CHAPTER 1

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

1.1. SEISMOLOGY
Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves
through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies. The field also includes studies of
earthquake environmental effects, such as tsunamis as well as diverse seismic sources such as
volcanic, tectonic, oceanic, atmospheric, and artificial processes (such as explosions). A
related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past earthquakes is
paleoseismology. A recording of earth motion as a function of time is called a seismogram. A
seismologist is a scientist who does research in seismology.
1.2. ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
The elastic rebound theory is an explanation for how energy is spread during earthquakes. As
rocks on opposite sides of a fault are subjected to force and shift, they accumulate energy and
slowly deform until their internal strength is exceeded. At that time, a sudden movement
occurs along the fault, releasing the accumulated energy, and the rocks snap back to their
original shape.
In geology, the elastic rebound theory was the first theory to satisfactorily explain
earthquakes. Previously it was thought that ruptures of the surface were the result of strong
ground shaking rather than the converse suggested by this theory.
1.2.1. EXPLAINATION OF ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

Fig.1.1
If a road is built across the fault as in the figure panel Time 1, it is perpendicular to the fault
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trace at the point E, where the fault is locked. The far field plate motions (large arrows) cause
the rocks in the region of the locked fault to accrue elastic deformation, figure panel Time 2.
The deformation builds at the rate of a few centimetres per year, over a time period of many
years. When the accumulated strain is great enough to overcome the strength of the rocks, an
earthquake occurs. During the earthquake, the portions of the rock around the fault that were
locked and had not moved 'spring' back, relieving the displacement in a few seconds that the
plates moved over the entire inter seismic period (D1 and D2 in Time 3). The time period
between Time 1 and Time 2 could be months to hundreds of years, while the change from
Time 2 to Time 3 is seconds. Like an elastic band, the more the rocks are strained the more
elastic energy is stored and the greater potential for an event. The stored energy is released
during the rupture partly as heat, partly in damaging the rock, and partly as elastic waves.
Modern measurements using GPS largely support Reids theory as the basis of seismic
movement, though actual events are often more complicated.

1.3. CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (PLATE TECTONICS)

According to the theory of continental drift, the world was made up of a single continent
through most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and drifted apart; forming
into the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive theory of continental drift
was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912. The hypothesis asserts
that the continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on heavier crustal material similar to the
manner in which icebergs float on water. Wegener contended that the relative positions of the
continents are not rigidly fixed but are slowly moving at a rate of about one yard per century.
According to the generally accepted plate-tectonics theory, scientists believe that Earth's
surface is broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which average about 50 miles in
thickness. These plates move relative to one another above a hotter, deeper, more mobile zone
at average rates as great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's active volcanoes are
located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and are called plate-boundary
volcanoes.
The peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean Basin, containing the boundaries of several plates,
are dotted with many active volcanoes that form the so-called Ring of Fire. The Ring
provides excellent examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens.
However, some active volcanoes are not associated with plate boundaries, and many of these
so-called intra-plate volcanoes form roughly linear chains in the interior of some oceanic
plates. The Hawaiian Islands provide perhaps the best example of an intra-plate volcanic
chain, developed by the northwest-moving Pacific plate passing over an inferred hot spot
that initiates the magma-generation and volcano-formation process.

Fig.1.2: Plate tectonics

This figure shows the boundaries of lithosphere plates that are active at present. The double
lines indicate zones of spreading from which plates are moving apart. The lines with barbs
show zones of under thrusting (subduction), where one plate is sliding beneath another. The
barbs on the lines indicate the overriding plate. The single line defines a strike-slip fault along
which plates are sliding horizontally past one another. The stippled areas indicate a part of a
continent, exclusive of that along a plate boundary, which is undergoing active extensional,
compressional, or strike-slip faulting.
1.4. ROLE OF ASTHENOSPHERE IN PLATE TECTONICS
The asthenosphere is the highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductility deforming region
of the upper mantle of the Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, at depths between 80 and
200 km ( 50 and 124 miles) below the surface. The Lithosphere-Asthenosphere boundary
is usually referred to as LAB. The asthenosphere is generally solid although some of its
regions could be melted (e.g. below mid-ocean ridge). The lower boundary of the
asthenosphere is not well defined. The thickness of the asthenosphere depends mainly on the
temperature. For some regions, asthenosphere could extend as deep as 700 km (430 mi). It is
considered the source region of mid-ocean ridge basalt.
The asthenosphere is now thought to play a critical role in the movement of plates across the
face of Earth's surface. According to plate tectonic theory, the lithosphere consists of a
relatively small number of very large slabs of rocky material. These plates tend to be about 60
mi (100 km) thick and in most instances many thousands of miles wide. They are thought to
be very rigid themselves but capable of being moved on top of the asthenosphere. The
collision of plates with each other, their lateral sliding past each other and their separation
from each other are thought to be responsible for major geologic features and events such as
volcanoes, lava flows, mountain building, and deep crustal faults and rifts.
In order for plate tectonic theory to make any sense, some mechanism must be available for
permitting the flow of plates. That mechanism is the semi-fluid character of the
asthenosphere itself. Some observers have described the asthenosphere as the 'lubricating oil'
that permits the movement of plates in the lithosphere. Others view the asthenosphere as the
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driving force or means of conveyance for the plates.

Geologists have now developed theories to explain the changes that take place in the
asthenosphere when plates begin to diverge from or converge toward each other. For
example, suppose that a region of weakness has developed in the lithosphere. In that case, the
pressure exerted on the asthenosphere beneath it is reduced, melting begins to occur, and
asthenospheric materials begin to flow upward. If the lithosphere has not actually broken,
those asthenospheric materials cool as they approach Earth's surface and eventually become
part of the lithosphere itself. On the other hand, suppose that a break in the lithosphere has
actually occurred. In that case, the asthenospheric materials may escape through that break
and flow outward before they have cooled. Depending on the temperature and pressure in the
region, that outflow of material (magma) may occur rather violently, as in a volcano, or more
moderately, as in a lave flow. Both these cases produce crustal plate divergence, or spreading
apart. Pressure on the asthenosphere may also be reduced in zones of divergence, where two
plates are separating from each other. Again, this reduction in pressure may allow
asthenospheric materials in the asthenosphere to begin melting and to flow upward. If the two
overlying plates have actually separated, asthenospheric material may flow through the
separation and form a new section of lithosphere.
In zones of convergence, where two plates are moving toward each other, asthenospheric
materials may also be exposed to increased pressure and begin to flow downward. In this
case, the lighter of the colliding plates slides upward and over the heavier of the plates, which
dives down into the asthenosphere. Since the heavier lithospheric material is more rigid than
the material in the asthenosphere, the latter is pushed outward and upward. During this
movement of plates, material of the down going plate is heated in the asthenosphere, melting
occurs, and molten materials flow upward to Earth's surface. Mountain building is the result
of continental collision in such situations, and great mountain chains like the Urals,
Appalachian, and Himalayas have been formed in such a fashion. When oceanic plates meet
one another, island arcs (e.g., Japan or the Aleutians) are formed. Great ocean trenches occur
in places of plate convergence. In any one of the examples cited here, the asthenosphere
supplies new material to replace lithospheric materials that have been displaced by some
other tectonic or geologic mechanism.
1.5. TYPES OF BOUNDARIES
1) Divergent boundaries
2) Convergent boundaries
3) Transform boundaries
1. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along
these boundaries, lava spews from long fissures and geysers spurt superheated water.
Frequent earthquakes strike along the rift. Beneath the rift, magmamolten rockrises from
the mantle. It oozes up into the gap and hardens into solid rock, forming new crust on the torn
edges of the plates. Magma from the mantle solidifies into basalt, a dark, dense rock that
underlies the ocean floor. Thus at divergent boundaries, oceanic crust, made of basalt, is
created.

2 .CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. The impact of the two
colliding plates buckles the edge of one or both plates up into a rugged mountain range, and
sometimes bends the other down into a deep seafloor trench. A chain of volcanoes often
forms parallel to the boundary, to the mountain range, and to the trench. Powerful earthquake
shake a wide area on both sides of the boundary.
TYPES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
1) Oceanic-Continental convergence: Here oceanic plate and continental plate converge.

Ocean bed undergoes subduction due to greater density than the continental plate, when
they converge. It leads to the formation of trenches.
2) Oceanic-Oceanic convergences: Here two oceanic plates undergo convergence. The
older plate gets subducted under the younger one. This type of convergence causes
volcanoes.
3) Continental-Continental convergence: Here two continental plates undergo
convergence. Both of them being light, neither subducts. This leads to the formation of
mountains.

3. TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate boundary. Natural or human-made
structures that cross a transform boundary are offsetsplit into pieces and carried in opposite
directions. Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as the plates grind along, creating a
linear fault valley or undersea canyon. As the plates alternately jam and jump against each
other, earthquakes rattle through a wide boundary zone. In contrast to convergent and
divergent boundaries, no magma is formed. Thus, crust is cracked and broken at transform
margins, but is not created or destroyed.

