero in
in both
both directions.
directions.
1.
-1,. The
The horizontal
horizontal H component
component across
across strike,
strike,
N-1,
H,L, varies
varies significantly
significantly near
near the
the fault.
fault.
Alost of these
:\Iost
these effects
effects can
can be understood
understood by
by
examining
examining the
the current
current flonRmy patterns
patterns near
ncar the
the
fault
fault in
in Figure
Figure 10. .-\t
At a large
large distance
distance from
from the
the
interface,
interface, currents
currents are
are crowded
crowded closer
closer to
to the
the sursurface
face on
on the
the conductive
conductive side.
side. Currents
Currents across
across
strike
strike must
must be continuous
continuous through
through the
the contact,
contact,
and
and they
they adjust
adjust smoothly
smoothly as shown.
shown, Far
Far away
away
from
from the
the contact,
contact, the
the values
values of
of current
current densit!
density
nntl
and electric
electric field
field are
arc appropriate
appropriate to
to the
the uniform
uniform
mccliuni.
medium ...\l)proachin,
\pproaching(r the
t he contact
contact from
from the
t he coiiconcluctivc
ductive sitlc,
side, 111~~
the currenl
current tlt,nsity
density xl
at thv
the suriacca
,;urface
tlecreases;
decreases; hence,
hence, IIl~ aiitl
and P,~
p" (Iccrcasc.
decrease. Although
:\lthough the
the
current
current densities
densities on the
the t\\o
two sides are
are identical
identical at
at
the
the contact,
contact, the
the abrupt
abrupt resistivity
resistivity change
change causes
causes
an
an abrupt
abrupt change
change in
in R,
R, and
and hence
hence in
in pa. Because
Because
115
115
current is continuous
continuous and
and E
I<=,ip,
I: change,
change- in
current
=.iP, l~
ratio as P;
p; Pa,
pa, which
jrhich depencb
tlependh on E2.
I:?.
the same ratio
changes as the squa
sylrure
change in p.
changes
re of the change
Currents and
and electric
electric fields
fields parallel
parallel to strike
strike are
Currents
able to adjust
adjust without
without having
ha\-ing to cross the
the boundbountlable
ary. The
The parallel
parallel
component
and the
the corcorary.
E component
and
responding Pa
pn are continuous
continuous across the
the contact,
contact,
responding
approaching
the appropriate
appropriate
uniform earth
earth solusoluapproaching
the
uniform
tion smoothly
smoothI!- with
with distance
distance on each
each side. Hc)\\'How
tion
ever, the
the current
current densities
densities change
change abruptly
abruptly
here.
e\'er,
here.
that cun'es
curve5
illustrated, causing
causing a magnetic
magnetic field that
as illustrated,
around the
the higher
higher density
density region.
region. This
This is the
the
around
origin of
0i the
the vertical
vertical H
II component.
component. Direction
Ijirection
origin
of
largest II
II in the
the vertical
vertical plane
plane i,
is shown
shown by
by the
the
largest
lines of
oi II
H above
above E current
current 1101\'.
tlo\\-.
lines
More rigorously,
rigorously,
there \vill
n-ill be a vertical
vertical
II
:\Iore
there
II
component
only if curl
curl E has a vertical
\.ertical comconcomponent
only
ponent. Ii
If y is the
the strike
strike direction
direction
say=()),
ponent.
(a 'ay
= 0),
then for
for currents
(E,=(J) the
then
currents across
across strike
strike (Ey=O)
the curl
curl
of E has no z component.
component. Currents
Currents parallel
parallel to
to
strike han'
ha1.c a nonzcro
a ,~, so
strike
nonzero value
value for
for dEy
aEy 'ax,
so thex
they
have
also ha
ve an associated
associa ted Zlf
ll, coniponcnt.
componen t.
\\Iien measurements
\\"hen
measuremcnts are
are macle
made along
along a traverhe
traverse
line as is natural
line
natural in
in t\\o-diiucnsiollal
two-dimensional situations.
situations. a
more con\'enient
convenient presentation
more
presentation of apparent
apparent resisresistivities than
than that
11 is essential.
tivities
that of Figures
Figures 10 and
andl1
essential.
One such presentation
One
presentation is the
the pseudosection,
pseudosection, sugsuggested by
by :\
Seves
gested
eves (1057).
(1 (57). Figure
Figure 12 shows
shows pseudopseudosections for
sections
for the
the fault.
fault. The
The horizontal
horizontal scalesarc
scales arc
distance; the
distance;
the vertical
vertical scales
scales are
are frequency
frequency with
\"ith
lowest
lowest frequencies
frequencies at
at bottom.
bottom ..;\pparent
\pparent resistivity
resistivity
value
value is plotted
plotted beneath
beneath site
site location
location at
at the
the apappropriate
propriate frequency
frequency for
for each
each site,
site, and
and the
the results
results
are
are contoured.
contoured. Separate
Separate pbeudoscctions
pseudosections have
have to
to
be constructed
constructed ior
for R parallel
parall"l and
and IIII parallel
parallel to
to
strike.
strike,
.\s
As a means
means 0i
of further
further explaining
explaining the
the logical
logical
basis
basis of the
the second
second stage
stage of interpretation,
interpretation, \ve
we will
will
discuss three
hose are
three additional
additional models.
models. lThese
arc the
the
buried
buried steeply
steeply dipping
dipping contact,
contact, the
the thin
thin dipping
dipping
conductive
conductive dike,
dike, and
and the
the thin
thin dipping
dipping resistive
resistive
dike.
dike.
When
When a cover
cover of
of resistivit)resistivity PO
po is laid
laid over
over the
the
previous
previous model,
model, the
the result
result is to
to smooth
smooth and
and atattenuate
tenuate all
all of
of the
the boundary
boundary effects
effects n-hi&
which were
were
seen.
seen, The
The tlegrcc
degree of
of smoothin,
smoothingtr incrrases
increases xvitli
with the
the
thickness
thickness anti
and corltlucti\-ity
conducti\'ity of
of die
the overl,urclen
o\'crIJllT<len
(I;igurc
.i). .\~)parc.nt
(Figure I1-').
.\pparent rvsisti\,ily
resi,;ti\'ity cur\.cs
cunTS ai
at IarK<,
large
tlistanccs
distances from
from the
the contact
contact im
are thchc
tho,;l' of
of die
the appr~,appropriate
priate two-layer
t \\'o.layer motlcl.
model. The
The t\\-o
t In) pscutloscctions
IbClldoscctions
for
for I<
E parallel
parallel and
and R
R perpendicular
perpendicular become
become veq
vcry
similar.
similar. Although
Although the
the transition
transition in
in apparent
apparent
116
Vozoff
Vozoff
resistivity
resistivity will still be
be more abrupt
abrupt for currents
across strike, the actual discontinuity
discontinuitlflowing across
vanishes because
because both current
current density and resistivity
sistivity are continuous. The
The tipper
tipper then becomes
becomes
a more important
important clue
clue to strike.
Many fault,;
faults in older consolidated and meta:\Iany
rocks ha
have
narron
morphosed rocks
\'C the appearance of narrow
conductive dikes.
dikes. Shale beels,
beds, \vhich
which often arc
are the
conductivc
loci of imbricate
imbricate faultin~,
iaulting, also
also behave like concon
elucti
ve dikes. _\ steeply dipping thin
ductive
thin conductive
conductive
dike has
has a pronounced effect on parallel
parallel current
current
is therefore effective
effective in
and electric field and is
generating
generating a tipper.
tipper. HO\\'ever,
Han-ever, the dike's
dikes effect
1
on
E
across it
it does
docs not become large
On thc
the
E field acroys
until
is very
vcry shallo\\-,
,;halhm', \vhcn
\vhen the dike start,
until the dip is
starts
to behave as
as a conductive
conductive layer. Figure
Figure 1+
shO\\,
11 sho\\~s
the behavior
of the dike ",hen
is vertical.
n.'rtical. The
The
behavior of
when it is
E,
resistiYity responds
responds at a substantial
substantial
E, apparent
distance on either
either side,
side, o
gi\'in~
~v~ng the dike the appearance of a conductive
conductive valley.
valley. Ii
actually
Ii this actual]!.
\vere
valley, ho\re\-cr,
howen.'r, the EL
E .... apn-we a conductive
conducti\-e valley,
parent
would also
also sho\v
sho\\' it. The
The lack of
parent resistivity
resistivity \~ould
E1- is
is diagnostic
dia~nostic oi
of the narronnarro\\' steeply
response
response in El
dipping
The same
same lack of response
response
dipping conductor. The
as shallow as
as 45
-15 degrees.
degrees.
holds even for dips as
km
1--- -I
CD
CD
O-~~I------------------------------------------------------~I~
10
~i-m
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w
1000 rr -m
I
f-
a..
w
4 -
4-
.1
fT,
175 km
:::;:
~~~====--~~~=~
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--i
f-I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10
>&
u
5
Z
w
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2
aw
Ct:
LL
---------------41
rr'm
10
3--18
30
55
55
.3---100
100
----------------------------180--------------------I80
.03 !80 ------------------------100 ------------------.003-.3--
.03
>-
f-
:>
i=
(/)
i7l
Ct:
(1)
-'"
E E,
f-(/)
""
Ct: W
~
a..
<!
>-
f-
3--
:>
i=
>-
u
Z
~
Ct:
LL
.3-=~
.03 - -\100
<[]
""
-/
.003- -
(/)
(1)
-'"
W ';::
n:::(;,1
55
f-=~
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i!
~
a..
<!
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3-
>u
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aw
Q;
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Ct:
LL
.003 -
FIG.
FIG.
14. Computed
Computedmodel
model of a buried
buried vertical
vertical conductive
1+.
conductive dike.
dike.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
117
117
100
I km
Ikm
40
1000
3,8---v-3.8-- - - -
1000
10D -m
.2km thick
LAYERED
MODELS
WHOSE
APPARENT
LAYERED
MODELS
WHOSE
APPARE
NT
RESISTIVITY
CURVES CLOSELY
CLOSELY
MATCH H
RESISTIVITY
CURVES
MATC
THOSE
OF THE
THE
ABOVE
MODEL
THOSE
OF
ABOVE
MODEL
0
II
1.8
I.9
1.9
A II
II
A
0OBII B II
IQQ
100
10QO
loo0
10
lo
1000
1000
I
3
3.5
3.5
100
100
1000
1000
30
3o
1000
1000
AlAND
BI
A.J.
AHD B.J.
I
I;Ic.
FIG.
too
100
1000
1000
15. Result
Result of
of fitting layered
layered models
modelsto
to response
responsecurves
curvesof a
15.
a two-dimensional
two-dimensional structure
structure
sitesA
,4 and
and B.
B.
at sites
The result of fitting

fitting horizontally
horizontally layered
layered models
Thc
at
at two locations over a conductive
conductive dike is shown
in Figure
1.5. Site X
Figure 15.
A is 0.8 km from
from the
thc trace of
the dike, and B is 1.8 km from the trace.
tracc. The
The
E_L
EJ.. components
components show no evidence
evidencc of the dike.
In
In the
thc EI(
Eli components,
components, the dike has much the
same effect on apparent
resistivity as
as does
does a
conductive
conductive layer.
layer. If
If the El/
Ell interpretations
interpretations were
werc
used to construct
construct an electrical
electrical cross-section, they
they
would
would show a conductive
conductive bed dipping
dipping in the
the right
right
direction.
direction. Although
Although the
the interpreted
interpreted thickness
and conductivity
conductivity of the
the bed would
would not
not be inindividually
dividually correct,
correct, the
the conductivity-thickness
conductivi ty- thickness
products
products would
would be
be reasonably
reasonably close to
to that
that of the
the
dike
dike (0.01 and 0.015
0.01 S versus
versus 0.02).
0.02).
