MOUNT ROYAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL EDUCATION

Assignment No 1
Climate Change

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

GNED 1101 Section 010
For
Dr. Ravi Darwin Sankar

By
Elisabeth Klingenberg

October 20, 2015

ABSTRACT
This paper seeks to consider the reality of climate change and its affects on
water availability and quality on a global scale as well as look into the
method of adaptive water governance and integrated water resource
management as potential solutions to this growing crisis. We will look into
the principles included in adaptive governance and how they interplay with
integrated water governance as well as look at a few examples of countries
that have adopted a form of these methods into their response to climate
change.

INTRODUCTION
As climate change continues to affect our society and economy at an
increasing and potentially exponential rate, the conversation moves toward
water availability. These extreme climate conditions can be detrimental to
such a vital resource both in quantity and quality and thus, new solutions
need to be made in order to maintain this vital resource for the future. In
most cases across the world current policies do not take climate changes
increasing affects into account when setting up policies and therefore, will not
be effective for the long term (Watts, 2011, p.88). Main sources of water
include: rivers and lakes, ground water, rain water, runoff water, glaciers,
reservoirs, desalination plants, and those not for human consumption such as
effluent and grey water (Watts, 2011, p.103). Water demands include: house
and private, industrial and commercial, including power generation,
agriculture and horticulture, and government uses such as firefighting (Watts,
2011, p.106). Considering the vast sources and demands for water it is

understandable that controlling, and or manipulating, this resource can be

tricky and any manipulation can cause issues for supply later on in the
system. However, climate change is demanding we reassess our method to
access water as well as to consider the importance of our current uses of
water; as put by Watts (2011) climate change demands a significant shift in
approach to water supply planning (p. 86).
METHODOLOGY
Most research within this paper is derived from hydrological models, as
well as interviews in the case of Hurlbert and Montanas (2015) research.
Generally hydrological models include a similar process: a program is created
while current data is used as a baseline, or calibration, the program is then
tested within the current parameters to see its accuracy, then the program is
manipulated to forecast results for multiple parameters considering various
situations, and finally the data from the manipulated trials is compared to
current projections (Watts, 2011, p. 89).
WATER AVAILABILITY AND SHORTAGE
Climate change affects both the supply and demand of water
availability and quality as well as places an external pressure on the system
through natural disasters such as floods, heat waves, droughts, stormsetc.
(Watts, 2011, p. 120). It is expected that by 2050 climate change and
socioeconomic influence will cause moderate cases of water shortage for up
to five billion people, while three of those five billion people will experience
an extreme case of water shortage (Schlosser et al., 2014 p. 359). Worldwide,
water shortage extremes seems to be concentrated within the 10 th and 40th

latitude, with Africa facing the greatest concern for water shortage, as found
by Schlosser et al.s (2014) cumulative hydrological model indicates (p. 348).
This assumption was quantitative in nature as the researchers on this project
derived what they call a water stress index, WSI, from previous research and
models. This WSI considers the amount of water needed over the addition of
water inputted into the system and runoff rates (Schlosser, 2014, 346).
Therefore, a higher WSI indicates a greater need for water than water
available thereby causing a greater stress on the system. Schlosser et al.
(2014) also looked into how socioeconomic forces affect the WSI of countries
world wide in addition to the affect of climate change alone. They defined
socioeconomic forces as being the stresses placed on water availability and
quality by means of economic growth and direct pollution from people.
Climate changes impact was defined by the change in quantity and quality of
water availability by means of natural influences and global climate
extremes, such as receding glaciers, run off, droughtsetc. (Schlosser, 2014,
p. 342). Their research indicated the socioeconomic factors alone would be
responsible for increasing WSI 6% across the world; meaning 1.8 billion
people will be in a moderate-extreme water shortage conditions, 80% of said
people being in developing countries (Schlosser et al., 2014, p. 341, 348).
Schlosser et al. (2014) found that for most developed countries
socioeconomic factors placed a greater stress on water availability, while in
non-developed or developing countries climate change had a greater impact
on reducing water availability (Schlosser et al., 2014, 358). Finally, in
addition to the impact climate change and socioeconomic factors have on
direct water availability and quality, socioeconomic factors and climate