1.6. SEISMIC WAVES

Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a result of
an earthquake, explosion, or a volcano that gives out low-frequency acoustic energy. Many
other natural and anthropogenic sources create low-amplitude waves commonly referred to as
ambient vibrations. Seismic waves are studied by geophysicists called seismologists. Seismic
wave fields are recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer. They
can be classified into:
1) Body waves
2) Surface waves
1) Body waves
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth. They create ray paths refracted by the
varying density and modulus (stiffness) of the Earth's interior. The density and modulus, in
turn, vary according to temperature, composition, and phase. This effect resembles the
refraction of light waves. They can be classified into:
a) Primary Waves
b) Secondary Waves

a) Primary waves
Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional waves that are longitudinal in nature. P waves
are pressure waves that travel faster than other waves through the earth to arrive at
seismograph stations first, hence the name "Primary". These waves can travel through any
type of material, including fluids, and can travel at nearly twice the speed of S waves. In air,
they take the form of sound waves; hence they travel at the speed of sound. Typical speeds
are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water and about 5000 m/s in granite.
b) Secondary waves
Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are transverse in nature. Following an
earthquake event, S-waves arrive at seismograph stations after the faster-moving P-waves and
displace the ground perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Depending on the direction
of propagation, the wave can take on different surface characteristics; for example, in the case
of horizontally polarized S waves, the ground moves alternately to one side and then the
other. S-waves can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and gases) do not support
shear stresses. S-waves are slower than P-waves, and speeds are typically around 60% of that
of P-waves in any given material.
2) Surface waves
Seismic surface waves travel along the Earth's surface. They can be classified as a form of
mechanical surface waves. They are called surface waves, as they diminish as they get further
from the surface. They travel more slowly than seismic body waves (P and S). In large
earthquakes, surface waves can have amplitude of several centimetres. Major type of surface
waves is:
a) Raleigh waves
b) Love waves
a) Rayleigh waves
Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that travel as ripples with motions
that are similar to those of waves on the surface of water (note, however, that the associated
particle motion at shallow depths is retrograde, and that the restoring force in Rayleigh and in
other seismic waves is elastic, not gravitational as for water waves). The existence of these
waves was predicted by John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, in 1885. They are slower than
body waves, roughly 90% of the velocity of S waves for typical homogeneous elastic media.
In the layered medium (like the crust and upper mantle) the velocity of the Rayleigh waves
depends on their frequency and wavelength.
b) Love waves
Love waves are horizontally polarized shear waves (SH waves), existing only in the presence
of a semi-infinite medium overlain by an upper layer of finite thickness. They are named after
A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who created a mathematical model of the waves in
1911. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of the S wave
velocity, and have the largest amplitude.

Fig.1.3: Types of seismic waves

1.7. MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE

1) MAGNITUDE:
It is a measure of earthquake size and is determined from the logarithm of the maximum
displacement or amplitude of the earthquake signal as seen on the seismogram, with a
correction for the distance between the focus and the seismometer. This is necessary as the
closer the seismometer is to the earthquake, the larger the amplitude on the seismogram,
irrespective of the size or magnitude of the event. Since the measurement can be made from
P, S or surface waves, several different scales exist, all of which are logarithmic because of
the large range of earthquake energies (for example a magnitude 6 ML is 30 times larger, in
terms of energy than a magnitude 5 ML). The Richter local magnitude (ML) is defined to be
used for 'local' earthquakes up to 600 km away.
Surface wave magnitude (Ms) is based on the maximum amplitude of the surface wave
having a period of 20 + 2 s. It is used for observations near the earthquake epicentre where
the surface wave is larger than the body wave. This scale applies to any epicentral distance or
type of seismograph.
Body wave magnitude (Mb) is calculated from the body waves (P, PP, S) and is usually used
at larger distance from the earthquake epicentre (P-wave attenuation is less than surface
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waves, with distance). It can be used for any earthquake of any depth.
Moment magnitude (Mw) is considered the best scale to use for larger earthquakes as the Ms
saturates at about magnitude 8. Moment magnitude is measured over the broad range of
frequencies present in the earthquake wave spectrum rather than the single frequency sample
that the other magnitude scales use.

2) INTENSITY
Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location.
Intensity is determined from effects on people, human structures, and the natural
environment.
Types of intensity measuring scales:
1) Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI)
2) Medvedev-Spoonheuer-Karnik
Given below is a table describing earthquakes of various magnitude and their corresponding
intensities.

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1.8. ISOSEISMAL MAP

In seismology, an isoseismal map is used to show lines of equal felt seismic intensity,
generally measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. Such maps help to identify earthquake
epicentres, particularly where no instrumental records exist, such as for historical
earthquakes. They also contain important information on ground conditions at particular
locations, the underlying geology, and radiation pattern of the seismic waves and the response
of different types of buildings. They form an important part of the macro seismic approach,
i.e. that part of seismology dealing with non-instrumental data. The shape and size of the
isoseismal regions can be used to help determine the magnitude, focal depth and focal
mechanism of an earthquake.

Fig.1.4: Isoseismic Map

CHAPTER 2
MAJOR EARTHQUAKES CAUSES AND DAMAGES

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Introduction
Rocks are made of elastic material, and so elastic strain energy is stored in them during the
deformations that occur due to the gigantic tectonic plate actions that occur in the Earth. But,
the material contained in rocks is also very brittle. Thus, when the rocks along a weak region
in the Earths Crust reach their strength, a sudden movement takes place there ; opposite
sides of the fault (a crack in the rocks where movement has taken place) suddenly slip and
release the large elastic strain energy stored in the interface rocks. For example, the energy
released during the 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake is about 400 times (or more) that released
by the 1945 Atom Bomb dropped on Hiroshima!!
The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake.... a violent shaking of the Earth when large
elastic strain energy released spreads out through seismic waves that travel through the body
and along the surface of the Earth. And, after the earthquake is over, the process of strain
build-up at this modified interface between the rocks starts all over again. Earth scientists
know this as the Elastic Rebound Theory. The material points at the fault over which slip
occurs usually constitute an oblong three-dimensional volume, with its long dimension often
running into tens of kilometres.
Most earthquakes in the world occur along the boundaries of the tectonic plates and are called
Inter- plate Earthquakes (e.g., 1897 Assam (India) earthquake). A number of earthquakes also
occur within the plate itself away from the plate boundaries (e.g., 1993 Latur (India)
earthquake); these are called Intra-plate Earthquakes. In both types of earthquakes, the slip
generated at the fault during earthquakes is along both vertical and horizontal directions
(called Dip Slip) and lateral directions (called Strike Slip).

Fig.2.1: Types of tectonic plate movements

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Fig.2.2: Types of faults

Given below is the description of the causes and the damage caused by few major
earthquakes in the world.

2.1. GORKHA EARTHQUAKE (NEPAL EARTHQUAKE)

The April 2015 Nepal earthquake (also known as the Gorkha earthquake) killed more than
8,000 people and injured more than 19,000. It occurred at 11:56 NST on 25 April, with a
magnitude of 7.8Mw or 8.1 Ms and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Intense). Its
epicentre was the village of Barpak, Gorkha district, and its hypocentre was at a depth of
approximately 15 km (9.3 mi).It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since the 1934
NepalBihar earthquake.
The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing at least 19, making it the
deadliest day on the mountain in history. It triggered another huge avalanche in the Langtang
valley, where 250 people were reported missing.
Hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless with entire villages flattened, across
many districts of the country. Centuries-old buildings were destroyed at UNESCO World
Heritage sites in the Kathmandu Valley, including some at the Kathmandu Durbar Square, the
Patan Durbar Square, the Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the Changu Narayan Temple and the
Swayambhunath Stupa. Geophysicists and other experts had warned for decades that Nepal
was vulnerable to a deadly earthquake, particularly because of its geology, urbanization, and
architecture.

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Fig.2.3: Location of the earthquake (2015)

GEOLOGY OF THE NEPAL EARTHQUAKE

The temblor was caused by a sudden thrust, or release of built-up stress, along the major fault
line where the Indian Plate, carrying India, is slowly diving underneath the Eurasian Plate,
carrying much of Europe and Asia. Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust approximately
120 km (74 miles) wide and 60 km (37 miles) long, reportedly shifted 3 m (10 ft.) to the
south in just 30 seconds.

Fig.2.4: M6+ earthquakes in the Himalayan region between 1900- 2014

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Fig.2.5: Movement of the Indian plate towards the Eurasian plate

Fig.2.6
Intensity
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The intensity in Kathmandu was IX (Violent).Tremors were felt in the neighbouring Indian
states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand in the
Indian capital region around New Delhi and as far south as Karnataka. Many buildings were
brought down in Bihar. Minor cracks in the walls of houses were reported in Odisha. Minor
quakes were registered as far as Kochi in the southern state of Kerala. The intensity in Patna
was V (Moderate).The intensity was IV (Light) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The earthquake was
also experienced across south western China, ranging from the Tibet Autonomous Region to
Chengdu, which is 1,900 km (1,200 mi) away from the epicentre. Tremors were felt in
Pakistan and Bhutan.

Fig.2.7: Intensity of the earthquake felt in different parts of Nepal (Mercalli Scale)

Fig.2.8: Graph obtained from the GEOFON Station, Kabul

Damage
Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages
flattened, especially those near the epicentre. The Tribhuvan International Airport serving
Kathmandu was closed immediately after the quake, but was re-opened later in the day for
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relief operations and, later, for some commercial flights. Several temples, including
Kasthamandap, Panchtale temple, the top levels of the nine-story Basantapur Durbar, the
Dasa Avtar temple and two dewals located behind the Shiva Parvati temple were demolished
by the quake. Some other monuments, including the Kumari Temple and the Taleju Bhawani
Temple partially collapsed.

