Politics Revision

Political Theory

• The work of Lukes and Weber in relation to Power, Authority and

Legitimacy

• The work of Burke and Locke in relation to Conservatism and Liberalism

Political Structures

• The role of the UK Parliament/US Congress in scrutinising the executive

• Powers of the UK Prime Minister/US President and the formation of policy

Political Representation

• Short-term and long-term influences on voting behaviour

Political Theory
Power, Authority and Legitimacy

Legitimacy is the link between power and authority. Power is the ability to
influence others using positive or negative manipulation and authority is the
acceptance of power. Legitimacy determines the link between the two as if
power is illegitimate then the democracy becomes a dictatorship. If power is
legitimate then the people accept the individual or group and therefore those in
power have authority.

Power cannot be exercised without some way of enforcing it. This is authority.
Authority can only be gained through legitimacy.

Lukes

Lukes believed that power had three different “faces”. The first of these was
decision making; power can be seen to be used openly. For example if a
government proposes new legislation, it will be discussed in the Commons and
given media coverage therefore allowing the public to know what the piece of
legislation is.
The second was non-decision making; power is enacted “secretly”. This is the
governments’ ability to decide what will not be discussed in the Commons. If a
party in power does not want a piece of legislation to be open to the public, they
will not allow it on the political agenda. If another party gets into power who do
want it to be discussed, they can do so. For example the devolution of Scotland;
the Conservatives were opposed to devolution and so it wasn’t discussed until
the Labour party were in power and allowed it to be discussed.
The third was manipulating desires; power is exercised through manipulation.
Those in power can persuade the public that certain decisions are in their best
interests despite initial opposition. Arguments supporting decisions are used to
influence the public and arguments opposing the decisions are refuted in order
to enact some unpopular decisions.

Weber

Whilst Lukes was very much about power, Weber focussed more on authority.
Much like Lukes however, he also had a triad.
The first is traditional authority which depends on a belief in upholding
customs and traditions. Those who have authority should expect the people to
obey them on the grounds that their customs and traditions demand it.
The second is charismatic authority which depends on the qualities of a
leader. The people follow them and accept their authority because of individual
qualities; for example when the Germans followed and accepted Hitler.
The third is rational-legal authority which depends on the rules given to those
who hold authority. The people have given this individual or group the right to
lead them, represent them and make decisions on their behalf. “Ballot box”
authority.

Conservatism and Liberalism

Conservatism and Liberalism are two very different and very similar concepts.
Both have similar ideas about the way a government should operate, but
conflicting ideas on the individual.

Conservatism

Conservatism was a reaction to the French Revolution and upholds the idea of
order and slow, gradual change. In France at the time, the social elite were being
persecuted by the French people and the social elite in the UK were afraid that
the British people may do the same. Conservatism was in a way a “scapegoat”
for this but bred its own theory that is still upheld in the Republican and
Conservative parties today.
The key features of this theory are:

• Man is imperfect

• Society is a living organism that requires all institutions to function

• Tradition is important to the running of this organism

• Radical change is unnecessary and unwanted

• Opposed to utopian theory; an idealistic view of society.

Conservatism appears to be a very pessimistic and old-fashioned way of thinking

however the main point is that conservatives like to see the world as it is and not
how it should be; i.e. working in the reality rather than the ideal.
Liberalism

Liberalism is the dominant theory of the West. Liberalism is all for increasing
happiness through the promotion of individual freedom and progress. It is a far
more positive way of thinking that conservatism and believes very much in the
power of the individual to think rationally and shape their own lives. There are
two fundamental elements in the doctrine of Liberalism:

• The creation of a society is aimed at promoting individual freedom and

happiness

• By behaving rationally, people can maximise political freedom and

economic prosperity

There is also the basic concept of social contract which is very much important
to this theory.

Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes – a political theorist – came up with this concept. It is the belief
that humans are naturally selfish and self-interested and so without any order,
humanity would descend into chaos. He called this our “natural” state. Therefore
societies and governments are formed on the basis of self-interest; if someone
gives up some of their individual, natural rights, those in power will create
laws and rights to protect them from others. For example, in giving up your
natural right to kill, the government creates a law that takes away everyone
else’s right to kill also therefore protecting you.
Also the right to your property; if you give up your natural right to trespass, then
it applies to everyone else thus preventing them from trespassing on your
property.
Along with the governments’ obligation to serve your interests in return for you
voting them into power, the public too has political obligation. This is basically
that if the government is creating laws
to protect you, then you have an obligation to adhere to the laws they set out.

Liberals also believe that change should happen at a time when it will maximise
freedom and progress.

Burke

Burke is the father of modern conservatism; he was traditional and believed in

balance between individual rights and social order. Burke believed that the only
and best way to have this balance was to respect long-standing customs and
institutions – such as the church – whilst still moving towards liberty and
equality.
 The “Burkean” way of thinking takes individual rights seriously and that civic
order is useless if it results in oppression and misery. Also “social stability” is
important; therefore radical change is not the answer as if you were to quickly
and drastically change tradition or traditional institutions then this stability is
lost. Burke did not believe that the past was completely perfect as well as not
believing in a perfect future; it is more a question of how society can change
rather than society should change. Also that failures of the past should be learnt
from but those institutions that failed should not be immediately rid of.

Locke

Locke very much based his Liberalist theories on the idea of social contract. The
concept of natural rights was important to his theories as governments are
required to protect and promote the well-being of society and the safety and
happiness of the people it represents. If a government fail to do so, the people
are then free to choose another government more to their liking. Locke argued
that the good of society is determined by the will of the majority; governments
are chosen as the result of a majority opinion in voting.
Locke believed that people had three important natural rights:

• The right to life

• The right to liberty

• The right to property

For Locke, the right to property was the most important. For him, it was a
government’s main purpose to promote the individuals rights to property as this
was the key to promoting liberty and happiness.
Political Structures
Scrutinising the Executive

Scrutiny is an important element in keeping each branch of the government in

check. In the UK, there is partial separation of powers and so scrutiny is
necessary in making sure the executive does not become more powerful that the
judiciary or the legislative.
In the USA, they have complete separation of powers however scrutiny is more
vigorous and rigid due to their constitution meaning that each branch of the
government has equal and limited power.

Scrutiny in the UK

Scrutiny in the UK happens in the legislative process, the committee system and
Parliamentary questions.

Legislative Process
A bill passes through the first four stages of legislative scrutiny in the House of
Commons. At the third reading if a bill is accepted, it is sent to the House of
Lords; the bill goes through the same stages in the House of Lords. The Lords
can amend a bill but must agree with the Commons however a bill may be lost if
the Lords insist strongly on an amendment the Commons don’t want through.
However the consent of the Lords is not necessary; Commons has the power to
by-pass their opinion if need be.
Committee System
In the UK, Select Committees monitor the expenditure, administration and policy
of their respective departments. All legislation is subjected to this scrutiny
whereby the committee reviews and reports on proposed legislation.
Parliamentary Questions
This is unique to the UK/Scottish Parliaments as MP’s submit question to the
executive to scrutinise the executive directly. They can be written or oral and are
open to the public and media for further scrutiny.
Media
The mass media is the biggest form of scrutiny in the UK as it is accessible to the
entire electorate. The media reports on new legislation, proposed legislation and
transmits the Prime Ministers questions on live television. It is the most open and
effective form of scrutiny. However it is subject to bias even in the case of
“impartial” sources.
Scrutiny in the USA

The US Constitution is very rigid and so the executive has delegated powers and
cannot completely interfere with the legislative branch. However the executive
proposes legislations and so it is important that these bills go through as much
scrutiny as possible both by a committee system, Congress and the media.