change affect leakage within the system. As pointed out by Watts (2011), all
supply leaks and the greater stress put on the supply itself results in a
greater leak rate (p.113). This increase in leak rate additionally calls society
to reconsider our method of extracting, containing and manipulating
available water; one suggestion includes a change in water governance.
ADAPTIVE WATER GOVERNANCE
Adaptive water governance is a theory of means to control and
manipulate water supply and demand in the midst of an increasing threat by
climate change. Adaptive water governance provides a way to maintain
control over multiple groups with different purposes and visions within
maintaining our water resource while preparing the future of the resource as
well as making the best use of the current situation. With the goal of
increasing adaptability in our response to climate change Herrfahrdt-Phle
(2012) considered adaptive water governance theory against, and together
with, the widely accepted Integrated Water Resource Management, IWRM,
theory. The current idea that technical solutions will be sufficient for
managing the growing decrease in water availability is no longer acceptable,
especially considering a lot of these technical solutions are unaffordable for
the vast majority of populations faced with, or projected to face, an extreme
case of water deficit. Additionally, it is expected that these technical solutions
will be outweighed by the impact climate change will have on the system,
thereby rendering these solutions as ultimately ineffective (Herrfahrdt-Phle,
2012, p. 551). And so a call to institutionalize our response to climate change
occurs, and Herrfahrdt-Phle (2012) suggests we consider the amalgam of
water management, focused on applying solutions to the issue, and water

governance, the focus being on the coming to solutions for water

availability (Herrfahrdt-Phle, 2012, p. 552). Principles of these theories
include: participation, integration, efficiency, accountability and
transparency, responsiveness, flexibility as well as others shown in table 1. In
addition to the principles set out in table 1, accurate and extensive sources of
data are required to be able to implement such principles for both water
governance and IWRM. After all it is hard to be responsive, redundant and
flexible without appropriate data (Hurlbert & Montana, 2015, Access to
Information, para. 1). To summarize, by using governance and management
together in an integrated method we are able to establish a clear path for
dealing with climate change and its affects on water availability through
principles laid out in table 1. It is not enough to have people try their best to
mitigate the effect of climate change on their own, but rather a decentralized
and integrated authority is required to direct entire societies and countries
toward maintaining disappearing available water resources. However, while
these principles are required for proper control of our water resources, the

importance of each principle, relative to each other, is not outlined, as this

will be different for every socioeconomic system, culture, and geographic
region. (Herrfahrdt-Phle, 2012, p. 555-556). Therefore it is up to each
governance system to decide what is important for their situation at that
current point in time.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED WATER GOVERNANCE
Countries such as South Africa, China, Argentina and even Canada
have implemented components of this integrated water governance theory
into their public policies. South Africa, after the apartheid was dissolved in
1994, has implemented a policy of water governance and has developed a
reasonably good system (Herrfahrdt-Phle, 2012, p. 556). South Africa has
brought in water acts, legislation, new departments, and agencies all focused
on maintaining their water supply for the future, as well as adhering to many
of the principles of integrated water governance. Through this new overhaul
of their institutions, there been a huge increase in basic water accessibility

Note.Retrieved from Integrated and adaptive governance of water resources: the case of South Africa. Copyright 2012 by Springer-Verlag. Reprinted w

and sanitation for majority of the people in South Africa; increases of up to

30% (Herrfahrdt-Phle, 2012, p. 557). However, South Africa faces the issue
of maintaining the newly implemented infrastructures due to a lack in clear
authority and insufficient funds. Therefore, while South Africa exemplifies
great advances in water governance, and their adaptability to changing
conditions, they lack the funding and authoritative implementation
techniques to maintain their achievements (Herrfahrdt-Phle, 2012, p. 559).
Hurlbert and Montana (2015) consider two regions, Mendoza in Argentina and
Southern Alberta in Canada, similar in their supply and demand of water and
their implementation of water governance. In both regions, water is
provincially governed however; the manifestation of this political decision is
different for each country (Hurlbert & Montana, 2015, Government Policy on
Water and Drought, para. 1, 3). In Alberta water is regulated, water interests
are transferrable and an emergency plan is set in place, while in Mendoza
water regulation is rooted in bureaucracy where everyone has the exact same
rights across the region, meaning when shortages come about everyone must
reduce their usage equally (Hurlbert & Montana, 2015, Government Policy on
Water and Drought, para. 5-6). Each country implements some of the
principles from table 1 into their policy; however, these principals are only
minimally implemented. Furthermore, neither country has fully considered
the impact of climate change on their water management and instead
focuses on short-term shortages due to droughts or natural disasters
(Hurlbert & Montana, 2015, Responsiveness, para. 6). In order to move
toward a fully integrated water governance system Alberta needs to improve
coordination between different agencies, establish clear laws and water acts
that need to be followed, as well as invest in accumulating adequate data

with reference to climate changes effect on water availability in the area.

