31 1995 A Defect Model of Reliability IRPS95 Tutorial Slides

A Defect Model of Reliability
C. Glenn Shirley
Intel Corp.
1995 International Reliability Physics Symposium
A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95
C. Glenn Shirley, Intel
Outline
Reliability Statistics
Defect Reliability
Relationship between yield and reliability
Accelerated Stressing and Burn-In

Analysis of Reliability Data
Test Flows
Model Extraction
Reliability Prediction
Effect of Die Area
Effect of Defect Density
Effect of Burn In
Standard Reliability Indicators
Several mathematical functions are used to
describe the evolution of a population.
Cumulative distribution function F(t):
Probability that a unit from original population fails by
time t
F(t=0) = 0, F(t=infinity) = 1, F(t) increases
monotonically, F(t) undefined for t < 0. 0 < F(t) < 1.
Survival function S(t) = 1 - F(t):

Probability that a unit from original population survives
to time t.
S(t=0) = 1, S(t=infinity) = 0, S(t) decreases
monotonically, S(t) undefined for t < 0. 0 < S(t) < 1.
Cumulative Distribution Function and Survival Function
1.00
0.90
0.80
S(t)
F(t)
0.70
0.60
Probability
0.50
Lognormal Distribution
Sigma = 1
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.1
0.2
0.4
10
20
t/t50
Probability density function, f(t)
Number of failures in dt
1
f (t ) =
Initial Population
dt
dF (t )
dS (t )
f (t ) =
=
dt
dt
F (t ) = 0 f (t )dt
t
Of theoretical interest only.

Instantaneous Failure Rate, h(t)
Number of failures in dt
1
h( t ) =
Population at time t
dt
f (t )
1 dS (t )
d ln S (t )
h( t ) =
=
=
S (t )
S (t ) dt
dt
h(t) can increase or decrease and have any positive
value, that is, h(t) > 0.
Probability Density Function f(t), and Instantaneous Failure Rate h(t)
1.00
Lognormal Distribution, sigma = 1
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
h(t)
0.50
Failure Rate
0.40
(1/sec)
0.30
f(t)
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.1
0.2
0.4
10
20
Time/t50
Cumulative Hazard Function, H(t)
Defined by
H (t ) = 0h(t )dt
t
S (t ) = exp[ H (t )]
F (t ) = 1 exp[ H (t )]
H(t) is dimensionless, like a probability, but can have
any positive value.
H(t) increases monotonically with time.
H(t) is useful in analysis of censored data in which
removals or multiple failure mechanisms occur.
Cumulative Hazard, H(t), and Cumulative Distribution Function, F(t)
5
Lognormal Distribution, Sigma = 1
4
H(t)
3
F or H
2
F(t)
0
0.1
0.2
0.4
1
Time/t50
9
10
20
The functions F(t), S(t), f(t), h(t), H(t) are all
interrelated. Given one, the others can be
derived.
No assumptions about the specific distribution
(Weibull, Lognormal, etc. have been made).
A program for extracting models from censored
data is
Plot H(t) from censored data
Determine F(t) via F(t) = 1 - exp[-H(t)]
Fit parametric distribution to F(t)
Use parametric S(t) = 1 - F(t) to calculate predictions.
10
Average Failure Rates: A common reliability
indicator
The average failure rate between times t1 and t2
t2
h(t )dt
H (t1 ) H (t 2 )
AFR(t1 , t2 ) =
=
t1 t 2
t1 t 2
ln S (t1 ) ln S (t 2 )
=
t1 t 2
t1
For t1 and t2 in hours, multiply AFR by 109 to get units of

Fits.
For t1 and t2 in hours, multiply AFR by 105 to get units of
%/1khr.
11
Cumulative Fraction Failed: Another indicator
Fraction failing between t1 and t2
Cum Fail = F (t 2 ) F (t1 ) = S (t1 ) S (t 2 )

If t1 = 0 then
Cum Fail = F (t 2 ) = 1 S (t 2 )
Multiply Cum Fail by 106 to get DPM (Defects per
Million)
All indicators can be expressed in terms of the

Survival Function.
12
Multiple failure mechanisms
If the earliest occurrence of a mechanism is fatal, then
the device is logically a chain:
Intrinsic
Mechanism
1
Defect
Mechanism
1
Intrinsic
Mechanism
2
Intrinsic
Mechanism
3
Defect
Mechanism
2
Defect
Mechanism
3
Etc.
This is the usual case for semiconductor components.

That is, there is no functional redundancy.
13
Multiple failure mechanisms (cont.)
The survival probability for a chain is the product of the
survival probabilities of the links:
S (t ) = S mech 1 (t ) S mech 2 (t )...

=
exp[ H (t )] = exp[ h (t )dt ]

t
mech i
0 i
mech i
= exp[ 0 hi (t )dt ] exp[ 0h(t )dt ] exp[ H (t )]

t
All that means is that the total instantaneous failure rate

is the sum of instantaneous failure rates for each
mechanism.
h( t ) =
h( t )
i
mechanisms i
14
Intrinsic versus Defect Mechanisms

Intrinsic mechanisms are due to non-defectrelated manufacturing or design errors.
Typically associated with gross areas of the wafer.
The total survival function may be written

S ( t ) = Sintrinsic mech 1 ( t ) Sintrinsic mech 2 ( t )...
Sdefect mech 1 ( t ) Sdefect mech 2 ( t )...
The focus in this tutorial is on defect-related

mechanisms.
These are the main concern in the manufacturing
environment.
15
Defect Reliability
Factory production reliability issues are dominated by
defects.
The same kinds of defects that degrade yield, degrade
reliability.
Yield is measured before any stress: At Sort (wafer-level
functional test) and pre-burn-in class test.
Reliability is measured by post-burn-in class test.
Since the yield and reliability defects are from the same
source, yield and defect reliability are related.
Yield is routinely measured - it can be used to predict
reliability.
Yield fallout is easier to measure than reliability fallout: It is
larger.
16
Defect Size Distribution

Establish distribution by visual counting and
classifying particles and other defects in the
factory.
D(x) is the observed number of defects per unit
area with dimension (eg. diameter) between x
and x+dx
*
For example, Stappers model*
D( x ) = D ( x / x 0 ) for
x x0
D( x ) = D ( x0 / x 3 ) for
x > x0
C. H. Stapper, Modeling
of Integrated Circuit
Defect Sensitivities, IBM
J. Res. Develop. Vol. 27,
pp 549-557 (1983)
x0 is a characteristic length << lithographic resolving

power. (Operators cant see very small defects.)
D is the defects per unit area of defects of all sizes.
17
Probability of Yield and Reliability Defects.