Congress
Congress is a bicameral body made up of the House of Representatives and the
Senate. In terms of the UK, the Representatives is like the House of Commons
and the Senate is like the House of Lords. The HOR are elected in by the
American electorate whilst the Senate is an unelected house. In this way,
legislation in Congress is a lot like Parliament. A bill goes through various stages
before being handed over to the Senate to review and amend; it is then sent
back to the Representatives for further review before it is either passed or lost.

Committee System
There are two types of committees in the US; standing committee and
conference committee.
A bill is given to a standing committee for
review and investigation.

The committee can then delegate the bill

If at any point
to a sub-committee for further scrutiny in the
committee
stage the bill is
When the sub-committee is satisfied, they rejected then it
send the bill back to the standing “dies” right
committee then.

The Standing Committee reviews any

amendments and if they are satisfied it
goes through

Media
The mass media in America is responsible for providing the electorate with
information on what is happening in US politics. It works the same way as the UK
however it does not broadcast questions as the President is not part of the
legislative branch and so does not need to be asked questions in Congress.
Although Congress controls legislation, the President is the one who addresses
this on television.

Powers of the UK Prime Minister and US President

There are very important differences in the powers of the PM and President due
to constitutional differences.

The UK Prime Minister

An important aspect to the PM’s power is the UK’s partial separation of powers.
This partiality allows the PM to take part in both the legislative and executive
branches of government; the executive have a direct influence on legislation. It
Election
allows the PM to have many powers that the President does not have.
Date

The PM has
Patronage Governmental Agenda the power
to choose
The PM can appoint his They decide what is discuss the date of
cabinet, chief whip, top civil in parliament and can bind the general
servant jobs and other it to treaties without formal election. Of
ministerial positions. ratification course it
has to be
The every 4 or 5
President years but
can’t aside from
appoint that, it’s
supporters Term in Office their
The President can’t win
to their decision.
over a hostile cabinet by A PM can stay in office as
Cabinet
threatening to resign or call long as they’re the leader
and fire
a general election but the of the winning party; no
opponents
PM can. limit on terms in office.
but the
PM can.

The US President
The USA has complete separation of powers; this means that the three branches
of government have power over their branch and no other one. The executive –
Patronage
the President – therefore has no real power in the legislative branch like the
Prime Minister does. The
President
The Power of Veto can
Vacancies in the Senate
appoint
Because the president isn’t a
If a member of the Senate officers
member of the legislative, if they
resigns or dies, the President establishe
disagree with a decision they can
can choose someone to fill the d by law
enact a veto to send it back for
vacancy. Term in Office and the US
further scrutiny
constitutio
An election must be held on n.
a set date every four years –
one term. A President can
only serve for two terms
The Roles of the President and Prime Minister

US President

Head of State
This is in some ways like a monarch; a president is the ceremonial head of
government. They hold state dinners, give out medals of honour etc. They are
also expected to travel around the US and abroad to appear before the people of
other countries. The President’s Head of State role is to symbolise the
sovereignty and power of the USA.

Chief Executive
The President appoints the heads of government departments and agencies but
only if the Senate approves these appointments. They supervise the executive
branch of government and more than anyone they establish the agenda in
Congress. If problems arise, it is expected that the President will find resolve. As
Chief Executive, the President has the power of veto; in order to bypass this,
there must be a two-thirds majority in each house and so a veto is a key weapon
of the President in the Legislative branch.

Chief Diplomat
Despite legislation and such being determined by Congress, the President deals
with foreign governments and negotiate treaties with other countries.

Commander in Chief
The President is responsible for national security and the armed forces. They can
deploy troops abroad – for example the 40,000 troops Obama pledged to send
out last year – and is the only person who can order the use of nuclear weapons.
They have total supremacy over the military and so appoints all important
positions within the military. The President is the one who determines whether or
not to go war.

Policymaker
The President is the most powerful policymaker in economic and social affairs.
They also establish and administer national policies within statutory limits in
areas such as social security and education.

