314

SPECIFIC

GRAVITY OF SOLIDS

g Icm 3

GM

TOTAL UNIT WEIGHT

glcm 3

WATER CONTENT

WL

LIQUID LIMIT

WP

PLASTIC LIMIT

IP

PLASTICITY INDEX

UNCONFINED

kglcm 2

cc

COMPRESSION INDEX

COEFFtCIENT

OF PERMEABILITY

COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION

cm215

CU

TOTAL STRESS STRENGTH PARAMETER

kg/cm 2

FI

FRICTION ANGLE

deg

FIR

RESIDUAL FRICTION ANGLE

deg

FI1

FRICTION ANGLE (EFFECTIVE STRESSES) deg

PEN

STRENGTH BY POCKET PENETROMETER

kglcm 2

TOR

COHESION BY TORVANE

kg/cm 2

VT

COHESION BY VANE TEST"

kglcm 2

SPT

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

N~

QC

POINT RESISTANCE OF THE STATIC PENETROMETER

EFFECTIVE

UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT

GRAIN SIZE

PETER A. (1966): Essai de carte g6otechnique. Sols Soils, 16,

13 - 30.
THOMAS A. (1970): Reflexions sur la cartographie g6otechnique,
Proc. 1st Int. Cong. Engng. Geol. Paris, 2, 960 - 970.

cmls

CV

ARNOULD M. - VANTROYS M. (1970): Essai de cartographie

geotechnique automatique sur la ville nouvelle d'Evry
(Region parisienne). Proc. 1st Int. Cong. Engng Geol.
Paris, 2, 1069 - 1080.
CENTRO GEOTECNICO VENETO ( 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 7 8 ) : Archivio Stratigrafico, Padova (unpublished).

ou

COMPRESSION STRENGTH

References

kg/r

mm

Tab. I : List of symbols

I B U L L E T I N of the

International

Associationof ENGINEERING

de I ' A s s o c i a t i o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l e

GEOLOGY

de GEOLOGIE DE L'INGENIEUR

N ~ 19 314--319

KREFELD 1979 I

ADVANTAGES OF THE COMPUTER-AIDED MAPPING OF TUNNELS

LES AVANTAGES DES RELEVES DES TUNNELS A L'AIDE D'UN ORDINATEUR

WANNER H., Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zfirich, Switzerland*
Summary
In special cases where a detailed geological m a p of a t u n n e l is required, the c o m p u t e r - a i d e d drawing of the profiles p r o v e d to
be advantageous. In p a r t i c u l a r for large n u m b e r s of data or for geometrically c o m p l i c a t e d s i t u a t i o n s the a p p l i c a t i o n of a
c o m p u t e r m e a n s a c o n s i d e r a b l e saving o f time.
T h r e e e x a m p l e s illustrate some applications. F o r the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a circular t u n n e l , the c o m p u t e r facilitates the c o n s t r u c tion of elliptic cylindrical sections. It can easily h a n d l e c h a n g i n g g e o m e t r i c c o n d i t i o n s f o r the e x t r a p o l a t i o n of geological
e l e m e n t s f r o m a pilot t u n n e l into the p r o j e c t e d tunnel. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the r o o f of a large t u n n e l by c o m p u t e r is m u c h
more accurate t h a n the h a n d - d r a w n p r o j e c t i o n on a h o r i z o n t a l plane.
Data of geological elements, o n c e r e c o r d e d by the c o m p u t e r , can easily be processed for s t r u c t u r a l diagrams. T h e y can be
sorted and regrouped at will w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l e x p e n d i t u r e . A f u r t h e r valuable possibility is the a u t o m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s i t u a t i o n as c u b e or perspective block.
It is stressed t h a t the c o m p u t e r n e v e r can replace the t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i m a g i n a t i o n of the geologist. By m e a n s of h a n d drawing the geologist b e c o m e s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the situation. This familiarity does n o t take place w h e n a p p l y i n g a c o m p u t e r ;
it has to be b r o u g h t u p a f t e r w a r d s at the stage of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the c o m p u t e r o u t p u t .

