The End of the War

1st May 1945, a radio announcement broadcasted to the German nation declared that Adolf Hitler died
He committed suicide in his bunker in Berlin
Admiral Karl Donitz was appointed as the new President, Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces
He was the last fuhrer and continued the war for six days
8 May 1945, he authorized unconditional surrender of German forces

6 and 9 August 1945 was the dropping of the atomic bombs on Nagasaki and Hiroshima
10 August, Japanese emperor announced unconditional surrender of Japan
Surrender marked the end of WW2

American and Soviet forces had already met at Torgau on the Elbe River
Soviet troops occupied eastern Germany
Western Allies occupied southern and western Germany

End of WW2 marked a new phase in history

Fascism was defeated and discredited
Japanese attempt to expand its empire in Asia failed to do so
World peace had been achieved by an unlikely coalition with two mutually antagonistic ideologies
They were the Western Capitalists liberal democracies (US and GB) and communist (Soviet Russia)
Cooperation diminished after defeat of Japan and Germany
Between 1945 to 1949, relationships between the former allies broke down
Misunderstanding, mutual mistrust, different ideologies on how society and politics should be organised,
contributed to the standoff between the US and SU
Powers proposed a new world order, the United Nations
1948, an iron curtain had descended across Europe
It signaled the beginning of the Cold War, a military and political standoff between US and SU that dominated
the worlds politics until the early 1990s

The war had enormous political, economic and social consequences

Total military and civilian losses far exceeded of those of WW1 or any conflict since
War fragmented the structures of European society
1939 1948, 48 million people were relocated in eastern and central Europe
19456, 9 million displaced persons in Germany with further 3 million displaced persons in other European
countries

Orphans and unattended children were often

Newly established UNRRA (United Nation Relief and Rehabilitation Admiration)
Caring for 50 000 children in Germany
Research showed that these children were depressed, highly nervous, cynical

Material conditions for building were lacking

Many cities of Europe had been virtually destroyed
Housing stock was seriously depleted
Infrastructures also were destroyed, many bridges crossing major European waterways were destroyed as well
as train engines

Agricultural industrial output had also virtually collapsed

Production of crops in Europe such as oats, barley, and wheat had fallen to about 50%
Even Denmark, who suffered little damage were not able to resume agricultural trade because traditional
markets lacked money to purchase their products
Food rationing continued to take place even after the war

In Asia, economic consequences were less significant than Europe

In china and japan material damage was relatively limited
China suffered enormous human losses

Japanese people had lost a substantial proportion of housing as a result to the bombings
Japanese naval power and the needs of supplying the army also resulted in high malnutrition and starvation
among Japanese civilians

GEOPOLITICAL CHANGES
Europe
-

Germany lost half of East Prussia to the U.S.S.R

Italy lost her large empire in Africa
Finland lost most of her Karelian peninsula, strips along the central Finnish-Russian border and her Petsamo
outlet to the Arctic Ocean
Hungary had to restore northern Transylvania to Rumania
Rumania lost Bessarabia and Bukovina to the U.S.S.R and southern Dobruja to Bulgaria
Austria and Bulgaria did not loss territory
The U.S.S.R gained nearly 200,000 square miles in Europe
She annexed three states, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania

Asia
-

India was granted independence in 1947

Burma had a desire for nationalist movements, and was granted independence in January 1948
Malaya was occupied by Japan from 1942-45 and became independent in 1957, remaining within the
commonwealth
In Vietnam, the French colony of indo-china was occupied by the Japanese in WW2, until Japans downfall
where Vietnam proclaimed independence on March 1945 by establishing Annam, Cambodia and Laos
Indonesia declared the independence before the Dutch had time to return to their former East indies colony
The Philippines was given its complete independence in 1946 by the United States

