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INTRODUCTION
In order to develop the concepts of plastic collapse mechanisms, we need first of all to go
back to a bit of Theory of structures theory, and remind ourselves of the stress-strain
relationship for most construction materials.
U
y
Steel is unique in that it has a "strength reserve" in the form of a strain hardening effect.
However this effect is ignored in design, and so for all materials we only consider the two
zones discussed in the lecture - ie the elastic and plastic zones.
We can take the relationship from this curve, and apply it to bending moment stress
distributions.
Recall that for a given moment applied to a given cross section, the stress distribution
looks as follows
My
I
N.A.
At any infinitesimal area A, a distance y from the Neutral Axis, let the value of stress be
. The force on this area is then A.
The total force on the section = A =
A
M
y A
A A
but net force on the section =0 y A =0, i.e. the N.A. is the centroid of the section
A
ELASTIC DESIGN
The foregoing theory is the basis for elastic design.
In this approach to design:
a) the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section
My
b) the stress at any point is given by
I
c) the section is considered to be on the point of failure when the highest stress on
the section reaches the yield stress y.
d) to provide safeguard against failure, a factor of is applied to the yield stress to
ensure that in normal circumstances the maximum stress reached does not some
working stress w.
For example, for a rectangular beam, the maximum moment carried in the beam at failure
can be assessed as follows
b
yb d
2
d
3
yb d
y bd 2
. d
4 3
y bd 2
My
The section Modulus Z, which we shall denote Ze to indicate it is the modulus for the
elastic condition, can be obtained in either of two ways:
bd 3
I
bd 2
Z E 12
d
Y
6
2
or sin ce
2
M
My y bd
bd 2
ZE
y
Z
6y
6
PLASTIC DESIGN
What happens if we increase the moment on the section above that which produces a
maximum stress of ay on the section?
The following strain and stress distributions "elastic failure" indicate the response
y
>y
y
Strain
Strain
Stress
Stress
Partially plastic
It is seen that the section does not in fact fail, but that the outermost fibres, which reached
a stress level of y at "elastic failure", continue to strain at the same stress level of y.
As the moment is increased even further, successive layers of the section will reach yield
until, eventually the entire section is at yield.
The whole progression can be pictured as follows:w
y
y
section
(2)
limit of elastic
design
(1)
working
stress
(3)
intermediate
stage
(4)
fully
plastic
Once the whole section has reached yield the section has reached its maximum moment
carrying capacity, and whilst it will continue to carry this amount of moment, it can no
longer carry any more. The tiniest increment of moment applied beyond this point will
cause the beam to deform continuously at this section.
M
Since free rotation at a point in a structure without taking any moment is associated with
a hinge at that point, we say that a "plastic hinge" has formed at this point. Consider the
following stress distribution:
y
x
d-x
y
At any infinitesimal area dA, a distance y from the Neutral Axis, the value of stress is y
.The force on this area is then y A.
The total force on the section
y A
( d x )
y A y A
x
( d x )
y A A
0
0
( d x )
A A
i.e. the neutral (plastic) axis is the axis that divides the section in half by area
In this approach to design;
1. the neutral axis passes through the equal area axis of the section
2. the stress at all points is y
3. the moment of resistance corresponding to this state of stress on the section is
called the ultimate moment of resistance or the plastic moment - at this point a
plastic hinge is formed
4. to provide safeguard against failure, a factor of safety in the form of a "load
factor" is applied to the failure moment to ensure that in normal circumstances the
beam does not collapse.
Note the interpretation of the safety factors for elastic and plastic design with regard to
the stress distribution progression above.
Elastic design:
factor of safety =
loads (or moments) giving (2)
loads (or moments) giving (1)
Plastic design:
load factor =
loads (or moments) giving (4)
loads (or moments) giving (1)
The load factor used in plastic theory is usually in the vicinity of 2. A typical value is 1,8.
(Modern design codes for specific materials, however, apply a slightly different approach
in that they apply factors of safety to both material strengths and to applied
loads.)Referring again to the plastic stress distribution above, we can evaluate the
moment of resistance for a rectangular beam.
Mp
A
d bd
d
bd 2
Y
Y Y
2
2 2
2
4
Shape factor
The ratio between the plastic and elastic modulus is known as the "shape factor". This is
the same ratio as that between plastic moment and maximum elastic moment.
Zp
MP
also
where MY = elastic moment at first yield = Ze.y
Ze
MY
bd 2
for a rectangular beam 4
=1.5
bd 2
6
For I beams, the shape factor is usually about 1,15.