Mendoza, instead, needs to focus on becoming more flexible with their water
management as well as introduce a clear and vocal multi-level decentralized
governing force (Hurlbert & Montana, 2015, Reflexivity and Social Learning,
para. 4). In conclusion, one case study that offers insight into climate
changes affects is found in China. China has a massive population and is
consistently one of the top emitters of pollution thereby increasing the impact
climate change has globally (Friedlingstein et al., 2010, p. 43). Interestingly,
China has become almost polarized north to south with regard to how climate
change has affected the country. The Yellow River, located in the northern
part of the country, deals with droughts and a scarcity in run off,
contrastingly the Yangtze River in the south has issues with flooding and an
excess of runoff (Friedlingstein et al., 2010, p. 46). Due to this polarization
some parts of China experience a greater yield in agriculture, particularly in
the west, while others are facing detrimental losses in agriculture
(Friedlingstein et al., 2010, p. 50). China has been able to implement
reasonably effective policies, laws and governing forces in order to sustain
their water resources; however, this polarization speaks to the need of
flexibility and adaptability in integrated water governing (Friedlingstein et al.,
2010, p. 50).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
As climate changes affects are variable, as seen in Friedlingstein et al.s
(2010) study of China, our response to climate change must also be variable
moreover it must be adaptable. I feel it is necessary for countries to establish
clear plans and protocols for dealing with climate changes effects,

particularly with respect to water availability and quality. I believe that by

putting an authoritative figure and institutions in control of water
management we will be more effective at mitigating negative effects of
climate change. Countries are vast, with large diversities in population and
geography; however, governments, laws, and institutions are able to unite
such large populations. For that reason I feel integrating water governance
into these institutions would be the most effective way to reduce the effects
of climate change and water shortage. This may be difficult for developing
nations as they often lack clear and respected authority. Alternatively,
developing nations could instead have a greater chance of success; as they
continue to establish their country, authority and laws it would be easier for
these countries to fully embody new and advanced water governance
theories as they progress. While I feel change in governance is of the primary
importance for dealing with water shortage due to climate change, I feel
individuals also play a role in changing current techniques. Government and
institutions will not change their policies if they do not feel the support from
their constituents. It is our duty to express our desire for new methods and to
take climate change seriously. But perhaps even greater we need to change
our own perspective on climate change and how we play a role in escalating
the effects of climate change. Watts (2011) explained that people do not
choose to consume water; they wash clothes, or water the garden, or clean
themselves (p. 123). It is possible we do not realize that our actions have
consequences; when leave the water running while brushing our teeth we are
not just keeping it on for efficiency, we are also wasting a resource, a
resource which is becoming limited. We as individuals need to consider our

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choices in how we use our water, why we need the water, where the water is
coming from, and we need to think seriously about its importance to us. From
there we need to express the need for new systems, methods, institutions,
governing forces, laws and policies to maintain our water availability and
quality. Governments and institutions need to realize the importance of water
and begin to implement such policies and laws to account for climate change
and socioeconomic affects on water availability while individuals also must
realize the importance of water and vocalize the need for change in our
approach to water shortage. After all, climate change demands a
significant shift in approach to water supply planning (Watts, 2011, p. 86).

REFERENCES
Friedlingstein, P., Peng, S., Liu, H., Fang, J., Yu, Y., Ciais, P., . . . Zhou, L.
(2010). The Impacts of climate change on water resources and
agriculture in China. Nature, 467(7311), 43-51.
doi:10.1038/nature09364
Herrfahrdt-Phle, E. (2012). Integrated and adaptive governance of
water resources: The case of South Africa. Regional
Environmental Change, 13(3), 551-561. doi:10.1007/s10113012-0322-5
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Hurlbert, M. A., & Montana, E. (2015). Dimensions of adaptive water

governance and drought in Argentina and Canada. Journal of
Sustainable Development, 8(1), 120. doi:10.5539/jsd.v8n1p120
Schlosser, C. A., Strzepek, K., Gao, X., Fant, C., Blanc, ., Paltsev,
S., . . . Gueneau, A. (2014). The future of global water stress: An
integrated assessment. Earth's Future, 2(8), 341-361.
doi:10.1002/2014EF000238
Watts, G. (2011). Water for people: Climate change and water
availability. In F. Fung, A. Lopez, & M. New (Ed.), Modeling the
Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources (pp. 86-127).
Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
doi:10.1002/9781444324921.ch4

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