IMMIGRATION AFTER WORLD WAR TWO

-

The labour party was traditionally hostile to immigration, as migrants would take Australian workers jobs and
our economy couldnt support the population increase
AfterWW2 , Chifleys labour government realised we needed to increase our population
New specific guidelines were still set out even though they still supported the White Australian policy
Arthur Calwell, Minister for immigration in 1946 was adamant that Australia needed to populate or it would
perish
Australia needed a larger population to increase production and demands for goods
Australia needed to justify the international community why 7 million people needed such a large continent
Australia needed to help find home for refuges from Nazism and Communism
Australia needed young men to defend it in case of a another war

Labours Policy
-

Each migrant paid 10 pounds to travel to Australia

However ex-servicemen and refugees did not
They would be assisted by providing them housing until work could be found for them
Preference would be given to British migrants
70,000 migrants were processed yearly with a ratio of 10 to 1 of British migrants to Europeans

Europe post WWII

-

After WW2, many Europeans found themselves without homes, families and freedom
Goods were rationed and life was bleak
Europeans flocked to Australia however the government quota of 10 British to 1European could not be met

New Australians
-

Between 1947 to 1967 2 million migrants arrived and by 1972 there was 3 million
The 1966 census showed 18% of Australians were not born here and the majority of immigrants were from
England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Poland, Italy, Greece, Germany, Malta, Yugoslavia, Netherlands

By 1960s Middle East migrants were accepted

It wasnt until the Whitlam government that the White Australian Policy disappeared and Asian migrants from
Vietnam and Hong Kong were accepted
From the 1970s to the 80s a third of our migrants were Asian

POPULAR CULTURE
-

Describes social habits of ordinary people as opposed to the high culture pursuits from the more privileged
classes
Today it refers to ideas behaviour, value and references shared by a group within society
Evident in range of art forms and leisure activities like music, sport, film, television fashion
As the generation of baby boomers grew up, they set the values, attitudes and way of life, creating Australias
identity

ROARING TWENTIES
-

Term used by historians to describe the period from the end of WW1 to the wall street New York stock market
crash in 1929
New forms of entertainment such as radio
Movies and dance crazes such as jazz and flapper
Technological advances and mass production led to greater purchasing of goods
Changing attitudes towards women about their role

Australia in the 1920s

1920

-Country Party (National Party) formed in NSW

-Australia joins newly established League of Nations

1921

-Edith Cowan elected to Western Australian Parliament

-First Archibald Prize awarded
-Bert Hinkler flies Sydney-Bundaberg non-stop

1922

-Queensland Legislative Council abolished

-Death of Henry Lawson
-QANTAS establishes a regular passenger air service
-Novelist D.H Lawrence visits Australia

1923

-Billy Hughes Forced to resign as Prime Minister

-Nationalist-Country Party Coalition formed with S.M. Bruce as PM
-Construction of Sydney Harbour Bridge commences
-Sydney and Brisbane connected by telephone
-NRMA formed in Sydney

1924

-Radio Station 2FC established in Sydney

-First airmail flight from Adelaide to Sydney
-Andrew Boy Charlton wins 1500 freestyle in record time
-Compulsory voting in federal elections introduced
-Spit Bridge in Sydney opens

1925

-Population of Sydney reaches 1 million

-Queensland railway workers win a 44 hour working week

1926

-44 hour working week is introduced in NSW

-Widows pensions introduced in NSW
-First Sydney electric train runs

-CSIRO established
1927

-Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) formed

-Federal Parliament opens in Canberra
-Charles Kingsford-Smith breaks around Australia flying record
-Death of gangster Squizzy Taylor
-Many Ferry GreyCliffe cut in two by Tahiti: 40 die

1928

-Best Hinkler becomes first person to fly solo England-Australia

-Kingsford-Smith and Ulm break Trans-Tasman flight record
-First sound movie (The Jazz Singer) opens in Sydney
-Death of former Prime Minister Andrew Fisher
-Kingsford-Smith and Ulm break Australia-England flight record
-Election of in Federal Labour Government
-New York Stock Exchange crash: beginning of Great Depression

1929

LIFE IN AUSTRALIA AFTER WW1

Reconstruction
-

The period after WW2 was one of reconstruction in Australia

Soldiers needed to be repatriated, found jobs, and sent on a path to rebuilding their lives
Priorities for the Australian people and the Government into the 1950s included:
o National security against external threats
o Economic growth and stability to provide employment and opportunities
o Supporting and providing for population growth due to baby boomers and migrants