Tn
Tn the
the extreme
extreme case,
ca,;e, many
many thin
thin conductors
conductors in ;Ia
more
matrix causi('
cau,;c the
the malarial
material to
to Iwlla~c*
heha\'('
more resistive
resistive nlxlrix
as
a,; aa uniiorm
uniform l)ut
hut anisolroj)ic
ani,;otropic m~~l~ri~tl.
material. Such
Such :L
a
m0tlcl
can 1~
be USCY~
used toto stutly
st udy the
t he effects
effects d
of (lil,
dip
model CZIII
on
on apparent
apparent resistivilies.
resistivities. Figure
Figure 10
1() sho\vs
shows the
the
apparent
resistivities for
for an
an anisotropic
anisotropic model.
model. In
In
this
this case,
case, the
the anisotropy
anisotropy was
was confined
confined to
to aa second
second
layer,
layer, the
the first
first and
and third
third layers
layers being
being isotropic
isotropic
and homogeneous. The

The results
resulb further
further illustrate
illustrate
that
that the dip must
must be fairly
fairly shallow (here less
less than
than
30 degrees)
degrees) for the thin
thin conductors to have much
effect on EL.
EJ...
If
If the
the thin
thin dike
dike is more resistive
resistive than
than its
its surroundings,
roundings, the
the situation
situation is reversed:
reversed: EL
EJ.. apparent
apparent
resistivity
resistivity is the
the component
component most affected
affected and
little
little effect
effcct is seen in the
thc El;
E!i apparent
resistivity
until
until the
the dip
dip is small
small enough that
that the
the dike
dike begins
begins
to behave
behave as a resistive
resistivc layer.
layer. This
This behavior
behavior can
be seen in
in the
the previous
previous (anisotropic
(anisotropic layer)
layer) model
model
if
if the
the 100 ohm-m
ohm-m of the
the second layer
layer is now
now considered due
due to
to many
many thin
thin resistive
rcsistive beds
beds in
in aa 10
10
ohm-m
ohm-m matrix.
matrix.
IThe
he picture
picture just
just tliscussetl
discussed is
is seen
seen in
in the
the immeimmetliate
diate vicinity
vicinity oi
of an
an isolatetl
isolated resistive
resistive tlike(Figurc
dike(Figure
IT).
17). I)iagnoslics
()i,lgnostics are
arc :man anc)maly
anomaly in
in resistivity
resistivity
across
aero,;,; strike,
strike, \vith
with little
little or
or no
no effect
dTeet on
on /!!I
fiij antI
and
tip1)c.r
hc thin
tipper (not
(not sho\vn).
sho\\n). lThe
thin resistive
rcsistivc (like
dike seems
scems
to
represent aa fault
fault in
in young,
young, unconsolidated
unconsolidated
to represent
sediments,
sedimcnts, as
as \vell
\\'ell as
as salt
salt ritlges
ridges and
and intrusive
intrusive
dikes.
dikes.
ItIt is
is observed
obscrvcd that
that the
the EL
EJ.. pseudosections
pscudosections COIIICOI11-
118
118
Vozoff
Vozoff
ROTATED TENSOR
TENSOR RESISTIVITIES
RESISTIVITIES
ROTATED
10.000
10,000
YODEL
NODEl
-::
E,
f m 100-m
Plon-m
"'- ~oon" ~ }
2izsy.L
~on-~"",
\,.
1,000
.!
Ikm
2km
lOOn-m
100n-m
a
Cl.
>
>
100
Pa fM E.l. ttrik7
lII)
in
11.1
60
II:
I-
10
11.1
II:
C
IL
IL
.001I
.ut
.01
.I
.1
I.
I.
IO
10
FREQUENCY
(Hz)
FREQUENCY
(Hz)
11~. 16.
16. Changes in apparent
qqxxent resistivity
resistivity with
\vith dip of principal
principal conductivity
conductivity- RYES
FJG.
axis in an aniwtropic
anisotropic medium.
medium.
30
30
a-m
A-m
100
P-m
100
A-m
10000
1000
.2
3 -;I,
A-
APPAREy*
R;;;~;~lTY
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
EJ. STRIKE
(n-m)
(A-m)
A&
t);
.02
P
'N
:ci
100
100
ci
200
200 300
300
11.1
; -.002
II: 002
LL
LL
-.2,2
150~
145
145
~/
9
:t:
ci
ci
w
11.1
a
II:
-.02
.02
~-------------140
140
-----------------------
I&_
LL
t.
002
.002
PHASE
PHASE
E I STRIKE
STRIKE
E.1.
FlG.
17. Computed
Computed model of a vertical
vertical resistive dike. Ei
1c.i resistivity
resistivit), is not distinguishable
hG.
17.
distinguishable from that
that of
two-layer case
case with
with the dike absent.
the two-layer
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
G,
N'IV
GO
G2
G4
G3
5
5
10
G
G55
10
/0
10
33AI~
A\ 6.8
---- "---- /
2
Z ,8
25
2 5
119
'.8
4 2
F..2
3.8
25
Z 5
2 9
4 :3
4 2
5.9
Z 5
25
1.5
2 9
2.3
70
,3 4
4
, 3
1:3
17
7
I 95
6 4
4 ,
43
5 4
4 2
2 2
2 6
.62
~E:.
5
? 2
I ~
i:
.3
03
0,
87
IO~
10~
.003
0o,
13 :3
3
5 7
20~
11.7
20
10
68
99~!
17~
5
I
1
G,
GI
Nw
10
i:
GO
GZ
5
3.5
7 2Z
9 I
204
,3 99
57
6.5
2.5
2.6
33
4 5
3.7
24
2.4
3. ,I
3.5
1.2
03
23
2.7
13
'3
1.4
'.4
.01
2 4
2.5
1.5
, .9
1.9
003
21
2 I
4.6
3,1
3.1
001
"
8 4
8 0
8
G5
SE
10
10
2.02
.3
G4
G3
~
6 8
"
3.'
2.4
'~'
3.2
i.9~1.95
13
"
3'
3.1
3.'
liiiiooiii
30
.70
1.5
6.2
10
I 24
==
:==:
' 2
I 2
E II Tost"ke
IbPP4RENT
(APPARENT
RESISTllTI
RESISTIVITY
IN
IN
OHM-METERS,
OHM-METERS)
FIG. 18. Pseudosections,

Pseuclosections, South Texas
Texas traverse.
traverse.
monly
monly have a greater
greater range of values and more
lateral
lateral variation
variation in values than do the E,,
E" pseudosections.
sections. This
This is not unexpected,
unexpected, since
since even in
the simplest
simplest models the apparent
resistivities for
El
E.l commonly
commonly display an overshoot, while a
smooth transistion
transistion is more typical
typical of those for El,.
E~"
Furthermore,
Furthermore, the simplest
simplest real earth
earth is far more
complex in its variability
variability than
than any
any model we
might
might have the incenti\-e
incentive to construct,
construct, even
though there appears to be more regularity
regularity to
the broad averages for geological units
units than
than there
there
is
IS to the fine structure
structure (Keller,
(Keller, 1068;
196R; Harthill,
Harthill,
1968). As a result, we are seldom very
very far from
from
some lateral
lateral conductivity
conductivity change. These two
factors explain
larger variance
variance typical
typical of El.
E.l.
explain the larger
;\np
:\ny continuity
continuity of structure
structure or lithology
lithology which
may exist is therefore
therefore more easily followed
followed in the
E
E::, pseudosection, so
so it
it is the one most often
often used
used
for the first
first (horizontal
(horizontal layer)
layer) interpretation.
interpretation. (In
(In
the important
important case
case in which a narrow
narrow resistive
resistive
structure
structure extends upward
upward into
into a more conductive
conductive
section, EI~
E I' may
may not resolve the structure
structure and
therefore
therefore El
E.l will
will yield
yield a better
better depth
depth estimate
estimate on
the structure.)
structure.) If
If many
many contours are found between adjacent
adjacent sites on the
the E_L
E.l pseudosection, it
it
is taken
taken to indicate
indicate a break
"break" betrveen
between the sites,
sites.
and the interpretation
interpretation is
IS usually
usually confirmed
confirmed
by
confirm cd by
tipper
tipper behavior.
behavior.
In
In some areas, the t\vo
two pseudosections are
nearly
nearly indistinguishable,
indistinguishable, indicating
indicating no more than
than
gradual
gradual changes between
between sites. In
In other
other areas,
the two are quite
quitc different
quite
different and change rapidly
rapidly
with
with location,
location, indicating
indicating sharp lateral
lateral breaks.
breab.
Figure
Figure 18 shows gradual
gradual changes at
at the southSOli th-
120
120
Vozoff
Vozoff
tended half way to each

each adjoining
adjoining site, weobtain
\\-e obtain
first-try two-dimensional
tno-dimensional model.
motlel. The
The pathe first-try
ramctcrs of
0i this model
niodcl can
can tI hell
Ilen
be modified
motlifictl "ys5~s.
rameters
be
tematically
tcniatically until
until the pscu<iosections
psw~Io5cctions match the
firltl data. In
In practice,
practirc, only
field
only a il'lI'
iv\\- sllch
~urh trials arc
because oi
of tthe
numhrr
usually made because
he large Ilum
ber oi
involved, and the fact that
that the geology
gcolog)
variables involved,
usually departs enough from being two-dimentwo-dimensional that
that the end result will not be quantitative
quantitative
no
no matter
matter how good
good the fit.
Waeselynck
Waeselynck (1967)
(1067) outlined an approach to
end, and apparent

apparent anisotropy at the northnortheastern end,
nest.
west.
smootl~nc~~
ol pscuc\osection:i
pseudosections
of
Obviously, the smoothness
tlcpcn~ls
in part on
on the
the spacing
spacing between
I~rt\vcrn
sites, since
since
depcnds
in
sites,
even with shal\OI\"
Aallw dips
dips the resistivity-depth
rexis;livity-depth curH
curve
CH'n
may change
change considerably betwcen
bctneen sites
sites 10
10 or
or
rutire milcs
milts apart,
apart, as
as in aa reconnaissance
reconnaissance survcy.
survey.
1"1l0re
Here again the tipper
tipper can
can be helpful,
helpful, since
since it is
is
Here
be negligibly
negligibly small 111
in the absence
absence of
found to be
sharp lateral
lateral breaks.
If the layered model fitted
fitted at each
each site is
is excxIf
O!Ot OINtNSlO'IAL Noon
O.lE 05
'l.u
94
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
DEPTH (KM)
tl4
Ul-M)
tl 5
tl6
C
N
.6-1-.6
-.6 - r--.6
-.6 D.l[ tIS
-2.3 - I- 2.6 2.0 - 1-2.3
I
S
5.0- 5.3 5.0-1-5.3-
5.65.6
5.6 -
20
D.lI lit
""
"I,
--"'-
"".....
~ II-...
~
1"""'
.....
i;:
t--....
"""l::
""'
l:: ~ It'"
It""
~ t:--.
f:::-.
0.1s
0.11 ol
01
I Ill11
O.W-08
0.11-01
I111111
I111111
I111111
fJ.lC
D." 00
00
~nLwc*CI
FIELD DATA
"FIELD
DATA -
IOi""'
iO'""
0.11-01
O.U-OI
'
--
I Illll
o.tc
O.U 01
01
D.II )~I
O.lC
e
9 w:
MODEL:
MODEL: G-2
G-2
1:~
FIG 19. Cut-and-try layered
layered model
model fit, South
South Texas
Texas traverse.
traverse. Model no.
no. 6 fits best
best the
dashed
dashed curve
curve drawn
drawn through
through the
the field
field results.
results.
121
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
C l R ~ I I~
MANUAL FIT
l-
CCM?UTER FIT - - - - -
f-
I
j
,. ~ , :1;;:tf.'i
\. ';r-:t;,.
---- .. j;
I
1
I
-t
I :
l ~
I"
I
i i ~ ---
Ii:
, Ii: I,'
O.I[ 01
1.0
0.11 DO
1-
O.,-0,
0.&1"0.
O.,
-0,
0.001
0.01
0.01
o. tl 00
00
0.11
O.IC
0,
0.1( 0,
A'
0.
0.1I
1.0
II
.+
B.IC
('.. 1[ ot
or
10.0 Hz
Hz
FIG. 20. Interpretation

Interpretation of apparent
resistivity data
data from
from Oklahoma,
Oklahoma, showing manually
manually fitted
fitted and
computer-fitted
21.
computer-fitted model curves. Corresponding
Corresponding models are
are shown
shown in Figure
l'igure 21.
computing
computing three-dimensional
three-dimensional models, but
but no
examples have thus far appeared.
