Pressure Vessels

RE/PV-1

Purpose
Introduction of the governing codes and basic
considerations and concepts of pressure vessel design,
fabrication, inspection, and modification.
Attendees will understand the basis for a vessels design
conditions and will be able to determine the required
thickness for internal pressure.
Attendees will also understand the purpose of common
refinery pressure vessels and the function of their
internals.
Finally, attendees will have a general understanding of
vessel fabrication and repair or alteration.

RE/PV-2

Contents

Codes and Standards

Pressure Vessel Shapes, Types, and Uses
Internals
Design Conditions
Design
Pressure testing
Evaluation, Repair, and Alteration

RE/PV-3

Codes and Standards

RE/PV-4

Codes and Standards

The purpose of this module is to identify the

principle Codes and Standards that govern
the design and fabrication of pressure vessels
and to provide guidelines for finding the
appropriate documents

RE/PV-5

Design Codes

Provide rules for the design of equipment adequate

for design conditions determined by others.

Do not provide rules or guidance for the

determination of design conditions, materials of
construction or corrosion allowance.

Defined scope of most design codes includes new

construction only, not revamps, repairs, or rerates.

Documents referenced by the Code are treated as

part of the Code.

RE/PV-6

Design Codes

Code, in its entirety, and all of its provision must be

used.

Laws and regulations in force at the site determine

the Code (and perhaps the edition) that must be used
and could limit use of referenced or auxiliary
documents (e.g., Code Cases).

Calculations must be stamped by an experienced,

licensed, professional engineer.

Fabrication should be performed in a shop with an

ASME Code Stamp, signifying certification by ASME
(and successful inspection by ASME).
RE/PV-7

Codes and Standards

ASME Section I Rules for Construction of

Power Boilers

Used for steam generating equipment and

certain auxiliary equipment and piping

Often used for power plants that cannot

afford to be down; therefore, design a little
more conservatism into them

Uses factor of safety of 3.5 for tensile failure

RE/PV-8

Codes and Standards

ASME Section VIII Division 1 Rules for

Construction of Pressure Vessels

Used for most unfired refinery equipment

Uses factor of safety of 3.5 against tensile failure

Required for external pressure and internal

pressure greater than 15psig (1.05kg/cm2(g)).
Limited to 3000 psig (210kg/cm2(g)) internal
pressure (less as a practical matter)

RE/PV-9

Codes and Standards

ASME Section VIII Division 2 Rules for

Construction of Pressure Vessels Alternative Rules

Used for high pressure refinery equipment

Uses factor of safety of 3 against tensile failure,

resulting in thinner vessels (compared to Division 1)

Not permitted in the creep range of materials

Requires additional design analysis (e.g., local and

thermal stress, fatigue) and quality control (e.g., full
X-ray, stringent material requirements)

Usually becomes economical if the shell thickness (per

Division 1) exceeds 4 inches (100mm)
RE/PV-10

Codes and Standards

ASME Section II, Part D Materials Properties

Lists allowable stresses for use with other Code
Sections
Provides other useful properties such as yield and
ultimate tensile strength
Properties listed as a function of temperature

ASME Section V Non Destructive Examination

ASME Section IX Welding and Brazing

Qualifications
RE/PV-11

Codes and Standards

ASME Code Cases and Interpretations

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Cases and Interpretations

Code Cases are auxiliary to the Pressure

Vessel Code. If accepted by the local
governing body they carry the legal weight
and authority of the Code.

Interpretations are committee responses to

questions but carry no legal weight. They
exist for many Sections of the Code.

RE/PV-12

Codes and Standards

TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers

Association)
Applies to shell and tube exchangers.
Provides some additional criteria, otherwise
references the pressure vessel Code.

Company Standards often supplement the

Code, imposing additional requirements.

RE/PV-13

Codes and Standards

Other counties have similar Codes and Standards

applicable to pressure vessel design. Europe has the
new Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) as an
umbrella procedure.
Primarily addresses risk, safety (e.g., Essential Safety
Requirements (ESR)), and traceability issues
Requires approval by the Notified Body, 3rd Party
Organization, or User Inspector
ASME vessel (and piping design procedures meet the
requirements, materials do not
ASME is working towards compliance

RE/PV-14

Codes and Standards

Other, more specialized, Codes and Standards

are mentioned in the following sections of this
seminar.

An extensive list of applicable documents issued

by API, ASME, PIP, and others is included as
Attachment A to the handout.

RE/PV-15

Pressure Vessel Shapes,

Types, and Uses

RE/PV-16

Vessel Types and Uses

In this Section, the primary shapes, types and

uses of refinery pressure vessels will be
described.

