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2
Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

(a)

Describe what happens to the chromosomes during each of the following stages of
mitosis.
Prophase
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
Metaphase
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
Anaphase
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
Telophase
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(4 marks)

(b)

Complete the table to give two differences between mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis

Meiosis

(2 marks)
6

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The diagram shows one method of cloning mammals.

Body cell
from adult
mammal

Egg

Nucleus
removed

Nucleus
removed

Egg without
nucleus

Nucleus

Mitosis

New individual

(a)

Explain why the new individual will be genetically identical to the adult mammal from
which the body cell was taken.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(b)

Suggest why a nucleus from a body cell is used instead of a nucleus from a sperm or an
egg.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

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(c)

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of producing mammals by cloning rather than
by sexual reproduction.
(i)

advantage
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(ii)

disadvantage
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
5

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11

Alpha-l-antitrypsin (AT) is a protein needed to prevent the breakdown of the elastic tissue
in the lungs. Some people have a different form of the gene for AT. These people cannot
produce the AT protein.
(a)

What term is used to refer to different forms of a gene?


.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(b)

People who are unable to produce AT can be treated with AT extracted from the milk
of genetically engineered sheep. These sheep are produced by inserting the human AT
gene into the fertilised eggs of sheep. These eggs are allowed to develop into embryos
which are then implanted into surrogate sheep.
Suggest one reason why
(i)

only a few live births result from the large number of embryos implanted;
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(ii)

only 1 in 20 of the female sheep born produce AT in their milk.


.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(c)

When sheep capable of producing AT in their milk are allowed to breed, some of their
female offspring are also able to produce milk containing AT.
(i)

Explain how the ability to produce milk containing AT is passed from mother to
offspring.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(ii)

Suggest why only some of the female offspring produce milk containing AT.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
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2004 24/9/03 9:22 am Page 2

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2
Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

The diagrams show four stages of mitosis.

Stage A

Stage B

Stage C

Stage D

(a)

(i)

Name stage A.
.........................................................
(1 mark)

(ii)

Starting with stage C, give the stages A to D in the correct order.


C

............

.............

.............

(1 mark)

(iii) Describe and explain the appearance of one of the chromosomes in stage B.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
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(b)

Colchicine is a substance that prevents the formation of the spindle in mitosis. Dividing
cells were treated with colchicine. This stopped them dividing. After a few hours, the
colchicine was removed and the cells began to divide again. The diagram shows the
chromosomes from one of the treated cells at stage B after the cell began dividing again.

(i)

What has happened to the chromosome number?


.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(ii)

Suggest an explanation for the change in the chromosome number.


.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
6

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(a)

Explain the importance of meiosis in the life cycles of organisms which reproduce
sexually.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(3 marks)

(b)

The diagram shows the life cycle of a moss plant.

Embryo
(2n)

Sporeproducing
moss plant
(2n)

Spore (n)

Gamete-producing
moss plant
Zygote

Male gamete
Female gamete

On the diagram mark with an M where meiosis takes place.


(1 mark)

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(c)

The diagrams show the male and female gametes of the moss, drawn to the same scale.

Haploid nucleus

Cytoplasm
Gamete A

Gamete B

Which gamete is the male? Give two reasons for your answer.
Male gamete......................................
1 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
2 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
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(a)

The photographs show two stages in mitosis of a plant cell.

Name stages A and B. In each case describe what is happening to the chromosomes.
(i)

Stage A ....................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(ii)

Stage B ....................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(b)

Describe two events during interphase which prepare a cell for mitosis.
1 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
2 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
6
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(a)

During meiosis, one chromosome from each homologous pair goes to each of the cells
produced. Explain why this is important.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(b)

The diagram shows the life cycle of a fern plant. Drawings of the chromosomes during
cell division are shown for the stages that give the spore-producing plant and the
gamete-producing plant.
Stage A

Sporeproducing plant
Spores

Zygote
Stage B

Male gamete

Female gamete

(i)

Gameteproducing plant

What is the diploid number of chromosomes in this fern plant?


...................................................
(1 mark)

(ii)

Explain the difference in the number of chromosomes at stages A and B.