* Dr. sc. nat. H. Wanner, Geologisches Institut ETH, Baugeologie tt6nggerberg, CH

8093 Ziirich (Switzerland)

315
R~sum~
Dans des cas particu[iers, ot~ u n relev6 de ddtail d ' u n t u n n e l cst requis, le dessin par o r d i n a t e u r se rrv&la avantagcux. L ' e m p l o i
d ' u n o r d i n a t e u r signis u n e d c o n o m i e de t e m p s c o n s i d & a b l e , s p r c i a l e m e n t q u a n d los m e s u r e s sont tr&s n o m b r e u s e s ou q u a n d
la g 6 o m & r i e du t u n n e l est c o m p l e x e .
Trois exemples m o n t r e n t q u e l q u e s possibilit~s d ' a p p l i c a t i o n . La c o n s t r u c t i o n de sections e l l i p t i q u e s p o u r la r e p r d s e n t a t i o n
d ' u n t u n n e l circulaire est c o n s i d & a b l e m e n t facilit~e par l ' o r d i n a t e u r . 11 p e u t fac:,lement venir "A b o u t de c o n d i t i o n s g~otogiques
cornpliqudes et variables p o u r l ' e x t r a p o l a t i o n des dldments gdologiques d ' u n t u n n e l pilote au t u n n e l projctd. Le d d v e l o p p e m e n t
de la calotte d ' u n g r a n d t u n n e l r o u t i e r par o r d i n a t e u r est b e a u c o u p plus prdcis que sa p r o j e c t i o n (fi m a i n ) sur u n plan horizontal.
Une lois enrdgistrdes par l ' o r d i n a t e u r , les d o n n d e s p e u v e n t 6tre t r a n s f o r m 4 e s en d i a g r a r n m e s de structure. Les dldments
gdologiques p e u v e n t &re regroupds ou classds selon des crit~res divers et sans d4pense s u p p l & n e n t a i r e . Un autre travail intdressant est la r e p r d s e n t a t i o n fi trois d i m e n s i o n s de la situation gdologique sous forme de c u b e ou de bloc-diagramme, effectude
a u t o m a t i q u e m e n t par l ' o r d i n a t e u r .
On souligne que l ' o r d i n a t e u r ne p e u t jamais r e m p l a c e r P i m a g i n a t i o n fi trois d i m e n s i o n s d u gdologue. Au cours du dessin
main, il se familiarise a u t o m a t i q u e m e n t a v e c l a situation. Par l ' e m p l o i de l ' o r d i n a t e u r , c e t t e phase est supprimde; elle dolt
~tre regagnde p e n d a n t l ' i n t e r p r d t a t i o n des r4sultats p r o d u i t s par l ' o r d i n a t e u r .

Introduction
Iwall, ~ ~ / I"/ e If" l ,-'/ /-'/ /

According to the purpose of tunnel mapping, different methods of

graphic representation are appropriate. An access gallery in a mining
district, for example, is considered only as a linear element in the
tb.ree-dimensional space to be explored. In a traffic tunnel, however,
with its many niches, caves and caverns, the geology is regarded
more in a plane manner as the bedrock behind the tunnel lining. In
an unlined pressure tunnel, the open and water-bearing joints are of
particulax interest, whereas in a pilot tunnel for a rock cavern
mainly the rock and rock mass parameters are of great consequence.
Each of the examples mentioned requires a different kind of representation of the tunnel log, in order to emphasize the important
elements of the tunnel mapping.
In special cases, the application of a computer with a plotting unit
can considerably facilitate the time-consuming geometric construction and drawing work. In what follows is shown the kinds of
computer application that are possible and when these can be
recommended. We should not forget, however, that computeraided drawing has several shortcomings and therefore should not be
used without further reflection.

Fig.