The attendee will be able to recognize common

shapes and orientations of pressure vessels, and
will understand the primary uses of pressure
vessels in refineries.

RE/PV-17

Pressure Vessels

Pressure Vessel definition - A container in

which an occurrence takes place at a different
pressure than atmospheric.

In refineries, pressure vessels may up to 200

feet (60M) tall or 50 feet (15M) in diameter.
They are designed for pressures up to
3000psig (210kg/cm2(g)) or temperatures of
1600F (870C).

RE/PV-18

RE/PV-19

Overall Geometry

The sphere is the most economical shape for

pressure retention, but is rarely used

Used for some gas storage vessels, particularly

high pressure

The cylinder is the shape of nearly all refinery

pressure vessels
Easy to fabricate
Constant cross section (eases internal
fabrication and installation, distribution and
collection of process fluids, and process control)

RE/PV-20

RE/PV-21

Overall Geometry

Most vessels are oriented vertically unless there

is a specific (process) reason to be placed
horizontally (e.g., gravity separators)
Simplifies support
Minimizes footprint
Allows gravity to aid process
Dense fluids fall, light fluids are displaced
upwards
Easier to modify volume by changing the length

RE/PV-22

Overall Geometry

Vessel dimensions (diameter and length) and

orientation are controlled by process requirements
(e.g., space velocity, fluid distribution, catalyst
contact, residence time, tray design and spacing, etc.)

Cylinder length to inside diameter ratio of 3 or 4 is

typically used
Provides good mix of inside volume, cross-section
area, and vessel cost (e.g., wall thickness)

Inside diameter and length dimensions are set to

increments of 6 inches or 100 mm
Matches commonly available head sizes and can
lengths for the shell

RE/PV-23

Tangent and Weld Lines

Tangent Line

Point at which the head curvature begins

Weld Line

Point at which the head and shell are welded

together

The weld line is very rarely the same point as the

tangent line. This moves the weld to a point where
fit is easier (e.g., both sections are cylindrical) and
away from any stress concentrations present at the
geometrical joint.
RE/PV-24

Tangent and Weld Lines

Overview

RE/PV-25

Common Refinery Pressure Vessels

Fractionators
Separates fluids by boiling/condensation point
Primary method of separation in a refinery
Requires energy (heat) input
Tall, vertical vessels

Separators/Receivers
Separate fluids of different densities (e.g., vapor and liquid)
Does not require energy input
May be horizontal or vertical

Surge Drums
Provide volume to absorb variations in fluid flow,
providing a smooth downstream fluid flow
Allows continued short term operation if feed is interrupted
May be horizontal or vertical

RE/PV-26

Common Refinery Pressure Vessels

Reactors
Contain chemical reactions that are the heart of the
process
Nearly always vertical
Contain a catalytic material (generally granular)
Most severe operating conditions in the process unit

Regenerators

Regenerate catalyst in circulating Catalyst Systems

Miscellaneous
Heat Exchangers
Pump casings

RE/PV-27

Common Head Styles

Hemispherical
Elliptical
Conical
Flanged and Dished
Torispherical
Flat

Hemispherical and 2:1 Elliptical are the

most common.

RE/PV-28

Internals

RE/PV-29

Internals

This section describes common internals and their

function.

The attendee will be able to recognize commonly

encountered internals and understand their
function.

RE/PV-30

Internals

Internals are normally used to control the flow

of fluids within a pressure vessel. Proper
distribution, collection, and mixing of fluids is
critical to the performance of the process.

Other internals are used for auxiliary purposes,

such as support of catalyst beds.

RE/PV-31

Fractionation

Rising vapor contacts with descending liquid.

The vapor strips light components from the
liquid.
The liquid absorbs heavy components from
the vapor.
Internals maximize the vapor/liquid contact
and distribute the vapor through the liquid.

RE/PV-32

Fractionation Devices - Trays

All the liquid goes
down each downcomer

Active Area
or Bubbling
Area

Downcomer
Seal Area

Downcomer Area

Odd and even trays are identical but are rotated 180 from each other
RE/PV-33

Fractionation Devices

Trays
Sieve
Simplest, most common style
2 to 1 operating range
Valve
Cost about 20% more than sieve tray
5 to 1 operating range
Subject to plugging
Bubble Cap
Cost may be 3 times valve tray
Good if no weeping is critical
Cartridge (an assembly of several trays inserted as a
unit into small diameter vessels
The number of trays is a process variable, determined by
the boiling point differences, the number of products sought,
and the purity required