Fig.2.9: Collapse of one of the load bearing structures, Dharahara Tower in Kathmandu
Load bearing structures were typically built prior to the 1970s, and have low resistance to
earthquake. The bricks are stiff and have no way to either pull the structure in the direction
opposite of the sway or be ductile enough to allow for small movement in the structure. Load
bearing structures exhibit instantaneous failure and fall like a pack of cards. In the recent
Nepal earthquake, most structures that fell within seconds of the earthquake were load
bearing structures such as the Dharahara Tower in Kathmandu.

2.2. YUSHU EARTHQUAKE, CHINA

The 2010 Yushu earthquake struck on April 14 and registered a magnitude of 6.9Mw or
7.1Ms. It originated in Yushu, Qinghai, China, at 7:49 am local time. 2,698 people have been
confirmed dead, 270 missing and 12,135 injured of which 1,434 are severely injured. The
epicentre was located in Rima village, Upper Laxiu Township of Yushu County, in remote
and rugged terrain, near the border of Tibet Autonomous Region.

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Fig.2.10: Location of the earthquake in China

Geology
Qinghai lies in the north eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau, which formed due to the ongoing collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. The main deformation in this area
is crustal shortening, but there is also a component of left lateral strike-slip faulting on major
westeast trending structures such as the Kunlun and Altyn Tagh fault systems that
accommodate south eastward translation of the Tibetan area.

Fig.2.11: Five major faults in China

Damage
In Qinghai, building damage was reported with no casualties in the counties of Zadoi,
Nangqn, and Qumarleb of Yushu Prefecture.At least 11 schools were destroyed in the
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earthquake. Over 85% of buildings in Gyegu, mostly of wood-earth construction, were

destroyed, leaving hundreds trapped and thousands homeless. The Changu Dam, some 15
km upstream from the Yushu County seat (apparently at 325440N 970250E), was
damaged by the earthquake.

Fig.2.12: Cleft in the grassland due to the earthquake

Observations on Damaged Light Concrete Block Confined Masonry (LCBCM)

Structures
Due to the high altitude and corresponding lower air pressure of the local climate condition,
its hard to manufacture the clay bricks with enough strength fit for seismic resistant building
construction. So, the light concrete block becomes the main substitute construction materials
to the clay brick which is very popular even in other seismic areas of China. And the light
concrete block (sometime with hollows) confined masonry (LCBCM) structure becomes the
most popular local structural type. In the 2010 Yushu Ms7.1 earthquake event, most of this
kind of building structures without seismic design and construction were severely damaged or
collapsed due to the lack of seismic restrain measures and unreasonable construction. For
those seismically designed and constructed LCBCM structures, they showed advantages of
seismic design. The seismically designed 2-story LCBCM building showed better
performance than those 4-story ones. And the residential buildings with relative smaller
rooms showed higher seismic resistance than those office building and school buildings with
relative larger rooms. Typically, the damage mostly concentrated in the walls of first story
with lower shear capacity not enough to satisfy the earthquake demand.
2.3. Haiti Earthquake

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Fig.2.13: Location of the Haiti Earthquake

The EnriquilloPlantain Garden fault zone (EPGFZ or EPGZ) is a system of coaxial left
lateral-moving strike slip faults which runs along the southern side of the island of
Hispaniola, where Haiti and the Dominican Republic are located. The EPGFZ is named for
Lake Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic where the fault zone emerges, and extends across
the southern portion of Hispaniola through the Caribbean to the region of the Plantain Garden
River in Jamaica.
Geology
The magnitude 7.0 Mw earthquake occurred inland, on 12 January 2010 at 16:53,
approximately 25 km (16 mi) WSW from Port-au-Prince at a depth of 13 km (8.1 mi) on
blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system. There is no
evidence of surface rupture and based on seismological, geological and ground deformation
data it is thought that the earthquake did not involve significant lateral slip on the main
Enriquillo fault. Strong shaking associated with intensity IX on the Modified Mercalli scale
(MM) was recorded in Port-au-Prince and its suburbs. It was also felt in several surrounding
countries and regions, including Cuba (MM III in Guantnamo), Jamaica (MM II in
Kingston), Venezuela (MM II in Caracas), Puerto Rico (MM IIIII in San Juan), and the
bordering Dominican Republic (MM III in Santo Domingo). According to estimates from the
United States Geological Survey, approximately 3.5 million people lived in the area that
experienced shaking intensity of MM VII to X, a range that can cause moderate to very heavy
damage even to earthquake-resistant structures. Shaking damage was more severe than other
quakes of similar magnitude due to the shallow depth of the quake.
The quake occurred in the vicinity of the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic
plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm (0.79 in) per year in relation to the North American
plate. The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the SeptentrionalOriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in the south; both its
location and focal mechanism suggested that the January 2010 quake was caused by a rupture
of the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault, which had been locked for 250 years, gathering
stress. However, a study published in May 2010 suggested that the rupture process may have
involved slip on multiple blind thrust faults with only minor, deep, lateral slip along or near
the main EnriquilloPlantain Garden fault zone, suggesting that the event only partially
20

relieved centuries of accumulated left-lateral strain on a small part of the plate-boundary

system. The rupture was roughly 65 km (40 mi) long with mean slip of 1.8 metres (5 ft. 11
in). Preliminary analysis of the slip distribution found amplitudes of up to about 4 m (13 ft.)
using ground motion records from all over the world.
There are two major faults along Hispaniola, the island shared by Haiti and the Dominican
Republic. This earthquake occurred on the southern fault, the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden
fault system.
There hasn't been a major quake on this system for about 200 years. That means stress has
been building up there for quite some time. When the strain finally grew too large, rock along
the fault failed, and released a huge burst of energy in less than a minute. Aftershocks are
common after large quakes, and they continue for days, weeks and even longer though
they become less frequent as time passes.

Fig.2.14: Fault zones near Haiti

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Fig.2.15: Enriquillo-Plantain Garden Fault

Cause for the damage to the buildings

The walls of 90% of Haitian buildings are constructed with cement, earth, clisse (sticks,
twigs and branches), bricks or stone. Contractors and builders often cut corners in
construction, reducing costs by using easily available building materials such as limestone
dust and unrefined sand, which produce a cheaper but weaker concrete. The vulnerabilities of
these buildings were exacerbated by being constructed along hills and slopes, without proper
foundations.
Not only are qualified Engineers, Architects and Contractors not readily available to most
construction projects, most small commercial type construction will have other major
construction problems. While the sand and gravel may not be building grade the water used
to mix the concrete on the job site will probably come out of the closest canal or stream
available, and will be contaminated. The purity of the sand is questionable and the gravel for
aggregate is ungraded and sometimes contains rocks that are too large to be used. There is
generally no use of sieves to grade the aggregate. The concrete is usually mixed on the
ground and the consistency from one batch to the next is non-existent. Reinforcement bars
used that are not deformed but are smooth which will not allow the concrete to bond with the
reinforcement.
The only reinforcement generally in the masonry walls consists of concrete columns which
are placed within the thickness of the concrete block and are usually 8 x 8. The masonry
block infill walls also are not tied to the columns which allow the walls to lack integrity to act
together. Often the walls at the corners are also not bonded together with either concrete
block or reinforcing.
Add to these construction problems the fact that most buildings in Haiti have concrete roofs.
This heavier weight works against the walls when the earth moves laterally since the roofs
will have the tendency to keep moving while the rest of the building is moving back to its
original position. Most of the structures that were seen ,the columns failed at the top and the
bottom and the roof or second floor slabs pancaked on the floors below. Most of the
structures observed, had little damage all had light weight roof structures.
22

Fig.2.16: Damage due to improper mixing of concrete and lack of adhesion between the steel
rods and the cement.

Fig.2.17: Majority population living in slums close to the tectonically active region.
Houses mostly built with inferior material and heavy roofs with weak walls and columns.

2.4. TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE (JAPAN)

The 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Thoku was a magnitude 9.0 (Mw) undersea
mega thrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST on Friday 11 March
23

2011, with the epicentre approximately 70 kilometres (43 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of
Thoku and the hypocentre at an underwater depth of approximately 30 km (19 mi). The
earthquake is also often referred to in Japan as the Great East Japan earthquake and also
known as the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, and the 3.11 earthquake. It was the most powerful
earthquake ever recorded to have hit Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the
world since modern record-keeping began in 1900.The earthquake triggered powerful
tsunami waves that reached heights of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft.) The earthquake moved
Honshu (the main island of Japan) 2.4 m (8 ft.) east and shifted the Earth on its axis by
estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in),and generated sound waves detected by
the low-orbiting GOCE satellite.

Fig.2.18: Location of earthquake in Japan

Fig.2.19: A seismogram recorded in Massachusetts, US

Geology
This earthquake was a repetition of the mega thrust mechanism of the earlier 869 Sanriku
earthquake, which had an estimated magnitude of 8.3, and also created a large tsunami. This
earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under the plate beneath northern
Honshu; The Pacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8 to 9 cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips
under Honshu's underlying plate building large amounts of elastic energy. This motion pushes
24

the upper plate down until the accumulated stress causes a seismic slip-rupture event. The
break caused the sea floor to rise by several meters. A quake of this magnitude usually has a
rupture length of at least 500 km (300 mi) and generally requires a long, relatively straight
fault surface. Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the Honshu
rupture is not very straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of its earthquake to exceed 8.5; the
magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists.
This energy of the seismic waves from the earthquake was surface energy (Me) 1.9
0.51017 joules,[62] which is nearly double that of the 9.2-magnitude 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake and tsunami that killed 280,000 people. If harnessed, the seismic energy from this
earthquake would power a city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year.
The largest fault slip ever recorded produced the devastating 2011 Japan tsunami.
Experts calculate the faultor the boundary between two tectonic platesin the Japan
Trench slipped by as much as 164 feet (50 meters). Other similarly large magnitude
earthquakes, including the 9.1 Sumatra events in 2004, resulted in a 66-to-82 foot (20-to-25
meter) slip in the fault.

