Critical Review Paper:

Absolute memory for musical pitch: evidence from the production of learned melodies
by Daniel J. Levitin

Matthew Dorland
PSY 4032
October 27, 2015

Daniel J. Levitins 1994 paper provides evidence for his two-component theory of
absolute pitch (AP). Levitin references earlier research on absolute memory as inspiration for his
study, which asks the question, Why doesnt everyone have AP?. He cites literature that
supports the idea that the general population could possess some form of AP, from which he
develops his own two-part theory: true AP consists of pitch memory, the ability to maintain
accurate representations of specific pitches in long-term memory, and pitch labeling, the ability
to label these pitches with letters, numbers, or solfeggio syllables. The ability of pitch labeling
normally occurs only in trained musicians, whom earlier AP studies have focused on almost
exclusively. For this reason, Levitin conducted a study which could test his hypothesis that even
non-musicians possess pitch memory, and further suggested that this ability alone carries enough
significance to be included under a broader definition of AP.
Levitin thought that if the general population were tested on songs with which they were
already familiar, they could reproduce some of the original pitches and demonstrate the ability of
pitch memory. Contemporary popular and rock songs were chosen that would have been
repeatedly heard in the same keys every time via radio airplay or CD recordings. The resulting
58 CDs (over 600 songs) were considered to be the most objective because very few alternate
versions existed, and thus subjects would be attempting to produce pitches matching the original.
The subjects consisted of 46 college students aged 16 to 35 years who had varying degrees of
musical experience. Subjects were brought into a room containing the CDs arranged on a shelf,
asked to choose one that they knew very well, and to close their eyes and imagine the melody
playing in their head. They were then asked to sing, hum, or whistle any part of the melody as
best as they could. The resulting productions were recorded on digital audio tape and later

compared with the original CD recordings. Two trials were completed with each subject. A
computer program was used to analyze subjects recordings and determine the fundamental
frequency of each pitch. Subjects errors were measured in semitone deviations from the correct
pitch, after being adjusted to the octave. Only the first three pitches of subjects productions were
considered (Levitin, 1994).
The results showed that 40% of subjects performed accurately (on target) on at least one
trial, well above the expected 17% by chance. Broadening the range of accuracy, over 50% of
subjects came within 1 semitone of their target. In addition, 72% of subjects were consistent in
their accuracy across trials. These results support Levitins hypothesis that musical pitch memory
exists in the general population to a greater degree than previously thought. It also supports his
theory of a two-component definition of AP, because subjects who performed accurately did so
without pitch labeling. He further postulates that many people who have pitch memory, had they
received musical training during a critical period, could have acquired pitch labeling and thus
true AP by the traditional definition (Levitin, 1994).
The study was the first to focus on AP abilities in the general population, which is notable
considering that previous studies have been strongly biased towards AP abilities in musicians.
Levitins study does provide evidence of the existence of pitch memory in the general
population, although within certain parameters. The study used only popular vocal music,
appropriate because of its pervasiveness and relatively simple, catchy melodies that would have
been easily memorized by overexposure. Memorization by repeated listening could, in a way,
serve as a kind of musical training for the general population in lieu of learning to associate
note names with these pitches, as one would learn through formal training. However, Levitin

seems to be insisting that possessing pitch memory alone is enough to be considered AP. Should
AP be redefined to include those that can match a pitch from memorizing a popular tune? And if
so, would it continue to be considered a unique skill? Further research could inform such
decisions of definition and areas of study.
A follow-up study that could be done would be to conduct the same procedure, but using
well-known instrumental music rather than vocal. The fact that vocal music has lyrics which may
have assisted in the memorization of pitches is one weakness to the study, which Levitin
admitted to. Unlike vocal music, instrumental music provides no language cues that could assist
in learning, thus requiring subjects to have memorized only pitch information (aside from timbral
cues). I predict that the results would be less significant, due to the possibly limited coding of
absolute pitch material in memory without any associated words or syllables. This may in fact be
a more difficult task than asking true AP individuals to identify pitches, because they initially
learned the pitches with lingual or numerical labeling. The main difference is the issue of syntax:
words of a popular song are memorized in a particular order, simultaneously with the pitch
material; labeled pitches stored in absolute memory by musicians have been learned
independently of syntactical meaning.
In summary, Levitins approach provides evidence for a limited form of absolute pitch in
the general population. By using popular music, he has demonstrated the occurrence of pitch
memory as a possibly widespread phenomenon, in opposition to the earlier view of standarddefinition AP as occurring much less frequently. It remains to be seen, however, if pitch memory
alone will be regarded as a separate, universal skill worth studying, and if it has enough value on
its own to receive the designation of AP.

References
Levitin, D. J. (1994). Absolute memory for musical pitch: evidence from the production of
learned melodies. Perception & Psychophysics, 56 (4), 414-423.