RE/PV-34

Valves, Bubble Cap, Sieve

RE/PV-35

RE/PV-36

Tray Concerns

Flooding

Vapor velocity entrains too much liquid to tray above

Tray hydraulics and downcomer size do not allow all
of the liquid to flow to tray below
High tray pressure drop or downcomer exit loss
High downcomer velocity may entrain vapor

Weeping, i.e., loss of liquid through the vapor holes

Turndown capacity
Corrosion, debris, dislodged trays
Fouling/plugging of vapor openings
RE/PV-37

Fractionation Devices - Packing

Packing
Random (dumped)
Raschig Rings
Pall rings
Raschig Super-Ring
IMPT (Koch-Glitsch)
Nutter Rings (Sulzer)
Structured - Koch-Glitsch, Sulzer, Others.

Cost may be 5 times sieve tray

Pressure drop may be 1/5 that of sieve tray
RE/PV-38

Raschig Products
Photos From Raschig

Super-Ring

Various Products

RE/PV-39

VIDEO

RE/PV-40

Separators

Commonly used for desalters, separators,

receivers, coalesces, knockout drums, etc

Separates 2 or 3 fluids (vapor and liquid)

Separates by means of density closer

densities are more difficult to separate

Also depends upon droplet size, material

viscosity, and drag coefficient

RE/PV-41

Exercise

Why are separators used? Give two or three

uses. What are some examples in a refinery?

RE/PV-42

Separators

Separates by means of one or more of the

following methods
Momentum Denser materials respond more
slowly to sudden changes flow of direction
Settling Heavier materials settle to the
bottom, displacing lighter materials upwards
Coalescing combines small droplets into
larger droplets to promote settling

RE/PV-43

Horizontal and Vertical Separators

RE/PV-44

Separators

Settling is governed by terminal velocity, i.e.,

how fast the dispersed material moves
relative to the continuous phase material

Vessel is sized so that separation occurs

before the continuous fluid leaves the vessel
Targeting separation of smaller droplets
increases the size of the vessel
Different fluids (e.g., vapor or liquid) may be
the continuous fluid in different areas

RE/PV-45

Types of Vessels

Vapor/Liquid Separator
Tangent Length
M.R.

M.R.
Vapor Out

Min.

Min.

Inlet Distributor
C
L

I.D.

150
Min.
D

Example:Overhead Receiver

Liquid Out
RE/PV-46

Types of Vessels

Liquid/Liquid Separator

Note: Use side inlet and horizontal distributor if liquid volume

flows are approximately equal.

RE/PV-47

Types of Vessels

Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Separator
Low Heavy Liquid Rate
Tangent Length
M.R.

M.R.
Vapor Out

Feed
A

Min.

Inlet Distributor
I.D.

CL

6"

Min.
F
Light Liquid Out

Example: HP Separator

G
Heavy Liquid Out

RE/PV-48

Types of Vessels

Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Separator
Equivalent Light and Heavy Liquid Rates

RE/PV-49

Types of Vessels

Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Separator
Low Light Liquid Rate

RE/PV-50

Separators

Separator Internals
Inlet distributors
Provide momentum separation
Deposit each material in the portion of the
vessel where it is predominant (e.g., liquid
on the bottom)
Vortex breakers
Eliminate liquid vortexes at outlets
Vortex may reentrain/mix fluids

RE/PV-51

Vertical Distributors
for Horizontal Vessels

RE/PV-52

Vortex Breakers
Four Way
Baffle

3 - 3/4" x 1/4" Bars

Spaced at 120

2D

8" Dia.
for 3"
6" Dia.
under 3"

2D
D

4"

2"

3"

4" Through 8"

3" and Under

10" and Over

2D

2D

Four Way
Baffle

8"
4"
2"

4" Pipe

D Pipe

2"
D

3" and Under

4" Through 8"

D Pipe

3"

D
10" and Over

H = as specified

Raised Vortex Breaker Required for Two Liquid Phases

RE/PV-53

Separators

Mist Eliminators

Used to dry vapor streams

Coalesce small liquid droplets together
Promotes gravity separation of very small droplets
Creates a complex, labyrinth, path forcing droplets
to collide with each other or parts of the device
Types
Vanes
Centrifugal Elements (e.g., cyclones), separate
by momentum differences
Filters
RE/PV-54

Vane Mist Eliminators

RE/PV-55

Centrifugal Elements

RE/PV-56

Separators

Types
Electrostatic precipitators (separate via attraction
to/repulsion from electrically charged plates
Mesh blankets
The most common type.
Consist of a maze of small, intertwined wires.
Usually 6-12 inches (150-300mm) thick in the
direction of flow.
High efficiency for a range of velocities,
processes, droplet sizes, fluids. Wide
turndown (or turnup) flexibility.