CURVE
CURVE MATCHING
MATCHING
Most
Most layered
layered model curve matching
matching to date has
been done manually,
manually, by cut-and-try
cu t-and- try methods.
methods.
Numerous
Numerous sets of computed
computed model curves are
available
available (Yungul,
(Yungul, 1961
1901;; and Srivastava,
Srivastava, 1967)
19(7)
but
but efficient
efiicient computer
computer programs
programs for arbitrary
arbitrary
. horizontal
horizontal layering
layering are
arc common. Time-sharing
Time-sharing
systems have been found very
very useful anal
and inexinexpensive in this application.
application. An
An example
example of a cutcu tand-try
and- try fit
and-try
fit is shown in Figure
Figure 19.
In
In addition
addition to the cut-and-try
cut-and-try technicme,
technique, direct
direct
computer
computer curve
curve fitting
fitting techniques are available.
available.
The
use least squares
The more common of these use
usc
squares
fitting,
fitting, where the computer
computer attempts
attempts to find a
model which fits every
every data
data point,
point, so
so as
as to produce
the smallest sum of squared errors (~VU,
(\"'u,
(V,u, 1968;
Patrick
Patrick and
and Bostick,
Bostick, 1969).
19(9). In
In the first
first reference,
reference,
only
only apparent
resistivity curves are
arc matched,
matched,
whereas in the
the second,
second, both
both apparent
resistivity
ant]
and phase can be fittetl.
fitted.
In
Iic number
]n least squares mclhods
methods ttilc
the
number of panumbcr
parameters
Iiiclinesscs
plw; layer
rameters iountl
iound (la!er
(layer 1tthicknesses
ilickllesscs plus
layer
rcsistivities)
rcsisti\-itics) cannot cxccecl
rcsisti\'itics)
exceed the number
excccd
number 0i
of data
data
points,
points, and
and all data
data points
points usctl
used as
as computer
compu ter input
inpu t
are usually
usually n-eighted
\ycighted equally;
equally; that
that is, there
there is no
way
way to distinguish
distinguish good data
data from
from poor data.
data.
Alore
:\Iore significant,
significant, there
there is no simple,
simple, objective
objective
122
122
Vozoff
Vosoff
way
may to tell
tell how
how good
good the
the data
data are.
are. Indirect
Indirect indiindicators
and
caters are
are smoothness,
smoothness, predictability,
predictability,
and conconsistency
sistency with
with time;
time but
but these do not
not distinguish
distinguish
between
data
between good
good one-dimensional
one-dimensional
data and
and good
three-dimensional
data,
three-dimensional
data, where
where the
the dimensionality
dimensionalit?.
refers
refers to the
the model
model used to fit
fit the
the data.
data. The
The gengelleralized
eralizcd inverse
inlrerse technique,
technique, suggested
suggested first
first (in
(in thi"
this
application)
by
application)
by T.
T. R.
R. ~ladden
Madden and
and developed
developed by
by
Harter
and
(in
has the
Harter
and ~Iadden
-\Iadden
(in preparation),
preparation),
the
virtue
virtue of being
being able
able to ignore
ignore bad
bad data
data points,
points, of
indicating
\yhen
otherwise inadeinadeindicating
\rhen the
the data
data are otherwise
MACHINE
MACHINE
B
12A-m
{)
quate,
of showing
showing xhen
\yhen the
the model
model itseli
ibclf is
is
quate, and
and of
inadequate.
inadequate.
In
manual and
and direct
(lirect in\-ersion,
in\'crsion, the
the choice
choice
In both
both manual
parameters can
can be critical,
critical, so
so that
that an!
any
of starting
starting parameters
prior
must be
be used
used as
as early
early as
as possible.
possible.
prior knowledge
knowledge must
To
the results
results of curve
curve matching
matching b\
by
To compare
compare the
manual
cut-and-try
methods \vith
\\ith direct
direct (ge11(genmanual
cut-and-try
methods
computer fitting,
fitting, data
data were
were
eralized
inverse)
eralizcd
inverse)
computer
analyzed
site in the
the ;\nadarko
,\nadarko Basin.
Basin. The
The
analyzed from
from a site
computer
resistivities are
are sho\vn
shown
computer output
output apparent
in Figure
20. Two
Two curves,
cun'e:;, the
the manually
manually fitted
fitted
Figure 20.
MANUAL
MANUAL
PARALLEL
PARALLEL TO STRIKE
STRIKE
1.3k-ft
1.3k-tt
.62
.62 k-ft.
k-f?.
2.3
2.3
2.1
28
I
It)
....
30
5.6
5.6
~.I
.,.
30
30
9
0
CD
~6
56
1.7
~
~
en
... ....
...
-..
II
1.&.1
1.&.1
en
c(
0
~
>
104
.c!
.,;
1.&.1
.(\1
3.4
1.&.1
6.8
6.8
430
7
A
PERPENDICULAR R TO
TO STRIKE
STRIKE
PERPENDICULA
Q1
1.1 k-ftot
22
1.8
3.4
~
CD
.. ...
..
(\I
1.3k1.3k- It
ft
2.1
1.&.1
0
..
c(
aE
-.
0
1.5
I.5
...
..
0
~2
52
-W
01.&.1
78
76
7
100
100
II
>
I7
0~
0~
It)
1.&.1
01
10
IO
>
c(
.,J
en
67
67
1.&.1
200
200
FIG.
Errors for the manually
manually fitted
fitted
I:IG. 21. :Models
Models corresponding to the fitted curves of the previous figure. Errors
curves are estimated.
estimated.
Magnetotelluric Exploration
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
/
/
123
123
/
I
!'
\
YOKum
/
/
<
TEXAS
BeeIJllle
.M.
10 MILES
X=MTSite
X q MT Site
0 =
= Well
FIG.
1~.
Log
Log (deep)
(deep)
22. Location
deep wells used
used for control.
control.
Location map, South Texas traverse, showing sites
sites and deep
and
and the
the direct
direct fitted,
fitted, are superposed
superposed on each
each set
of
of points;
points; and
and the
the resulting
resu!ting modcl8
mod& are compared
compared
in Figure
Figure 21. No
No error
error is calculated
calculated for the
the manmanually
ually fitted
fitted curves;
curves; in this
this case, the average
average error
error
appears
appears to be 10-1
10-15S percent
percent for
for the E.l
E-1 data
data and
and
5-10
percent
fit is
j-10
percent for
for the EI'.
El. The
The computer
computer
is
obviously
obviously closer
closer in each case, bu
butt the models
models are
not
not very
very different
different in the
the upper
upper few thousand
thousand feet.
feet.
Considering
the
Considering the
the apparent
anisotropy,
the deeper
deeper
portions of the
the models
models arc
arc remarkably
remarkably
consistent
portions
consistent
with the resul-t-sresults t-o-t-hG
to the nort-h-,
north, prGscnt-edprcx~ntcd inin aa later
later
\vit-hsection. They
They indicate
indicate the
the bottom
bottom of horizontal
horizontal
section.
layering to be at
at about
about 3.J-OO
3400 ft
f1 "ub,urface.
subsurface.
layering
The circled
circled
values on the
the machine-fitted
machine-fitted
The
values
models, Figure
Figure 21,
2 1, indicate
indicate layers
layers whose
\vhose paramparammodel"
ctcrs are
are individually
individually
best resolved
resolved and
and most
most
eters
best
stable. These
These are
are unlikely
unlikely to differ
tliffcr much
much if
ii other
other
stable.
starting models
models are used,
LISC~, for
for example.
example
starting
124
124
124
Vozoff
Vozoff
1-1-
125
125
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
I
o.tE 03
,
0.1.[
D.1.E 02
y ,"
~ rr
't It-I'4
...
..,..
....... ....
o. \IE:
P
PV\.l
[1
'
,
~
~
,.
Ir
1.1
LI"
~
~
IT'~y
VV
!.11.
!.11
I-
,,1\
II
111
Ir
"
-
....... !
~
:?t..
~
I
I!!
'l"J
I'I"r
l. I' 00
o.ll-or
a.tf
O.lf 00
0.11-01
0.11 01
Ot
0.11 Ot
......NCy. Mr
FIG.
24. Rotated apparent resistivities, site G-l, South Texas.
FIELD
EXAMPLES
FIELD
EXAMPLES
Two examples of the results of field surveys

are presented here. One is a wide-spacing
wide-spacing reconnaissance
traverse in South Texas. The
The other
other is an
naissance traverse
intermediate-spacing
intermediate-spacing traverse
traverse in the Anadarko
Anadarko
Basin. Both
Both would
would be considered basin evaluations
evaluations
if they
they had been carried out
out in unknown
unknown areas.
As it
it is, new data
data were developed
developed which
which gave
information
information about
about the
the deeper portions
portions of both
both
basins.
Two
South
South Texas
The
The first
first of these surveys (Figure
(Figure 22) trends
trends
northwestward
northwestward for 115 miles, from
from Port
Port Lavaca,
Lavaca,
Texas,
Texas, on the Gulf
Gulf Coast to a point
point 9 miles southwest of Lockhart,
Lockhart, Texas.
Texas. Five
Five magnetotelluric
magnetotelluric
addisites were set up along the traverse. One additional site, G-2,
G-2, was set up 16 miles to the northnorthtional
east of site G-3 to examine
examine the continuity
continuity of data
data
cast
traverse. Word
Word et
et at
at (1969) have continued
continued
off the traverse.
MT measurements in the
the up-dip
up-dip direction,
direction, but
but
MT
their traverse
traverse is offset about
about 40 miles to the
the northnorththeir
east.
This area, which
which is relatively
relatively well
well known
known
This
geologically, is an important
important one to the
the oil
oil iningeologically,
dustry of the
the United
United States. With
With the
the good
dustry
control, itit was possible to set up sites
geologic control,
that each succeeding site to the
the southeast
southeast
such that
the effect
effect of
of later
later deposition.
deposition. Therefore,
Therefore,
showed the
the traverse
traverse enabled us to see,
sec, on
OIl
OIl a gross
gross scale,
magnetotelluric cross-section oi
of the
the Gulf
Gulf Coast.
a magnetotclluric
attempted to detect
detect the
the presence
pre:,;eIlce
We also attempted
pre:;ence of high
We
126
126
Vozoff
Vozoff
pressure shales.
shales. This
This area was selected
selected partly
partly
pressure
because
because it
it is
is open-ended to the (;ulf,
Gulf, so
so that
that conCOW
rt~5~mhle those
tliosc
ditions and results ought to resemhle
offshore.
The
The traverse line extended from
from the flank
flank of
the Ouachita
Ouachita folded belt on the northwest,
northwest, southcastward across
across the tremendous deposits of Gulf
eastward
(Figure 23). The line was along
Coast sediments (Figure
the San Marcos
Marcos arch between the Houston
Houston and
Rio Grande
Grande embayments.
embayments. The
The stratigraphic
stratigraphic
units strike northeast
northeast and dip to the southeast.
Thus, the traverse extended in a down-dip
down-tlip direcdirccThus,
tion [rom
from (~-1
(i-1 to G-.'i.
G-5. In
In general, [rom
from northwest
northwest
youngersedito southeast the sites encountered youllgersediments and a thickening
thickening of the older sediment.
sediment.
Numerous facies
facics changes
changes within
within the units exist.
Numerous
'., .It: '.'.
,'-,'ilc
sire {;-1
(i-1
The rotated
rotated apparent
The
resistivity curves of
Figure 21 indicated
-10 ohm-m
Figure2.Jc
indicated that 22-10
ohm-m values prcpredominate beneath
dominate
beneath this site. Increases in apparent
apparent
-I
r-~r
i I .
The traverse
traverse crossed
dowin-toThe
crossed a series
senes of the "down-tothe-coast fault
s.
thc-coast"
fau It /llcxure
/tlexure zonc
zone,;.