,a

....
J "~f.;

~~':':'%+::":\~C,~+\'~:.r':" +:r++.+fS~
~-,~ '-,,_,

...;,0...I"0 3;

Yloor
Fig t O

.~,,,

::

//

iX X7~'-~

+ + i:-

%./
I

%' u ~\'(,X,\ +++/+:...,:.-e" " ~

1,>;o,,,,.<, F<,/f,~'.,/',/,;
/" "~<;-//.,/
gL ", ++ +.
L

""

I/;/,"//,/';/';7't7,.;/~-\+

"+ : . J . ~ A
+ + ~/-.~)r

Representation methods for horse-shoe profiles

In Fig. I five possible methods for the representation of a horseshoe shaped tunnel are plotted. Fig. la shows the most demanding
of them: a complete development of the whole cross section,
including the development of the arched roof. Intersections of
plane geological structures (joints, schistosity or bedding planes)
with the cylindrical tunnel roof lead to elliptic graphs, which have
to be constructed by time-consuming geometric methods. Doing
without the exact development of the arch, this latter can be
projected vertically on a horizontal plane, which is a much easier
construction. For only slightly dipping geological elements, however,
considerable inaccuracy results, and it has to be discussed ff it is
still acceptable or not. Fig. l b shows such a projected arched roof.
Especially for the slightly dipping mylonite at the righthand side of
the mapped sector the difference from Fig. la is obvious. If, for
instance, this mylonite causes subsequent damage of the tunnel
lining, then it will be impossible to realize the effective reason for
this damage only by means of the projection method shown in
Fig. lb.
A reduced representation is shown in Fig. lc. Only the floor and
one of the side walls are delineated, which for many purposes and
especi',dly for small tunnels is common and sufficient. However,
under rapidly changing geological conditions, much useful information is lost. The roof conditions, important for the structural
stability of the tunnel, are not represented. Elements, pinching out
in the tunnel like a wedge, axe omitted or do not appear with this
kind of tunnel lo~ing.
Some consulting geologists use a projection according to Fig. ld.
Both sidewalls are turned outwards and together with the vertically
projected roof, represented on a horizontal plane located about
half-way up the tunnel height. The" viewer has the impression of

Fig. 1 a - e: Different mapping techniques for a (hypothetical)

portion of a horse-shoe shaped tunnel
standing outside above the tunnel right in the midst of the rock
ma.ss and looking through it into the excavation. This viewpoint is
unusual and demands some experience for the right interpretation.
The mapping geologist inside the tunnel has always to change his
views and notes the geological elements upside down, in the course
of which many mistakes are possible. Particulaxly, under the difficult environment of a tunnel with its noise, heat, draught, darkness
and danger of caving and transport vehicles, recording in the tunnel
should be kept as simple as possible in order to avoid additional
mistakes. It is astonishing that, despite of all disadvantages, many
colleagues stick with this method of tunnel data representation.
Fig. 1e shows, that a simple vertical section often contains sufficient
information. This representation is particularly suitable for general
views on a small scale or for sections including the outcrops at the

3 1 6

surface. Disadvantageous is the fact that this kind of representation

gives the impression of a genuine geological section. Ilowever, such
sectmns are usually oriented perpendicular to the strike of the.
geological structures, which, of course, is rarely the case for a tunnel
section. Therefore the depicted dip angles are not the true inclinations
of the elements, but the apparent projections of the dip angles. The
relation is
Tan PSI = Tan PHI 9 Sin A SIGMA
where:

PSI = projected dip, shown in the profile

PHI = effective dip angle
k SIGMA = angle of projection (angle between the strike
of the profile and the strike of therepresented
geological element).

If on interpretation of Fig. le these interdependencies are not

considered, they lead to wrong conclusions regarding the orientation
of the represented geological elements. Their dip angle is usually
considerably reduced, compared with the true dip.

Representation methods for circular tunnels

Nowadays more and more tunnels are excavated mechanically and
therefore have a circular cross-section. Such sections are not easily
represented, because the geometrical construction of the resulting
elliptic intersections is difficult and time-consuming.
Fig. 2a shows the frequently used m e t h o d of sphtting the tunnel
into two half-cylinders and turning them to both sides. Similar and
comparable is the splitting according to Fig. 2b, where the upper
half-cylinder is developed beside the lower half-cylinder. These two
m e t h o d s are the only ones to represent the effective situation at the
tunnel walls.

Ft9

~
2a

t,,ft ,',.~f " ~ ' > "

-.-

+ "

..-

".

:-

--1"5~-- . . . . .