Living the Australian Dream

A HOUSE IN THE SUBURBS
-

Key component to living the Australian dream in the 1950s was raising a family in own home
This meant a brick house on a quarter acre suburban block
Many returning servicemen were keen to pursue this dream
They were offered war-service home loans to help begin their new lives
The Commonwealth and State Housing Agreement act was passed in 1945 with the goal of ensuring the
production of adequate housing
However Australia faced a housing shortage due to rapid post-war population growth and the emergence of
baby boom
House construction costs doubled due to change in government in 1949
To cope with the cost cheaper and more functional designs were developed that required fewer resources,
alternative materials (brick veneer, fibrous cement and hardboard) and methods
Some people resorted in building their own homes
Some people joined cooperative organisations
New suburbs sprung due to the increase in the demand for land
Many suburbs had limited transport and infrastructure, leaving many feeling isolated

HIGH RISE HOUSING

-

High rise house called flats

For people who didnt want to leave established suburbs or couldnt afford the cost of a self-contained house
However families still longed for life in suburbs of backyard cricket, a few chickens, a vegetable patch and
sitting around the kitchen for Sunday roast
This image was reinforced through magazines, TV and radio

CREATURE COMFORTS
-

The growing prosperity of Australia in the 1950s was not only evident in the housing boom and almost full
employment

It was apparent in the use of modern electrical appliances such as washing machines, refrigerators, toasters
and oven, vacuum cleaners, sewing machine and irons and pressure cookers and food processes
Iconic outdoor inventions included the Victa lawn mower and the Hills hoist clothes line
Modern kitchens were made of durable products such as laminated bench tops and stainless steel sinks
Large supermarkets began replacing the local corner store, offering a broad variety of foods
Modern convenience led to improved hygiene and health, change in eating habits and generally made life
easier

A nation on the move

ON FOUR WHEELS
-

Improvements in transportation option in the 1950s and 60s had a profound impact on Australian lifestyle
The most important development was the revival of the automobile industry
The first wholly Australian-made mass produced car was the General Motors Holden FX
By the end of the 1950s, a quarter of Australians owned a car
Motor vehicles contributed the spread of suburbs
People had more options in regard to where they lived, where they worked and where they shopped

ROAD TRIP
-

The prevalence of cars contributed to the way Australians spent their leisure
Family trips to the beach, sporting events and brief holiday getaways were now much easier
Interstate journeys were made possible with caravans and the newly sprung motels
Water skiing was a relative new recreational activity
Surfing became a key aspect in Australian way of life
Youth culture involved cruising in cars, going to the milk bars or dance and evenings to drive in cinemas
Cars and motor bikes became symbols of prestige to young people

UP, UP AND AWAY

-

Air travel had a significant impact on Australia culture

Domestic flights were expensive but becoming cheaper
In 1958, Qantas started its around the world air service that extended the boundaries of possibility beyond
Australias shores for many artists, businesses and sports people

POST-WAR AUSTRALIA TO THE 1970s

The origin of American culture influence in Australia
-

The development of entertainment technology, especially recordings and film, allowed American culture to
disseminate worldwide
The presence of large number of American servicemen in Australia in both WW2 and during the Vietnam war
The advent of rock and roll in the mid-1950s and its influence on Austrlia teenagers
The spread of American fast food outlets in Australia in the 1960s
The arrival of television in Australia in 1956

FOOD
-

American fast foods such as hamburgers and milkshakes became popular during and after WW2 due to the
presence of American servicemen in Australia during the war
During the 1950s, milk bars became a popular place in suburbia and country town
They usually competed with the local fish and chip shoo
The biggest American influence on Australias taste of foods was the arrival in the late 1960s of Americas
three biggest fast-food giants, McDonalds, KFC and Pizza Hut
The affordable and speedy service outlets contributed to the demise of both the local milk bar and fish n chips