Yield defects prevent operation of the device at
before any stress (t = 0).
Latent reliability defects will eventually kill the
device (that is, at t > 0).
In simple cases, the probability of occurrence of a
given defect type can be calculated as a function
of defect size, assuming random spatial
distribution of defects.*
Well calculate the probability of Yield defects
and Reliability plus Yield defects falling on a
metal comb.
* See, for example, C. H. Stapper, Modeling of defects in integrated circuit
photolithographic patterns. IBM J. Res. Develop. Vol. 28, pp 461-475 (1984)
18
Probability of Yield and Reliability Defects
w s
w s
w s
OK, Never a yield or reliability issue.

Sometimes a latent reliability defect.
Sometimes a yield defect, sometimes a
latent reliability defect, sometimes OK.
Always a yield defect.
Latent
LatentReliability
ReliabilityDefect:
Defect:
Either:
Either:
Particle
Particledoes
doesnot
nottouch
touchconductors,
conductors,but
butboth
both
sides
sidesare
arewithin
withinof
ofthe
theconductor.
conductor.
or:
or:
Particle
Particletouches
touchesone
oneconductor
conductorand
andisiswithin
within
of
ofits
itsneighbor.
neighbor.
19
Probability of Yield and Reliability Defects

Calculation of proportion of yield and reliability
defects assuming random distribution of defects
of diameter x.
Pyield(x) is the proportion of yield defects.
Pyield ( x ) = 0,
for x < s
xs
, for s x < 2 s + w
s+w
= 1,
for x 2 s + w
=
Pyield & latent rel (x) is the proportion of reliability and

yield defects. (s => s - 2 and w => w + 2 )
Pyield & latent rel. ( x ) = 0,
for x < s 2
x s + 2
, for s 2 x < 2 s + w 2
s+w
= 1,
for x 2 s + w 2
=
20
Yield and Reliability Defect Densities

Combine
Defect size distribution.
Probability of type of defect vs defect size.
Calculate the defect density of defects

which are fatal to device at t = 0:
Dyield
Dx0
= D( x ) Pyield (x )dx =
0
2s( w + 2s )
and those which are latent reliability defects:
Drel = 0
1
1
Dx0
D( x ) Prel ( x )dx =
2 ( s 2 )( w + 2 s 2 ) s( w + 2 s)
21
Yield and Reliability Defect Densities

D( x ) = Dx02 / x 3
Defect Size
Distribution
Shorting lines: Pyield(x)
Proportion of
Defects P(x)
Latent or shorting lines:

Prel(x) + Pyield(x)
Proportion of
Latent Rel. Defects
Prel(x)
x0
s-2
Defect Size
s
2s+w-2
22
2s+w
Relationship Between Yield and Reliability

Defect Densities
Reliability and yield defect densities are proportional.
Drel
2( w + 3s )
+ higher order terms in
=
Dyield
s( w + 2s )
The ratio of latent reliability defect density to yield
defect density depends on
The shape of the defect size distribution.
The pattern on which the defects fall (layout sensitivity)
The definition of latency (the value of ).
An assumption of non-interacting, randomly distributed
defects.
23

Defect Densities
The ratio Drel/Dyield can be measured...
Reliability defect density
as measured by 6 hour
burn-in fallout, versus
yield for various
products.
Arbitrary Scale
Various Products
Drel
Slope = 0.01
F ( t ) = Proportion failing at time t

Drel = ln{F ( t = 6 hours)} / Area
Dyield = ln{Yield} / Area
0
0
Arbitrary Scale
Dyield
Note:
Note:Yield
Yielddefect
defectdensity
densityisis
100X
100Xlarger
largerthan
thanreliability
reliability
defect
density.
So
its
defect density. So itseasier
easiertoto
measure.
measure.
24
Simulation of Defect Reliability

In general, analytical calculation of reliability and
yield defectivities is complex because of
Complex defect size distributions.
Non-circular defects with orientation distributions.
Complex substrate patterns.
Often it is easier to use Monte Carlo methods to

evaluate defectivities by simulation.
Well discuss simulation more when we look at
an assembly-related example a bit later.
25

Defect Densities
Reliability and yield defect densities can be
modeled, simulated, or measured.
But for reliability prediction we dont care what
the value of Drel/Dyield is.
We only care that they proportional.
The model we derive requires that i be a

constant for each mechanism and substrate
Drel (i )
pattern, i:
i =
Dyield (i )
This is not a law of nature - it depends on a
constant defect size distribution shape, ie. a
process under statistical control.
26

Defect Densities
Yield and reliability are proportional for all
defects, especially the most frequently occurring
ones.
Yield and Reliability Defect Pareto
1. Metal Defects and Particles
Yield
Reliability
30
2. W Defects and Particles

3. NVD
4. Plug Defects
5. Other Defects
6. Spacer Defects
20
%
10
7. Poly Defects and Particles

8. Diffusion Defects
0
8
27
Scaling of Defect Reliability

Assume
Each defect has a survival function s(t), and the density
is Drel (defects/cm2).
Random, non-interacting defects.
S(t) is the survival probability of a die of area A.
Consider 2 cases
Double the area, keep the defect density the same.
Double the defect density, keep the area the same.
S ( t ) = [s( t )]2 ADrel
S ( t ) = [s( t )] ADrel
S ( t ) = S ( t )2
S ( t ) = [s( t )]A 2 Drel