/upper

-" _..-'

l~sf-

9 -"

"

+ ~

.". 4

,r162

~"'.-.z.2

"

-','-Z~.-m-

7-'%~,a ' ' . '

+ . .'Q

Vhere the projected dip a n # e {see above) can be measured and

represented. Similarly the intersection o f a geological element with
the other two tangents can easily' be f o u n d . Here the strike of the
element can be measured and represented. If the magnetic compass,
due to steel arches or high-tension cables, is too inaccurate, the
distance between the two intersections with the lateral tangents is
measured with a tape. From this the strike of the element can be
determined graphically.
In Fig. 2d the inner quadrangle of t h e circle is represented 9 This
leads to smaller distortions compared to Fig. 2c, b u t the tangents,
i. e. the only undistorted lines, are located at less suitable places on
the tunnel periphery. This representation lacks the advantages
mentioned above (Fig. 2c) and is therefore not recommended.
In simple cases the drawing of a horizontal plane through the tunnel
axis (Fig. 2e) or a corresponding vertical plane (I:ig. 2 0 is sufficient 9
Regarding the represented dip a n # e , see c o m m e n t to Fig. le. In
Fig. 2g the horizontal and vertical sections are combined 9 This
representation is often satisfactory a n d easy to draw. At the interproration of these profiles it might be somewhat unusual that in
reality the two represented planes intersect not at the c o m m o n
line of the drawing, but in the middle of each plane. Nevertheless
this kind of drawing is clear and easy to interpret.

Geometrical projections for parallel tunnels and pilot tunnels

For these tunnels the horizontal section is important, which contains
both tunnels at the right distance. F o r large or changing axial
distances, time-consuming geometrical construction work is required. The combined representation o f both tunnels is u n m e t h o dical, if the complete cross-sections according to Fig. la are developed. For small lateral distances, t w o such figures would even
interfere each othcr.
The drawing becomes easier to survey, if for each of the parallel
tunnels only the outer sidewall is depicted. When needed, the
developed arched roof, turned towards the outer part of the representation, can be added (Fig. 3).

.','

~ z.-"g'~[e "
runner

~ Q ~ l t l o f t . . Wstt
. .

Fig. 3:

Representation of two parallel t u n n e l s

~ ' ; / / / / ~ ' / / / / / ~ /+/ / i/~ ;/ ' / / ' / ~ /+ ~4" ~ + ~ + ~ ' "'~"'

~ ~)~ ~x\~'
" 0'*' Z'

Computer-aided mapping of tunnels

Fig 2 c

~ L

~;7

1/"

/"

"

'

~ *

2"~

~ x~x\x \ . , . , ,

,,Th- ,,7,7 I~,~. '-"~-)N/',\\-~'\\'~,~'-~ +++-% : ~ - e ' ,

.....

.,-,..,;
.:7/ j /

.,...

.....

K;/

\.,. -,.&

/."

." / . /

% ~ cY,~~]

+ + + . .Ztyv<~zS~.%-r

.,' *

~"~'~

+~.'

~'~

S;/A

I:ig. 2 a - g: Different m a p p i n g techniques for the same portion as

in Fig. 1, b u t for a circular tunnel
In order to avoid drawing elliptic intersections, the circumscribing
quadrangle is often represented (Fig. 2c). It is obvious that distortions
near the edges of the quadrangle are considerable. This m e t h o d ,
however, is often applied in practice. It is suitable for the work in
the tunnel, as the lateral tangents mostly are easily accessible.

From earlier paragraphs it becomes clear that some m e t h o d s of

representation lead to geometrically complicated intersection figures 9
9 Wqaerever a computer can handle the geometric construction work in
series, its application is indicated.
Example 1: Circular tunnel
For different mechanically excavated tunnels, the author has to
provide geological logs of high accuracy. Based upon these logs, the
excavated rock was classified and the machine data, mainly the
advancing rate or the specific penetration, were compared with the
rock classes. The mean requirement o n the representation of the
geological situation was to make feasible a reconstruction (Sf the
tunnel face at every place t h r o u g h o u t the tunnel.
The m e t h o d of developing the upper hemicylinder, folded to the
side of tile developed lower hemicykinder, was considered m o s t
suitable. The required elliptical intersection figures were plotted by
a c o m p u t e r program, so reducing the geometrical construction work
on the drawing board (Fig. 4a)9