FILM
-

American films became popular in Australia due to the size and wealth of the American film industry
The Australian film industry declined and virtually disappeared in the mid-1940s

This was because Australians flocked to see American stars such as Clark Gable, Humphrey Boggart, James
Stewart and john Wayne in movies such as gone with the wind, adventures of robin hood, stagecoach and
Mr Smith goes to Washington
These movies brought many aspects of American culture and history to Australians
Films also had a significant impact on the fashion of teenage Australians
The introduction of the drive in theatre remained popular until the early 1990s

MUSIC
-

The popularity of the gramophone as a form of home entertainment allowed the spreading of American
recordings in Australia
Singers such as Al Jolson in the 1920s, Bing Crosby in the 1930s and 40s, Frank Sinatra in the 1940s and 50s,
Doris Day, Rosemary Clooney and Dean martin in the 1950s were a commonplace on Australia gramophones
and radios
American soldiers in WW2 brought records from big bands
These records or copies were played by Australian bands at Friday and Saturday night dances
The first popular rock n roll record in Australia was Rock Around the Clock by Bill Haley and the comets
Other American stars such as Elvis presly, Chuck Berry, Buddy Holly, Little Richard and the Everley Brothers
were idolised by young Australians

TV
-

Television brought American culture and idioms right into the lounge rooms of Australia
They made up a significant amount of programming time on channel 7 and 9
Some of the popular American shows in the 1950s included Disneyland, Superman and I love Lucy
Most Australian games shows were adapted American games adapted for Australian audiences
American cartoon such as bugs bunny, the Flintstones, the jetsons, huckleberry hound and Top Cat dominated
childrens programs in Australia bringing American values and language

FASHION
-

Australian Fashion was also influenced by American styles in the 1950s and 60s
In the 1950s, wide brimmed skirts and dresses with socks and shoes were popular with young females
Young men started to wear jeans, t-shirts, open neck shirts, leather jackets and woollen cardigan

THE COLD WAR

-

The cold war began because the US had exploded their atomic bomb in 1945
Four years later, the USSR developed a similar bomb
Each of these powers knew that I could destroy or be destroyed by the other
They used threats and bluffs against each other

The Iron Curtain

-

A notional barrier separating the former Soviet bloc and the West prior to the decline of communism that
followed the political events in Eastern Europe in 1989.

THE UNITED NATIONS

-

Originated from The League of Nations (1919-1939)

A forum for countries to negotiate rather than resort to war
It failed and collapsed with the outbreak of World War 2
Established entranced at the Paris Peace Conference

History
Where is the UN
-

Headquarters in east view NY

3 additional subsidiaries located in Geneva (Switzerland), Vienna (Australia) and Nairobi (Kenya)

Aims of UN
-

Maintain peace
Develop friendly relations
Work together to help people live better lives
To eliminate poverty
Stop environmental destruction
Helping nation achieve aim

Principles of UN
-

All member states must have sovereign equality,

must obey charter
Try settle differences by peace
Avoid threat or force
Countries should try and assist the UN

Membership of UN
-

2013 , 193 members of UN

Latest in South Sudan in 2011
Divides world into localities for voting and membership
Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America and Caribbean, Western Europe and others

General Assembly
-

Main body of UN
Convenes between September and December
Issues raised and debated
Each member of state has one vote

REASONS FOR AUSTRALIAN INVOLVEMENT IN VIETNAM

Request from the South Vietnam Government
-

In 1962 Australia received a request from the South Vietnamese Government for military assistance, initially
providing 30 military advisors and by 1965, 100 advisors and 6 aircrafts
On March 1965, further request for military aid and after consultation with the US government, Menzies
agreed to committing an infantry battalion to South Vietnam

Menzies commitment to the domino theory

-

Menzies believed in the Domino Theory and argued that if South Vietnam fell to communism, then other
countries would be susceptible to communist take over
Cynical political pundits argued that the fear of communist bogey was used by Menzies for a domestic
political advantage, as communism issues was a major factor in Menzies past election campaigns