Results arr
are tliscusscvl
discussed first
lirst ittr
for (.;)<-I1
earh sitv
site ;tn(l
and
then for the cntirc
entire traverse.
traverse_ :\I1
All apparent
apparent resistivities shown ha\,e
tivities
have been rotated
rotated by equation
equation
(26). These data were analyzed
analyzed before the tipper
tipper
and direct curve-fitting
curve-fitting computations
computations had been
started. The
The vertical
vertical magnetic
magnet ic component was
analyzed in terms
analyzed
terms oi
of coherency ratio
ratio and phase
relative to each
relative
each of the horizontal
horizontal component.
component.
From thesea
these a rough tipper
From
tipper was
was estimated
e;;timated mentally.
mentally.
---
I I '1
It
::::
t-
- ---- I-- r-
II
1,
.~ _..
N-
--
-- I--~-
II
I:
-- r-
t I
:
:
t
1--
'.i. tE ':\3
--
I~
I~
L~
. 8
1
I.
'.'.IE 01
i I
II
'II II'
jj
I i
--
I'
C"1.l[
~':i
t-
r-
-0.1[-0\
D.lt
no
.D. IE 0\
O. tE
ot
'''iUENCY. HZ
~;IG. 25. Rotated

Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities, site G-O, South Texas.
FIG.
Texas.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
127
D.ll: D4
O.l[ 03
!l,U 01:
lJt..
o.n:
.I
--'
0
~ 0
~D
'I ~
4
01
..A
..A.
i III
.,
. r
= , i IEIII
I = [A
A
-. .
III
LLl
D.IE 00
o.IIor
O.lC-ot
o.II-or
0.11
o.IE 00
DD
0.11-m
0.u
D." 0,
01
0.N
O.I( OI
01
ntmmu1.
J'IIUI&IIC'. nz
HZ
IiIG.
FIG. 26. Rotated
Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities, site G-2, South Texas.
Texas. E:i
Ell is curve
curve 1%.
B.
anisotropy
anisotropy with
with decreasing
decreasing frequency
frequency coulti
could be the
the
that
that resistivity
resistivity may
may increase
increase slightly
slightly toward
toward the
the
result
result of increasing
increasing dips,
dips, of increasing
increasing resistivit)
resistivity
east
east at
at shallow
shallow depth
depth, but
but below
below 3000-4000
3000-4000 ft,
ft, itit
contrasts
contrasts between
between layers,
layers, or
or both.
both. Pronounced
Pronounced
increases
increases strongly
strongly towartl
toward the
the IVest.
\Iest. Plot
Plot criteria
criteria
lateral
lateral conductivity
conductivity changes
changes at
at depths
depths or
or horihorihori
are
are skew
skew less
le,.;s than
than 0.2
0.2 anti
and pretlictability
predictability greater
greater
zontal
zontal distances
distances of
of 3-S
3-5 miles
miles cvoultl
would give
give similar
similar
than
than 0.95.
0.95.
effects.
effects.
Strike
Strike at
at shallow
shallow depth
depth is either
either ENE
ENE or
or NIYW,
NNW,
with
with
90
90
degree
degree
ambiguity
ambiguity
which
which
Site
Site G-O
requires
requires
Although
Although the
the rotated
rotated apparent
resistivities at
at
another
another site
site for
for resolution.*
resolution. l ESF,
EX E is believed
believed to
to be
G-O
G-O (Figure
(Figure 2.5)
25) were
were similar
similar to
to those
those at
at (i-1,
G-1, apap-
more
more likely
likely of
of the
the two
two directions.
directions. At
At greater
greater
parent
parent anisotropy
anisotropy (i.e.,
(i.e., the
the gap
gap between
between sets of
of
depths,
depths, the
the strike
strike direction
direction is very
very nearly
nearly northnorth-
points)
points) is much
much smaller
smaller at
at G-O.
G-O. Another
Another major
major
wartl.
ward.
difference
difference between
between the
the two
two sitcx
sitcs is the
the greater
greater
Ncar-surrace <lips are minoT. The data indicate
thickness
thickness of
of motlcrately
Illoderately contluctivc
conductive material
material at
at
1
1 Choose one of the
t he directions
directions as strike
strike and set
smaller
smaller vertical
verlical magnetic
magnetic field
field component
component 11,
IIz
(;-0.
(;-0. These
These two
two observalions
observatiolls arc
arc rcllectetl
reflected in
in the
the
another
another site several miles away
away along
along that
that direction.
direction. If
If
the choice is correct
correct the two sets
sets of results will Ix
be very
very
similar.
similar. If
If not, a difference
diITerence will
will Ix
be observed.
and
and the
the smaller
smaller skew
skew at
at (;-0.
(;-0.
Apparent
Apparent electrical
electrical strike
strike direction
direction is &finite
definite
128
128
Vozoff
Vozoff
from
varying from
:\T 30W at
at
from 0.05 hz downward,
downward, varying
from N3OW
0.05 hz, to N50W
N50W at
at 0.005 hz and back
back to N30W
:\T30W
at
at 0.001 hz, with
with the
the 90 degree ambiguity
ambiguity
throughout.
throughout. Regional
Regional geology suggests
suggests that
that true
true
strike
strike is at
at 90 degrees
degrees to these directions.
directions. ReResistivity
sistivity in
in the
the uppermost
uppermost several thousand feet
feet
appears to increase eastward.
eastward.
Sites G-2 nlzd
and G-3
As shown on the location
location map, G-2 is 16 miles
off the traverse
traverse line
line to the
the NE
NE from
G-3, along
from G-3,
what
what was believed
believed to be regional
regional strike.
strike. Results
Results
at
at the two sites differed
differed in some important
important features, with
complex
with those from
from G-2 being the more complex
(Figure
(Figure 26). Apparent
Apparent anisotropy
anisotropy at
at G-2 is better
better
developed,
developed, rotation
rotation angles are more definite,
definite, and
skew is generally
generally larger
larger except
except at
at the
the lowest
lowest frefre-
quencies. Below
Below 4000~5000
4000-5000 ftft at
at G-3
G-3 (Figure
(Figure 27)
27)
there is a pronounced
pronounced resistivity
resistivity increase to the
there
KW.
KW. This
This may
may continue
continue northeastward
northeastward past
past G-3,
G-3,
but
but is not
not as clearly
indicated there.
there. According
clearly indicated
According
to the
the phase
phase information
information (not
(not shown),
shown), the
the low
low
frequency
frequency apparent
resistivities at
at G-3
G-3 rise
rise to
to
larger
larger values than
than those
those at
at G-2 before
before starting
starting to
to
decrease
thicker, more resistive
decrease again. Hence
Hence a thicker,
resistive
section is expected at
at depths
depths of 25,000-30,000
25,000-30,000 ft
ft
beneath
beneath G-3.
G-3.
Apparent
Apparent electrical
electrical strike
strike is N70W
N70W to N85W
N85W at
at
G-2,
G-2, and probably
probably indicates
indicates a real strike
strike direction
direction
of NSE
N5E to
to N20E.
N20E. The
The apparent
apparent electrical
electrical strike
strike at
at
G-3 alternates
alternates randomly
randomly between
between these same two
two
values. For
For a shallow strike
strike direction
direction of NS~lOE,
NS-lOE,
G-2 should be projected
projected farther
farther to the SE
SE on the
the
interpreted
interpreted resistivity
resistivity cross-section, although
although its
its
,---~-
f--
f---
I.
--r-----
'I~
.. ItIi t
&, " ,
IIII
ii
iI
'l.lE '1\
:!
r
I
'j'
j
,!
~-4
~1~4--+
'1'1
illlll
I
I
'I
I
I
lllllll
llllll1
I llllll1
I111111
--+.
: I':
i Ii
I
I.l(
l.ll
I
I,
I
1 .,c-
ll 'It
'I.
l(~
t..
c-s.-.,LC
"'~-.C.L[
O,T,
. . .
O.fl
I.
1c41
l.,t
1 4
'l.lt
'1'1
r.~wt9c~
I.IL
II
'I,ll 'It
IT
FIG. 27.
27. Rotated
Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities,
resistivities,site
site G-3,
G-3, South
SouthTexas.
Texas.
FIG,
FIG.
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
129
129
0.11: 0.
0.11: OS
O.n: at
0.1[ 01
--'-~
II I II
1
o.n: 00
0.u
00
D.n
DO
0.1f-Ot
O.IPD
0.11-01
,_t
,I.UKI,.. ItC',
FIG.
FIG. 28.
P.,,
01
D.lI
IH
0."
01
"I
I
Rotated
Texas.
Rotated apparent
apparent resistivities,
resistivities,site
site G-4,
G-4, South
South Texas.
projection is
is correct for the deeper strikes. Plot
Plot
projection
criteria are skew less
less than 0.2 and predictibility
predictibility
criteria
greater than 0.85 (G-2)
(G-2) and 0.95 (G-3).
(G-3).
~reater
site G-4
G-4
Site
Apparent resistivities
resistivities (Figure
(Figure 28) decrease
decrease very
very
Apparent
gradually before rising sharply
sharply at 0.002 hz. ApApgradually
parent anisotropy
anisotropy is minor;
minor; apparent
apparent electrical
electrical
parent
direction is
is poorly defined but changes
changes
strike direction
smoothly with
with frequency from K20\V
X20\\; (low fresmoothly
SlOE
frequency). Noise is
is large
10E (high frequency).
quency) to X
ie!lrlow frequency points of P21
p2, are passable.
passable.
and few
Plot
Plot criteria
criteria arc
are skew less
less than
than 0.5 and predictability greater than 0.85.
dictability
Site G-5
G-5
Site
Anisotropy
Xnisotropy IS
is abou
aboutt the same
same order as
as the
scatter in the data, about

scatter
about +5
5 percent
percent over most
frequency range (Figure
of the frequency
(Figure 29). Rotation
Rotation
angles are poorly
angles
poorly defined except at
at the highest
frequencies.
The most unusual aspect (not
The
(not shown here) of
data are large values of Ii,
the G-5 data
Hz at
at the higher
higher
frequencies, decreasing linearly
linearly with
with decreasing
frequency and closely correlated
frequency
correlated with
with H,.
Hy. The
The IIII
vector in the II-z
vector
y-z plane is tilted
tilted downwards
downwards to the
indicating a northsouth
east, indicating
north-south conductor
conductor lying
lying
site and to the west of it. This
near the sitc
This maymay he
caused by an unseen
caused
unseen pipeline.
pipeline ..;\n
\n alternative
alternative excxplanation invoh'es
involves near-surface
planation
near-surface salt-Ivater
salt-watcr invainvasion to the vest,
west, possibly as
as a result of locallylocally
porosity. The
enhanced porosity.
The University
University of Texas data
data
at Port .\ransas
.Iransas to the south and west
\\'est ot
oj G-5 have
ha\'c
frequency apparent
high frequency
resisti\'ity less
less than 1
130
130
Vozoff
Wozoff
ohm-m (Smith,
(Smith, 1968). Plot
Plot criteria
criteria are skew less
less
ohm-m
than 0.5 and predictability
predictability greater
greater than
than 0.95.
than
Traverse
Traverse
Layered models were matched

matched to each of the
the
Layered
Ell apparent
resistivity curves by
by trial
trial and error;
error;
Eli
correlation between
between stations
stations was carried
carried
and a correlation
out, with
with the result
result shown in Figure
Figure 30. These
out,
correlations are obviously
obviously open to question and
correlations
adjustment in view
view of the large spacings between
between
adjustment
sites.
The interpreted
interpreted resistivity
resistivity section shows
shows three
three
The
0.5-3 ohm-m,
ohm-m, isotropic;
isotropic; A-10
4-10
ranges of values: 0.5-3
ohm-m, isotropic;
isotropic; and >2
> 2 ohm-m,
ohm-m, anisotropic.
anisotropic.
ohm-m,
The last category
category is predominant
predominant at
at depth,
depth, parparThe
ticularly in the north-west
north-west near
ncar the thrust.
thrust. The
The
ticularly
anisotropy was interpreted
interpreted as
as due to dipping
dipping or
anisotropy
monoclinally folded
folded beds
beds of alternating
alternating resistive
resistiyc
monoclinally
conductive materials.
materials. Bands
Bands of graphitic
graphitic
and conductive
black shaly
shaly materials,
materials, which
which could provide
provide the
the
or black
lower resistivity
resistivity value,
value, have
have been
been observed in
in
lower
beneath the
the thrust
thrust zone,
zone, both
both in East
East Texas
Texas
and beneath
the exposed Precambrian
Precambrian near
near Llano.