28

For one mechanism i.
For one circuit layout pattern.
At one condition of temperature and bias.
Case 1 (Reference)
Si(t) = known
A = known area
Drel(i) = unknown
S i( t ) = S i ( t )
Case 2 (Product)
Si(t) = UNknown
A = known area
Drel(i) = unknown
Drel
( i ) A
Drel ( i ) A
29
Concept of Reliability Defect Density

Concept in this tutorial:
=
Yield Defect
Density
Total Defect
Density
Reliability
Defect Density
Concept used in other* work:

Problem:
Problem:Its
Itseasy
easyto
toconfuse
confuse
physical
physicaldie
diearea
area(and
(andsubarea)
subarea)
scaling
scalingwith
withthe
theabstract
abstractconcept
concept
of
ofcritical
criticalarea.
area.
=
Constant defect density, critical areas for
yield and reliability.
30
* H.H. Huston, and C.P. Clarke, Reliability Defect

Detection and Screening during Processing - Theory
and Implementation, IRPS 1992, pp 268-274.

Consider a process reference monitor r (eg. an
SRAM), and a product p.
Multiple mechanisms and layouts.
Reference
Ap(1), Dprel(1)
Product
Ar(1), Drrel(1)
S r ( t ) = S r1 ( t ) S r 2 ( t ) S r 3 ( t )
D p rel (1) A p (1)
S (t ) = S 1(t )
p
D r rel (1) A r (1)
D p rel ( 2 ) A p ( 2 )
S 2 (t )
D r rel ( 2 ) A r rel ( 2 )
31
D p rel ( 3 ) A p ( 3
S 3(t )
r
D r rel ( 3 ) A r ( 3

The critical relationship...
p
p
i ( product) Dyield
( i ) A p ( i ) Dyield
(i) A p (i)
Drelp ( i ) A p ( i )
=
r
r
r
r
r
Drel ( i ) A ( i ) i (reference) Dyield ( i ) A ( i ) Dyield ( i ) Ar ( i )
If this ratio is unity, then this is true.

The
Theratio
ratioisisunity
unitywhen
whenthe
theshape
shapeof
ofthe
thedefect
defect
size
sizedistribution
distributionisisaaconstant.
constant. This
Thiswill
willbe
betrue
true
for
foraaprocess
processwhich
whichisisininstatistical
statisticalcontrol.
control.
32

Reliability defect densities, Drel, are not well known and are
small, but Dyield are related to production indicators and are
larger.
Appeal to constancy of Drel/Dyield for each mechanism/subdie to
write
p
p
p
p
p
p
D
S ( t ) S1 ( t )
p
yield
(1) A (1)
D r yield (1) A r (1)
In general:
S2 ( t )
yield
( 2) A ( 2)
D r yield ( 2 ) A p rel ( 2 )
S ( t ) = [S ( t )]
p
r
i
Ri ( p | r )
Ri ( p| r ) =
p
Dyield
(i) A p (i)
r
Dyield
( i ) Ar ( i )
33
S3 ( t )
yield
( 3) A ( 3)
D r yield ( 3 ) A r ( 3 )
This
Thisisisnot
notyet
yetininaa
form
formcorresponding
corresponding
totothe
theusual
usualyield
yield
statistics
statisticsacquired
acquired
by
the
factory...
by the factory...
Yield Statistics
Assuming Poisson statistics, the yield for the
compound die is given by
p
Y p = Yintrinsic
exp[ Dyield (1) A p (1)] exp[ Dyield ( 2 ) A p ( 2 )]
p
exp[ Dyield (3) A p (3)]

p
Y =Y
p
Dyield
Dp
p
intrinsic
p
p
p
p
exp Dyield ( j ) A ( j ) = Yintrinsic
exp( Dyield A p )
j
Yp
A = ln p
Y intrinsic
Subdie area-weighted
defect density.
Total die area.
yield
( j)A ( j)
Ap
Ap Ap( j)
j
34

Some manipulation shows that
p
p
Dyield
( i ) A p ( i ) P p ( i ) Dyield
Ap
Ri ( p| r ) = r
= r
r
r
Dyield ( i ) A ( i ) P ( i ) Dyield
Ar
where the Pareto (proportion of all defects
attributable to mechanism i) is defined by
p
p
D
(
i
)
A
(i)
yield
p
P (i)
p
p
D
(
j
)
A
( j)
yield
j
So if Ypintrinsic = 1 (as usual), then

P p ( i ) ln(Y p )
Ri ( p| r ) = r
P ( i ) ln(Y r )
35
Scaling of Defect Reliability: Practical Formulae

So, in terms of the usual Pareto and yield
indicators acquired as factory yield indicators at
sort test:
p
ln( Y )
P (1)
P (2)
P ( 3 ) ln( Y r )
p
r
r
r
P r (1)
Pr ( 2)
P r ( 3)
S ( t ) = S 1( t )
S 2 (t )
S 3(t )
or, in general
ln( Y p )
ln( Y r )
P ( j)
p
r
Pr ( j )
S ( t ) = S j ( t )
j
where we have assumed Ypintrinsic = 1 as is usual.
36

Product
ProductSurvival
Survival
Function
Function
Product
Productmechanism
mechanism
Pareto.
Pareto.
p
r
S ( t ) = S j ( t )
j
SRAM
SRAMSurvival
SurvivalFunction
Functionfor
for
each
eachmechanism
mechanismj.j.
Pp( j)
Pr ( j )
Total
Totalproduct
product
sort
sortyield.
yield.
ln( Y p )
ln( Y r )
Total
TotalSRAM
SRAM
sort
sortyield
yield
SRAM
SRAMmechanism
mechanism
Pareto.
Pareto.
Eg. Reference Product: SRAM. Product of Interest: Microprocessor

