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Every file on a computer uses a certain amount of resources when sent over the internet or
stored. Keeping mind of your kilobytes (kB) and megabytes (MB) can prevent problems and
produce a smoother online experience. This GreenNet guide is here to help you tell the whales
from the minnows.
Computer resources do have physical limits to their capacities, even if the idea of computer
resources can be scaled up indefinitely. So we really want to think of the sizes of files in a tidy,
minimalist way and thereby make the most of the resources we already have. Although most
people nowadays seem to have internet connections which cope easily with audio, video and
high-resolution images, it is worth remembering that many people do not. If care is not taken, it
is possible to produce a large media file that actually conveys no more information to people
than a file a tenth or a hundredth of the size.
Software packages that consume excessive memory and disk space for their function are
sometimes called "bloatware", and one could apply a similar aesthetic to media files. For
instance, making transcripts available on a web site might help people to find the information
they are looking for more quickly than having audio or video interviews alone. Similarly, you
might want to consider whether it's easier for people, including those with visual impairments, to

read the date and time of an event from a text email, or to have to open a large PDF or image file
of a poster. (By the way, the Microsoft term "document" for files never really caught on. The
two words are synonymous in this context.)
So how big is too big? Obviously, it depends on the context. If you are signing off on a report
that is intended to go to the printers, then emailing a 10MB PDF attachment to a few people
asking for final comments is completely reasonable. What would be unreasonable is then to
email the finished 10MB file to your list of 2000 supporters. Instead, you could create a lowerresolution or even text-only version of the PDF, put that on your website, and email a link to the
file, perhaps with a little indicator of the file size (like "[1.2 MB PDF]") next to the download
link.
Why worry about file size when it only takes someone on high-speed broadband 15 seconds to
download a 10MB file?

Although the download might take 15 seconds for some people (eg GreenNet ADSL2+
broadband offering speeds "up to" 12Mbps), 10% of household internet connections in
the UK as at 2009 are still dial-up, higher in many other countries. A 10MB download on
dial-up might take nearly an hour. And older broadband connections or in rural areas the
download speed might be 512kbps and the transfer still takes several minutes. Even on
the fastest broadband, uploading is often limited to 256kbps, so if you expect a 10MB file
to be retransmitted, that is likely to be slower than expected.

A large file on its own may be no problem, but when multiplied by the size of the
audience it can cause bandwidth problems that affect internet service providers and other
users. Transmission also consumes a greater amount of energy, and it may result in
having to upgrade hardware (up to 80% of energy over the lifetime of computer
equipment is "embodied", that is, in its manufacture). GreenNet doesn't limit bandwidth,
but it is subject to a "fair use" policy.

Once downloaded, larger files are harder to manipulate. Large emails can slow down
access to an email inbox, and will increase the size of mailbox files on the recipients'
computers. Large image files on a web page often have to be scaled by the browser
software and mean navigating and scrolling through the page can be slow and erratic.
(There are other things that can cause slow "rendering" of a page, such as Javascript or a
complex website "back-end".)

Then there's the backup. If someone intends to keep the document or image or archives
all email, it might be replicated on backup media many times over. People may also be
reluctant to keep files that consume more storage than they are worth, and so delete them.

It's still 15 seconds, even if it's a background download. Some of us get impatient
waiting for the computer for more than half a second.

What do each of the units of computer storage actually

mean?
In short, the "kilo-", "mega-", "giga-" and "tera-" prefixes are similar to their use in any other
unit of measurement, like metres or watts:

1 B = 1 byte;

1 kB = 1000 bytes;

1 MB = 1000 kB;

1 GB = 1000 MB or 1 000 000 000 bytes.

(To confuse matters, "1 KB" or "1K" is used by many computer people to mean 1024 bytes,
which is a convenient number in binary, and memory or disk is often allocated by operating
systems in units of 1024. To avoid this confusion with standard scientific usage of "mega-" and
so on, the terms "kibibyte" (KiB), "mebibyte" (MiB), "gibibyte" (GiB) and "tebibyte" are now
recommended for these non-decimal technical units. You might still feel short-changed if you
bought a 4GB flash drive and it's only 3.725GiB. For simplicity this article will stick to round
1000s and kilobytes [kB].)