Fig.2.20

25

Fig.2.21: Fault lines

Damage
The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and resulting tsunami were
enormous, with most of the damage being caused by the tsunami. Japan's National Police
Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 45,700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were
damaged by the quake and tsunami. The damaged buildings included 29,500 structures in
Miyagi Prefecture, 12,500 in Iwate Prefecture and 2,400 in Fukushima Prefecture. The north
eastern ports of Hachinohe, Sendai, Ishinomaki and Onahama were destroyed, while the Port
of Chiba (which serves the hydrocarbon industry) and Japan's ninth-largest container port at
Kashima were also affected, though less severely.

26

Fig.2.22: Aerial view of Minato, devasted by both the earthquake & subsequent
Tsunami

2.5. GUJARAT EARTHQUAKE

The 2001 Gujarat earthquake occurred on 26 January; India's 52nd Republic Day, at 08:46
AM local time and lasted for over 42 seconds. The epicentre was about 9 km south-southwest
of the village of Chobari in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District of Gujarat, India. The
earthquake reached 7.7 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum felt intensity of
X (Intense) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake killed around 20,000 people
(including 18 in Southeast Pakistan), injured another 167,000 and destroyed nearly 400,000
homes
Geology
Gujarat lies about 400 km from the plate boundary between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian
Plate, but the current tectonics is still governed by the effects of the continuing continental
collision along this boundary. During the break-up of Gondwana in the Jurassic, this area was
affected by rifting with a roughly west-east trend. During the collision with Eurasia the area
has undergone shortening, involving both reactivation of the original rift faults and
development of new low-angle thrust faults. The related folding has formed a series of
ranges, particularly in central Kutch. The focal mechanism of most earthquakes is consistent
27

with reverse faulting on reactivated rift faults. The pattern of uplift and subsidence associated
with the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake is consistent with reactivation of such a fault. The
2001 Gujarat earthquake was caused by movement on a previously unknown south-dipping
fault, trending parallel to the inferred rift structures.

Fig.2.23: Continental collision between the Indian and the Eurasian plates.

Fig.2.24
Damage
Most residential buildings in Ahmedabad suffered some type of damage during the
earthquake. Much of the damage was in the form of cracking of infill wall panels at the
28

ground floor level. However, nearly one hundred residential buildings collapsed during
January 26, 2001 event. Since for the ground motion experienced in the city, buildings with
sound design and construction should not have experienced any structural damage (although
some non-structural damage may be expected), the damage appears to be due to a
combination of factors. Based on the post-earthquake field investigation, following appear to
be the technical reasons for the observed damage.
Soft-Story System: A large number of residential buildings in the city have open ground
floors leading to soft first story. Besides the elevator core, there are few walls, if any to
provide lateral resistance. The upper floor frames are usually filled with un-reinforced brick
masonry forming a very stiff lateral load resisting system. Most of the collapses and
significant damage occurred in this type of soft-story buildings. It is well known from
observations after past earthquakes in California and as well as after the recent Turkey
earthquake that this type of building construction is highly vulnerable to earthquakes. Nearly
all the deformation occurs in the columns in the soft-story, with rest of the building going for
a ride during the earthquake. If these columns are not designed to accommodate these large
deformations, they may fail leading to catastrophic failure of the entire building, as was the
case in most of the buildings that collapsed in the city.
Soil Conditions: The localized soil conditions also contributed to the collapse of many
buildings. A thick alluvial deposit along the Sabarmati River underlies the City of
Ahmedabad. Although a cursory analysis of location of building collapses would indicate no
particular pattern, a careful analysis reveals that most of the buildings that collapsed lie along
the old path of Sabarmati River. This becomes apparent when location of collapsed buildings
are plotted on the city map and compared with the satellite image of the city. Note that the
path of most of the building that collapsed in areas west of the Sabarmati River are closely
aligned with the old path of the river, visible in the satellite image as a small loop of faint
thick white line just west of the present river path. The south, southeast of the city, especially
the Mani Nagar area, where additional collapses were observed falls between two lakes,
indicating the presence of either poor soil conditions or possibly construction on nonengineered fills.

2.6. SUMATRA EARTHQUAKE

On December 26, 2004, at 07:58:50 local time, a powerful earthquake, moment magnitude
(MW) 9.2, occurred in the Indian Ocean. The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake was one of the
three largest earthquakes ever recorded. The fault rupture propagated 1,300 to 1,600
kilometres northwest for about 10 minutes along the boundary between the Indo-Australian
plate and the Eurasian plate, from northwest Sumatra to the Nicobar Islands and to the
Andaman Islands. The hypocentre, the point where the fault rupture originated, was 10
kilometres deep. The faulting spread up dip and down dip from 18 to 25 meters on a lowangle thrust fault plane dipping about 10 degrees northeast. The Indo-Australian plate moved
northeast relative to the Eurasian plate.
Geology
The epicentre of the earthquake was about 250 kilometres off the west coast of Aceh
Province. Strong to violent shaking in Aceh Province reportedly lasted five to six minutes.
Banda Aceh was the only major city that experienced earthquake-shaking damage. One- to
two-story, traditional, concrete-frame and wood-frame buildings survived well and were
29

largely undamaged by the strong ground shaking. However, because the earthquake occurred
a significant distance offshore, the resulting long-period ground motions caused serious
damage to, or the collapse of, buildings more than three stories high.
The fault rupture uplifted the ocean floor, releasing the most destructive series of tsunami
waves in recorded history. The waves spread throughout the Indian Ocean, causing damage in
the coastal communities of 12 countries. By far, the most damaging effects were sustained by
Aceh Province, where three devastating waves struck the western shore within about 30
minutes. The tsunami waves ranged from 4 to 39 meters high and destroyed more than 250
coastal communities.
Residential neighbourhoods and fishing villages in coastal areas were entirely devastated, and
houses were swept inland or out to sea. The traditional construction that had resisted shaking
damage could not resist the tsunami forces and most were obliterated.

Fig.2.25

30

ll

Fig.2.26

Fig.2.27
31

Damage
Most well designed and well-constructed buildings and industrial facilities that had withstood
the earthquake shaking also withstood the tsunami waves and suffered only minor damage.
For example, the La Farge Cement Plant, a well-designed and well-constructed steel-frame
series of industrial structures about 20 kilometres southwest of Banda Aceh, did not
experience structural damage from the strong shaking and was not damaged by the tsunami
waves, which, as documented by stadia-rod, reached a wave-flow height of 38.9 meters
nearby. Several one- and two-story administrative buildings and machine shops were
smashed by waves carrying nearly empty large oil-storage tanks. The impact of the waves
caused non-structural damage to some of the buildings. For example, metal siding was
stripped from the steel-frame buildings up to the height of the waves.
Roads and Bridges:
Roads and bridges were devastated by the force of the tsunami waves. Many bridges were
swept off their supports, and connecting earth embankments were significantly scoured,
disabling the transportation network for hundreds of kilometres along the west coast of Aceh
Province. Hundreds of bridges were picked up and swept inland by the tsunami waves, some
more than a kilometre. The extensive damage to bridges severely constrained rescue and
relief efforts, as the bridges had been vital links to population centres in the region. Many of
the bridges on the coastal road to Meulaboh were destroyed and washed away, and sections of
the road disappeared, which isolated many small communities. Survivors could be reached
only by boat or helicopter. In addition, the destruction of the bridges resulted in the disruption
of the electric distribution system at bridge crossings.
Liquefaction:
Although earlier reconnaissances reported no evidence of liquefaction, earthquakes of this
magnitude and duration commonly cause liquefaction in coastal areas. During a
reconnaissance by helicopter, we observed extensive liquefaction in near-shore beach
deposits for at least 150 kilometres along the Aceh coast, from south of Meulaboh to north of
Calang.

CHAPTER 3
EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES ON RC BUILDINGS DURING
EARTHQUAKE
32

3.1 VERTICAL IRREGULARITIES

Irregular buildings make up a large portion of the urban infrastructure. The presence of
irregularities can be due to architectural, functional, and economical constraints. The main
objective of this research is to improve the understanding of the seismic behaviour of
building structures with vertical irregularities. This is done by quantifying the effects of
vertical irregularities in mass, stiffness, or strength on seismic demands. The seismic
demands investigated are elastic story shears, overturning moments, and drifts as well as
inelastic drift and energy dissipation demands.
Types of vertical irregularities
1) Soft story (stiffness discontinuity):
Exists in a story where the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that in the story above or less
than 80% of the average stiffness of the three stories above.

Fig.3.1
2) Weak story (strength discontinuity)
Exists in a story where the strength is less than 80% of that in the story above.

33

Fig.3.2
3) Geometric Irregularities:
These exist where the horizontal dimension of the lateral-force-resisting system is more than
130% of that in an adjacent story. (Penthouses excluded).

Fig.3.3

4) Mass Irregularity:
These exist where the effective mass of any story is more than 150% of the affective mass of
the adjacent story. (A lighter roof mass excepted).