37

If the defect paretos are the same for reference
and unknown product, then
P p ( i ) = P r ( i ),
for each i
so
ln( Y p )
S (t ) = S (t )
p
ln( Y r )
Usually
Usuallyaagood
good
approximation
approximation
since
sinceonly
onlyone
oneor
or
two
twomechanisms
mechanisms
dominate.
dominate.
where the total reference (usually SRAM) survival

function is
S r (t ) =
S r (t )
j
38
Extensions to Non-Die Area-Related Mechanisms

Defect count per device may scale with other
extensive properties of the product.
Die Area => Lead count, perimeter of dielectric edge in
package, etc.
Areal defect density => defects per lead, defects per
length of perimeter in package, etc.
Lead
Leadcount
count
(Defects
(Defectsper
perlead)
lead)
Leadframe
Power Plane
Ground Plane
39
Insulator
Insulatoredge
edge
(Defects
(Defectsper
percm)
cm)
Yield/Reliability Simulation for Wire Bonding

Measure physical process capability.
Make measurements of bond location and ball size.
Use a sample of about 200.
Determine distribution of bond center (x,y), and ball
diameter, r.
Shape (normal, etc.), Mean, Variance.
Determine whether x, y, r are correlated.
Decide on yield and reliability specification limits.

Calculate yield and latent reliability DPM.
Assume that process is in statistical control.
Analytical calculation - difficult, not general.
Simulate the process using fitted distribution
parameters.
40

Bond pad opening.
Ball can overlap adjacent metal
(reliability jeopardy).
x
y
Ball can overlap adjacent pad

opening - dead short (yield
issue)
Ball bond.
125
155
165
41

99.99
99.99
Outliers
99.9
99
99.9
Ideal Process: Mean = 49.32, SD = 2.25
90
C
u
m
%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
C
u
m
%
10
Actual: Mean = 49.73, SD = 3.17
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Y: Mean = -2.17, SD = 6.75
r Distribution
0.1
0.01
40
X: Mean = -0.89, SD = 4.34
99
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
(x,y) Distributions
0.1
0.01
-15
60
-10
-5
0
5
Distance from Center of Pad (microns)
Ball Radius (microns)
10
15
20
Y-Position (microns)
15
x,x,y,y,and
andrrdistributions
distributionsare
are
normal
normaland
anduncorrelated.
uncorrelated.
The
Theparameters
parametersof
ofthe
theprocess
processinin
statistical
statisticalcontrol
controlare
are
x Mean
0
x SD
4.34
y Mean
0
y SD
6.75
r Mean
49.3
10
5
0
-5
-10
r SD
2.25
-15
-20
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
X-Position (microns)
42

Individual
Individualbonds
bondsare
arepoints
pointsclustering
clustering
around
the
target.
around the target.
Bonds
Bondsinside
insidepyramid
pyramidpass
passthe
the
criterion.
criterion.
r
d/2
Bonds
Bondsoutside
outsidethe
thepyramid
pyramidfail
failthe
the
criterion.
criterion.
Integrate
Integratean
anelipsoidal
elipsoidalprobability
probability
function
centered
on
the
function centered on thetarget
targetover
over
the
thevolume
volumeintersected
intersectedby
bythe
the
pyramid
pyramidtotoget
getDPM.
DPM. Difficult
Difficulttotodo
doinin
general.
general. OR..
OR..
y
d
x
d
Use
Userandom
randomnumber
numbergenerator
generatortoto
simulate
simulatemillions
millionsofofbonds
bondsusing
using
distribution
parameters
determined
distribution parameters determined
from
from200-unit
200-unitexperiment.
experiment. This
Thisisis
easy!
easy!
43

procedure(n);
/* BONDSIM - n is the number of iterations */
Number of Bonds to Simulate
{
bnd_tbl = "@bndplace1@bond_param";
bnd_results = "@bndplace1@bond_results";
xmean = bnd_tbl [1, 1];
Distribution Parameters
xsd = bnd_tbl [1, 2];
ymean = bnd_tbl [1, 3];
X-Mean X SD Y-Mean Y-SD Dia.-Mean Dia-SD ysd = bnd_tbl [1, 4];
----------------------------------------------dmean = bnd_tbl [1, 5];
0
4.34
0
6.75
98.64
4.5 dsd = bnd_tbl [1, 6];
do m = 1 to n;
{
xcen = xmean + normdev() * xsd;
Simulate Normal Deviate (mean = 0, SD =
ycen
= ymean + normdev() * ysd;
1).
rad = 0.5 * (dmean + normdev() * dsd);
Numerical Recipes by W. H. Press, B. P.
ball_right = xcen + rad;
Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T.
ball_left = xcen - rad;
Vetterling, Cambridge UP (1986), p203.
ball_top = ycen + rad;
ball_bott = ycen - rad;
do p = 1 to lastcol(bnd_results );
Results
{
lright = ball_right > 0.5 * bnd_results [1,
Total
Pad
Overlap Dead
lleft = ball_left < - 0.5 * bnd_results [1,
Bonds
Opening Metal
Short
ltop = ball_top > 0.5 * bnd_results [1, p];
----------------------------------------------lbott = ball_bott < - 0.5 * bnd_results [1,
lfail = lright OR lleft OR ltop OR lbott;
Criterion
0
125
155
165
if lfail then
Counts
1000000
70232
68
3
bnd_results [2, p] = bnd_results [2, p]
}
}
}
Reliability
Yield
44
p];
p];
p];
+ 1;
Scaling of Defect Reliability: Summary

Yield and reliability defect densities may be calculated,
simulated, or measured, but...
The model requires an assumption (or null hypothesis) of
Random, non interacting defects.
An invariant ratio of Yield to Reliability defect densities.
The defect-related part of the survival function scales with

the density of latent reliability defects and die (or affected
subdie) area.
By hypothesis, yield and reliability defect densities are
proportional, so the defect part of the survival function
ALSO scales with yield defect density.
The practical form of the model involves sort yield and
sort Pareto data. Simplification obtains if yield defect
Paretos are invariant.
45
Accelerated Stressing And Burn-In

