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Chapter 5:Genetic Control & Protein Synthesis

(Week 10 & 11)
PowerPoint Slides
by Ms Lina Tang

Learning Objective (s)

Understanding photosystem
Understanding the light dependent and light independent
reaction of photosynthesis
Understanding the structure of a dicotyledonous leaf
Understanding limiting factors in photosynthesis

Learning Outcome (s)

Explain the cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Outline the processes in Calvin cycle
Describe the structure of a dicotyledonous leaf and
relate the structure to its role in photosynthesis
Discuss limiting factors in photosynthesis

Figure 1: The diagram shows how energy enters an

ecosystem as light which is captured and converted into
the chemical energy of food

 During photosynthesis, the chlorophyll traps energy from

sunlight.

This energy is used to combine water and carbon

dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen.
The captured energy in plant material becomes the
ultimate source of food, because animals either eat
plants or other animals.

 Energy, unlike matter, is not recycled and does not

remain in an ecosystem.

Some of the energy is used to drive the chemical

reactions of the body that keep the organism alive
For example, during life processes such as respiration,
some energy is used. However, most energy is
converted into heat, which is released

 In this way, most of the energy that enters an ecosystem

as light leaves the ecosystem as heat.

A one way flow of energy occurs in all ecosystems as

energy is transferred from one organism to another as
shown

Light energy > Autotrophs > Heterotrophs > Heat energy

 Autotrophs organisms that can use an inorganic

carbon source in the form of carbon dioxide
Organic molecule = compound including carbon and hydrogen

Heterotrophs organisms that need a ready-made

organic supply of carbon

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis transfers light energy into chemical
potential energy of organic molecules

Photoautotrophs green plants, the photosynthetic

prokaryotes and both single-celled and many-celled
protoctists (including green, red and brown algae)

 Chemoautotroph
Autotrophs that do not depend in light energy, but use chemical
energy sources
Include the nitrifying bacteria in the nitrogen cycle
They obtain their energy from oxidising ammonia to nitrite, or
nitrite to nitrate

 Photosynthesis trapping (fixation) of carbon dioxide and its

subsequent reduction to carbohydrate, using hydrogen from
water
Overall equation:
light energy in the presence of chlorophyll

nCO2 + nH2O --------> (CH2O)n + nO2

carbon dioxide

water

carbohydrate

oxygen

Hexose sugars (glucose) and starch are commonly formed:

light energy in the presence of chlorophyll

6CO2 + 6H2O --------> C12H2O6+ 6O2

 In photosynthesis, two sets of reactions are involved:

Light-dependent reactions
Only take place in the presence of suitable pigments which absorb
certain wavelengths of light
Light energy splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen (waste
products)
Light energy also needed to provide chemical energy (ATP) for the
reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate in the light-independent
reactions

Light-independent reactions

1. Trapping the light energy

Photosynthetic pigments
Absorbs different wavelengths of light
Pigments
Chlorophylls
Carotenoids

Colour
Chlorophyll a

Yellow-green

Chlorophyll b

Blue-green

carotene

Orange

Xanthophyll

Yellow

Trapping the light energy

Light energy captured is then converted to chemical
energy

Absorbed light energy excites electrons in the pigment

molecules
Ultraviolet light absorbed (high in energy), causing
electrons to be excited

Photosynthesis pigments
There are two kinds:
Primary pigments, eg chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a 2 forms of it with slight difference in the absorption
peaks

Accessory pigments, eg other forms of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll

b, caretenoids

 The photosynthesis pigments are arranged in light

harvesting clusters, known as photosystems

Several hundreds of accessory pigment molecules

surround a primary pigment molecule and the energy of
the light absorbed by the different pigments is passed to
the primary pigment
Primary pigment acts as a reaction centre

Photosystem
Photosystem I
Arranged around a molecule of chlorophyll a with a peak
absorption at 700nm
Reaction centre therefore is called P700

Photosystem II
Based on a molecule of chlorophyll a with a peak absorption of
680nm
Reaction centre called P680

Light-dependent reactions
Synthesis of ATP in photo-phosphorylation and the
splitting of water by photolysis to give hydrogen ions

Hydrogen ion combines with NADP to make reduced

NADP
ATP and reduced NADP are passed from the lightdependent to light-independent reaction

 Phosphorylation of ADP to ATP can be

Cyclic
OR
Non-Cyclic
depending on the pattern of electron flow in one or both
photosystems

Cyclic phosphorylation
Only in Photosystem I
Light is absorbed by PS I, passed to chlorophyll a (P___)
An electron in the chlorophyll a molecule is excited to a
higher energy level and emitted from the chlorophyll
molecule

 Instead of falling back into the photosystem and losing

its energy a fluorescence, it is captured by an electron
acceptor and passed back to chlorophyll a molecule via
a chain of electron chains
During this process, enough energy is released to
synthesize ATP from ADP and Pi
ATP then passes to the light-independent reactions

Non-cyclic phosphorylation
Light is absorbed by both photosystems and excited
electrons are emitted from primary pigments of both
reaction centres (P680 and P700)
These electrons are absorbed by electron acceptors and
pass along chains of electron carriers leaving the
photosystem positively charged