Example 2: Pilot tunnel parallel to the main tunnel

For the St. Gotthard soad tunnel in (?entral Switzerland with a
length of more than 16 km a pilot tunnel was driven 30 - 55 metres

317

F~ 9. 5 a

cyhnder

Fsg

(-/7

f/

34~

3 0

0 S

.Set of p u n c h e d

+%_,k

4a
ryght h.+lf+

2 & / % L'i

/!7

cyhnder

coded

data

..lwww++wwlm++++mwmlwm+m+w,u,+W+W,wmumW~+m+,wm+mm+w,++uW+ullww+m++w+wwwwlwwWwwH
u+im...m+l+..+m+w.++lw++M+l,u,,Mm,
m~+w+mi+mmm++m++mmmmw.+mmuHHHll+l
..IV.l+dlWlWl++lmlWWWlV++""+l
i~
+W+@W+i++M+l+liim.iUalaiW+WWi
i@..+,++m++llw+.,,Im,m+,+
mw~HwwWwww,w..+nnw.~.w
.ww..wdm+,l.m.+,w#++l+l
ml.+U+UmNmW+lWmlW+Wlm.l
I+IIIlMIIMI.II++,M.M
+lllll+.llllll..llll
mmwmmp++Mwm+,.++m+
+mUu
==~===*J.==.=.*.=
I.~.III~W~IIInU

F/g 4 b

UU~====I==="

IIIIIll~llJl
I~lllllllll
Ilillllllt
I~ll
II
~Ilpl
I
Ill
II
INIINIM
JIllll
I Ill
I~11t

1.1=.

IAII

w w.

Illl
!11
Ill

nl
iw

ii

Fig. 4 c

%,,/

1
u

Fig. 4:

a) C o m p u t e r o u t p u t for the circular tunnel in Fig. 2a

(copied by hand for better reproduction)
b) Situation of St. Gntthard road tunnel (16 kin) with
paxallel pilot tunnel
c) C o m p u t e r o u t p u t for the developed arch in Fig. la
(copied by hand for better reproduction)

Ill~l+

lw.

++,~z z z +.,1.
~.,t~Z~ Z Z l +.

l+ 86

+.Z+ooo~.t

w NIIIIII

I..MM

L++?+OO+++~L

i+iii

Ill

II

Illll.i+il

I i+l.p

m+ll

~ N.+xt

+++m+o+.3~.i

these differences of the radius of curvature caused variations of

the distances between the two tunnels from 30 to 55 metres;
-

in the curves the axis of the inside tunnel was shorter than the
outside tunnel;

+ Ilinll llll+ III u

v Illll

Fig. 5 b

the azimuth of the tunnel axes changed several times;

at changes of direction, the radius of curvature was n o t the same
for both tunnel axes:

II

ii + i + . . + i i . + u . n i , m l + l , w . w
+ + + + x +.~ ,,L,i 5 + ++i a ++
li~lu Wll + l . l I M . + H 8 6 l + l WW. W l l l l
W + I , + W +w . w . w . ~ + + + 1 + . . . w l + i
; :+. +++ ~.~ r ~_,+ +.~ ++~.,+.
w i t + l w= u i 1 1 . . , w w w . w+ww l llw,a
Iii//i
i i l l + l i . ++ . 4 I r + . m i + 1 1 m .
[t~
=+~Z~LiL
iV "+ Illlll+.
I u i . Ml i m a M i l l M i l l
~*.lw. ~. l.~l..
W,I,*,*WI,.W+,..llWl
+.~ ~+.X ~
i~lW U.~U~ ++'+. + , U~ l . WII ~ W. I I . *IVlI+ W+ i , l ~ l ' l l . l
IwIamm .aidl/iw
Ii ialiila
I i.lla
I/imml
liiil
mlUilitlilllil
ilillil
II 0 Illl
iil lliilli
II