What is an acceleration factor?
Start with the same population
Case 1: Temperature T1, voltage V1, time interval dt1, a
certain proportion fails.
Case 2: Temperature T2, voltage V2, it takes dt2 for the
same proportion of the population to fail.
The acceleration of case 2 relative to case 1, for
mechanism i is
dt1
= AFi (21
| ) (instantaneous)
dt 2
| )t 2 (constant acceleration)
t1 = AFi (21
46

The survival function for mechanism i at
environmental condition 2 is related to the
survival function at environmental condition 1 by:
Si (2| t ) = Si {1| AFi (21

| ) t}
Well use an acceleration factor function given by:
Q 1 1
AFi (21
| ) = exp i + Ci (V2 V1 )
k T1 T2
47

For all mechanisms, the survival probability of an
unknown product p at T2 and V2 may be
calculated from the mechanism survival
probabilities of a known reference product r at
T1 and V1:
R ( p| r )
S ( 2| t ) = [S {1| AFi ( 21
| )t}] i
p
r
i
Ri ( p| r ) =
p
yield
r
yield
(i) A (i)
P ( i ) ln( Y )
= r
r
( i ) A ( i ) P ( i ) ln( Y r )
48

Consider a device undergoing tB hours of burn-in
at environmental condition B, followed by t
hours of use at environmental condition 2.
Probability
Probabilityof
ofsurviving
survivingtBtBhours
hoursof
ofburn-in
burn-inat
atcondition
conditionB
BAND
ANDt thours
hoursof
ofuse
useat
at
condition
condition2
2
== Probability
hoursof
ofburn-in
burn-inat
atcondition
conditionB
B
Probabilityof
ofsurviving
survivingtBtBhours
XXProbability
Probabilityof
ofsurviving
survivingt thours
hoursof
ofuse
useat
atcondition
condition2
2GIVEN
GIVENTHAT
THATthe
the
device
devicehas
hassurvived
survivedtBt hours
hoursof
ofburn-in
burn-inat
atcondition
conditionB.
B.
B
or, symbolically
so
~p
S = S p ( B| t ) S p ( 2| t )
~p
S
S p ( 2| t ) = p
S ( B| t )
49
This
Thisisiswhat
whatthe
the
end-user
end-usersees.
sees.

Effect of Burn-in
The proportion of the initial population which survives
burn-in for time tB at TB and VB is
R ( p| r )
S ( B| t B ) = [S {1| AFi ( B|1)t B }] i
p
r
i
after additional time t at T2 and V2 the proportion

surviving is
~p
R ( p| r )
r
S = [Si {1| AFi ( 21
| )t + AFi ( B|1)t B }] i
i
so the probability of surviving t at T2 and V2, given that a

unit has survived burn in is :
~p
R ( p| r )
r
S
Si {1| AFi ( 21
| )t + AFi ( B|1)t B} i
p
=
S ( 2| t ) = p
r
S ( B| t B )
S
1
AF
B
1
t
{
|
(
|
)
}
i
i
i
B
50
Technology Development Test Flows

Sort & Raw
ClassData:
Yield, Pareto
Sort Test
Assembly
Class Test
Establish
Model
Burn In: 6h
Class Test
Burn In: 6h
Environmentals
(Temp. Cycle,..)
Burn In
Data
Class Test
Reliability
Indicators
51
Production Test Flows

Sort Test
Objective:
Objective:Reduce
Reduce
x,x,possibly
possiblyto
tozero.
zero.
Sort Data:
Yield, Pareto
Assembly
Burn In: x hrs
Data
Datagenerated
generatedincludes
includes
Assembly
AssemblyYield
Yield
Defects
Defects
(Not
(Notuseful
usefulas
asmeasure
measure
of
ofreliability.)
reliability.)
Class Test
Reliability
Reliabilitymodel
modelpermits
permitstransition
transitionfrom
fromfull
full
information
informationTechnology-Development
Technology-Developmenttest
testflow
flowto
to
lean
leanProduction
Productiontest
testflow
flowwithout
withoutloss
lossof
ofreliability
reliability
indicator
indicatorinformation.
information. Key:
Key:AAwell-established
well-establishedmodel.
model.
52
Established
Model
Reliability
Indicators
Test Programs
Sort test is a wafer-level room
temperature test.
Class test is a unit level test
using temperature-controlled
hander.
Sort and Class tests can stress
units, particularly the highvoltage test.
Nominal temperature/volts is done
last.
The stress in the test must be taken
account of in low voltage burn-in
(for acceleration studies).
53
Typical Sort Test

Temperatures:
Room
Voltages:
Low
High
Typical Class Test
Temperatures:
Hot: 90 C
Cold: -10 C
Room
Voltages:
Low
High
Nominal

How do we get the reference survival function?
Production burn-in data and extended life test data
from a variety of products fabricated using a specific
process are accumulated. This body of data is the
baseline lot reliability data.
Baseline data is consolidated using known
acceleration models and defect scaling to produce a
reference lot reliability data.
Reference lot data is calculated at single reference
values of defect density, die area, temperature and
bias.
Parametric fits to reference lot data gives reference
model distributions.
54

BASELINE LOT DATA
Lot 2
Lot 1
Area1, DD1, Tj1, V1
Lot N
Area2, DD2, Tj2, V2
........
AreaN, DDN, TjN, VN
SCALE TO ONE REFERENCE AREA, DD, Tj, and V
REFERENCE LOT DATA

(DD = Yield Defect Density)
at reference values of
Area, DD, Tj, V
55
Typical Minimum Data Requirements for

Determination of Process Reference Models
4 lots of SRAM, 4000 units at V = 140% of nominal,
and 125C.
Several lots at other bias/voltage conditions to
determine acceleration parameters.
nominal bias, room temperature
sometimes assign Q, C based on known mechanism.
All lots Class tested before burn-in (clean burn-in)