RE/PV-57

Separators

Mesh Blankets
Low cost
Easily installed or replaced (even as a retrofit
Low P and operating costs
Plugs easily, not suitable for fouling services

RE/PV-58

Typical Horizontal Installation

of a Sectional Mesh Blanket

RE/PV-59

Surge Drums

Surge drums are wide spots in the line

Sized to provide a desired residence, or
retention, time

Required volume is a function of the flow rate

Set by process or operation considerations
Usually between 5 and 30 minutes
Has few internals
May be a dedicated vessel or part of another
vessel, like a separator or fractionator

RE/PV-60

Reactors

Flow may be axial or radial

Required internals may be complex
Contain catalyst to promote the desired reaction
Internals contain and support the catalyst
Catalyst may have an inert material below (and
above) to help contain the small diameter catalyst
In circulating catalyst systems the internals
control the catalyst flow

RE/PV-61

Reactors

Internals evenly distribute, collect, and mix flow.

Maldistribution has severe process consequences.
Due to the severe design/operating conditions the
internals ore often made of a high alloy.
Damage to internals affects process performance
and may allow catalyst to escape and damage
downstream equipment.

RE/PV-62

Downflow Reactor
Inlet Distributor
V/L Tray
19 MM Balls
6 MM Balls
Tray Manway

Catalyst

3 MM Balls
Unloading Sleeve

6 MM Balls
19 MM Balls
Outlet Basket

RE/PV-63

Radial Flow Reactor

Catalyst Bed Coverplate

Scallop Shield

Centerpipe Shroud

Outer Screen

Catalyst Bed (Concentrically Loaded

around Centerpipe)
Centerpipe)

RE/PV-64

Design Conditions

RE/PV-65

Design Conditions

In this section the pressure and temperature

conditions used for pressure vessel design will
be defined and the means of determining
them outlined

The attendees will be able to understand the

basis for and meaning of the design
conditions specified for a pressure vessels

RE/PV-66

Process Design Considerations

Internal Pressure

Maximum Operating

Highest operating pressure foreseen for all

applicable cases (normal, turndown, startup
shutdown)

Design Pressure

Maximum operating pressure plus a safety

margin (a margin is not mandated by the Code)

RE/PV-67

Process Design Considerations

Internal Pressure

Internal Design Pressure

Typically the greater of

110 percent of the maximum operating pressure
maximum operating pressure plus 15 to 25 psi
(1.05 to 1.75 kg/cm2)
A minimum value set by the owner

Must accommodate the relief valve set point and

reclosure pressure (usually about percent below the
set point)

More responsive relief valves (e.g., pilot operated

valves) may permit a smaller margin, e.g., design for
105 percent of the operating pressure
RE/PV-68

Process Design Conditions

Exchanger Design Pressure

To avoid the need for an additional relief

valve, the low pressure side may be designed
for 10/13 of the high pressure side design
pressure

RE/PV-69

Process Design Conditions

Vacuum Design

Vacuum (external pressure) conditions are

specified for
Equipment that operates under vacuum
(including startup and shutdown)
Equipment is subject to vacuum during drainage
Where loss of reboiler or other heat to a gas with
a resultant cooling, even condensation, can result
in a vacuum

Design may be for full vacuum or a specified

partial vacuum
Design of all vessels for a minimum vacuum (e.g.,
2.5psig (0.175 kg/cm2(g)) is common
RE/PV-70

RE/PV-71

Process Design Considerations

Design pressure is defined to be at the top of

the vessel in its operating position

Mechanical design conditions at the bottom

should consider:
Liquid head
Upflow or downflow pressure drop
Hydrostatic test conditions

RE/PV-72

Process Design Conditions

Design Temperature

Normal Operating

Highest temperature expected during the

equipments operating cycle, including start and
end of run.