Fulfilment of Australias international obligations

-

Australia was the founding member of SEATO in 1954

Founded by South East Asian nations to counter spread communism in the region
In response to the request of the South Vietnamese government, Menzies was fulfilling Australias obligations
under SEATO charter, which required Australia to guarantee South Vietnamese protection
Australia was a member of the ANZUS, with a moral obligation to help America, as America did during
WW2. However, there was no military obligation to help America under this treaty, as America was not being
directly threatened

DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

The ANZUS treaty, 1951

On September 1951, the US formalised their new friendship with Australia and New Zealand with the signing
of the ANZUS Treaty
Each party recognises that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any parties would be dangerous to
its own peace and safety and declares that it would meet the common danger in accordance with its
constitutional processes

The ANZUS Treaty binds the three powers by a sense of obligation to assist each other in the event of attack
With this, AUS allowed the US to establish secret communication bases on Australian soil
US warships B52 bombers are permitted to fly across Australia in training missions
AUS provided docking facilities for US warships

The Malayan Emergency

-

Malaya was also another nation under the threat of communism in 1950
There was a reestablishment of British authority in Malaya after WW2 however a communist guerrilla
movement began to operate in the Malaya Jungles from 1948
By 1950 it was known as the Malayan Emergency and an increased number of British troops were sent
1955, Menzies government sent Australian ground troops, naval and air power as assistance
Defence of Malaya was seen as vital in the defence of Australia, and sending troops was a good example of
forward defence

The SEATO Treaty, 1954

-

South-East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) was an alliance of powers opposing communist activity in
South-East Asia
Formed in September 1954, members included the US, UK, FR, AUS,NZ, TN, PK, PP
Australian joined because it linked Australia to its allies and fitted the idea of forward defence
Served a purpose in the cold war but in 1977, it became inoperative and was disbanded

CHEMICAL WARFARE
-

The Americans and Vietcong has difficulty plotting enemy movements because of luxuriant forests
Radical Solution was to strip the trees of their foliage
Operation Ranch Hand approved by President Kennedy in 1961
A carefully controlled program of defoliant operations in Vietnam starting with the clearance of key routes
and proceeding thereafter to food denial

Some saw it was a legitimate strategy in the war situation

Some felt it was unacceptable in any circumstances

Effects of Chemical Warfare

-

The defoliant Agent orange contained dioxin, a highly poisonous substance

Many women suffered from cancers of the womb and many gave birth to babies with grotesque abnormalities
Soldiers exposed developed cancer and skin diseases

FIGHTING THE WAR

Conditions
-

Whip like dumps of bamboo

Swamps of black mud like the consistency of sludgy porridge

Occasional small clearings which platoons and companies were gathering and resting
Mass movement of insects such as mosquitoes and ants
Thick tropical jungles
Soaking bodies

On Patrol
-

24 hour security patrol some distance from First Battalions perimeter at Bien Hoa
Three platoons bush bashing
Assignment was to search arears for signs of Viet Cong
11pm war rumbled and flashed around soldiers
Australian and American mortars and artillery fired at jungle slopes across the Song Dong Nai
American patrol set up phosphorus flares overnight

Burning a village
-

The position of Long Phouc was honeycombed with tunnels which stood among the thick jungle
This would be a base from which would kill Australians
Hence, the village was destroyed by clearing house by house, tunnel by tunnel and in the end burned it all

Psychological Warfare
-

Australian forces uses fear as a weapon

The Psychological Operations Unit uses words not bullets, are the weapons
It was an effort to master the enemy mentally and to win the opposing sides minds
Soft sell technique, interpreters talked to families of known VC encouraging them to appeal to their relatives
to surrender

THE VIETCONG/NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT

The Viet Cong and their methods
-

Seldom in seeing the VC

They spend a great deal of time underground in an elaborate tunnel system during the day
At night they come out and prowl around and snipe at troops
This is when they do most of their work of course