.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

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(iii)

Are the male and female gametes produced by mitosis or meiosis? Explain your
answer.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
6

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10

(a)

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Give three ways in which vegetative propagation is different from sexual reproduction.
1 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
2 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
3 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(3 marks)

(b)

Maize seeds bought from seed companies grow into plants that give a high yield of grain.
Unfortunately, seeds produced by these plants by sexual reproduction do not grow into
high-yielding plants. This means that farmers have to buy new seeds each year, instead
of using seeds saved from their own crop.
Some weed plants can produce seeds without sexual reproduction. They use a type of
vegetative propagation called apomixis to do this. Research is under way to isolate the
genes for apomixis and insert them into high-yielding maize plants.
(i)

Suggest and explain two advantages to farmers of using high-yielding maize plants
with apomixis genes.
1 ..........................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
2 ..........................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(ii)

Suggest two reasons why some people are against the introduction of apomixis
genes into crop plants.
1 ..........................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
2 ..........................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
7

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3
2

The diagram represents a cell from a fruit fly in which the diploid number is eight.

(a)

Draw a diagram to show


(i)

this cell during anaphase of mitosis;

(2 marks)
(ii)

the chromosomes in a gamete produced from this cell by meiosis.

(2 marks)
(b)

Explain why meiosis is important in sexual reproduction, apart from producing gametes
that are genetically different.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
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10

A clone of frogs was produced by nuclear transfer. This procedure is summarised in the
diagram.

Fertilised egg of a brown frog

Unfertilised egg cells from a green frog

Increase in cell number


Nuclei removed and discarded
Embryo

Embryo cells separated

Nuclei removed from


embryo cells
Nucleus from brown frog
placed into each cell from
the green frog

Clone of embryos produced

(a)

What is a clone?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(b)

Name the type of cell division occurring in a developing embryo.


.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

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11

(c)

The embryo cells used are from an early stage of development. Explain why.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(d)

What would be the colour of the cloned offspring? Explain your answer.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(e)

Give two differences between the nuclei removed from the embryo cells and the nuclei
discarded from the unfertilised egg cells.
1 ....................................................................................................................................................
2 ....................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(f)

Only 30% of the cloned cells successfully developed into embryos. Suggest a reason for
this low success rate.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
7

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2
Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

The diagram shows a human sperm.

Acrosome

Mitochondria

5 m

(a)

Calculate the actual length of the sperm in m.

Answer .................................................m
(1 mark)

(b)

The acrosome contains enzymes. Suggest the function of these enzymes in fertilisation.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

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(c)

What is the function of the mitochondria in the sperm?


.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(d)

Many animals produce a large number of sperms. Explain the advantage of producing
a large number of sperms.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
7

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(a)

The drawing shows a stage of mitosis in an animal cell.

(i)

Name this stage of mitosis.


.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(ii)

Describe and explain what happens during this stage which ensures that two
genetically identical cells are produced.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(b)

The graph shows the relative amounts of DNA per cell during two successive cell
divisions in an animal.
6
X
5
4

Amount of
DNA per cell / 3
arbitrary units
2
1
0
Time

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(i)

What stage of the cell cycle is shown by X?


.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(ii)

Apart from an increase in the amount of DNA, give one process which occurs
during stage X which enables nuclear division to occur.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(iii)

How many units of DNA would you expect to be present in a gamete formed in
this animal as a result of meiosis?
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(c)

The table shows the average duration of each stage of the cell cycle in the cells of a
mammalian embryo.

Stage

Mean duration /
minutes

Interphase

12

Prophase

50

Metaphase

15

Anaphase

10

Telophase

42

Give one piece of evidence from the table which indicates that these cells are
multiplying rapidly.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
7

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Plant tissue culture is a method used to propagate plants. The flow diagram shows one method
of plant tissue culture.

Small piece (explant) of


tissue is removed from a
plant, e.g. bud, shoot,
root tissue

Using sterile conditions the


explant is transferred to a
culture vessel containing
nutrients

A mass of unspecialised
cells (callus tissue)
develops

Callus tissue is
transferred to a new
culture medium
containing nutrients and
plant growth regulators

New shoots or roots


develop

Developing plants are


separated and grown
under optimum
conditions

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(a)

Name the type of reproduction involved in plant tissue culture.


.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(b)

Give two advantages of producing plants using this method rather than from seeds.
1 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
2 ....................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

(c)

Why is a viral infection more likely to destroy a complete batch of plants grown by plant
tissue culture than a batch of plants grown from seeds?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(d)

Callus tissue develops into either shoots or roots depending on the relative
concentration of the plant growth regulators used. Use your knowledge of genes to
suggest how these plant growth regulators determine the type of plant tissue formed.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
5

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Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

1 An egg cell from a cow was fertilised in a laboratory and allowed to develop into an
eight-celled embryo. This was split into four parts, each of which developed into a new
embryo. This is shown in the diagram. The new embryos were later transferred into
different surrogate cows.
Embryo split
into four
Male gamete
+

Fertilisation

Female gamete

Cell division

Zygote

Cells
develop
into
embryos

Eight-celled
embryo

(a) Explain why the new embryos produced are a clone.