Llano.
and in the
from Kw
NW to
to SE,
SE, these
these materials
materials become
become
Going from
buried beneath
beneath an increasing thickness of the
the
buried
conductive isotropic
isotropic rocks and, in particular,
particular, by
by a
conductive
nearly isotropic
isotropic 0.6-L
0.6-2 ohm-m
ohm-m resistivity.
resistivity.
zone of nearly
Minor apparent
anisotropy, indicating
indicating minor
minor
Minor
with small
small true
true anisotropy
anisotropy (probably
(probably interinterdips with
shales), persists through
through the
the
bedded sands and shales)?
entire traverse.
traverse. The
The computed
computed resistivity
resistivity rotation
rotation
entire
angles and skews suggest that
that these dips are due
minor local structure,
structure, and that
that itit might
might be
to minor
by careful
careful model work
work to interpret
interpret strike
strike
possible by
0.\[ 0.
D.lI[ 0'
D. u:
or
.
--"
D.t( Ot
II.
. I
I II
III
IflU1
'"
"
O.SI 00
o.u"'Ot
D.U 00
D.tl Ot
0.11 01
FIG. 29. Rotated apparenl

apparent resistivities, site G-5, South Texas.
Magnetotell
Magnetotelluric u ric Exploration
Exploration
131
131
G1
GO
G2
G3
G4
G5
,----?--,~~_----------~~~__--__
--------~?--J/-O--'''~?_--~-~?----~8~~--------------_-----~+~---?~.~,~r---------~~~r--__
---------L?--~/O--~"~?-_--~_~?~__
--~8~7n--------------_-----~t-
-?~_I~
10/5................
"-
50~O-
3/3
.....
"- "-
10/2.5
"
10
"-
"-
"-
10
i"
12
14
I.
.65
10
.6
"
?
\\
7
.65
\\
I
I
\\
?\\
-_
?7
--
" "-
"-
.......
'-
20 ...... .......
\
\\
20
?_
/,,'
"
/o/4
10/4
\\
\
30/1.5
1.4
"-
\\
\\
18
_?_
--------""'?'
\\
__ ::?
-?- ---...:-- - -
"-
"-
- -'1-
SE
BOO/80
800/80
-- -
10
'28 . . . . . . .
'-- ......
"-
----
.... ERTICAL EXAGGERATION
10
13x
o
27
600/80
'0
RESISTIVITIES
FIG. 30.
30. Interpreted
Interpreted
FIG.
20
, ....
30
OHM -METERS
rcsistivily cross-section,
cross-section,South
South Texas
Texas traverse.
traverse,
resistivity
;tn(l dip
(lip variations
variations with
\vith depth beneath the site.
and
Ihe resemblance betwecn
bct\veen this figure and the gengew
The
eralizetl geologic
geologic section
section (Figure
(Figure 23) is
is unmistakunmistakeralized
able.
There are some
some interesting
interesting differences which
There
tobe
significant. For
For example, the tendency
appear to
be significant.
resistivity boundaries to be more nearly
nearly
of the resistivity
horizontal than
than the geological boundaries aphorizontal
pears to be
be real, and may be a result of water
water and
distribution and of compaction. Resistivity
Resistivity
clay distribution
decreases systematically
systematically scaward,
seaward,
in the Eocene decreases
possibly because
because of a systematic
systematic increase in clay
content.
It has been suggested
10 ohm-m
content. It
suggested that
that the 10
ohm-m
material
material near the surface indicates
indicates fresh water
water
invasion.
invasion.
One of the targets chosen
chosen was high-pressure
shale, i.e., a shale having
having a resistivity
resistivity substantially
tially less
less than 1 ohm-m,
ohm-m, which
which was known
known to be
present
present in large amounts
amounts beneath
beneath G-4
G-4 and virvirtually
tually absent beneath
beneath G-2.
G-2. The
The apparent
apparent reresistivitiesat
G-4 and G-5
G-S could not
not be matched
matched
sistivities at G-4
without
o amount
\\'ithout the thick
\\"ithout
thick 0.6 ohm-m
ohm-m zones.
zones. h
No
amount
of reinterpretation
reinterpretation can modify
modify the
the basic result.
result.
The
The method
method is unable
unable to resolve the
the fine structure
structure
,,f
"i the
the interbedded
interbedded sands within
within the
the overpressured
zone, but
but is able to map
map features
features beneath
beneath it.
it.
The
The limited
limited contrasts
contrasts and simple
simple structure
structure
permit
permit us
us to
to evaluate
evaluate resistivity
resistivity with
with \vhat
what is
is still
still
a surprising
surprising amount
amount of resolution.
resolution. In
In such situasituations
tions ?\IT
1\1T takes
takes on the
the aspect of a regional
regional stratistratigraphic
graphic tool.
tool.
Upon
Upon completion
completion of the
the interpretation,
interpretation, logs
from various drill holes

holes along the traverse were
\vrre
obtained and compared with
with the interpreted
interpreted secXCobtained
The location
location of the drill holes
holes relative
relative to the
tion. The
sites is
is shown in Figure
Figure 22. The
The comparison of
sites
electric log information
information and interpreted
interpreted structure
structure
is shown
sholvn in Figure
is
Figure 31.2
31. 2 For
For this example,
example, the
electric logs
logs were subdivided
subdivided by hand into
into segsegments, each segment being given the average
conductivity for its depth
conductivity
depth range. A segment then
represents a layer.
layer. Overall,
Overall, the agreement
agreement is quite
quite
good.
Disagreement at D.II.
good. Disagreement
D.II. 6 (bottom)
(bottom) is within
within
the limits
limi Is of accuracy; D.H.
D .H. 7 is further
further from
from
G-l
than is D.H.
D.H. 8 and probably
probably reflects lateral
lateral
G-1 than
variations
variations in near-surface
near-surface structure.
structure. The
The discrepancy
crepancy between
between D.H.
D.H. 3 and the interpreted
interpreted
section at
at G-3
G-3 may
may be related
related to the age d
of the
the log
log
(1919).
(1949) .
A
.\ more detailed
detailed interpretation
interpretation was carried
carried out
out
at
at one location,
location, while
while testing
testing the
the direct
direct model
model
fitting
fitting program.
program. The
The program
program uses
uses the
the generalized
generalized
matrix
matrix inversion
inversion program
program developed
developed by
by R.
R. Harter
Harter
and T.
T. R.
R. Madden
Madden (in
(in preparation).
preparation). The
The results,
results,
comparing
comparing G-2 and D.H.
D.H. 6, arc
are summarized
summarized in
the
the four
four curves of Figure
Figure 32. The
The heavy
heavy solid
curve
curve is the
the result
result of smoothing
smoothing the
the induction
induction log
for D.H.
D.H. 6 (No.
(No.11 J.
J. Orsak,
Orsak, ;\Iobil
:\Iobil Oil
Oil Co.,
Co., lY60196061, mud resistivity=O.$
resistivity = 0.4 at
at 108 degrees) ox-er
over steps
of 10 percent
percent of
of depth.
depth. The
The dashed
dashed curve
curve is
is aa
portion
portion of
of the
the four-layer
four-layer model
model which
which was
was prepre-
22 Induction
Induction logs
logs commonly
commonly use
use millimhos/meter
millimhos/meter
Cmmho/m)
m
(mmho/m) as
as units
units of
of measure.
measure. To
To convert,
convert, 11 mho,
mho/m
3
== 103
10 mmho/m.
mmho/m.
SITE
GI
SITE
SITE
G5
SITE
G4
DH
I'
~~
~
.
2.
1-2 n-M
40.
5.
4000'
1.5
.6 -1.1
3n-M
~
8000'
8000'-1
.3- .4
\
\?
2 IIOn-M .?
12000'
12000'-1
.5
.S -.8 n-M
--- ?
16000'~
16000'
?
20000'J
20000'
5-lon-M
5-lonM
n-M
2/30 n'M
.5
? --------5-lon-M
80n-M
-------
'"
24000'
----------
1.7
~~~
20-50n-M(?) ' "

20-S0n-M(?)
"
10
20
MILES
80n-M
FIG.
FIG.
31. Comparisons of digitized well logs with models filled manually. \\'clliocations
\rclliocations are shO\\'Il
shmYll in Figure 22.
___ ::I
30
-=-='3
40
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
133
133
CONDUCTIVITY
mm/m
CONDUCTIVITY
mm/m
IITOO
00
IgO0
1000
spq
I 500
WELL LOG
LOG SMOOTHED
WELL
IN STEPS
STEPS OF
OF 10%
10%
IN
OF DEPTH--....
DEPTH OF
3
4
-55
7400
to
-.,.,
6~
CUT AND
AND TRY.
TRY, 4 LAYER
LA
-+1
7 .5?
. _ . ~'.;I
.B._.
----
%:
8 ....
0..
-:-==,~
I:
I:
I&J
Q
9
10
I'
I:
II
I:
I:
I:
12
I:
13
...... L:
14
14
I:
COMPARISON
DATA
COMPARISON OF WELL
WELL LOG DATA
SECT10
WITH
INTERPRETED
M-T
WITH INTERPRETED
M-T
SECTION"--........
I~:-;
SECTIO
DH 6
DH
6
I:
SITE
SITE G-2
G-2
;i
I: I
.. . .. .Li
T
IT8,
FIG.
FIG. 32. Detailed
Detailed comparison
comparison of digitized
digitized well logs
logs with direct
direct computer
computer
interpretations
meter.
interpretations at site
site G-2.
G-2. Conductivity
Conductivity is
is in millimhos,
millimhos/meter.
viously
viously fitted
fitted by
by cut-and-try
cu t-and- try for
for El
E.L (curve
(curve A,
A,
Figure
Figure 26).
26). It
It can be seen
seen to fit
fit the
the major
major features
features
of the
the smoothed
smoothed log rather
rather well,
well, especially
especially the
the
breaks near 2000 ft
ft and
and 8500 ft.
ft. The
The significant
significant
low
low conductivity
conductivity zone from
from 6.X0-8000
6500-8000 ft
ft was
missed,
and conductivity
conductivity was
was underestimated
underestimated in
in
missed, and
the
the thick
thick conductive
conductive zone
zone from
from 2000~6300
2000-6500 ft.
ft.
The
The two
two direct-fit
direct-fit models
models labeled
labeled .A
A and
and U
B are for
for
the
the t\vo
two apparent
resistivity curves at
at the
the site,
H
B being
being a fit
fit to
to p;l.
PII. Six-layer
Six-layer models
models were
were used
used in
in
which
which both
both layer
layer thicknesses
thicknesses and
and their
their resistiv
resistiv
ities
ities were
were permitted
permitted to
to vary.
vary. These
These early
early inverinversion results
results were
were considered encouraging.
A nadarko Basin
The
The second field
field example
example is
is aa traverse
traverse across
across aa
portion
portion of
of the
the Anadarko
Anadarko Basin,
Basin, Oklahoma.
Oklahoma. The
The
basin
basin has
has an
an area
area of
of approximately
approximately 35,000
35,000 square
square
miles
miles in
in western
western Oklahoma,
Oklahoma, the
the northern
northern part
part of
of
the
the Texas
Texas Panhandle,
Panhandle, and
and southwestern
south\\estern Kansas.
Kansas.
Vozoff
Vozoff
134
134
general ba:,in configuration is "l1myn in Figure 3-1-.

This section was constructed iro1ll data \\"hich arc
not as (CCCllt or a, clo,;cly controlled as Illight 1)('
desired, bu t which seem to be the best available.
.\t
At the
the ,;outhern
southern end
end of
of the
the traverse
traverse arc
arc the
the
\richita
\Tichita :'Iountains,
Mountains, consisting
consisting of
of Cambrian
Cambrian rocks
rocks
of
to
of the
the Wichita
\\ichita granite
granite group.
group. Immediately
Immetliately
to the
the
north
north where
where the
the bascnwnt
basement is
ih still
still near-suriace,
near-suri;lw,
In terms
terms of
of its
it> depth
depth and
and volume,
\~olume, itit isisone
one of
0i the
the
Tn
major crustal
crust;11 icatures
icaturr; oi
d :\orth
Sorth .\merica
.\nicrica (Base(I&k+
major
mtmt .'-lap
Alap oi
0i :\urth
Zvrtll .\l1lcrica,
.\nicrica, l'Jc>i).