Objectives of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam

-

To remove US controlled military dictatorship and presence

To institute a largely liberal and democratic government incorporating essential democratic freedoms of press,
of opinion, of association, of movement, of trade unionism and of religious worship
To release all political prisoners, wipe out illiteracy and pursue peace and neutrality
To reduce land rent, implement agrarian reform with the aim of providing land to the tillers guaranteeing the
property rights to farmers
To resume normal relations between the zones of north and south and through a process of negotiation, bring
about the reunification by peaceful stages

CHANGING RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS

Vietnam: Impact on Veterans
-

Continuing dilemma of health and welfare issues

Veterans largely ignored after 1972 until the Welcome Home Parade took place in Sydney (3 October 1987)

o It was a long overdue recognition of their service to Australia

Since 1972, veterans have experienced hostility and then apathy towards their claims
Society has generally appeared unwillingly to openly deal with the soldiers of a lost war

The Voice of the Vietnam Veteran

Many of the soldiers who fought in Vietnam had experienced difficulties settling back into civilian life for a range of
reasons
-

Vietnam veterans came home to anti-war attitude of contempt & hostility rather than expressions of gratitude
Many veterans were left untreated for post-traumatic stress disorder
Many Veterans were exposed to dangerous chemicals in the defoliation campaign

Australia had been unwillingly to deal with the problems of these returned soldiers of an unpopular war
-

In 1980, the Vietnam veterans association of Australia was established to lobby governments for financial
compensation and political recognition and offered counselling for their members
Veterans were reporting various disabilities but were still receiving no government support from the
Department of Veteran Affairs.
Agent Orange was the most commonly used chemical mixture in Vietnam for defoliation. It was absorbed by
the leaves and the plants and would enter the water system.
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) had also sprayed the Australian bases three times with various
insecticides. In the late 1970s, Agent Orange was linked with three possible health problems
o Cancer
o Birth abnormalities
o Toxic brain dysfunction

Vietnam War: Impact on culture

The end of the Vietnam War and the end/ of the white Australian policy changed Australian culture forever. Instead of
remaining a largely British based culture, Australia had become one of the most multicultural countries in the world.
Refugees
-

Boat people began arriving in Australian in 1976

Australia had obligations to the Indo- Chinese refugees because of the role Australia had played in the war
Prime minister Frasers government implemented a programme of controlled immigration and also started
taking refugees from the camps in South East Asia
By 1978, Australia was involved in the orderly Departure Program from Vietnam
Over 90000 Indo Chinese refugees came to Australia in the 10 years after the Vietnam War

Multiculturalism
-

In 1977 multiculturalism became a firm government policy when it was laid down in a charter. The charter set
out the rights of all Australians to equality of opportunity and cultural identity.
The government gave funding and licenses to foreign language radio stations and also started language
schools for the new immigrants
By the end of the 1970s, newspaper in Australia were being printed in over 100 languages. By the mid-1980s,
out of an Australian population of over 15 million people over 3 million were born overseas

Changes for women

Before Vietnam War most women had conformed to the housewife and mother ideal, so there was no real outlet for
ordinary Australian women to express themselves. Group like Save our Sons were not feminist in outlook, but they did
allow women to come together to openly defy the male hierarchy of the government

In the 70s, there was more women going to higher education. Women were involved in politics by forming electoral
lobby groups. They also started to achieve pay equal to mens but they were still barred from working in some
occupations
CHANGING TIMES
-

In the 60s, the younger generation challenged government politics and the basic values of Australian society
Young Australians were greatly influence by the values, culture and politics emerging in the United States
The United States of the 1960s was a nation of civil rights movements, womens liberation and the growth of
popular political awareness
These issues were often expressed through the protest movement of the hippie generation
Bob Dylans The Times They Are a-Changing became the protest anthem
In the mid-60s, American pop music carried social protest messages
The hippie movement was born in San Francisco, and it preached peace and love and turned eastern
philosophy for spiritual guidance
Around the end of the 60s, the first man walked on the moon
In 1964, Marshall McLuhan, a Canadian academic predicted that satellite communications would shrink the
world to one large global village in which TV would dominate as the means of communication