U (=fcu)
C
Mp=Asy(d-x/2)
x
d
y (=fy)
T= Asy
PLASTIC MODULI
For the symmetrical steel I- section shown below, determine:
1. the elastic moment
2. plastic moment
3. shape factor
100
10 flange
6 web
200
10 flange
flange
web
Elastic
B=
tw=
plastic
part
flange
web
total
100
6
I=
tf=
D=
20982667
10
200
Ze=
A
1000
540
1540
y
95
45
Ay
95000
24300
119300
fy=
300
209827
Me=
62.948
y'=
Zp=
77.46753
238600
Mp=
71.58
Axial force
Columns may have to carry significant axial forces in addition to bending moment. The
axial force will have the effect of moving the axis of zero strain.
y
Due to F
Due to M
Total stress
+
Strain
For an I section, S.J.Moy (Plastic methods for steel and concrete structures) gives the
following
(1)with the zero strain axis in the web:
Mp=Mp-(A2/4t)n2y (2.17)
Shear
Reduction is negligible in low rise structures (Refer to 2.6.2 Book by
Moy)
8
a
A
bending
moment
diagram
b
deflected shape
Mmax=Pab/L
structure
wl2
12
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
8
12
24
wl2
12
Mp
Mp
wl 2 =M /2
p
24
w
Mpwl2
12
D=0
Mp
wl 2
M
M P (M M P )
8
Mp
Mp
Mp
We now have the situation of a simply
supported beam with an internal hinge - an
unstable condition - and the beam collapses.
10
or
or
D=
n=
n=
n= (hinges)
or
D=
n=
n=
D=
n=
n=
11
n=
From the above we can see that, for a given structure, a number of different collapse
mechanisms are possible depending on the applied loading system. For each loading
system only one of the possible mechanisms can be the first to form.
Plastic analysis is concerned with establishing
i) given the structural strength, which of these possible mechanisms is the true
collapse mechanism, and what are the associated collapse loads
or, conversely
ii) given the actual loads, what are the required collapse
moment capacities of the structure
Consider the previous statically indeterminate beam:
MP
wL2/8 = 2MP
MP
MP
16M P
L
or
2) Given the applied load to the structure of wu, the required structural strength to
w L2
avoid collapse is MP= u
16
[compare beam capacity by elastic analysis (but plastic depth MP not MY)- limit of
12M P
wL2
i.e. w e
elastic analysis occurs when support moment reaches MP M e
12
L2
w
16
u
1.33 i.e. w u 1.33w e ]
w e 12
1) Given the structural strength MP, the collapse occurs at a load of wu=
12
Example 1
Simply supported Bending Moment: (notes P10)
Mmax=PxL/3x2L/3/L=2PL/9
P
2Mp/3
MP
L/3
2L/3
MP
MP+2/3 MP=2PL/9
5/3 MP=2PL/9
P=7.5 MP/L
or
MP=2PL/15
Alternatively:
+
Graphically
Method:
1. Draw the s.s. bmd first to scale
2. Superimpose end moment bmd graphically so that 1 = 2
3. Measure MP to scale
2PL/9
MP
13
2PL/9
Example 2 108
72
A
C
B
Free bending moment diagram:
84 kN
96 kN
288
252
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP+2/3 MP=288
MP=172.8 kNm
b)
Graphically:
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP+1/3 MP=252
MP=189 kNm
From the previous example where more than one mechanism is a possibility, we can see
that having considered all the candidate mechanisms, the one that requires the largest MP
to resist it is the critical one. In other words, given a certain load system, the mechanism
14
which requires the highest structural strength to resist failure, ie the highest MP, will be
the correct mechanism.
Conversely, given the member capacity MP, the mechanism requiring the lowest load to
cause failure will occur first, and is the correct mechanism.
We can see from the above that one way to find the correct mechanism is to exhaustively
try every possibility. But what if the system has many possible mechanisms (this would
create a huge amount of work), or what if we overlooked some possibilities (if we
overlooked the correct mechanism we would get an erroneous result)?
It would be useful to have a set of conditions, which, if satisfied, would confirm whether
or not a selected mechanism is the correct one.
General collapse conditions
A structure is just on the point of collapse when the following three conditions apply
a) Equilibrium condition
The system of bending moments must be in equilibrium with the external loads.
b) Yield condition
The bending moments may nowhere exceed the plastic moment values of the
members.
c) Mechanism condition
There must be sufficient plastic hinges to form a collapse mechanism.
If a system of bending moments can be found which satisfies these three
conditions, then that system defines the true collapse load.
Example 2 continued
a) MC= 252-MP/3 = 252-172.8/3 = 194.4 > MP this is not the correct solution ,
yield condition is not satisfied
b) MB= 288-2MP/3 = 288-2*189/3 = 162 < MP all collapse conditions satisfied
this is the correct mechanism
15
+
H
L
16
L/2
L/2
17
Example 2
W
L/4
3L/4
Example 3
W
3L/4
L/4
18
Example 4
w
L/2
L/2
Example 5
w
L-x
19