Urban

Micro-climates
What are the differences between rural and urban environments?

• Urban environments have a greater roughness (large cities have man-made

canyons which reduce the loss of long-wave radiation).
• Large buildings can interfere with the flow of wind creating circulating eddies
and stirring pollution and dust.
• Very localised differences between areas receiving high levels and areas
receiving low levels of solar radiation. Aspect plays a major role in these
differences.
• Significantly lower levels of evapotranspiration as most precipitation is
removed via drains from the surface. There is much less vegetation.
• Building materials, such as concrete, brick, glass and tarmac will retain heat.
Man-made heat will also “leak” from buildings, particularly in winter.
• Urban air pollution can absorb energy and re-radiate it back to the surface.
• Urban particulate pollution can act as condensation nuclei, increasing the risk
of fog (smog).
• Greater convection caused by greater heating, can increase the likelihood of
precipitation and electrical storms.
 The aspects of
streets and avenues
can modify the urban
climate. Also the
climate is modified by
heat and gases from
traffic and buildings

Urban canyons in cities

like New York show
contrasts in sunlight,
depending on aspect.
These differences are
accentuated by taller
buildings.
Some of the major
differences between
urban and rural
environments.
Differences in the energy balance between rural and urban surfaces.
 Radiation
Dust leads to
greater scattering
of short-wave
radiation but there
is much higher
absorption by
surfaces and
higher CO2
There are
considerable
localised contrasts
due to shadowing
by larger buildings.
Reduced visibility
may arise from
urban pollution
haze and photo-
chemical smog.
 Wind Speed
In closely built suburbs
and urban centres, there
is greater frictional drag
resulting from the
increased “roughness” of
the surface. This leads to
an increase in the height
of the “urban boundary
layer”, above which the
wind speed is unchecked
by the frictional drag.
Below roof level, the air
may not be as calm as
the graph indicates as
there will be localised
gusting and turbulence
around buildings.
The buildings themselves disturb the prevailing wind. Severe
gusting and turbulence around tall buildings can cause strong local
pressure gradients between the windward and leeward walls.
Deep, narrow streets may be much calmer, unless they are
aligned with the prevailing wind. In which case they will funnel the
airflow resulting in considerable increased surface turbulence.
Other effects of tall buildings and
some solutions to turbulence.
This Toronto building (white)
stands on a podium to
reduce turbulence at street
level.
The black buildings have
recessed entrances, shielded
by canopies.

An urban park forms a micro-

climate enclave, more similar to
the rural environment.
 Urban Heat Islands

Urban environments encourage the temporary storage of solar energy. Also,

the buildings themselves are warmed by human activity and artificial heating,
some of which is transmitted from building to building. In addition, air pollutants,
such as CO2 absorb additional heat. Pollution particles, such as hydrocarbon
emit ions, act as condensation nuclei, thus increasing cloud cover which in turn
returns a proportion of energy emitted from the surface.
Urban areas use less energy in evapotranspiration, so more solar energy is
used in heating the surface by comparison with the countryside.
Urban areas also hold heat longer than rural areas at night.
Dublin’s Urban
Heat Island

Dublin’s urban
heat island is
typical of many.
Maximum
temperatures are
found where the
building
densities are at
their highest.
Bodies of water,
such as the
River Liffey,
reduce the urban
heat island
effect.
 London’s Urban Heat Island is most pronounced under calm
conditions, usually under an anticyclone. Note the “tableland” of warm
air over the city centre.
Variation in London’s urban heat island are caused by parks, water surfaces
and different building densities and industrial concentrations.
Heat Island of Salt Lake City: the foothills of the Wasatch Mts. are on the
eastern (right) edge. Two rivers snake in from the Wasatch Mts. from the NE.
The image shows warmer areas as white or red and and cooler areas as blue.
 Heat from below
in an urban heat
island can
increase
instability leading
to a greater risk
of convectional
cloud, rain and
thunderstorms.

Light prevailing
winds, combined
with additional
condensation nuclei,
add to the risk of
cloud and rain
forming down wind.
Snow is less likely
and more likely to
thaw if it falls.
A Summary
Heat
Retention in
an Urban
heat Island
Some urban climates,
such as Los Angeles’
are prone to
temperature inversions
which trap and increase
the concentration of
pollutants. These, in
turn, will affect the
urban climate further.
 Other Effects of Urban Heat Islands
Humidity: Relative humidity is generally lower in urban areas as
there is a lack of available moisture and low levels of
evapotranspiration. However under very cold, stable conditions,
mist, fog or smog may develop in low lying districts or industrial
zones owing to the higher levels of condensation nuclei.
Cloud and Precipitation: Thicker cloud is more likely in summer
resulting from higher levels of convection and the availability of
condensation nuclei. This leads to perceptibly more intense
storms, particularly during hot summer evenings and nights. There
is a higher risk of thunderstorms in some locations although snow
is less likely.
Visibility: Lower humidity can improve visibility at times but
visibility is often lower than in rural areas as a result of a much
higher risk of haze, fog and smog. In cities such as London,
pollution control has caused a decrease in the risk of smog and
visibility has improved since the 1950s.