Multicultural Australia
-

In the 60s, Australians believed that communist China was the driving force behind the war effort in North
Vietnam
By 1973, Australia had established diplomatic relations with communist China and in 1979, we were
reminded of our error in seeing communism as monolithic when the war broke out between China and
Vietnam
By the 70s, Australia no longer saw itself as white and British
In 1989, Prime Minister Bob Hawke, declared the Year of Citizenship
Two people were granted the two millionth Australian Citizenships- Nigel Stoker, who arrived in Australia
from Scotland in 1984 and Ngoc Anh Nguyen, who arrived as a refugee from Vietnam in 1981

FORMAL STATEMENTS OF HUMAN RIGHTS

-

Philosophy of Plato Aristotle

Codes of Hammurabi, Cyrus the Great writing from Enlightment
The declaration of independence 177
The French declaration on the rights of man 1789

Long history of rights developing in the arears of

-

Slavery
Labour rights
Universal suffrage
Universal education
Self determination

UN charter (1945) aimed to prevent another war like that from ever happening. Mentions all humans have rights
but no specific detail of what the rights were.
UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
It is an international document that states basic rights and the fundamental freedom to which all human beings are
entitled
-

Article 1:All humans beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights they endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood
Article 3:Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security pf person
Article 5: No one shall be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment and punishment
Article 14
o 1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution
o 2) This right may not be invoke din the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non political
crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations

CHANGING RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS-HUMAN RIGHTS FOR INDIGENIOUS AUSTRALIAN

ORIGINAL SITUATION
-

Violent confrontation with Europeans

Starvation
Deliberate poisoning of food and waterholes by Europeans
Spread of European diseases
Dispossessed of their traditional lands
Loss of identity
Denied the right to vote
Not counted as part of the Australian population

THE STOLEN GENERATION

-

The Stolen Generation is a term that refers to those aboriginals who were forcibly removed from their families
and placed in white institutions and home during 1920s and 30s
Based on the policies of paternalism and assimilation
NSW Aborigines Protection Amending Act 1915, QLD Aborigines Preservation and Protection Act 1939, WA
Native Administration Act, were laws that enabled them to take into protection Aboriginals of mixed race
Allowed government officials to take without permission mixed race Aboriginal children from their families
Usually separated from their siblings
Taught to assimilate into the white culture and forget about their aboriginal ways

Causes
Underlying Causes
Ethnocentrism
Racial purity
Social Darwinism

Immediate causes
Increased in mixed descent
Concern about growth of mixed descent
Australian gov. wanted less Aborigines

Effects
Denied the fundamental needs of:
The bond between mother, child and family
The importance of culture to ones sense of identity

Other effects included

Physical and emotional abuse
Exploitation of labour
Loss of contact with family
Loss of culture, language traditions and identity

POLICIES
Protection

-A policy of protecting the surviving Aboriginal people from extinction

-Originates from the concept of paternalism, a belief that Aboriginal people were incapable to
care for themselves or make effective decisions as they were inferior and uncivilised
- Aborigines Protection Act (NSW) (1901)
Controlled money for the assistance of Aboriginal people
- Restrict the movement of Aboriginal people within and across reserves

Assimilation

Integration

SelfDetermination

Reconciliation

Remove of Aboriginal children from families to educate them in a civilised way of

life
Supervise all matters concerning Aboriginals

-In the 1940s, there was shift from protection to assimilation

-Focused mainly on Aboriginal people of mixed blood
-Aim was to have them living as white Australians, abandoning their culture and beliefs
-During this period, the exemption certificate was introduced, giving Aboriginal people the
same citizenship rights as white Australians if they abandoned their traditional way of life for
that of civilized white society
-Following wave of Aboriginal protest in the 50s & 60s, policy of assimilation was
abandoned
-Replaced by integration
-Aim was for Aboriginal for Aboriginal people to participate in white society, whilst maintain
their identity within the wider community
-Aboriginal families were moved off reserves and into housing estates, segregated schools
and hospital wards were closed
-The Australian Labour Party adopted policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people in
1972
-Refers to Aboriginal people having the right to control all aspects of their lives at a personal,
community and national level
-During this period, there was the creation of Aboriginal Medical Service, National
Aboriginal and Islander Dance Theatre and the Aboriginal Legal Service
-Process of indigenous and non-indigenous Australians coming together to acknowledge the
past and work for a positive future
-In 1992 the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established, outlining the main points;
* Indigenous Australians were the first inhabitants of Australia
* Indigenous Australians have been disadvantaged by the removal of their land
* White and Indigenous Australian should live together in harmony