UK Prime Minister

Head of State
As with the President, the Prime Minister is a symbol of sovereignty and power in
the UK. Though they do not have as many ceremonial duties as there is a
monarch to carry these out; therefore the Prime Minister serves as a sign of
political sovereignty.

Chief Executive
The Prime Minister is of course the head of the executive but as well as this is
part of the legislative branch; the House of Commons. Therefore his power his
much more spread across two different areas and does not need a power such as
veto to enact his own power on the Commons.

Chief Diplomat
The Prime Minister, much like the President, represents the UK government in
foreign countries when it comes to policies and treaties despite certain decisions
lying with his Cabinet ministers.

Commander in Chief
This role is under constitution the Prime Minister’s along with the Secretary of
State for Defence whom they appoints. The two of them declare war as a
combined decision. The Prime Minister can authorize the use of, but not directly
order, nuclear weapons. It isn’t an official title role that the Prime Minister holds
but they are commander in chief in all but name.

Policymaker
As one of the Prime Ministers’ powers is control of Government business, they
can dictate the agenda so as their parties’ policies are discussed; the policies
brought forward tend to be the majority their own. Therefore they do not need to
propose policies to the legislative as they are part of it.
Political Representation
Short Term and Long Term Influences on Voting Behaviour

Short Term Influences

Media
The mass media is a key short term influence on voting behaviour. Print press
and transmission news are the two ways in which the public finds out about what
is going on in UK politics. Even when it’s from the government or MP, it is still
delivered through the media. Despite some broadcasters and newspapers being
impartial, there is still room for bias and so the media has great influence over
the way in how politicians and political parties are perceived. The opinions of the
media are ever-changing; some newspapers always switch between parties –
example; The Sun switch to the Conservatives. An example of how the media
influences political views is the expenses scandal, without the media that would
not have came out as quick.

Economic Climate
Depending on what the economy of the country is like; the electorate can
perhaps associate this with the present government in power. For instance if the
economy is good and unemployment rates are down, then the party in
government is more likely to re-elected. If, for example, the economy isn’t in
good shape, the party are less likely to be re-elected; the recession causing high
unemployment has made it less likely that the Labour party will be re-elected
even with the “official” recession over.

Political Climate
If any incriminating stories emerge about certain politicians or parties, it can
have an effect on how people vote. If there are good connections and bonds
between the public and the government, it is going to affect how people vote.

Changing Ideologies
Because of more accessible information and the mass media growing, party
ideologies are ever-changing. Back before the internet and such, party ideologies
were much more straightforward and varied however nowadays party ideology
changes depending on what the public wants. A party’s original ideology may
have been more right or left wing, but every party now wants the centre ground
where they are accessible to everyone; this can cause a rift between the party
and the voters who would traditionally vote for them. For example, Labour used
to be more socialist and working class but after Tony Blair did a party overhaul in
the 90’s they shifted towards the centre.

Long Term Influences

Age, Gender, Sexual Orientation, Education, Ethnicity and Religion.

This is always a long term affect; voters will always vote for who represents their
interests the best. If you are an old person, you will vote for the party who will
put forward your interests but also, older people tend to vote for the party they
have always voted for. If you are Muslim, you will vote for who represents the
interests of the Muslim community. In terms of education, you will vote in
accordance with what you already know about politics; those who have higher
education will vote according to what they have learnt.

Social Class
This is not so much a long term influence any more due to accessibility and class
mobility. Class is more difficult to define nowadays though it was definitely an
influence maybe a decade or two ago. Parties now tend to focus on the
population as a whole rather than a specific class though some parties such as
Conservatives are still very much associated with middle and upper classes.

Big influence: The Media

It is important to remember that whilst the media is a short-term influence, it is a
major influence. If a party is depicted poorly in the run up to a general election, it
is not likely that they will be voted in – though this isn’t always true as what
happened with the SNP only days before the Scottish Parliamentary elections
and The Sun ran a scathing front-page article on the party.