19Oi). lh'spitc
JJcsI)itc it,;
iti
nlt'ut
long history
history uf
of oil
oil production,
production,
the Anadarko
;\nadarko
lung
the
Basin isiscurrently
currently the
the site
site of
of intensive
intensive exploration
exploration
Basin
and some
some of
of the
the deepest
deepest drilling
drilling in
in the
the world.
world. A
A
and
location map
map showing
showing our
our traverse
traverse appears
appears in
in
location
Fi~urc 33.
.I.<. ;\.-\ geological
geological cross-section
cross-section showing
showing the
the
Figure
24
26W/25
23
22
21N
20
13
12
Magneto-Telluric
-J-.---+--
5N
OKLAHOMA
OKLAHOMA
3
3
SURVEY
VsURVEY
NET/ON
~ET/ON
2
IN
~
SCALE
SCALE
__
_IDr.101es
_ _ "'I0__
,I
10 _
IN""es
~
~
..i.~
I1~1
~I
~A-It-us~-~'~
~~~_--+-________- J -
I~
'1
if~
LEGEril
LEGEN)
1$
I
I
1-
M-T SITES
6~~~g~~~
STRIKE
~ OIL FIELD
FIG.
I\\
FIG. 33.
33. Location
Location map,
map, .4nadarko
Anadarko Basin
Basin traverse,,
traverse, Oklahoma,
Oklahoma, Ranges
Ranges 2O\V-2
20W-21W
(after
and Tulsa
Tulsa Geologic
Geologic Society,
Society, 1951).
1951).
(after Lang,
Lang, 1955
1955 and
19
20N
E
-
18
0,
-
,I
sh, ss, (evap, Is)
sh,ss,(evap,ls)
17
al
-
16
PC
-
15
14
W
-
13
In
-
LOVII
Lovil
12
*-
Sia -
II
m
-
10
N
-
II
0
-
0,
OJ
Hi
Guadalupe -Leonard- Leonard -
Permian
Wolfcamp - Potontoc
-5 -
-10 -
Virgil
w~aLS~h_(~S~h~)____________~~~----------------------------------------p_e=n~nLS:YI=v=a=n=ia~n~
Pennsylvanian
~
gr a carb wash (sh)
Missouri
f-
cg
::I
...
(1)
-15 -
F-
.,r:::
a..
-20 -
t;'
-25 -
Exploration
W
w
EI
III
LL
::.:
L-----:
Magnetotelluric
7N
SURFACE
1"1
><
'tl
.,0'
...
III
0'
::I
-30 SCALE
granites, gabbros, etc.

-35 -
"ocoL
"cooL
6MILES
FIG.
34. Geologic cross-section 25 miles west of the A.nadarko Basin traverse.

traverse,
135
....w
()1
\
\
\
I
\
4)
-
18
/
.
30
::
20
18
18
25
--- >100
,200
14
-20
6
6.5
6.~
--I
./
'-
*I
-.
<
o
./
0
1%
200
o
:::::
\I 8
...... _--- ./
,----
200
200....... ""
200
\an
1200
500
1%
./
-30
\
I
\;a
;"
IR
\o
-2~
.......
,B
-2~
...--
Vozoff
Q..
~
~
200
/0
-3~
;'
/
/
SCAlE
-40
ABRUPT LATERAL CONDUCTIVITY CHANGE

INDICATED BY H VERT
-L
Q)
U'-22
---
136
4.3
_ _ _ .lQ _
...
;"
/'
Y)
ID
19N
18
...L_? _ 2.5
"
3.8
-I~
__ G _ _ _
=-=,=,J...-=-__ U -
./
30
-10
20
17
!?
2~
..l
---
10
i
:
:2
g~
3.6
2~
-1. -
16
I~
=-
30
-::: ::
R
-
14
II
?~
II
14
13
--t-- =-~-
12
21 _ _
_-I
l77J
10_ ~1 - --;
10-11001
5
d
---_.--h
-5
)I
- - - -
10
aI
ii
LEVEL"
RESISTIVITY IN OHM-METERS
6 MILES
~
"" - - - 2~
-~
-
SEA
~N
_
TWP
FiG ..15. rnterpreted resistivity cross-section, .\nadarko basin traverse.
137
Magnetotelluric
Exploration
Mag
netotell u ric Exploration
36,000
131
IOHrs.
O"'ovg
IOm/m
9 Hrs.
32,COO
8Hrs.
28,000
7 Hrs.
Vi
'0
c
0
24,COO
5!
a::
I-
66Hrs.
Hrs.
I<..?
~
I
RECORDINGLENGTH
LENGTH
MAGNETO-TELLURIC RECORDING
w
..J
Hrs.
55Hrs.
a::
w
seconds
seconds
//
MAGNETO-TELLURIC
20,000
~
[cl
TR 40 D2 &vg
T R "" 40 D2 O"'ovg
16,COO
l.L..
<[
4 Hrs.
(/')
::::>
/')NAOARKO
12,COO
BASIN
3Hrs.
3Hrs.
""'.3
8,000
2Hrs.
2Hrs.
4,COO
o~~~--~====~------.-------.-------.------,------~
10
15
20
25
30
35
DEPTH D (K-FTI
DEPTH
D (K - FT)
1~.
FIG.
36.Recording
Recordingtimes
timesunder
undervarious
variousconditions
conditionsofofsection
section
conductivit?
36.
conductivity
encountered
typicalsedimentary
sedimentary
basins.
encountered
inintypical
basins.
basement rOEksrocks toto a a depth

depth ofof approximately
approsimate!y
hasement
8000ftft are
arclayered
layered Cambrian
Cambrian gabbros
gabbrosofof the
the
8000
Raggedy
Mountain
group,
a
thick,
layered
intruRaggedy :VIouniain group, a thick, layered intrusionmade
madeupupofofgabbros,
gabbros,anorthosite,
anorthosite,and
anddiorite.
diorite.
sion
Wherepresent,
present,the
theWichita
Wichita granite
granitegroup
groupoveroverWhere
liesthe
the Raggedy
Raggedy Mountain
Mountain gabbro
gabbro asasa athin
thin
lies
veneer.
veneer.
Moving from
fromsouth
southtotonorth,
north, the
thefirst
firstmajor
major
Moving
-&ructura! feature encountered is t!re Meers

s-t-ruEt-ura-l
fea-tur-e enGGunter-ed- is- the lVI-ccrs
Fault, where the basement drops abruptly from
Fault,
where the basement drops abruptly from
near-surfacetotoa adepth
depthofofapproximately
approximately 10,000
10,000
near-surface
ft.
North
of
the
Meers
Fault
is
an
area
of
complex
ft. ~ orth of the Meers Fault is an area of complex
faulting culminating in the Mountain View Fault,
faulting
culminating in the Mountain View Fault,
beyondwhich
whichpoint
pointthe
thebasement
basementis isatata adepth
depth
beyond
of
more
than
35,000
ft.
(The
faults
are
not
shown
of more than 35,000 ft. (The faulb are not shown
this section.)
section.) Sediment
Sediment thickness
thickness then
then rereononthis
138
138
Vozoff
Vozoff
mains fairly
fairly constant
constant for
for aa distance
distance of
of approxiapproximains
mately 2()
20 km
km \\"llcn
\v11cn
I,ascmcnt
l~r~ills
~llallo\r
mately
basement
hegins
a;t shallo\\'
lll)\vartl slopc
S~II~)C
to\vartl the
die Central
Ccntral Kan,as
K:lilias lIpliJt.
ul)liil.
upward
t"wanl
Nortli
of
the
Aleers
Fault,
the
basement
coI1:\ ort h of the :\ I eers Fault, thc hasemen t COIlGsts of
of layered
layered rhyolite
rhyolitc flows
flows of
of the
the Carlton
Carlton
sists
rhyolite group
group of
of Cambrian
Cambrian age.
age. This
This has
has been
been
rhyolite
inferred from
from drill
drill holes
holespenetrating
penetrating through
through the
the
inferred
Arbuckle
group.
The
Carlton
rhyolite
group
Arbuckle group. The Carlton rhyolite group isis
thought to
to be
be underlain
underlain by
by aa fairly
fairly thin
thin granite
granite
thought
zoneand
and then
then bedded
bedded basaltic
basaltic flows.
flows.
zone
The sedimentary
sedimentary sequence
sequence isis summarized
summarized on
011
The
the
cross-section.
At
the
top
are
Permian
red
the cross-section. At the top arc Permian red
shalesand
and sandstones
sandstones with
with subsidiary
subsidiary evaporites
evaporites
shales
and limestones.
limestones. The
The major
major part
part of
of the
the section
section isis
and
Pennsylvanian, which
which may
may exceed
exceed 1l5,OOO
at
Pennsylvanian,
S,OOO itit at
its
thickest.
It
includes
substantial
granite
and
its thickest. It includes substantial granite and
particularly at
at the
the south,
south,
carbonate washes,
washes, particularly
carbonate
underlain by
by shales
shales with
with decreasing
decreasing amounts
amounts of
of
underlain
sands and
and limes.
limes. The
The underlying
underlying Mississippian
Mississippian
sands
consists primarily
primarily of
of limestones
limestones with
with subsidiary
subsidiary
consists
shale
and
sandstone
beds,
while
the
Cambroshale and sandstone beds, while the CambroOrdovician Sylvan,
Sylvan, Viola,
Viola, Simpson,
Simpson, and
and Arbuckle
Arbuckle
Ordovician
are primarily
primarily carbonates.
carbonates. The
The basal
basal Reagan
Reagan
arc
sandstone,
not
shown
in
the
section,
is
very
thin
sandstone, not shown in the section, is very thin
and
intermittent,
thickening
to
an
estimated
100
and intermittent, thickening to an estimated 100
in basement
basement topographic
topographic lows.
lows.
ftft in
Cutting diagonally
diagonally across
across the
the traverse
traverse from
from
Cutting
Nil
to
SE
is
a
hinge
zone,
which
crosses
the
)JW to SE is a hinge zone, which crosses the
traverse
in
the
region
of
Twp
17
N.
Facies
traverse in the region of Twp 17 N. Facies
changesin
in the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian are
are substantial
substantial and
and
changes
well-documented here,
here, as
as well
well as
as farther
farther south
south
well-documented
where the
the washes
washesgradually
gradually terminate
terminate away
away from
from
where
the
mountains.
The
thick
,4rbuckle
is
also
rethe mountains. The thick Arbuckle is also reported to
to contain
contain major
major facies
facieschanges
changesfrom
from limelimeported
stone to
to dolomites,
dolomites, and
and from
from impermeable
impermeable to
to
stone
very
porous
zones.
From
discussions
with
several
very porous zones. From discussions with several
geological specialists
specialists in
in this
this region,
region, itit appears
appears to
to
geological
be generally
generally believed
believed that
that the
the faulting
faulting at
at the
the
be
south end
end of
of the
the basin
basin isisof
of an
an overthrust
overthrust nature,
nature,
south
with
the
crystalline
rocks
overthrust
to
the
north.
with the crystalline rocks overthrust to the north.
An
intensive
effort
was
made
to
estimate
the
An intensive effort was made to estimate the
TeSktiVitieS
of the
the rocks
rocks in
in the
the basin
basin from
from su
subresistivities
of
bsurface logs,
logs, but
but this
this effort
effort was
was unsuccessful
unsuccessful
surface
becauseof
of the
the extremely
extremely conductive
conductive drilling
drilling mud
mud
because
used
in
the
area.
The
values
which
were
estimated
used in the area. The values which were estimated
apply only
only south
south from
from Twp
Twp 99 ~.
N. These
These are:
are:
apply
lo--25 ohm-m
ohm-m
Virgil and
and :\Iissouri
Missouri Washes
Washes
Virgil
10--25
Mississippian and
andlower
lower
Mississippian
ohm-m
2-j
Pennsylvanian
2-5
ohm-m
Pennsylvanian
50-250
ohm-m
;\rbuckle
50-250 ohm-m
.\rbuckle
100-5000
ohm-m
Hasement
100-5000
ohm-m
Basement
(locally 55ohm-m).
ohm-m).