Readouts at 6, 48, 168, 500, 1000, 2000 hours.
Known Yield and Defect Pareto for each lot.
All failures validated, all failure signatures traceable to
a physically analyzed failure.
A Q and a C for every failure.
56

Example of one lot of Baseline Lot Data.
Hours
Pass Defect (PD)
Fab Defect (FD)
Bake Recov. (BR)
Junct. Spike (JS)
Sample Size (SS)
6
-
Mechanism
Qi(eV)
PD
FD
BR
JS
0.3
0.5
1.0
1.0
12
24
48 168 500
1k
2k
1
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
- 2748 2744 2743 2293 2290 2290
Ci(1/volts)
1.8
2.0
0.0
0.6
SRAM
SRAMatatVV==5.5
5.5volt
voltand
andTTj j==
2
131C,
131C,die
diearea
area==36160
36160mils
mils2, ,
DDyield ==11(arbitrary
(arbitraryunits)
units)
yield
Note: Model predictions and data in this tutorial are examples only and are
not representative of Intel products.
57

Example of Reference Lot Data combined from from
multiple lots of various products fabricated using the
process.
Hours
PD
SS /PD
FD
SS /FD
BR
SS /BR
JS
SS/JS
6
0
22642
105.7
21056
0
18281
0
18281
12
0
1609
0
1407
0
1059
0
1059
24
1.6
38305
18.6
34973
7.3
29629
2.9
29155
48
0
51551
54.0
48604
4.6
47932
0
45472
168
0
45212
53.9
42288
0
39302
27.7
37964
500
1k
0
3.2
5480
11808
19.1
24.8
4304
10409
0
7.7
3798
9383
7.5
0
3015
8616
2k
6.2
5297
20.4
4207
0
3632
9.6
2958
Scaled
ScaledtotoaaReference
ReferenceCondition
Conditionofof
VV==77volts,
volts,TTj j=160
=160C,
C,Area
Area==268,686
268,686
2
mils
,
mils2,
DDyield ==0.21
0.21(arbitrary
(arbitraryunits).
units).
yield
58

REFERENCE
REFERENCELOT
LOTDATA
DATA
atatreference
referencevalues
valuesofof
Area,
Area,Defect
DefectDensity,
Density,Tj,
Tj,VV
Hazard
HazardAnalysis
Analysisusing
usingKaplan-Meier-Greenwood
Kaplan-Meier-GreenwoodAlgorithm
Algorithm
Fit
FitLognormal
LognormalDistributions
DistributionstotoBest
BestEstimate
Estimateand
andx%
x%UCL
UCLKMG
KMGdata
datapoints
points
xx==60%,
90%,
95%,
99%
60%, 90%, 95%, 99%
REFERENCE
REFERENCEMODEL
MODELDISTRIBUTIONS
DISTRIBUTIONS
Model
Parameters
for
Each
Model Parameters for EachMechanism
Mechanism
atatreference
referencevalues
valuesofof
Area,
Area,Defect
DefectDensity,
Density,Tj,
Tj,VV
59
Statistical Interlude: Hazard Analysis

Data produced by burn-in and life-test flows is
nearly always censored (has removals).
Because material is diverted into other stresses in TD.
Because failures are often invalidated.
Because of multiple failure mechanisms.
A simple method of analysis. For each

mechanism:
Calculate instantaneous hazard.
Find cumulative hazard.
Use F = 1-exp(-H) to find cumulative failures.
Plot F vs time on log probability plot.
60

Two mechanisms with removals.
Removals:
Hours
839
150
149
147
12
24
48
168
500
1000
2000
1423
1417
1415
1414
573
422
272
123
N(A)
N(B)
SS
hi(A)=N(A)/SS
0.0028
0.0007
0.0000
0.0014
0.0000
0.0024
0.0037
0.0081
Hi(A)=hi(A)
0.0028
0.0035
0.0035
0.0049
0.0049
0.0073
0.0110
0.0191
A: Fi=1-exp(-Hi)
0.0028
0.0035
0.0035
0.0049
0.0049
0.0073
0.0109
0.0189
hi(B)=N(B)/SS
0.0014
0.0007
0.0000
0.0000
0.0017
0.0000
0.0037
0.0000
Hi(B)=hi(B)
0.0014
0.0021
0.0021
0.0021
0.0038
0.0038
0.0075
0.0075
B: Fi=1-exp(-Hi)
0.0014
0.0021
0.0021
0.0021
0.0038
0.0038
0.0075
0.0075
Plot cumulative failures (bold italics) on probability plot...

61

10
Cum %
(Normal Prob. Scale)
Mechanism A
Mechanism B
0.1
4
10
20
40
100 200 400
1000 2000
Hours
62

The Kaplan-Meier-Greenwood (KMG) method
handles censored readout data and provides
confidence intervals. See Nelson*.
Plot, lognormally, KMG estimates of cum fails.
Least-squares fit of straight line through KMG
plot points provides statistical model parameters.
Inverse
InverseNormal
Normal
Probability
ProbabilityFunction
Function
y i = ( Fi ); x i = ln( t i )
= 1 / slope; = intercept
t 50 = exp( )
* W. Nelson, Accelerated Testing, John Wiley & Sons (1989), pp 145-151.
63

Reference Lot Data at V = 7 V, Tj = 160C, A = 268,686 mils2,
Dyield = 0.21 (arb. units). Plotted using KMG algorithm, and fitted to lognormal
time to failure distributions.
10K
JS
FD
1K
BR
DPM
100
PD
10
1
0.1
1
10
20
40
100 200 400
HOURS
64
1E3 2E3

Fitted lines through Best Estimate and the (onesided) 95% Upper Confidence Limits for each
mechanism gives...
Mechanism
Best
Est.
60%
UCL
90%
UCL
95%
UCL
99%
UCL
PD
FD
BR
JS
5.24
11.20
8.51
3.47
23.94
31.33
32.81
16.00
23.76
31.24
32.63
15.92
23.20
30.90
32.00
15.65
23.05
30.78
31.81
15.58
22.79
30.57
31.49
15.44
At reference condition: V = 7 V, T = 160C, A = 268686 mil2,