 The P700 of PS I absorbs electrons from PS II

P680 receives replacement electrons from splitting
(photolysis) of water
ATP synthesized as the electron loss energy whilst
passing along the carrier chain

Light-independent reactions
Main process fixation of carbon dioxide,
Carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon sugar,
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to give two molecules of a
3-carbon compound, glycerate-3-phosphate (G3P)

 G3P (in presence of ATP and reduced NADP) is reduced

to triose phosphate (3-Carbon sugar)

This is the point where carbohydrate is produced in

photosynthesis
Some of the triose phosphates are condensed to form
hexose phosphates, sucrose, starch and cellulose or
even converted to acetylcoenzyme A to make amino
acids and lipids

 Other triose phosphate regenerate ribulose

bisphosphate (RuBP)

This cycle worked by Calvin, Benson and Bassham in

between 1946 1953, usually called Calvin cycle
Most common enzyme in the world ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase (rubisco) catalyses the
combination of CO2 and RuBP

Chloroplast

Leaf structure and function

Leaf main photosynthetic organ in dicot
Broad, thin lamina, a midrib and a network of veins
May also have a leaf stalk (petiole)

 To act as a photosynthetic organ, the leaf must:

Contain chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments arranged
in such a way that they can absorb light
Absorb carbon dioxide and dispose of the waste product oxygen
Have a water supply and be able to export manufactured
carbohydrate to the rest of the plant

 Large surface area of lamina absorbance of light

Its thinness minimises the diffusion pathway for
gaseous exchange
Arrangement of leaves on the plant (the leaf mosaic)
absorb as much light as possible

 Upper epidermis made of thin, flat, transparent cells

which allow light through the cells of the mesophyll
below
Waxy transparent cuticle secreted by the epidermal
cells, provide watertight layer
Cuticle + epidermis protective layer

Palisade cell
Palisade cell main site for photosynthesis (more
chloroplast per cell compared to spongy mesophyll)

These cells had being adapted for maximum light

absorption

 Long cylinders arranged at the right-angles to the upper epidermis

Large vacuole with a thin peripheral layer of cytoplasm

Chloroplasts can be moved by the proteins in the cytoplasm, to

absorb more light or to protect them against excessive light
The cylindrical cells pack together with long, narrow air spaces
between them large surface area between cell and air
Thin cell walls gases diffuse through them easily

Spongy mesophyll
Adapted mainly as exchange surface for carbon dioxide
and oxygen

Smaller amount of chloroplasts photosynthesis occurs

here, only at high light intensities
Irregular packing and large air spaces large surface
area of moist cell wall for gaseous exchange

Lower epidermis
Lower epidermis has about the same structure as upper
epidermis, except that most mesophytes have many
stomata in the lower epidermis (some have few stomata
in the upper epidermis too)
Stomata pores in the epidermis through which
diffusion of gases occurs
Each stoma is bounded by two sausage-shaped guard
cells

 Changes in the turgidity of the guard cells cause them to

change shape so that they open and close the pore

When the guard cells gain water, the pore opens; as

they lose water, it closes
Guard cells have unevenly thickened cell walls
The wall adjacent to the pore is very thick, whilst the wall
furthest from the pore is thin

 Guard cells gain and lose water by osmosis

A decrease in water potential is needed before water
can enter the cells by osmosis
This is achieved by the active removal of hydrogen ions,
using energy from ATP and hence, the intake of
potassium ions

How a stoma is opened

1. ATP-powered proton pump actively transports H+ out of
the guard cell

2. The low H+ concentration and negative charge inside

the cell causes the K+ channels to open. K+ diffuses
into the cell down a electrochemical gradient.
3. The high concentration of K+ inside the guard cell
lowers the water potential.

4. Water moves in by osmosis, down a water potential

gradient.

5. The entry of the water increases the volume of the guard

cells, so they expand. The thin outer layer wall expands
most, so the cells curve apart, and the stoma is
opened.

Chloroplast

 Chloroplast photosynthetic organelle

Each chloroplast surrounded by an envelope of two
phospholipid membranes
System of membranes also runs through the ground
substance, stroma
Thylakoids series of flattened fluid-filled sacs, forming
stacks, called grana

 Membrane of grana provides large surface area which

holds the pigments, enzymes and electron carriers
needed for the light-dependent reactions
The arrangement is to enables the absorption of
maximum amount of light

 Stroma the site for light-independent reactions

It contains enzymes for the Calvin cycle, sugars and
some organic acids
There are also small (70s) ribosomes, a loop of DNA,
lipid droplets and starch grains in te stroma
The loop of DNA codes for some of the chloroplast
proteins, made by chloroplasts ribosomes, but other
chloroplast proteins are coded for by the DNA in the
plant cell nucleus

Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis

1. Light intensity

2. CO2
3. Temperature

References:
Jones, M. 2007, AS/A Level Biology (Cambridge
International Examinations), 2nd edn, Cambridge
University Press.
Lee, S.C. & Liew, S.L. (2011). Success in Biology For
STPM (vol 1). Fajar Bakti.
Lee, S.C., Liew, S.L. & Choong, N.M. (2011). Success in
Biology For STPM (vol 2). Fajar Bakti.

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Key terms:
Term

Definition

Photophosphorylation

The synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi using light

energy in photosynthesis