(locally
The field
field program
program was,
was:, to
to the
the be"t
bezt oi
of (lur
our
The
kno\~lctljir, til<'
111~flr,t
fiht ulldertakt'll
untlrrtakc~ll
cornl~~~rci;~ll~~ ill
in
C()llllllCrrialh'
kl1o\\'kdge,
S~~rtll
.\nlcriva,
lit-ltI\\~trl,
hlarlinz
ill
mrl!lOh7.
:\orti, .\lllcrica, tif'l<hlork ,tartillg ill "arly i')hi.
ITor pu
I~ui-,xhcb
()iobj
ol)jccti\.ity,
~:c~d~gi~l~ \\'('f1'
\vc3-c
For
rpos(" oj
I'c( i \'i t y, ttllrc,c,
hrl'l' gl'ologi,t,.;
involved independently
independently in
in fitting
fitting layered
layered models
models
in\'olved
to the
the apparent
apparent resistivities.
resistivities. Each
Each interpreted
interpreted
to
several
nonadjacent
sites,
and
the
results
were
several nonadjacent sites, and the results \\'ere
assembled
and
correlated
by
a
fourth
person,
assembled and correlated by a fourth person,
with the
the result
result shown
shownin
in Figure
Figure 35.
3.5.
with
Korth of
of Twp
Twp 77 N
N there
there was
was insufticien
insufficientt
Korth
anisotropy to
to justify
justify two-dimensional
two-dimensional models.
models.
anisotropy
Such
models
were
fitted
to
the
more
complex
Such models were fitted to the more complex
southern zone
zone and
and resulted
resulted in
in some
some significant
significant
southern
reinterpretation of
of the
the subsurface
subsurface geological
geological
reinterpretation
information there.
there. For
For example,
example, the
the trace
trace of
of the
the
information
large
Mountain
Vie\v
Fault
was
shifted
south
large :\Iountain View Fault was shifted sou thward from
from its
its mapped
mapped location
location by
by over
over aa mile.
mile.
ward
The resistivity
resistivity values
values correlate
correlate directly
directly with
with
The
rock type.
type. Resistivities
Resistivities in
in the
the 100-200
100-200 ohm-m
ohm-m
rock
range correlate
correlate with
with low
low porosity
porosity carbonates
carbonates ancl
and
range
with
some
of
the
(probably
factured)
granites.
with some of the (probably factured) granites.
Values greater
greater than
than 1000
1000ohm-m
ohm-m seem
seemto
to indicate
indicate
Values
more competent
competent crystalline
crystalline rocks.
rocks. The
The 18-30
18-30
more
ohm-m
resistivities
at
depth
show
the
moderately
ohm-m resistivities at depth show the moderately
porous limestone
limestone and
and sandstones,
sandstones, while
while the
the comcomporous
pactive effect
effect of
of burial
burial may
may drive
drive the
the resistivities
resistivities
pactive
of limey
limey and
and sandy
sandy shales
shalesinto
into this
this range
range as
as well
well
of
(McCrossan,
1961).
(l\lcCrossan, 1961).
Considerable resemblance
resemblance isis evident
evident between
between
Considerable
the electrical
electrical and
and geological
geologicalcross-sections.
cross-sections.Where
\Vhere
the
they differ,
differ, the
the electrical
electrical section
section isisin
in closer
closeragreeagrecthey
ment
with
present
geologic
concepts
of
the
basin.
ment with present geologic concepts of the basin.
The
Permian
consists
of
three
major
subdivisions:
The Permian consists of three major subdivisions:
thousand feet
feet or
or so
so of
of 10-30
lo-30 ohm-m
ohm-m material
material
aa thousand
at the
the surface,
surface, aa similar
similar thickness
thickness of
of 11 ohm-m
ohm-m
at
material,
and
then
2000-3000
it
of
3-4
ohm-m
material, and then 2000-3000 it of 3-4 ohm-m
rock. The
The Virgil
Virgil and
and Missouri
Missouri are
are made
made up
up of
of
rock.
6-30 ohm-m
ohm-m material
material in
in the
the granite
granite wash
wash facies
facies
6-30
and of
of aa consistent
consistent 5-7
5-7 ohm-m
ohm-m material
material farther
farther
and
north.
The
remainder
of
the
Pennsylvanian,
the
north. The remainder of the Pennsylvanian, the
Mississippian,
and
portions
of
the
Arbuckle
com}'dississippian, and portions of the Arbuckle comprise aa massive
massive thickness,
thickness, with
with resistivities
resistivities
prise
averaging about
about 20
20 ohm-m,
ohm-m, within
within which
which little
little
averaging
detail
can
be
resolved.
Beneath
this
mass,
redetail can be resolved. Beneath this mass, resistivity
rises
again
by
an
order
of
magnitude.
sistivity rises again by an order of magnitude.
The low-resistivity
lowresistivity values
values at
at depth
depth at
at the
the south
south
The
end strongly
strongly suggest
suggest that
that the
the resistive
resistive rocks
rocks
end
forming
the
Wichita
JIountains
have
been
thrust
forming the Wichita :\Iountains have been thrust
over aa large
large thickness
thickness of
of more
more concluctive
conductive rocks.
rocks.
over
The resistivities
resistivities of
of the
the latter
latter are
are typical
typical of
of the
the
The
Lower Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian and
and Mississippian
Mississippian rocks
rocks
Lower
in the
the basin
basin proper.
proper. The
The major
major lateral
lateral breaks
breaks of
of
in
139
139
ic
Exploration
Exploration
Magnetotellur
Magnetotelluric
the electrical
electrical cross-section
cross-section bear
bear aa one-to-one
one-to-one
the
correlation with the faults of Ham
Ham et al
al (196.J,).
(1964).
correlation
The abrupt
abrupt resisth'ity
resistivity change
change at
at depth
depth in
in the
the
The
hinge zone
zone (Townships
(Townships l(iN-17~)
16N-17X) may
may represent
represent
l(iN-17~)
hinge
the effects
effects of
oi the
the cxtelbive
extensive facies
facies changes
changes kno\\n
kno\vn
the
to occur
occur here
here (e.g.,
(e.g., see
see Cambridge,
Cambridge, 1970).
1YX).
to
The smaller
smaller features
features arc
are of
of questionable
questionable sigbigThe
nihcance. For
For example,
example, the
the apparent
apparent structure
structure
nificance.
Twp 1.J,
14 at
at 25,000
23,000 ft
it can
can certainly
certainly be
be
beneath Twp
smoothed out
out with negligible effect
effect on
on curve
curve fit
fit
smoothed
b>- minor changes
changes in
in the shallower
shallower parameters.
by
The structure
structure at
at 10,000
10,000 ft could
could likely
likely be
be reduced
The
in size
size by similar
similar reinterpretation,
reinterpretation, although
although it
it
in
do so.
so.
would require more effort to do
In thi,;
this basin, the bulk resistivity
resistivity is
is seen
seen to
In
increase with depth, from 11 ohm-m near the sursurincrease
face, to
to aa few hundred ohm-meters
ohm-meters in the basebaseface,
resistivity curves
curves typically
typically
ment. The apparent
rise gradually with decreasing
decreasing frequency over aa
rise
Matching that
that porvery wide frequency range. :Uatching
that resistivity
resistivit!tion of the curves requires only that
well-defined average
a\-erage rate with
increase at aa well-defined
Neither
bet\vecn layers
depth. K
either the boundaries between
resistivity within
within each
each layer
layer can
nor the average resistivity
accurately determined
determinedinin that
that depth
dcpthrangc.
be very accurately
range.
A model made up of many thin
thin layers, each
each more
.\
one above, can be con,;tructed
constructed
resistive than the one
that leads to practically
practically the same
same result as
as the
that
feTvthick
thick layers.
model consisting of a few
The limits
limits of interpretability
interpretability of any set of data
The
are
arc sholvn
shown clearly
clearly by two of the computer
computer curve
matching
Jlonte
matching techniques now
now in use,
use, the :'I10nte
Carlo searches
searches (Grcenfield,
(Greenfield, personal communicacommunication) and the generalized
generalized inversion
inversion technique
technique
(Harter
Madden, in preparation).
(Harter and .Hadden,
preparation). Obviously,
Obviously,
supplementary
supplementary information
information regarding
regarding some
some parameters
rameters can be extremely
extremely useful in narrowing
narrowing
these limits
limits for the remaining
remaining unknowns.
unknowns.
ECONOMICS
ECONOMICS
An
fieJd support,
An MT
:'lIT operation
operation involves
involves field
support, interinterpretive
pretive data
data processing, and logistical
logistical support.
support.
In
In a region of road access,
access, a field crew would
would consist of 6-X
6-8 men, two
two of whom
whom operate
operate the
equipthe equipment
ment while
while the
install and retrieve
retrieve induction
induction
the rest install
coils, porous pots, and mire.
wire. If
If surveying,
surveying, lineline. cutting,
cutting, and station
station clearing
clearing are necessary,
necessary, more
men
may he
be needed
recording time
time is to
be
men may
needed ifif no
no recording
to IX
lost
l(bt in
in \vaiting
waiting for site preparation.
preparation. Data
Data procei+
processing
ing requires
part or full
full time
time of one
one man,
man, tlederequires part
pending
pending on the
the number
number of
of sites per
per day.
day. Alinimum
J\linimum
recommended
recommended recording
recording times
times per
per station
station for
for
various regions
regions are
are shOlnl
dho~n in
in Figure
Figure 36
.36.
various
..;\notlicr
\nothn
major cost
cost factor
factor i,;
i? the
the amount
amount of
of geophysiciotgeopliysiciztmajor
geophysici,tgeologist time spent
spent on
on planning and
and interpretainterpret;+
geologist
tion. This
This can
can be
be limited
limited in
in aa routine investigainvestigation.
tion once
once
has been
been e,;tablished
established that no
110 unu,;ual
unusual
tion
itit has
problems exist,
esist, but may require
rcquirc nearly iuli
iull timc
time
problems
ior junior
junior and
and senior
senior interpreter
interpreter in
in the interpretainterprctnior
tion stage,;
stages oi
of aa nonroutine problem. Total
Total cosb
cost>
tion
in area,;
areas of
of road acces,;
accesshave
haye aaveraged
aboutt S2()()()
SZOOO
in
H'raged abou
Ate on
on aa one
one site
site per day ba,;is.
basis. Thus,
Tliu>, the co,;t
coyt
per site
of the entire
entire South Tcxa,;
Texas tra\'er,;c
traverse was
~vas about
of
S12,000, while that
that of the ,\nadarko
.inadarko Basin traS12,000,
\-erse was
I\-as about $25,000.
yerse
nhere logistics are more difficult,
diilicult, their cooh
cost-.
Where
can completely
completely overwhelm
ovcr\vhelm those
those of the basic
basic surcan
\-ey. Here
Here the relatively
relatively small .'.IT
AIT crew
crelv and the
\ey.
near-portability
Oi
the
equipment lead
leatl to
t(J
ncar-portability
of
the
equipment
logistics costs
costs which are much
much
those
smaller than those
logistics
of, say,
say, aa reflection
reflection sei,;mic
seismic crew in the same
same arca.
area.
of,
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
clearly show
show the
The results presented here clearly
amount of significant geological information
information
vast amount
\vhich the ]\IT
AlT method can yield through careful
which
7
application. Equipment
Lquipment and computer
application.
computer programs
programs
non
available are functional,
now
available
functional, practicable,
practicable, and
generally reliable;
generally
reliable; but
but they
they could benefit
benefit from
additional development.
.A higher
additional
development. ,\
speed (albeit
(albeit
higher speed
reconnaissance capability,
cruder) reconnaissance
capability, as
as practiced
practiced in
USSR (k
ungul, 1971), leads to more favorthe USSR
(Yungul,
favorable consideration
consideration of the method
method when rapitl
rapid
coverage at
at low cost is more important
important than
than
great accuracy. Better
Better display
display techniques would
be of great
great help in comprehending
comprehending and explaining
explaining
the results.