PROTESTS
Freedom Ride
-

In 1965, a group of students from the University of Sydney travelling 3000km around the Northern NSW to
highlight discrimination against Aboriginal people using non-violent forms of protest
Leading the group were Charles Perkins and Jim Spigelman with the support of Rev. Ted Noffs and Bill Ford
Aboriginal people in each town were interviewed by the students
Picketed the swimming pool in Moree (only allowed aboriginal children in if they were in a school group)
Held demonstrations outside the Walgett RSL (which banned Aboriginal ex-serviceman)
Attracted great publicity
Media reports raised awareness of living conditions and discrimination endured by Aboriginals
Encouraged 9077% of Australias population to vote in favour of the 1967 referendum

Day of Mourning
-

On Australia Day 1938, 1000 Aboriginal people met at the Australian Hall in Elizabeth Street
Idea proposed by William Cooper at a meeting of the Aboriginal Advancement League in Melbourne, 1937
A culmination of 10 years of political protest against discriminatory policies of governments that denied
Aboriginal people full citizen status and equal rights
On 31st of January the PM agreed to meet with an aboriginal delegation
Although they did not achieve their main goals, they did;
o Unite aboriginals in formal gatherings demanding their civil rights
o Made Australian rethink whether the 26th of January was an appropriate date for national celebration

REFERDUM

After the success of the Freedom Ride, Aboriginal Activists travelled around Australia getting people to sign a
petition to get the federal government to hold the referendum
Backed by 100,000 signatures, the activists convinced the government o hold a referendum
The referendum question put to the people asked them to approve two changes to the Australian Constitution
o Change in Section 127 to allow Aboriginals to be counted in the CENUS
o Change in Section 51 to allow the commonwealth to make laws concerning the Aboriginal people
This referendum achieved
o The establishment of an Office of Aboriginal Affairs
o Inclusion of Aboriginal people in the Census

CITEZENSHIP
-

A right bestowed on a person who is born in a particular country

Aboriginals were largely denied citizenship in their own country before the 60s

Before the 60s

-

Aboriginals could be granted Australian Citizenship if they were prepared to surrender their Aboriginality and
demonstrate they had adopted European ways
These grants were known as dog licenses or beer tickets
Most Aboriginals refused to give up their culture as the price of gaining citizenship

In the 60s
-

In 1961, NSW, SA, VIC and TAS granted Aboriginals the right to vote
In 1962, this extended to QLD and WA, meaning all Aboriginals had the right to vote

ABORIGINAL LAND RIGHTS

-

Prior to 1992, Australia was regarded legally as terra nullius, ie. land belonging to no one
In the 70s, the Whitlam Labour Government accepted Aboriginals should have land rights, however, the high
court refused to overturn terra nullius
In the 80s Eddie Mabo challenged the concept of terra nullius in the Queensland supreme court then in 1992,
the High Court of Australia
The high court ruled that Aboriginal land rights were not extinguished by European occupation in 1788
For a native title;
o They could not claim land alienated since 1788
o They could only claim land owned by the government
o They could only claim this if they could prove that they had an unbroken connection with the land
since 1788
In 1993, the Federal Keating Labour government passed the Native Title Act
In 1988, the Howard Liberal Government passed the Native Title Amendment Act
This Act was condemned by the UN as racist

UN DECLARATION
-

The United Nations Declarations of Rights of Indigenous Peoples was adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly during the 62nd session at UN headquarters in NYC on September 13 2007
A formal establishment of international minimum standards for protecting indigenous peoples rights and their
treatment in accordance to these rights
Prohibited discrimination and supported indigenous peoples rights to pursue their own visions of economic
and social development