.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
(b) If embryos with more than eight cells are split up, the separated cells fail to develop
into new embryos. Suggest why.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
(c) Give two advantages to a farmer of using embryos produced by this procedure.
Advantage 1 .......................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Advantage 2 .......................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

5
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2

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(a) Boxes A to E show some of the events of the cell cycle.

Chromatids separate

Nuclear envelope
disappears

Cytoplasm divides

Chromosomes condense and


become visible

Chromosomes on the equator


of the spindle

(i) List these events in the correct order, starting with D.


D

(1 mark)

(ii) Name the stage described in box E.


...................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
(b) Name the phase during which DNA replication occurs.
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

Question 2 continues on the next page

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10
5

(a) Apart from increasing genetic variation, explain why meiosis is important in organisms
which reproduce sexually.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
(b) Figure 3 shows the chromosomes in a diploid cell.
Figure 3

Diploid
cell

Gametes

Complete Figure 3 to show the four different combinations of these chromosomes in


the gametes produced by meiosis.
(2 marks)

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(c) Figure 4 shows the main stages in the production of pollen grains in a flowering plant.
Figure 4
Mitosis

Meiosis

Pollen mother
cell
2 nuclei
Immature pollen
grains

Mature pollen
grains

The diploid number of chromosomes in this plant is sixteen. How many chromosomes
would there be in
(i) the nucleus of an immature pollen grain; .................................................................
(ii) one of the nuclei of a mature pollen grain? .............................................................
(2 marks)
(d) In tissues that produce gametes, there is a greater proportion of cells undergoing
meiosis in male tissue than in female tissue. Suggest one advantage of this.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

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Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

(a) The photographs show two stages in mitosis.


A

Name stages A and B. Describe what is happening to the chromosomes in each stage.
(i) Stage A .....................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
(ii) Stage B ......................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
(b) A clone of genetically identical animals can be obtained from one embryo.
Explain how.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
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(a) During gamete formation in animals, diploid cells undergo cell division to produce
haploid gametes.
(i) Name the type of cell division which produces haploid gametes from diploid
cells.
...................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
(ii) Describe what happens to the chromosomes during this cell division.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
The diagram shows the life cycle of a fungus.

Spores (n)
Asexual
reproduction
involving spore
production

Spore-producing
structure

Different individuals
of the same species (n)

(2n)

Gamete-producing
structures

(b) On the diagram mark with


(i) the letter F where fertilisation takes place
(ii) the letter M where meiosis takes place.
(2 marks)

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(c) When large amounts of nutrients are present, the fungus reproduces asexually.
Explain one advantage of this.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

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3

(a)

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(i) Describe one way in which the structure of a male gamete is different from the
structure of a female gamete.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)
(ii) Explain the importance of this difference in structure.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(1 mark)

(b)

(i) The chromosome number is halved during meiosis. Describe how.


...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)
(ii) It is important that gametes contain the haploid number of chromosomes.
Explain why.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

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8
5

(a) The diagram shows a stage of mitosis.

Spindle fibre

Describe what happens in the next stage of mitosis.


.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

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(b) Spindle fibres are polymers made from tubulin monomers. The removal of tubulin
monomers causes spindle fibres to shorten.
Scientists investigated the effect of the rate of tubulin removal on the speed of
movement of chromatids during mitosis. The results are shown on the graph.

Speed of
movement of
chromatids

Rate of tubulin
removal

What do these results suggest about the role of spindle fibres in the movement of
chromatids during mitosis?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(2 marks)

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7 Children with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (SCID) cannot produce the many
types of white blood cells that fight infections. This is because they do not have the
functional gene to make the enzyme ADA.
Some children with SCID have been treated with stem cells. Stem cells can divide and
develop into any type of blood cell, including white blood cells.
The treatment used with the children is described in the diagram.
Functional gene
for ADA isolated

Stem cells isolated


from the childs bone
marrow

Many copies of
the gene made

Gene inserted
into a virus

Virus carries gene


into stem cells

Genetically engineered stem


cells injected back into the
child

(a) Using the information given, suggest and explain two reasons why stem cells were
used in this treatment.
1 .........................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
2 .........................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(4 marks)

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(b) A child was treated with genetically engineered stem cells. The graph shows the
number of functioning white blood cells in the child during the year following
treatment. Children who do not suffer from SCID have between 5000 and 8000 white
blood cells per mm3 of blood.

7000
6000
5000
Number of
functioning
white blood
cells per mm3
of blood

4000
3000
2000
1000
0

10 11 12

Time after stem cells injected / months

Describe and explain these results.


.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(3 marks)

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