How do I see file sizes?

File or attachment size is usually easily accessible, if not already prominent. In Windows, rightclicking on any file, folder, or drive and choosing "Properties..." will show the size. In an
Explorer window, you can select "Details" from the "View" menu; or in a file open or save
dialogue box there is a "View" button from which you can also choose "Details". If you then
click on the word "Size" at the top of the column, you can group together the largest files in a
folder. In Mac OS X, you can press Command+i to show details of an individual file, or
Command+Option+i to show details of all selected items in an Inspector window. The Mac
equivalent of Details view is "List" view, and Command+J gives you the option to "calculate all
sizes" of folders as well as files.
Most email programs such as Windows Mail or Thunderbird always show the size of
attachments next to the file name. In Thunderbird (and many other programs) you can click on
the columns button up the top right of a list to add a column showing the size of each item. FTP
programs, used to transfer files to websites, almost all show the size of files by default, although
usually in bytes, so you need to split these large numbers by eye into groups of three digits to see
which are measured in B or kB and which in MB.

Table of approximate file sizes

bytes

in units
typical meaning
1 byte A single keystroke or (non-accented) character; a number from 0 to
1
or 8 bits
255
70 70 B
A line of text
Half a page of unformatted text; a very short email;
1,000 1 kB
an icon or small button image
Typical size of an organisation's logo as you might want it on a web
8,000 8 kB
page
(about 200 x 200 pixels PNG or GIF)
A 5-page word-processor document; a typical HTML web page;
30,000 30 kB
traditionally, the maximum recommended size for an image on a
web page (maybe 640 x 480 pixels JPEG)
The maximum recommended total of all the elements on a single
100,000 100 kB web page, including images and HTML (some authorities say 30 or
40 kB instead)
A 5-page word-processor document including a badly-chosen
letterhead or logo image;
a reasonable size for a PDF document someone might choose to
500,000 500 kB
download;
two 1280x960 JPEG photos from a smartphone, too large for inline
use in a web page
1 minute of near-CD quality audio as MP3 or OGG;
A 2048x1536 (4 megapixel) JPEG photo from a smartphone or
1,000,000 1 MB
digital camera, even if blurry because of low light;
the complete comedies and tragedies of Shakespeare when
compressed using bzip2

5,000,000 5 MB

A three-minute MP3 audio at a very high bitrate (256kpbs);

1 minute of low-resolution video, or of streaming from a videosharing site;
all the Wikileaks cablegate files released by mid-Dec 2010;
a 20-page PDF which might include a badly-chosen cover photo;
the complete works of Shakespeare (uncompressed)

Maximum size of an email that you can expect all recipients to

receive
Maximum size of an email attachment received by GreenNet or
GMail (as of 2010);
25,000,000 25 MB
approximate size of the 26-volume 1911 edition of Encyclopaedia
Britannica
Uncompressed TIFF of a single A4 sheet at 600dpi. Note that this
may be 100,000 times the size of the equivalent plain text.
100,000,000 100 MB
The kind of mailbox size or .PST file size at which corruption
becomes more likely
700,000,000 700 MB
Maximum amount of data on one CD-ROM; a two-hour TV
10,000,000 10 MB

bytes

in units

typical meaning
programme downloaded from BBC iPlayer
Amount of data on a DVD-ROM or typical new USB flash drive
("memory stick")
4,000,000,000 4 GB
Maximum amount of RAM (working memory) a 32-bit processor
can use directly.
Typical hard drive size on a computer as of 2009 (doubles about
100,000,000,000 100 GB
every 2 years)
2,000,000,000,000 2 TB
Large external backup hard drive as of 2010