Dyield = 0.21 (arbitrary units)
(The reference condition must be specified.)
65

Substitution of parameters into the lognormal
distribution gives the reference survival function
at time t in environmental condition 2 for the
process:
ln[ AFi ( 21
| )t ] i
S ( 2| t ) = 1
r
i
where and for the mechanism are known at

the reference condition 1.
This would be substituted, for example, into
p
p
R ( p| r )
P
(
i
)
ln(
Y
)
i
Ri ( p| r ) = r
S ( 2| t ) = [S {1| AFi ( 21
| )t}]
r
P
(
i
)
ln(
Y
)
i
p
r
i
66
Statistical Interlude: Weibull Analysis

The reference model can also be fitted to a set of
Weibull distributions
Characteristic life: ; Shape; for each mechanism
Weibull distributions have convenient

mathematical properties:
t
W ( t , , ) exp

n

W
(
t
,
,
)
=
W
t
,
,
1
[
]
67
Statistical Interlude: Weibull Analysis

For example, the product survival function
without burn, and for an invariant Pareto,
becomes:
Each
Eachmechanism
mechanismhas
hasaa
scaled
scaledcharacteristic
characteristiclife...
life...
i
p
S ( 2| t ) = W AFi ( 21
| )t ,
, i
p 1 i
i
ln Y
r
ln
Y
...but
...butthe
thesame
sameshape
shape
parameter
as
the
reference
parameter as the reference
product.
product.
68
Determining Process Reference Model

Baseline Lot
Parameters A, D, T, V
Lot Failure Data
Add lots, products, as

process evolves
Cum %
Prob. Scale
Time (log scale)
Discover
Cause, fix data,
refine model.
No
OK?
Yes
Model Extraction Program

Reference
Model
Distribution
parameters,
Acceleration
parameters,
etc.
IsIsLot
LotFailure
Failure
Data
DataConsistent
Consistent
with
withReference
Reference
Model?
Model?
Corporate
Corporate
Reliability
Reliability
Indicator
IndicatorEngine
Engine
Reliability Model Calculator

Model distributions, indicators, vs use and
burn-in conditions.
69
Refinement of Process Reference Models

Add product lots to baseline lot set.
Reveal mechanisms missed by SRAM model.
Check for consistency with reference model.

Some lots class tested at a single-point (6 hr, 125C,
140%V), full F/A, known lot iso, at a minimum.
If failure rates are higher than predicted by model, a
red flag is indicated.
Refine the reference model

Re-extract using Model Extraction Software.
Re-extract and install model
Immediately if change is significant.
On annual cycle if product is consistent with model.
70
Effect of burn in on SRAM reliability.
Model predictions vs individual lot data from
baseline data set.
Calculation of standard reliability indicators.
71
Example: Predicted fallout and effect of burn-in for
SRAM (Area = 36160 mil2, Dyield = 1 , V = 5 volts, Tj
= 85C)
10K
1K TOTAL
DPM
100
FD
FD
BR
TOTAL
10
BR
PD
PD
JS
0.1
1
10
40 100
HOURS
400 1K
No Burn-In
JS
1
10
40 100
HOURS
400 1K
After 10 hours 125C, 5.5 volt burn-in

72
Model predictions of the reference model based
on the entire baseline lot data set versus
individual data sets selected from the baseline
data set.
A sequence of conditions ranging from conditions
of microprocessor data for a particular lot to
conditions of SRAM data for a particular lot...
No. A(mil2) Dyld
1
268,686
0.21
2
36,160
0.21
3
36,160
1.00
4
36,160
1.00
T(C)
160
160
160
125
V(volts)
7 Microprocessor lot data
7
7
6 SRAM lot data
Note: Model predictions and data are examples only and are
not representative of Intel products.
73
Model Predictions of Total Failures vs Baseline Lot Data
10000
Microprocessor Model: Dyield = 0.21, 160C/7V
#1
#3
DPM
Reduce Stress
Reduce Area
#4
1000
Increase Defect Density
SRAM Model: Dyield = 1, 125C/6V
#2
Microprocessor Lot Data: Dyield = 0.21, 160C/7V

SRAM Lot Data: Dyield = 1, 125C/6V
100
1
10
20
40
100 200 400
HOURS
74
1E3 2E3
Standard reliability indicators
Infant Mortality: 0-100 hours at 85C and 5V (DPM)
106 {1 S ( t = 100 hours )}

Early Life Mortality: 0 - 1 year at 85C and 5V (DPM)
106 {1 S ( t = 8760 hours )}

Early Life Average Failure Rate (AFR): 0-1 year AFR at
85C and 5V (Fits)
109 ln[S ( t = 8760 hours)] / 8760

Long Term AFR: 1-10 year AFR at 85C and 5V (Fits)
10 9 {ln[S ( t = 8760 hours )] ln[S ( t = 87600 hours )]} / 78840

Note: Prime indicates burned-in survival function.
75
Reliability Indicators for microprocessor example at
Tj = 85C and V = 5 volts, Dyield = 0.21, Area = 268,686 mil2
No BurnIn
Burn-In: 168 hr
at 160C/7V
CUM FAIL
AFR
Mech. 0-100h 0-1yr 0-1yr 1-10yr
DPM DPM FIT
FIT
PD
2
69
8
4
FD
1406
4827
552
48
BR
39
305
35
6
JS
0
42
5
6
Total 1447
5241
600
65
PD
FD
BR
JS
Total
0.4
1.6
0.5
0.6
3.1
76
35
133
45
52
266
4
15
5
6
30
3
13
4
6
25
Benefits
Estimation of the reliability characteristics of any
product, including the contributions of various
mechanisms.
Estimation of failure rates of complex products
without full reliance on failure analysis, or complete
data.
Estimation of the effect of die area, array area, etc. on
the reliability characteristics of any proposed or new
product using no, or minimal, data.
Quantify the reliability benefits of process continuous
improvement through defect density reduction.
Calculate the effect of burn-in.
Calculate reliability indicators useful to customers, at
any desired level of confidence.
77
Supplementary Slides on Clustering Effects
A Defect Model of Reliability,: Clustering Effects, IRPS 95
Effects of Defect Clustering