Fig.3.4
5) Vertical Discontinuities:
These exist where shear walls or rigid infill walls or frame elements are not continuous to the
foundations, thus threatening to impart large overturning forces onto columns.
34

3.2. HORIZONTAL IRREGULARITIES

1) Torsional Irregularity for systems - diaphragms not flexible. "Torsional irregularity

shall be considered to exist when the maximum story drift, computed including accidental
torsion, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the average
of the story drifts at the two ends of the structure."

Fig.3.5
2) Re-entrant Corners - both projections of the structure beyond a re-entrant corner are

greater than 15 per cent of the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction.

Fig.3.6

3) Diaphragm Discontinuity - cut-out or opens areas greater than 50 per cent of the gross

enclosed diaphragm area or changes in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 per
cent from one story to the next.

35

Fig.3.7
4) Nonparallel Systems - not parallel or symmetric about the major orthogonal axes.

Fig.3.8

CHAPTER 4
REPAIR AND RETROFITTING

36

Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to
seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes. With better understanding
of seismic demand on structures and with our recent experiences with large earthquakes near
urban centres, the need of seismic retrofitting is well acknowledged. Prior to the introduction
of modern seismic codes in the late 1960s for developed countries (US, Japan etc.) and late
1970s for many other parts of the world (Turkey, China etc.), many structures were designed
without adequate detailing and reinforcement for seismic protection. In view of the imminent
problem, various research works has been carried out
Strategies
Seismic retrofit (or rehabilitation) strategies have been developed in the past few decades
following the introduction of new seismic provisions and the availability of advanced
materials (e.g. fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP), fibre reinforced concrete and high strength
steel).Retrofit strategies are different from retrofit techniques, where the former is the basic
approach to achieve an overall retrofit performance objective, such as increasing strength,
increasing deformability, reducing deformation demands while the latter is the technical
methods to achieve that strategy, for example FRP jacketing.
Increasing the global capacity (strengthening): This is typically done by the addition of
cross braces or new structural walls. Reduction of the seismic demand by means of
supplementary damping and or use of base isolation systems. Increasing the local capacity of
structural elements. This strategy recognises the inherent capacity within the existing
structures, and therefore adopts a more cost-effective approach to selectively upgrade local
capacity (deformation/ductility, strength or stiffness) of individual structural components.
Selective weakening retrofit: This is a counter intuitive strategy to change the inelastic
mechanism of the structure, while recognising the inherent capacity of the structure.
Allowing sliding connections such as passageway bridges to accommodate additional
movement between seismically independent structures.
Techniques
Base isolators
Base isolation is a collection of structural elements of a building that should substantially
decouple [disambiguation needed] the building's structure from the shaking ground thus
protecting the building's integrity and enhancing its seismic performance. This earthquake
engineering technology, which is a kind of seismic vibration control, can be applied both to a
newly designed building and to seismic upgrading of existing structures. Normally,
excavations are made around the building and the building is separated from the foundations.
Steel or reinforced concrete beams replace the connections to the foundations, while under
these, the isolating pads, or base isolators, replace the material removed. While the base
isolation tends to restrict transmission of the ground motion to the building, it also keeps the
building positioned properly over the foundation. Careful attention to detail is required where
the building interfaces with the ground, especially at entrances, stairways and ramps, to
ensure sufficient relative motion of those structural elements.
There are two basic types of isolation systems. The system that has been adopted most widely
in recent years is typified by the use of elastomeric bearings, the elastomer made of either
natural rubber or neoprene. In this approach, the building or structure is decoupled from the
horizontal components of the earthquake ground motion by interposing a layer with low
37

horizontal stiffness between the structure and the foundation. This layer gives the structure a
fundamental frequency that is much lower than its fixed-base frequency and also much lower
than the predominant frequencies of the ground motion. The first dynamic mode of the
isolated structure involves deformation only in the isolation system, the structure above being
to all intents and purposes rigid. The higher modes that will produce deformation in the
structure are orthogonal to the first mode and consequently also to the ground motion. These
higher modes do not participate in the motion, so that if there is high energy in the ground
motion at these higher frequencies, this energy cannot be transmitted into the structure. The
isolation system does not absorb the earthquake energy, but rather deflects it through the
dynamics of the system. This type of isolation works when the system is linear and even
when undamped; however, some damping is beneficial to suppress any possible resonance at
the isolation frequency.
The second basic type of isolation system is typified by the sliding system. This works by
limiting the transfer of shear across the isolation interface. Many sliding systems have been
proposed and some have been used. In China there are at least three buildings on sliding
systems that use specially selected sand at the sliding interface. A type of isolation containing
a lead-bronze plate sliding on stainless steel with an elastomeric bearing has been used for a
nuclear power plant in South Africa. The friction-pendulum system is a sliding system using
a special interfacial material sliding on stainless steel and has been used for several projects
in the United States, both new and retrofit construction.

Fig.4.1: Elastomeric Base Isolator

38

Fig.4.2: Sliding Dampers

Friction Dampers
Friction dampers are designed to have moving parts that will slide over each other during a
strong earthquake. When the parts slide over each other, they create friction which uses some
of the energy from the earthquake that goes into the building.
The damper is made up from a set of steel plates, with slotted holes in them, and they are
bolted together. At high enough forces, the plates can slide over each other creating friction.
The plates are specially treated to increase the friction between them.

Fig.4.3: Friction Dampers

Supplementary dampers
Supplementary dampers absorb the energy of motion and convert it to heat, thus "damping"
resonant effects in structures that are rigidly attached to the ground. In addition to adding
energy dissipation capacity to the structure, supplementary damping can reduce the
displacement and acceleration demand within the structures. In some cases, the threat of
damage does not come from the initial shock itself, but rather from the periodic resonant
motion of the structure that repeated ground motion induces. In the practical sense,
supplementary dampers act similarly to Shock absorbers used in automotive suspensions.
Fluid viscous dampers
39

Fluid viscous damping is a way to add energy dissipation to the lateral system of a building
structure. A fluid viscous damper dissipates energy by pushing fluid through an orifice,
producing a damping pressure which creates a force. These damping forces are 90 degrees
out of phase with the displacement driven forces in the structure. This means that the
damping force does not significantly increase the seismic loads for a comparable degree of
structural deformation.
The addition of fluid viscous dampers to a structure can provide damping as high as 30% of
critical, and sometimes even more. This provides a significant decrease in earthquake
excitation. The addition of fluid dampers to a structure can reduce horizontal floor
accelerations and lateral deformations by 50% and sometimes more.
Fluid Viscous Dampers Description
The fluid viscous damper for structures, is similar in action to the shock absorber on an
automobile, but operates at a much higher force level. Structural dampers are significantly
larger than automotive dampers, and are constructed of stainless steel and other extremely
durable materials as required to furnish a life of at least 40 years. The damping fluid is
silicone oil, which is inert, non-flammable, non-toxic, and stable for extremely long periods
of time. The seals in the fluid viscous damper use a patented high technology design based on
aerospace research, and provide totally leak free service. This design has been proven through
rigorous testing and has been in use for over 40 years in both military and commercial
applications.

Fig.4.4: Fluid Viscous Dampers

Yielding Dampers
Another approach for controlling seismic damage in buildings and improving their seismic
performance is by installing Seismic Dampers in place of structural elements, such as
diagonal braces. These dampers act like the hydraulic shock absorbers in cars much of the
sudden jerks are absorbed in the hydraulic fluids and only little is transmitted above to the
chassis of the car. When seismic energy is transmitted through them, dampers absorb part of
it, and thus damp the motion of the building.

40

Fig.4.5: Types of Dampers

Tuned mass dampers

Tuned mass dampers (TMD) employ movable weights on some sort of springs. These are
typically employed to reduce wind sway in very tall, light buildings. Similar designs may be
employed to impart earthquake resistance in eight to ten story buildings that are prone to
destructive earthquake induced resonances.
Adhoc addition of structural support/reinforcement
The most common form of seismic retrofit to lower buildings is adding strength to the
existing structure to resist seismic forces. The strengthening may be limited to connections
between existing building elements or it may involve adding primary resisting elements such
as walls or frames, particularly in the lower stories.
Typical Retrofit Scenario & Solution
Soft-story failure
In many buildings the ground level is designed for different uses than the upper levels. Low
rise residential structures may be built over parking garages which have large doors on one
side. Hotels may have tall ground floors to allow for a grand entrance or ballrooms. Office
buildings may have stores in the ground floor which desire continuous windows for display.
Traditional seismic design assumes that the lower stories of a building are stronger than the
upper stories and where this is not the caseif the lower story is less strong than the upper
41