eastwards of the main tunnel (Fig. 4b). After completion, this pilot
tunnel can be used as an emergency exit in case of an accident or a
fire in the main tunnel. During excavation, the geological situation
encountered was continuously projected onto the profile of the
main tunnel as a short-term prediction of discontinuities or weak
zones of the rock mass. The geometrical construction work was
complicated by the foUowing circumstances:

uw

II11111

,.~ww,w ~ HimwmH+

mun

Jd ,iulau

i wlww r iIilul~l,

l l I I I I O I ~ V ~ m W m ~ N W U U U t 9 M WWWW~ W~WWl ~ U U U W U ~

muwwllr
ww~wlww~.~w
J.wH+~..w~...w+n
I.I+.,~+H+H.+W~

) ) i ~ wwm~wwmmwl ww u w m m ~
mwu.u ~l~mnuww
w~wl
IWWWlVWWWWWW~HWW

m ~ u i w ~ wmwwwmmu

IllwwuiwIM~

n,nw~ww
.

uvll

Ulwul~lll
l

.11~ W.~II
w

according to the length of the ventilation sectors the cross-section

of the tunnel also changed.

By means of a c o m p u t e r program it became possible to consider the

variable geometrical conditions automatically for the whole length
of the southern heading of this tunnel. "][he mapping geologist
therefore was able to concentrate on the interpretation of file
geology instead of the geometry. The extraordinary length of the
tunnel has more than justified the preparation of such a program.
As a result o f the c o m p u t e r applicauon, the expense of geological
mapping of the tunnel was reduced to a remarkable extent. It
became possible to carry o u t the whole geological supervision parttime with an average expenditure of approximately 1 day a week.

ran,,

WHIII

nml

~lml

9i!
9.
w++

"=
i1,1

w=
m
u

Id

li
=.1
Ill

~U
lU

ww~=wmwi.lw

w~muwi~www

~.~.u~.~.www.

Example 3: Development o f the a r c h e d r o o f for large profiles

Road tunnels with ventilation ducts as welt as two-lJ.ne railway
tunnels often come up to a cross section of more than 100 square
metres and to a total height of more than 10 metres. Here the
correct development of the arched roof is particularly important.
A simplified geometrical representation led to differences of several
metres from reality (see comparison of Figs. la and lb). Fig. 4e
shows how the representation of the developed arched roof is
facilitated by m e a n s of a computer. The geometric construction
work is done by the computer, the mapping geologist has to interpret the drawing and complete it with conventional signs etc.

wmi.~.l.ww+~wwu~|
Wwwm~wwa~m=aaa~l~m@~W
oou
a~al la~aa~

uu~uu~ wwwuwuw
~ ~
~

w~uw.ww~wuw~w~u
UW~IW

w Wl wW . W

IWUMWWVW

w WW

~ I m x wu l u ~ v u , a ~ v w ~ w o ~ v u w a l

Fig. 5 c
Fig. 5:

a) Cards with p u n c h e d structural data for computer input

b) Stereographic projection (WuLff net) with point-diagram
c) Density diagram calculated from Fig. 5b

318

P r o c e s s i n g o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l data
If the data of the geological elements of a tunnel are codified for
one of the c o m p u t e r applications m e n t i o n e d above, they can additionally be processed without any extra work, provided that the
respective programms are available.

Stereographic projection
The c o m m o n procedure for the analysis of structural data is to
enter them into a stereographic projection of the unit sphere, mainly the (equal-angular) Wulff net or the (equal-area) Schmidt net. By
counting o u t the points within the 1%-circles, density diagrams are
produced. They indicate the location and scatter of joint orientations, etc. Most geological institutes are equipped with programs for
the automatic production of these stereographic projections, for
instance the program " S T R U K T " at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology. A special feature of this p r o g a m is the consequent
application of ENCODE / DECODE-Statements in the compiler
version F O R T R A N IV, that makes the single bits of the central
m e m o r y accessible. Thus the required central m e m o r y space is considerably reduced, so that the program is also suitable for smaller
data processors. Figs. 5b and 5c show two examples of stereographic
projections, i. e. a point diagram and a density diagram for the
same data set.