Images
As you may gather, one of the main factors in determining how cumbersome a file is is the
quality or resolution of images. A 300 dpi (dots or pixels per inch) image added to a wordprocessor or PDF file takes up about four times as much space as a 150 dpi image (because the
resolution applies both horizontally and vertically). Now, if you need to share an image with
someone online either on a website or by email, and you're not expecting them to print it out, nor
to expect perfect copy or zoom in to examine minute detail, then it's only going to be shown on
the screen. So it's worth knowing a bit about screen resolutions. A typical flat-panel screen is
1280 pixels wide. However, some may be smaller or lower resolution, and allowing for
navigation bars and margins on the side of a screen, and also that a visitor's web browser might
not occupy the full size of the screen, there's probably little point in uploading an image that is
wider than 800 pixels. Anything larger and the the viewer may only see the top left-hand corner
of the image and have to scroll to see the rest.
Scans or digital photos may be 20 times that size and yet appear no sharper to the recipient. So if
you have such an image, you will need to resize it or scale down before you upload or publish.
A common mistake when creating a web page is to try to resize the image on the page by
changing the image element properties. Some content-management systems, such as Drupal,
may include an image module that automatically creates a scaled copy of the image at the size
you specify, but if you're editing pages in a web authoring program like Dreamweaver or
KompoZer, the chances are you're forcing every web site visitor to download far too much
information and then make their computer work quite hard at doing the downscaling. So it's best
to try to keep photographic images, even banners, to no more than 800 pixels across and perhaps
no more than 50 KB. Any image-editing software, such as the open source GIMP, allows you to
easily produce a smaller file. Simply open the large file, choose an "image size" or "scale
image" function, select the width you want, remembering that 800px is often full-width, and save
in an appropriate file format.
The other thing to be aware of with images is the different advantages of the different kinds of
compression and file format. As mentioned above, JPEG files (also called .jpg files because
Windows was once limited to 3-character extensions) are most commonly used for photography,
and JPEG is the format used by almost all digital cameras. They store a full range of colours but
do lose a certain amount of fine detail; there is a balance between the file size and the acceptable
amount of distortion. A highly compressed JPEG may show a Fourier fringe effect, but most

people won't notice it. Mostly you will want a mid-range JPEG quality around 50 (out of 100).
The other main formats used on the web are PNG or the older GIF, and these are "lossless"
formats that are not suitable for photographs or full-colour scans of artwork. However, for
images such as line drawings or logos that have been created on a computer in the first place,
choosing PNG allows areas of flat colour to be compressed very efficiently and maintain the
sharp edges of a design that JPEG would lose. PNG also tends to be used for smaller images, as
for larger images the size reduction from using JPEG is much more important. The following
images illustrate the reason JPG is not used for small files with only a handful of colours:

Close-up of GreenNet logo as PNG

(aliased slightly, but with "hard edges")

Close-up of GreenNet logo with JPEG quality of 20

See also: Techsoup article explaining GIF, PNG and JPEG

So, in other words, for internet usage:

use PNG (or GIF) for buttons, line-art, diagrams, most logos with sharp edges, and
maybe completely black-and-white things like scanned text;
o scale down if wider than 800px
o convert to indexed colour, and choose an adaptive palette if offered, with the
smallest number of colours that appear (64 is often plenty)
o use maximum compression
o for large, intricate diagrams and line-art, you might consider the new SVG
(scalable vector graphics) format, which is supported by Firefox 2 and Internet
Explorer 9 and later.

use JPEG for all other images: photographic or partly-photographic images, full-colour
scans, images with gradients
o crop to what is relevant, and/or suitably scale down so not wider than the number
of pixels you expect it to take up on the screen.
o select any option to optimise, and use a modest quality parameter (<60)

do not use BMP, TIFF or other formats

Other things that you might like to know

When you attach a file to an email, it will usually be converted to ("base 64") text, which
can only represent 6 bits per character. This means a 1 MB file will produce an email of
about 1.37 MB (including some additional overhead, the ratio works out at 26:19, 26
bytes of email for every 19 bytes of attachment).

Data transfer speeds can be measured in bits (usually for the rating of the connection
itself) or bytes (more commonly for actual download or upload speeds, and shown with a
capital "B"). The conversion factor is usually 8 bits to 1 byte (excluding now-rare parity
or stop bits). So an old dial-up modem might upload and download at 32kbps, but that is
only 4 kBps or 4000 bytes per second. A broadband/DSL connection rated at 8 megabits
per second (Mbps) actually only means an absoute maximum of 1MB/s, and a 100MB
software package (like OpenOffice) will take at least 100 seconds to download, very
possibly longer.

To summarise, thinking early on about making a file of a size that is easy to transmit and
convenient for the recipient can save lots of people lots of time and storage later on.