structurethe structure will not respond to earthquakes in the expected fashion. Using
modern design methods, it is possible to take a weak story into account. Several failures of
this type in one large apartment complex caused most of the fatalities in the 1994 Northridge
earthquake.
Typically, where this type of problem is found, the weak story is reinforced to make it
stronger than the floors above by adding shear walls or moment frames. Moment frames
consisting of inverted U bents are useful in preserving lower story garage access, while a
lower cost solution may be to use shear walls or trusses in several locations, which partially
reduce the usefulness for automobile parking but still allow the space to be used for other
storage.
Beam-column joint connections
Beam-column joint connections are a common structural weakness in dealing with seismic
retrofitting. Prior to the introduction of modern seismic codes in early 1970s, beam-column
joints were typically non-engineered or designed. Laboratory testing has confirmed the
seismic vulnerability of these poorly detailed and under-designed connections. Failure of
beam-column joint connections can typically lead to catastrophic collapse of a framebuilding, as often observed in recent earthquakes.
For reinforced concrete beam-column joints - various retrofit solutions have been proposed
and tested in the past 20 years. Philosophically, the various seismic retrofit strategies
discussed above can be implemented for reinforced concrete joints. Concrete or steel
jacketing has been a popular retrofit technique until the advent of composite materials such as
Carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP). Composite materials such as carbon FRP and aramic
FRP have been extensively tested for use in seismic retrofit with some success. One novel
technique includes the use of selective weakening of the beam and added external posttensioning to the joint in order to achieve flexural hinging in the beam, which is more
desirable in terms of seismic design.
Shear failure within floor diaphragm
Floors in wooden buildings are usually constructed upon relatively deep spans of wood,
called joists, covered with a diagonal wood planking or plywood to form a subfloor upon
which the finish floor surface is laid. In many structures these are all aligned in the same
direction. To prevent the beams from tipping over onto their side, blocking is used at each
end, and for additional stiffness, blocking or diagonal wood or metal bracing may be placed
between beams at one or more points in their spans. At the outer edge it is typical to use a
single depth of blocking and a perimeter beam overall.
If the blocking or nailing is inadequate, each beam can be laid flat by the shear forces applied
to the building. In this position they lack most of their original strength and the structure may
further collapse. As part of a retrofit the blocking may be doubled, especially at the outer
edges of the building. It may be appropriate to add additional nails between the sill plate of
the perimeter wall erected upon the floor diaphragm, although this will require exposing the
sill plate by removing interior plaster or exterior siding. As the sill plate may be quite old and
dry and substantial nails must be used, it may be necessary to pre-drill a hole for the nail in
the old wood to avoid splitting. When the wall is opened for this purpose it may also be
appropriate to tie vertical wall elements into the foundation using specialty connectors and
bolts glued with epoxy cement into holes drilled in the foundation.
Sliding off foundation and "cripple wall" failure

42

Fig.4.6: House slid of foundation.

Single or two story wood-frame domestic structures built on a perimeter or slab foundation
are relatively safe in an earthquake, but in many structures built before 1950 the sill plate that
sits between the concrete foundation and the floor diaphragm (perimeter foundation) or stud
wall (slab foundation) may not be sufficiently bolted in. Additionally, older attachments
(without substantial corrosion-proofing) may have corroded to a point of weakness. A
sideways shock can slide the building entirely off of the foundations or slab.
Often such buildings, especially if constructed on a moderate slope, are erected on a platform
connected to a perimeter foundation through low stud-walls called "cripple wall" or pin-up.
This low wall structure itself may fail in shear or in its connections to itself at the corners,
leading to the building moving diagonally and collapsing the low walls. The likelihood of
failure of the pin-up can be reduced by ensuring that the corners are well reinforced in shear
and that the shear panels are well connected to each other through the corner posts. This
requires structural grade sheet plywood, often treated for rot resistance. This grade of
plywood is made without interior unfilled knots and with more, thinner layers than common
plywood. New buildings designed to resist earthquakes will typically use OSB (oriented
strand board), sometimes with metal joins between panels, and with well attached stucco
covering to enhance its performance. In many modern tract homes, especially those built
upon expansive (clay) soil the building is constructed upon a single and relatively thick
monolithic slab, kept in one piece by high tensile rods that are stressed after the slab has set.
This post stressing places the concrete under compression - a condition under which it is
extremely strong in bending and so will not crack under adverse soil conditions.

Reinforced concrete column burst

43

Fig.4.7: Jacketed and grouted column on left, unmodified on right

Reinforced concrete columns typically contain large diameter vertical rebar (reinforcing bars)
arranged in a ring, surrounded by lighter-gauge hoops of rebar. Upon analysis of failures due
to earthquakes, it has been realized that the weakness was not in the vertical bars, but rather
in inadequate strength and quantity of hoops. Once the integrity of the hoops is breached, the
vertical rebar can flex outward, stressing the central column of concrete. The concrete then
simply crumbles into small pieces, now unconstrained by the surrounding rebar. In new
construction a greater amount of hoop-like structures are used.
One simple retrofit is to surround the column with a jacket of steel plates formed and welded
into a single cylinder. The space between the jacket and the column is then filled with
concrete, a process called grouting. Where soil or structure conditions require such additional
modification, additional pilings may be driven near the column base and concrete pads
linking the pilings to the pylon are fabricated at or below ground level. In the example shown
not all columns needed to be modified to gain sufficient seismic resistance for the conditions
expected. (This location is about a mile from the Hayward Fault Zone.)

44

1.8. GUIDELINES FROM IS 13935: 1993 FOR REPAIR AND RETROFITTING

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS
1) Non-structural/Architectural Repairs:
The buildings affected by earthquake may suffer both non-structural and structural damages.
Non-structural repairs may cover the damages to civil and electrical items including the
services in the building. Repairs to non-structural components need to be taken up after the
structural repairs are carried out. Care should be taken about the connection details of
architectural components to the main structural components to ensure their stability.
Non-structural and architectural components get easily affected/ dislocated during the
earthquake. These repairs involve one or more of the following:
a) Patching up of defects such as cracks and fall of plaster;
b) Repairing doors, windows, replacement of glass panes;
c) Checking and repairing electric conduits/wiring;
d) Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes and plumbing services.
e) Re-building non-structural walls, smoke chimneys, parapet walls, etc;
f) Re-plastering of walls as required;
g) Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles;
h) Relaying cracked flooring at ground level; and
i) Redecoration - white washing, painting etc.
The architectural repairs as stated above do not restore the original structural strength of
structural components in the building and any attempt to carry out only repairs to
architectural/ non-structural elements neglecting the required structural repairs may have
serious implications on the safety of the building. The damage would be more severe in the
event of the building being shaken by the similar shock because original energy absorption
capacity of the building would have been reduced.
2) Structural Repairs:
Prior to taking up of the structural repairs and strengthening measures, it is necessary to
conduct detailed damage assessment to determine:
a) The structural condition of the building to decide whether a structure is amendable for
repair; whether continued occupation is permitted; to decide the structure as a whole or a
part require demolition, if considered dangerous;
b) If the structure is considered amendable for repair then detailed damage assessment of the
individual structural components (mapping of the crack pattern, distress location; crushed
concrete, reinforcement bending/yielding, etc.). Non-destructive testing techniques could
be employed to determine the residual strength of the members; and
c) To work out the details of temporary supporting arrangement of the distressed members
so that they do not undergo further distress due to gravity loads.
After the assessment of the damage of individual structural elements, appropriate repair
methods are to be carried out component wise depending upon the extent of damage. The
repair may consist of the following:
a) Removal of portions of cracked masonry walls and piers and rebuilding them in richer
mortar. Use of non-shrinking mortar will be preferable.
45

b) Addition of reinforcing mesh on both faces of the cracked wal1, holding it to the wall

through spikes or bolts and then covering it, suitably, with cement mortar or microconcrete.
c) Injecting cement or epoxy like material which is strong in tension, into the cracks in
walls.
d) The cracked reinforced cement elements may be repaired by epoxy grouting and could be
strengthened by epoxy or polymer mortar application like shotcreting, jacketing, etc.

3) Seismic Strengthening:
The main purpose of the seismic strengthening is to upgrade the seismic resistance of a
damaged building while repairing so that it becomes safer under future earthquake
occurrences. This work may involve some of the following actions:
a) Increasing the lateral strength in one or both directions by increasing column and wall
areas or the number of walls and columns.
b) Giving unity to the structure, by providing a proper connection between its resisting
elements, in such a way that inertia forces generated by the vibration of the building can
be transmitted to the members that have the ability to resist them. Typical important
aspects are the connections between roofs or floors and walls, between intersecting walls
and between walls and foundations.
c) Eliminating features that are sources of weakness or that produce concentration of
stresses in some members. Asymmetrical plan distribution of resisting members, abrupt
changes of stiffness from one floor to the other, concentration of large masses and large
openings in walls without a proper peripheral reinforcement are examples of defects of
this kind.
d) Avoiding the possibility of brittle modes of failure by proper reinforcement and
connection of resisting members.
4) Seismic Retrofitting:
Many existing buildings do not meet the seismic strength requirements of present earthquake
codes due to original structural inadequacies and material degradation due to time or
alterations carried out during use over the years. Their earthquake resistance can be upgraded
to the level of the present day codes by appropriate seismic retrofitting techniques.
3) Strengthening or Retrofitting vs. Reconstruction:
Replacement of damaged buildings or existing unsafe buildings by reconstruction is,
generally, avoided due to a number of reasons, the main ones among them being:
a) Higher cost than that of strengthening or retrofitting,
b) Preservation of historical architecture, and
c) Maintaining functional, social and cultural environment.

In most instances, however, the relative cost of retrofitting to reconstruction cost determines
the decision. As a thumb rule, if the cost of repair and seismic strengthening is less than about
50 per cent of the reconstruction cost, the retrofitting is adopted. This may also require less
46

working time and much less dislocation in the living style of the population. On the other
hand reconstruction may offer the possibility of modernization of the habitat and may be
preferred by well-to-do communities.
Cost wise the building construction including the seismic code provisions in the first instance,
works out the cheaper in terms of its own safety and that of the occupants. Retrofitting an
existing inadequate building may involve as much as 4 to 5 times the initial extra expenditure
required on seismic resisting features. Repair and seismic strengthening of a damaged
building may even be 5 to 10 times as expensive. It is therefore very much safe as well as
cost-effective to construct earthquake resistant buildings at the initial stage itself according to
the relevant seismic IS codes.