Fi 9 6 b

Fig. 6a

Data selection
A n o t h e r feature of the mentioned program is the possibility of
selecting the data by means of a code and rearranging them in
different ways, in order to receive more detailed and manifold data
interpretations. For instance, all major joints in the rock type A
between the tunnel stations X and Y can be selected and represented
in a density diagram, or a slow change of the strike or dip of the
schistosity planes in a tunnel m a y be shown by several successive
diagrams.
The original diameter of the computer-printed net is exactly 20
centirnetres, in order to match the normal projection grids with a
10 cm radius. These grids are copied onto a transparent sheet and
then p u t on the computer output. T h u s the exact values of joint
m a x i m a etc. are easy to determine.

Perspective blocks
Geologists usually are familiar with the structural diagrams m e n t i o n e d
and are able to interpret them without difficulty. For an outsider,
however, these representations are n o t very informative. Especially
for practical work at construction sites it is r e c o m m e n d e d that the
m o s t important elements (bedding planes, major joint systems etc.)
should be depicted on a perspective block.
Usually the block is shown in parallel perspective. The easiest
construction is the isometric projection of a cube. ]'his cube,
containing the structural elements to be shown, is viewed from a
point on the prolongated cubic diagonal. Unfortunately this representation is not opt.imal for the viewer, because the angle of
projection is abnormally steep and one edge of the cube coincides
with the diametraUy opposite edge.
By means of another program the shape of the perspective block
can be changed into a more favourable dimension. The angles of
view and of perspective are varied, and also the direction of the
zero azimuth (North) can rotate at will By changing these input
data the perspective block is turned and varied w i t h o u t additional
work, until the representation is satisfactory (Fig. 6 a - d ) . Constructing all these possible variations by hand is inefficient and wasteful.
Therefore, in this case, the computer is considered to be a useful
and necessary instrument.

Fig. 6 d

Fig. 6c
Fig. 6 a - d: Variation o f the projection angle and zero azimuth for

a block in parallel perspective projection

some standard programs with detailed application instructions. The

creation and maintenance of such a program library is expensive.
Most programs are specifically written for a particular computer
and cannot be readily transferred to a n o t h e r device.
It is evident that the application of a c o m p u t e r is only effective for
large constructions, long tunnels etc., because the advantages of
automatic data processing increase with large data sets.
Many people place unlimited confidence in the c o m p u t e r output. It
is obvious that this is by no m e a n s better t h a n the input. Systematic
errors in the c o m p u t e r program therefore are often ignored.
Composing the geometrical data for a t u n n e l map m e a n s an effort,
during which the geologist does n o t work only in a mechanical way.
In the m e a n t i m e he goes deeply into the geometrical and geological
situation. The understanding of the three-dimensional connections
is growing continuously, and it often h a p p e n s that i m p o r t a n t details
are reafised only after a certain involvement with the problem.
Applying consequently the c o m p u t e r , this period of famifiarization
is omitted and has to be brought up afterwards, at the stage of
interpretation of the results.
Finally the c o m p u t e r drawings simulate an accuracy which in m a n y
cases does not exist. This can lead to w r o n g conclusions, that would
be avoided when using conventional c o n s t r u c t i o n methods.

Disadvantages of computer-aided mapping

Conclusions

For the creation of a computer program, special knowledge is

required, that cannot be gained by every geologist. Therefore it is
necessary that a research or consulting institute is equipped with

By means of several examples it has been s h o w n that the c o m p u t e r is

a useful instrument for the geometrical processing and representation
of geological elements. It is stressed, however, that its application

319

has some shortcomings and does not facilitate the three-dimensional

imagination and the rational compreb, ev,sion of a given situation.
Advice is given against uncritical routine applications. Used in a
reasonable way, it has proved to be a practical tool for the processing
of large data sets, especially for the representation of geological
tunnel maps.
The programs mentioned in this contribution axe available at the

[ BULLETIN

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.

Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank Prof. Dr. E. Dal Vesco for his profound
introduction into the geometrical treatment of geological problems.

of the International Association of ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

de rAssoniation Internationale de GEOLOGIE DE L'INGENIEUR NO 1 9

319 - -

322

KREFELD

1979

COMPUTERIZED AUTOMATIC GEOTECHNICAL MAPPING FROM A GEOSCIENTIFIC DATA BANK

CARTOGRAPHIE G,EOTECHNIQUE AUTOMATISEE PAR L'ORDINATEUR BASEE SUR UNE

BANQUE DE DONNEES GEOSCIENTIFIQUES
MORIN F. J., Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada*
Summary
This report proposes a m e t h o d for spatial analysis of geoscientific data. To accomplish this analysis, the vast resources of
electronic data processing were put to use enabling the user to directly assess, manipu!ate and retrieve data to his specifications. The data originated from the Hamilton urban area in Ontario.
F r o m the conceptual point of view, the proposed geoscientific data handling m e t h o d can be situated somewhere between
the N o r t h A m e r i c a n approach, which is not really concerned with statistical handling of data prior to mapping, and the
European approach willing to venture into sophisticated interpolation methods.
Needs identified by groups of users consulted suggested a new approach to geoscientific data banks: the retrieval of data by
the user himself.
The proposed new m e t h o d of compiling geoscientific data banks from existing i n f o r m a t i o n represent an innovation. This
m e t h o d evolved from the m a n y corrections and modifications that the H a m i l t o n geoscientific data bank had to undergo in
order to be usable for efficient data retrieval. By specifying the nature of the information to be compiled and the values to
be retained as well as the m e t h o d to follow in the transfer of data from soil reports to data sheets it is possible to prepare, at
compilation, a data bank for efficient data handling and foreseen retrievals.
R6sum4
Ce rapport propose une m t t h o d e d'analyse spatiale de d o n n t e s gtoscientifiques pour Pa~'ndnegament du territoixe. Les ressources de l ' i n f o r m a t i q u e sont utilisdes afin de r4aliser cet objectif et afin de permettre l'exploitation d'une banque de donnfes par l'utilisateur. Les d o n n t e s utilisdes proviennent de la r4gion urbaine de H a m i l t o n en Ontario.
Par son approche conceptuelle, la m t t h o d e d'exploitation de donndes gdoscientifiques se situe entre l'orientation nordamtricaine, peu a p p r o p r i t e & un traitement statistique des d o n n t e s avant la cartographie, et l'approche e u r o p t e n n e , anxieuse
de pousser la recherche vers des algorithmes d'interpolation avancts.
Les besoins reconnus d'aprts consultation de groupes d'utilisateurs suggtrent une nouvelle vole pour les banques de d o n n t e s
gdoscientifiques: la r t c u p d r a t i o n par l'utilisateur lui-m~me.
La nouvetle m t t h o d e p r o p o s t e p o u r la compilation des donntes gtoscientifiques ~ partir des informations existantes est une
innovation. Cette mdthode est issue des nombreuses corrections et modifications que la banque de donntes gdoscientifiques
Hamilton avait dfi subir pour acqutrir l'efficacit6 souhaitable en ce qui concerne la rtcupdration des donntes. En prdcisant la
nature de l ' i n f o r m a t i o n & compiler et les valeurs ~ conserver, ainsi que la marche ~ suivre p o u r mettre sur cartes les d o n n t e s
n u m t r i q u e s des rapports d'essais, il est possible de prdparer, par compilation, une banque de d o n n t e s efficace au double point
de vue de la conservation et de la r t c u p t r a t i o n des donn4es.

Introduction
At the close of 1972, theGeological Survey of Canada had accumulated, on magnetic tapes, geoscientific data for 28 Canadian cities.
These consisted of soil data obtained mainly from private consultants, city engineers, architects, government agencies, etc . . . .
These data banks have been compiled under the direction of the
G. S. C. by local soil consultants.

After some general corrections and modifications, mainly to standardize

9
the terminology used, these data banks were made available
to the public as Open Files in the form of magnetic tapes or as microfiche reproductions of computer listings, and as basic documentation maps (data number and such). Also a brief description of the
information contained in the data bank accompanied these Open
Files.

* Dr. F. J. Morin, Terrain Sciences Division, Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa K1A OEB (Canada)