Random defects:
=
Yield Defect
Density
Total Defect
Density
Reliability
Defect Density
Clustered defects:
=
Total Defect
Density
+
Yield Defect
Density
Reliability
Defect Density
Defect Density Variation

Clustering can be modeled as a spatial variation
of of defect density.
The clustering can be described
by a gamma function distribution:
D
f ( D) =
D0 ( ) D0
D
exp
D0
The spread in the defect density is described by

= var(D)/D02
D0 is the average defect density (defects/cm2)
Defect Density Variation

The defect density distribution approaches a
delta function as .
2.0
= 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20

0.5
20
f(D)
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
D/D0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Yield Function with Clustering

The yield function is the probability of occurrence
of one defect on a die of area A:
Y = exp( DA) f ( D )dD =

0
1
D0 A
1 +
In the limit of no clustering (uniform D), this

becomes
1
exp( D0 A)
D0 A
1 +
Yield Function with Clustering

Clustering of defects gives higher yields than
predicted by random defect model...
1
= 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20
.8
0.5
Yield
20
.4
0.0
1.0
D0A
2.0
3.0
Clustering of Latent Reliability Defects

How does the chip reliability survival function
vary with non-uniform defect density?
Define s(t), the point defect survival function.
For uniform defects the chip survival function is
S(t) = [s(t)]AD , where AD is the number of defects
on the chip.
If defects are clustered..
S (t ) =
1
AD0 ln s( t )
Scaling of Survival Probability

Consider
p
A product with unknown survival probability S (t) and,

A reference test vehicle with known survival probability
r
S (t).
The defect density variation, , is the same for both
unknown product and reference test vehicle
The scaling ratio is, in terms
of reliability defect
p
p
A Drel 0
density,
Rrel ( p| r ) = r r
A Drel 0
So the unknown survival probability is

1

r
p
S ( t ) = 1 + Rrel ( p| r ) [S ( t )] 1

r
R ( p |r )
[
S
(
t
)]
Survival Function Scaling

For the case where product p has twice the area
(or avg. defect density) of the reference product:
1
.8
= 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20

p
Sp(t)
.2
S (t) = S (t)
.4
More Clustering
Slope = 2
0.5
.1
S (t) = [S (t)]
.08
20
.08
.1
.2
.4
.8
Sr(t)
Yield-Reliability Relationship
From the yield formulae
Ryield ( p| r ) =
p
A p Dyield
0
r
AD
r
yield 0
(Y p )
(Y r )
ln Y p
ln Y r
I f we make the fundamental assumption

Rreliability ( p| r ) =
p
A p Dreliability
0
r
r
reliability 0
AD
p
A p Dyield
0
r
AD
r
yield 0
= Ryield ( p| r )
And assume the dispersion in reliability and yield

defect densities are the same
= reliability yield
10
Yield-Reliability Relationship
Then we can calculate the product survival
function from yield characteristics
1
p
(Y ) 1 r
p
S ( t ) = 1 +
[S ( t )] 1
1
(Y r ) 1
ln Y p
r
[
S
( t )] ln Y
For
Foraagiven
givendefect
defectdensity,
density,more
moreclustering
clusteringgives
gives
higher
higheryield
yieldand
andhigher
higherreliability.
reliability.
11
Extension to Multiple Mechanisms
1
p i
(Yi ) 1 r i
p
S ( t ) = 1 +
[Si ( t )] 1
1
r i
(
Y
)
1
i
1
p
p
Pi [(Y ) 1] r
[Si ( t )] 1
= 1 +
1
r
r
i
Pi [(Y ) 1]
Pi
r
Pir
Si ( t )
ln Y p
ln Y r
r
YY pand
andYY are
arethe
thetotal
totalyields
yields(all
(all
mechanisms).
mechanisms).
p
PP pi and
PP ir are
yield Paretos.
and
i
i are yield Paretos.
isisthe
thedefect
defectdensity
densitydispersion
dispersion
parameter
parameter(all
(allmechanisms)
mechanisms)
12

31 1995 A Defect Model of Reliability IRPS95 Tutorial Slides

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31 1995 A Defect Model of Reliability IRPS95 Tutorial Slides

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A Defect Model of Reliability

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Accelerated Stressing and Burn-In

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Survival function S(t) = 1 - F(t):

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Of theoretical interest only.

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

For t1 and t2 in hours, multiply AFR by 109 to get units of

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Cum Fail = F (t 2 ) F (t1 ) = S (t1 ) S (t 2 )

All indicators can be expressed in terms of the

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

This is the usual case for semiconductor components.

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

S (t ) = S mech 1 (t ) S mech 2 (t )...

exp[ H (t )] = exp[ h (t )dt ]

= exp[ 0 hi (t )dt ] exp[ 0h(t )dt ] exp[ H (t )]

All that means is that the total instantaneous failure rate

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Intrinsic versus Defect Mechanisms

The total survival function may be written

The focus in this tutorial is on defect-related

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Defect Size Distribution

For example, Stappers model*

x0 is a characteristic length << lithographic resolving

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Probability of Yield and Reliability Defects.

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Probability of Yield and Reliability Defects

OK, Never a yield or reliability issue.

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Probability of Yield and Reliability Defects

Pyield & latent rel (x) is the proportion of reliability and

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Yield and Reliability Defect Densities

Calculate the defect density of defects

and those which are latent reliability defects:

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Yield and Reliability Defect Densities

Shorting lines: Pyield(x)

Latent or shorting lines:

A Defect Model of Reliability, IRPS 95

Relationship Between Yield and Reliability

C. Glenn Shirley, Intel

Relationship Between Yield and Reliability