CHAPTER 5
IS 1893(PART 1) : 2002

47

5.1 DESIGN SPECTRUM

For the purpose of determining seismic forces, the country is classified into four seismic
zones. The design horizontal seismic coefficient Ah for a structure shall be determined by the
following expression:
Ah = Z I Sa
2RG
Provided that for any structure with T <0.1 s, the value of Ah will not be taken less than Z/2
whatever be the value of I/R where
Z = Zone factor, is for the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) and service life of
structure in a zone. The factor 2 in the denominator of Z is used so as to reduce the Maximum
Considered Earthquake (MCE) zone factor to the factor for Design Basis Earthquake (DBE).
I = Importance factor, depending upon the functional use of the structures, characterised by
hazardous consequences of its failure, post-earthquake functional needs, historical value, or
economic importance.
R = Response reduction factor, depending on the perceived seismic damage performance of
the structure, characterised by ductile or brittle deformations. However, the ratio (I/R ) shall
not be greater than 1.0. The values of R for buildings are given in the below Table.
Sa/g = Average response acceleration coefficient.
Given below is a table for the RESPONSE REDUCTION FACTOR of BUILDING
SYSTEMS.

48

Table representing ZONE FACTORS (Z) :

49

Where a number of modes are to be considered for dynamic analysis, the value of A h as for
each mode shall be determined using the natural period of vibration of that mode.
For underground structures and foundations at depths of 30 m or below, the design horizontal
acceleration spectrum value shall be taken as half the value obtained from the zone factor
table. For structures and foundations placed between the ground level and 30m depth, the
design horizontal acceleration spectrum value shall be linearly interpolated between Ah and
0.5 Ah .The design acceleration spectrum for vertical motions, when required, may be taken
as two-thirds of the design horizontal acceleration spectrum.

The figure below shows the proposed 5 per cent spectra for rocky and soils sites.

50

5.2 DESIGN LATERAL FORCE

Buildings and portions thereof shall be designed and constructed, to resist the effects of
design lateral force as a minimum. The design lateral force shall first be computed for the
building as a whole. This design lateral force shall then be distributed to the various floor
levels. The overall design seismic force thus obtained at each floor level, shall then be
distributed to individual lateral load resisting elements depending on the floor diaphragm
action.
Design Seismic Base Shear:
The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear (V B) along any principal direction
shall be determined by the following expression:
VB = Ah W
Where,
Ah = Design horizontal acceleration spectrum value using the fundamental natural period T in
the considered direction of vibration, and
W = Seismic weight of the building

5.3 FUNDAMENTAL NATURAL PERIOD

The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration (Ta), in seconds, of a momentresisting frame building without brick infill panels may be estimated by the empirical
expression:
51

Ta = 0.075 h0.75
= 0.085 h0.75

for RC frame building

for steel frame building

Where,
h = Height of building, in m. This excludes the basement storeys, where basement walls are
connected with the ground floor deck or fitted between the building columns. But it includes
the basement storeys, when they are not so connected.
The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration (Ta), in seconds, of all other
buildings, including moment-resisting frame buildings with brick infill panels, may be
estimated by the empirical expression:
Ta = 0.09
d
Where,
h = Height of building, in metres
d = Base dimension of the building at the plinth level in m, along the considered direction of
the lateral force.

5.4 DISTRIBUTION OF DESIGN FORCE

1) Vertical Distribution of Base Shear to Different Floor Levels:
The design base shear (VB) shall be distributed along the height of the building as per the
following expression:
Qi = VB Wi hi2
nj=1 Wj hj2
Where,
Qi = Design lateral force at floor i,
Wi = Seismic weight of floor i,
hi = Height of floor i measured from base, and
n = Number of stories in the building is the number of levels at which the masses are located.

2) Distribution of Horizontal Design Lateral Force to Different Lateral Force Resisting

Elements:
In case of buildings whose floors are capable of providing rigid horizontal diaphragm action,
the total shear in any horizontal plane shall be distributed to the various vertical elements of
lateral force resisting system, assuming the floors to be infinitely rigid in the horizontal
plane.
In case of building whose floor diaphragms cannot be treated as infinitely rigid in their own
52

plane, the lateral shear at each floor shall be distributed to the vertical elements resisting the
lateral forces, considering the in-plane flexibility of the diaphragms.
Table showing percentage of imposed load to be considered during seismic weight
calculation.

5.5 DETERMINATION OF LATERAL LOADS

Example 1:
Determine the lateral forces on two storey unreinforced brick masonry building situated
at Roorkee.
Building data:
Plan size = 20m 20m
Total height of the building = 6m (each storey height = 3m)
Weight of roof = 2.5 kN/m2
Weight of the walls = 5 kN/m2
Live load at roof = 0
Live load at floors = 1 kN/m2
(25% of imposed load, if imposed load is lesser than 3 kN/m2)
Zone factor (Z) = 0.24
Importance factor (I) = 1.0
Response reduction factor (R) = 1.5
Spectral acceleration (Sa/g) = 2.5
Soil = Type II (Medium Soil)
The seismic dead load at roof level (Wf):
Weight of roof = 2.5 20 20 = 1000 kN
Weight of walls = (5 4 20 3) / 2 = 600 kN
Weight at roof level (Wr) = 1000 + 600 = 1600 kN
The seismic dead load at second floor level:
Weight of the second floor = 2.5 20 20 = 1000 kN
Weight of walls = (5 4 20 3) = 1200 kN
Weight of live load = 1 20 20 0.25 = 100 kN
Total weight at second floor (W2) = 1000 + 1200 + 100 = 2300 kN
Total weight of building = 1600 + 2300 = 3900 kN
53

The natural period of the building as per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002
T = 0.09 h/d = 0.09 6 / 20 = 0.12 Sa /g = 2.5
The base shear is,
VB = Ah W = [(Z/2)(I/R)(Sa/g)] W = [(0.24/2)(1.0/1.5)(2.5)]3900 = 780 kN
Vertical distribution of base shear to different floor levels is
At roof level,
Qr = 780 [(1600 62) (1600 62 + 2300 32)] = 573.74 kN
At second floor level,
Q2 = 780 [(2300 32) (1600 62 + 2300 32)] = 206.26 kN

Example 2:
Determine the lateral forces on two storey unreinforced brick masonry building.
Building Data:
Permissible compressive strength of masonry (fm) = 2.5 N/mm2
(Assuming unit strength = 35 MPa and mortar H1 type)
Permissible stresses in steel in tension = 0.55 fy
(Use high strength deformed bar (Fe 415) i.e. fy = 230 N/mm2)
Live load on roof = 1.0 kN/m2 (for seismic calculation = 0)
Live load on floor = 1.0 kN/m2
Thickness of floor and roof slab =120 mm
Weight of slab = 3kN/m2 (Assuming weight density of masonry = 25 kN/ m3)
Thickness of wall = 250 mm
Weight of wall = 5 kN/m2 (Assuming weight density of masonry = 20 kN/m3)
Seismic zone = V
Zone factor (Z) = 0.36
Importance factor (I) = 1
Response reduction factor (R) = 3.0
Direction of seismic force = E-W direction
Seismic weight calculations:
Dead load and live load at roof level:
1) Weight of the roof = 3 8 15 = 360 kN
2) Weight of walls = 0.5 {2(8 + 15) 4 5} = 460 kN
3) Weight of live load = 0 8 15 = 0 kN
Weight at roof level (Wr) = 360 + 460 + 0 = 820 kN
Dead load and live load at floor level:
1) Weight of the floor = 3 8 15 = 360 kN
2) Weight of walls = 2 0.5{2(8 + 15) 4 5} = 920 kN
3) Weight of live load = 1 8 15 = 120 kN
54

Weight at second level (Wf) = 360 + 920 + 120 = 1400 kN

Total seismic weight of the building (Wr + Wf) = 820 + 1400 = 2220 kN
Time period calculations:
Ta = 0.09 8/8 = 0.032 sec
Sa/g = 2.5, for T = 0.032
Ah = Z I Sa = (0.36/2) (1/3) (2.5) = 0.15
2RG
The total design lateral base shear (VB) along the direction of the motion is given by,
VB = Ah W = 0.15 2220 = 333 kN
The design lateral base shear (VB) is distributed along the height of the building.
Lateral force at roof level = 333 {820 82 (820 82 + 1400 42)} = 233.35 kN
Lateral force at roof level = 333 {1400 42 (820 82 + 1400 42)} = 99.65 kN

CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO ATC 40
6.1 PERFORMANCE LEVELS
A performance level describes a limiting damage condition which may be considered
satisfactory for a given building and a given ground motion. The limiting condition is
described by the physical damage within the building, the threat to life safety of the building's
occupants created by the damage, and the post-earthquake serviceability of the building.
Target performance levels for structural and non-structural systems are specified
independently". Structural performance levels are given names and number designations,
while non-structural performance levels are given names and letter designations, Building
Performance Levels are a ceilings and light fixtures have not been braced or anchored and
could be highly disrupted and produce falling hazards.
55