Improvements
Improvements continue
continue to be made. For
For example,
ample, the
the accuracy and convenience
convenience of twot\\'odimensional
dimensional modeling
modeling can now be greatly
greatly eIlenhanced by
by using the
the computer
computer to space the
the netnetworks which
which itit then
then solves. Nevertheless,
:\evertheless, other
other
approaches to modeling,
modeling, such
such as those of Parr)
Parry
and Ward
and Hohmann
Ward (1971) and
Hohmann (1971),
(1971), should
be pursued,
pursued, as should the
the development
development oi
of analog
analog
models and
and analytical
analytical solutions
solu tions for their
their obvious
advantages.
in progress
progress ma)
advantages. Research
Research planned
planned or in
may
in
in the next
years permit
next few years
permit AIT
}IT measurements
measurements
to be made offshore and on unstable
u nstahle surfaces
\vhere
arc not
where they
they arc
are
not no\v
now I)ossiblr.
possible.
\\
ith
the
of quyitions
que,tions that
arise in
in the
With
the range
range of
qU("tions
that arise
the
application
I and
application 0i
of .\I
.'.['1'
and the
the variety
variety 0i
of to&
tools which
which
are available
available to
to the
the interpreter,
interpreter, each
each sur\rey
survey dedemands
mands that
on subjective,
that decisions
decisions be
be made
made based
based on
subjective,
140
140
Vozoff
Vozoff
Vozoff
preliminary evaluation.
evaluation. The
The correct
correct decision
preliminary
evaluation.
decision is
is
preliminary
often critical
critical to
to the
the technical
technical and
and economic
economic
often
success of
of the
the survey.
survey. However,
However, both
both our
our total
total
success
However,
success
understanding of
of the
the MT
MT technique
technique and
and our
our total
total
understanding
MT
understanding
knowledge of
of the
the gross
gross electrical
electrical properties
properties which
which
gross
knowledge
it measures
measures are
are still
still very
very limited.
limited. Hence,
Hence, in
in order
order
limited.
it
to obtain
obtain the
the best
best possible
results from
from the
the
obtain
possible results
to
method, planning
planning and
and interpretation
interpretation of
of survey"
survey"
planning
interpretation
surveys
method,
probably have to continue to rely on spespewill probably
some time to come.
come. The
The alternative
alternative
cialists for some
could be another 25
25 years of ignominy
ignominy in petrolpetrolcould
eum geophysics
geophysics for the electrical methods.
eum
The magnetotelluric
magnetotelluric method has
has advanced
The
tremendously
tremendously in the past five years as
as a result of
instrumentation, computer
computer analysis,
improved instrumentation,
improved
(especially) interpretation.
interpretation. By
By and large,
and (especially)
method is well suited for mapping
mapping the broad
the method
features of porosity distribu
tion and poorly
distribution
poorly suited
major potential
potential confor mapping
mapping fine detail.
detail. Its
I ts major
tribution to oil and gas
gas exploration
exploration appears to be
tribution
stages of basin evaluation.
evaluation. An
4n important
important
in early stages
application is in exploration
exploration of areas
areas
secondary application
difficult to explore by conwhich are unusually difficult
ventional seismic means, such
such as
as areas
areas of nearventional
s-urf-u-(:e vO]Ea-nic
volEa-nic or metamorphic
very
surface
volcanic
s-ur-f-a-(:e
met-a-morphic rocks or of very
thick
thick sands
sands or gravels.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
derive
The
The lessons
lessons and results reported
reported here derive
highly professional team.
from the efforts of a highly
Dr.
Dr. G. H.
H. Hopkins
Hopkins was responsible for the
equipment;
equipment; Dr.
Dr. B. J. Woznick,
Woznick, for the data
analysis programs; and Dr.
Dr. J. ~.
X. Galbriath,
Galbriath, Jr.,
for the data editing,
editing, data bookkeeping, and
model-plotting
model-plotting routines. Messrs. A. Orange and
H.
H. S.
S. Lahman
Lahman ably
ably supervised the field operations
and data processing,
processing, and Mr.
Mr. D.
D. Halpin
Halpin brought
brought
the essential outlook of the structural
structural geologist to
the interpretation
interpretation group. Mr.
Mr. R. Harter
Harter contributed
tributed significantly
significantly to development
development of the
generalized inversion technique and also
also did
much of its coding.
coding,
The
The novel analytical
analytical and interpretive
interpretive tools
which we used
used in this work were developed in the
incisive researches
researches of Prof. T. R. "Madden
Madden and a
group of outstanding
outstanding students, notably,
notably, C. M.
M.
Swift,
Swift,
Greenfield,
1
and T.
1
Swift, Jr.,
Jr., R.
R. J.
J. Greenfield,
Greenfield, P.
P.. Nelson,
Nelson, ami
T..
Cantwell,
Cantwell,
at.
MIT.
Cantwell, at
at MIT.
MIT.
Drs.
Caldwell
sugDrs. R.
R. L.
L. Caldwell
Caldwell and
and G.
G. L.
L. Hoehn
Hoehn suggested
gested many
improvements
presentation
many improvements
improvements of
of presentation
presentation in
in
early
material.
also inearly versions
versions of
of this
this material.
material. II am
am also
indebted
debted to
to the
the Rev.
Rev. James
James Skehan,
Skehan, S.J.,
S.J., for
for his
his
assistance, and
1)r.
S. H.
H.
1-~1ngul
assistance,
Dr. S.
H. Yungul
Yungul for
for aa dedeand to
to Dr.
tailed
reading
and
comments.
tailed
reading and
and comments.
comments.
tailed reading
Funding
for
about
half
this
project
Funding
Funding for
for about
about half
half of
of this
this project
project was
was
group
t\\o
major
oil
companies,
provided
provided
major oil
oil companies,
companies,
provided by
by aa group
group of
of two
two major
while
the
remainder
sponsored
by
Geoscience,
while
while the
the remainder
remainder was
was sponsored
sponsored by
by Geoscience,
Geoscience,
Inc.,
Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Inc.,
Inc., of
of Cambridge,
Cambridge, :\Iassachusetts.
:\Iassachusetts.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Cagniard,L., 1953, Basic theory

theory of the magneto-telluric
magneto-telluric
Cagniard,
method of geophysical prospecting: Geophysics, v.
18, p. 605.
18,
Cambridge, T.
T. R., 1970, Potential
Potential of Marmaton
Marmaton oil
Cambridge,
production: Oil and Gas J., v. 68, p. 179.
production:
Flawn, Peter,
Peter, T.,
T., Chairman,
Chairman, 1967, Basement
Basement Map
Map of
Flawn,
North America:
America: Basement
Hascmcnt Rock Project
project Committee,
Committee.
North
AAPG and t;SGS,
USGS, Washington,
l\.ashington, D.
Ii C.,
Scale-11
AAPG
c., Scale-I:
5,000,OOO.
5,000,000.
Ham, W.
W. E.,
E., Denison,
Ham,
E., and Merritt,
Merritt, C. A.,
A., 1964,
Denison, R.
R. Is.,
Basement rocks and structural
Basement
structural evolution.
evolution, southern
southern
Oklahoma: Oklahoma
Surv., Bull.
Oklahoma:
Oklahoma Geol. Surv.,
Bull. 95.
Harthill, ""J.,
N., 1968, The
The CSM
CSM test area for electrical
electrical surHarthill,
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Heirtzler, ].
J. R.,
M. J.,
Synoptic
Heirb-:ler,
R., and Davidson!
Davidson, 11.
]., 1967, Synoptic
geomagnetic field data:
data: Tech.
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port Ko.
Xo. 1,
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Konr 4259(05),
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Hohmann, G. W.:
Hohmann,
W., 1971, Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic scattering
scattering hy
by
conductors in the earth
source of current:
current:
earth near a line source
Geophysics, v. 36, p. 101.
Hopkins, G., 1965, Instrumentation
Hopkins,
Instrumentation for geofield measurements: EERL,
EET{L, Univ.
Univ. Texas,
Texas, Rep.
No. 138.
Rep. No.
Keller,
Keller, G. V.,
V., 1968, Electrical
Electrical prospecting
prospecting for oil:
Quart.
Quart. Colo. School
School of Mines,
Mines, v. 63.,
63, p. 38.
Kunetz,
Kunctz,
G., 1969, TraiLemenL
Traitcment et interpretation
interpretation des
des
Kunetz, G.,
sondages
TFP, v. 25,
sondagcs
magneto-tclluriqllcs:
Rev. de
de II'TFP,
sondages magneto-telluriclues:
magneto-tclluriques: Kev.
p.
685.
p.685.
Lang,
Lang, R. C.,
C., III,
III, 195.5,
1955, A
A geologic cross
cross section from the
Wichita
Wichita Mountains
Mountains to the Elk
Elk City
City pool: Shale
Shaker Digest,
Digest, p. 5.
Madden, '1'.,
T., and Nelson, 1'.,
I., 1964, A
A defense
Madden,
defense of CagCagniards magneto-telluric
niard's
magneto-telluric method:
method: Geophysics Lab.
Lab.
MIT Project
Project NR-371-401
MIT
NR-371-401 rep.
Madden,T.,
Swift,, C. M.
Madden,
T., and Swift,
M. Jr.,
Jr.. 1969, Magnetotelluric
Magnetotelluric
conductivity structure
structure of the
studies of the electrical
upper mantle:
crust and upper
mantle: l\GU
AGC Monograph
M,;nograph 13, The
The
Earths Crust
Earth's
Crust and Upper
Upper Mantle,
Mantle, 1
p.. 469.
McCrossan, R.
R. G.,
G., 1961, ResistiviL,y
petro::'vlcCrossan,
Resistivity mapping
mapping and petrophi-sical study
calcarestudy of Upper
C"pper Devoman
Devonian inier-reef
inter-reef calcarephysical
ous shales
shales of Central
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THE MAGNETOTELLURIC

--; .. ;--- ---.

I :CALIBRATOR - - - -- - - - ,-__ _-_-,'

does not depend on the directions used

used for interpretation,

at the same frequency.

greater degree of independence

the angle between

(/';"./1 *)(H"B*)- (FxB* )(HyA

(lIT-A *)(lIyB*) - (lIxB* ) (lI y/l

(RxA *)(HIB*)*)(HxB*)- (FI8*)(HIA

Z,,,) sin 28,

Setting the derivative

of analysis and plotting

(Sims and Bostick,

(H~H$~ = A.t(~,~,*) + B(H,N,*)

the real and imaginary

(H,H,*) = A(H,H,*) + I~(~Y,FI,*) (35)

The result of fitting

and homogeneous. The

FIG. 18. Pseudosections,

tended half way to each

end, and apparent

O!Ot OINtNSlO'IAL Noon

-2.3 - I- 2.6 2.0 - 1-2.3

5.0- 5.3 5.0-1-5.3-

FIG. 20. Interpretation

24. Rotated apparent resistivities, site G-l, South Texas.

Two examples of the results of field surveys

'., .It: '.'.

~;IG. 25. Rotated

Ncar-surrace <lips are minoT. The data indicate

scatter in the data, about

Layered models were matched

FIG. 29. Rotated apparenl

.... ERTICAL EXAGGERATION

from various drill holes

20-50n-M(?) ' "

general ba:,in configuration is "l1myn in Figure 3-1-.

granites, gabbros, etc.

34. Geologic cross-section 25 miles west of the A.nadarko Basin traverse.

ABRUPT LATERAL CONDUCTIVITY CHANGE

FiG ..15. rnterpreted resistivity cross-section, .\nadarko basin traverse.

basement rOEksrocks toto a a depth

-&ructura! feature encountered is t!re Meers

Cagniard,L., 1953, Basic theory

Potrebbero piacerti anche

(/';"./1 )(H"B)- (FxB* )(HyA

(lIT-A )(lIyB) - (lIxB* ) (lI y/l

(RxA )(HIB)*)(HxB)- (FI8)(HIA

(H~H$~ = A.t(~,~,) + B(H,N,)

(H,H,) = A(H,H,) + I~(~Y,FI,*) (35)