6.2 EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION

Earthquake ground motion is combined with a desired performance level to form a
performance objective. The earthquake ground motion can be expressed either by specifying
a level of shaking associated with a given probability of occurrence (a probabilistic
approach), or in terms of the maximum shaking expected from a single event of a specified
magnitude on a specified source fault (a deterministic approach). The level of ground motion
is expressed in terms of engineering characteristics for use in design. A response spectra or
an equivalent series of simulated recordings of earthquake motions are used for this purpose. .
The following are the three levels of earthquake ground motion:
1) The Serviceability Earthquake (SE): Ground motion with a 50 per cent chance of being
exceeded in a 50-year period.
2) The Design Earthquake (DE): Ground motion with a 10 per cent chance of being
exceeded in a 50-year period.
3) The Maximum Earthquake (ME): Maximum level of ground motion expected within the
known geologic framework due to a specified single event (median attenuation), or the
ground motion with a 5 per cent chance of being exceeded in a 50 year period.
6.3 GROUND FAILURE
Ground failure can be the result of the following hazards:
Liquefaction
Land sliding
Surface fault rupture
1) LIQUEFACTION:
Liquefaction can occur in certain types of saturated soils that are shaken strongly enough and
long enough for the soil to lose a substantial amount of strength (because of high pore water
pressure). Liquefaction can cause settlement as well as lateral spreading or slides of certain
soils. In either case, permanent ground surface deformation occurs that can cause the
foundation or a portion of the foundation, of the building to settle or displace downward
and/or laterally.
2) LAND SLIDING:
Earthquake-induced land sliding of a slope can occur when earthquake and gravity forces
within the slide mass temporarily exceed slope stability. The value of ground acceleration
within the slide mass required to initiate slope instability is called the critical or yield
acceleration. Land sliding can cause relatively minor slides or affect a large hillside.
Typically, slide displacement accumulates (gets larger and larger) with each cycle of
earthquake shaking that exceeds the critical acceleration level. Large landslides can affect
buildings situated on the slide mass as well as buildings just below the slide.
6.4 CONCRETE FRAME SYSTEMS
Concrete frames are monolithically cast systems of horizontal framing beams and vertical
framing columns that provide lateral resistance through bending of horizontal and vertical
framing elements. Concrete frame buildings commonly include interior beam-column frames
and perimeter pier-spandrel frames. Other interior framing systems, designed only for vertical
loads, should also be considered in the evaluation of the building's ability to resist lateral
forces. These interior gravity load supporting frame systems often include horizontal one or
two way flat slabs or joist framing in lieu of beams.
56

6.5 CONCRETE FRAME-WALL SYSTEMS

Concrete frame-wall buildings typically possess a complete gravity frame system, essentially
independent of the concrete walls, to support vertical loads (see Figure 5-3). However, in
some instances concrete walls may carry some local vertical gravity loads.
Concrete frame-wall buildings can include, for example, exterior perforated walls with short
piers and deep spandrels, interior concrete walls near stair and elevator cores, or perimeter
frames with concrete infill walls. The buildings in this category generally have monolithically
cast-in-place reinforced concrete horizontal floor and roof systems. Various concrete floor
and roof framing systems used with this building type include flat plate, pan joist or beam,
one-way slab, and two way slab or waffle slab systems. Concrete frame wall buildings were
popular for institutional uses, such as government offices, hospital wards, schools, university
buildings, court buildings, and prisons.
6.6 RETROFITTING STRATERGIES
A retrofit strategy is a basic approach adopted to improve the probable seismic performance
of the building or otherwise reduce the existing risk to an acceptable "level. Both technical
strategies and management strategies can be employed to obtain seismic risk reduction.
Technical strategies include such approaches as increasing building strength, correcting
critical deficiencies, altering stiffness, and reducing demand. Management strategies include
such approaches as change of occupancy, incremental improvement, and phased construction.

6.7 RETROFIT SYSTEM

A retrofit system is the specific method used to achieve the selected strategy. For example, if
the basic strategy is to increase building strength, then alternative systems that may be used to
accomplish this strategy could include addition of new shear walls, thickening of existing
shear walls, and addition of braced frames. While the retrofit systems are closely tied to the
strategies, it is not necessary to select a specific system in order to evaluate the applicability
of a given strategy. However, it is necessary to select a specific system in order to complete a
design.
6.8 DESIGN CONTRAINTS
Design constraints are factors other than the building's structural characteristics that affect the
ability of a retrofit strategy or system to be effectively implemented. Design constraints that
may affect the applicability of a given retrofit strategy include the intended performance
objectives, design and construction cost limits, the project schedule, historic preservation
requirements, the effects on building appearance and floor space layout, the effects on
building occupancy both during and after project construction, and issues of project risk.
6.9 ALTERNATE RETROFIT STRATERGIES
57

A wide range of technical and management strategies are available for reducing the seismic
risk inherent in an existing building. Technical strategies are approaches to modifying the
basic demand and response parameters of the building for the Design Earthquake. These
strategies include system completion, system strengthening, system stiffening, and enhancing
deformation capacity, enhancing energy dissipation capacity, and reducing building demand.
In addition to technical strategies, a number of alternative management strategies should also
be considered. Management strategies could include decisions to implement the retrofit while
the building remained occupied; to vacate the building until the retrofit could be performed;
to accept the existing risk and not retrofit; to change building occupancy so that the risk is
acceptable; to demolish the building and replace it with an alternative facility; to implement
the technical strategy on a phased basis over a number of years; or to retrofit on a temporary
basis until replacement facilities can be obtained. Additional management strategies could
include performing all work on the building exterior possibly to minimize the impact on
building occupants, and performing all work on the building interior, in order to preserve the
building's exterior appearance.
As a building responds to earthquake ground motion, it experiences lateral displacements
and, in turn, deformations of its individual elements. At low levels of response, the element
deformations will be within their elastic (linear) range and no damage will occur. At higher
levels of response, element deformations will exceed their linear elastic capacities and the
building will experience damage. In order to provide reliable seismic performance, a building
must have a complete lateral force resisting system, capable of limiting earthquake-induced
lateral displacements to levels at which the damage sustained by the building's elements will
be within acceptable levels for the intended performance objective. The basic factors that
affect the lateral force resisting system's ability to do this include the building's mass,
stiffness, damping, and configuration; the deformation capacity of its elements; and the
strength and character of the ground motion it must resist.
6.10 SYSTEM COMPLETION
System completion strategies are applicable to structures that have the basic components of
an adequate lateral force resisting system, including diaphragms and walls or frames, but that
lack some details required to make the system complete or to ensure that the system behaves
as intended.
1) Chords, Collectors, and Drags:
Diaphragm, chords, collectors and drags may be constructed of new reinforced concrete
beams/struts or of flush-mounted steel plates or members with drilled-in anchors. Where
there are existing beams, these may be converted to collector elements by enhancing their
capacity or providing strengthening at end connections.
2) Element Connectivity:
Most concrete structures are monolithically constructed and have adequate nominal
interconnection between elements. Buildings that incorporate precast elements may require
some supplemental interconnection of elements. This is typically achieved by adding steel
hardware between elements at their end connections.
3) Anchorage and Bracing of Components:
To achieve some performance objectives, the architectural, mechanical, and electrical
components of the building must be adequately braced and anchored to resist inertial forces
and the drifts the building is expected to experience in response to earthquake ground motion.
58

6.11 SYSTEM STRENGTHENING AND STIFFENING

System strengthening and stiffening are the most common seismic performance improvement
strategies adopted for buildings with inadequate lateral force resisting systems. The two are
closely related but different. The effect of strengthening a structure is to increase the amount
of total lateral force required to initiate damage events within the structure. If this
strengthening is done without stiffening, then the effect is to permit the structure to achieve
larger lateral displacements without damage.
1) Shear walls: The introduction of shear walls into an existing 'concrete structure is one of

2)

3)

4)

5)

the most commonly employed approaches to seismic upgrading. It is an extremely

effective method of increasing both building strength and stiffness. A shear wall system is
often economical and tends to be readily compatible with most existing concrete
structures.
Braced frames: Braced steel frames are another common method of enhancing an
existing building's stiffness and strength. Typically, braced frames provide lower levels of
stiffness and strength than do shear walls, but they add far less mass to the structure than
do shear walls, can be constructed with less disruption of the building, result in less loss
of light, and have a smaller effect on traffic patterns within the building.
Buttresses: Buttresses are braced frames or shear walls installed perpendicular to an
exterior wall of the structure to provide supplemental stiffness and strength. This system
is often a convenient one to use when a building must remain occupied during
construction, as most of the construction work can be performed on the building exterior,
minimizing the inconvenience to building occupants. Sometimes a building addition
intended to provide additional floor space can be used to buttress the original structure
added seismic resistance.
Moment resisting frames: Moment-resisting frames can be an effective system to add
strength to a building without substantially increasing the building's stiffness. Moment
frames have the advantage of being relatively open and therefore can be installed with
relatively minimal impact on floor space.
Diaphragm strengthening: Most concrete buildings pave adequate diaphragms.
Exceptions occur where large openings are present or where offsets in the vertical
elements of the system produce locally high demands. Methods of enhancing diaphragms
include the provision of topping slabs, metal plates laminated onto the top surface of the
slab, or horizontal braced diaphragms beneath the concrete slabs. For buildings with
timber diaphragms, diaphragm strengthening can be achieved by increasing the existing
nailing in the sheathing, replacing the sheathing with stronger material, or overlaying the
existing sheathing with plywood.

59

REFERENCES
1) Pankaj Agarwal and Manish . Earthquake Resistant Design Of Structures

60