Design Temperature
Normal operating temperature plus a margin (a
margin is not mandated by the Code)
May set a minimum value (e.g., based on steamout)

If operation is cryogenic (cold), the margin is a

minus value. Alternative margins may be
considered where the metallurgy is affected
RE/PV-73

Design Temperature

Cold Wall Design

Flange Classes

Internally insulated vessels allow lower shell design

temperature and possibly a lower and less expensive
metallurgy
Watch the effect on the flange class when setting the
design temperature

Consider the effect of elevated design temperature

on the allowable design stress. Due to creep
considerations, the allowable stress can drop
rapidly at elevated temperatures.
RE/PV-74

Specified Design Conditions

The specified design conditions are those resulting

in the most severe head/shell requirements

Generally the greatest temperature and greatest

pressure

If the greatest temperature and pressure do not

act simultaneously, the governing case may not
include either or both
Different portions of the equipment may have
different design conditions

Consider need to accommodate pressure testing

RE/PV-75

Low Temperature Requirements

At low temperatures, many materials may

become brittle

ASME Code contains additional requirements

for these materials depending upon the
applicable MDMT

MDMT stands for Minimum Design Metal

Temperature

Is the lowest mean temperature of the metal (not

the internal fluid) considering many factors,
including operating temperature, low ambient
temperature, and auto refrigeration
RE/PV-76

Low Temperature Requirements

Application of additional requirements (e.g.,

impact testing) depends upon the material,
MDMT, and thickness

Figure UCS-66 of ASME Section VIII Division 1

is used to determine if Charpy V-notch testing is
required

Low temperature considerations (the MDMT)

may lead to a change in the metallurgy.

RE/PV-77

Name Plate

Name plates must be prominently affixed to all vessels

and contain the information called for by the Code in
Section UG-116. See the following slide.

The maximum allowable working pressure is the

maximum permissible pressure at the top of the vessel.
Its based on the actual metal thickness minus the
corrosion allowance. The design pressure is frequently
(and conservatively) used.

The Code Stamp indicates Code used and signifies that

the fabricator abides by ASME guidelines and has
passed their inspection.
RE/PV-78

Name Plate
Name of Manufacturer
psi at

Max. Allowable Working Pressure

W (if arc or gas welded)
RT (if Radio graphed)
HT (if Postweld heat treated)

F at
psi
Min. Design Metal Temperature
Manufacturers Serial Number
Year Built

RE/PV-79

Design

RE/PV-80

Design

This section introduces the basic methods and

considerations for determination of pressure
vessel shell and head thicknesses. The means of
accommodating openings (nozzles) is also
presented.

Attendees will be able to design simple vessels for

internal pressure and understand some of the
other factors influencing the shell thickness.
They will also understand comment methods of
providing nozzle reinforcement.
RE/PV-81

Design

Loadings causing stress in the shell

Internal or external pressure

Wind and seismic
Vessel and contents (internals, catalyst, fluids) weight
Attached equipment and piping
Thermal gradients
Impact
Residual stresses
Local stress concentrations due to discontinuities
Cyclic loads (pressure or thermal)

This following discussion focuses on internal

pressure, and touches on external pressure and
wind/seismic concerns

RE/PV-82

Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels

Derives the basic formulas for shell stress from

internal pressure

Presents the ASME Code pressure design

equations

Vessel design calculations must be performed by

an experience, licensed, professional engineer

RE/PV-83

Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels

Thicknesses determined from the presented

methods do not include the corrosion
allowance. The final thickness will be greater
to include the corrosion allowance and to
round to the next available plate thickness.

A glossary of terms is included in Appendix B.

RE/PV-84

ASME Code Design Thickness

Equations for Shells
Section VIII, Division 1

Cylindrical Shells

Circumferential stress (longitudinal joints)

PR
t=
SE 0.6P

Limits

t 1 R
2
P 0.385SE

RE/PV-85

ASME Code Design Thickness

Equations for Shells

Longitudinal Stress (circumferential joints)

PR
t=
2SE + 0.4P

Limits

t 1 R
2
P 1.25SE

For circumferential stress (longitudinal joints),

based on the outside radius

t=

PR O
SE + 0.4P
RE/PV-86

Common Head Styles

Hemispherical
Elliptical
Conical
Flanged and Dished
Torispherical
Flat (rare due to its large thickness for all but
very small vessels)

Hemispherical and 2:1 elliptical are by far the

most common styles
RE/PV-87

Hemispherical
versus 2:1 Elliptical Heads

Hemispherical

Optimal pressure containing shape

Half as thick as the shell
No sharp radius bends (e.g. knuckles) or stress
concentration points
Joint with the shell is more complex
More difficult to form or fabricate, fewer
potential vendors
Suitable for thick shells (> 2 inches (50mm))
(from a cost viewpoint)
RE/PV-88

Hemispherical vs. 2:1 Elliptical Heads

2:1 elliptical

Most common head style

Three dimensional elliptical geometry with a
depth equal to half the vessel radius
Same thickness as the shell
Easy butt weld detail at joint with the shell
Commonly available
Less volume and surface area than hemispherical
Knuckles are in hoop compression
Suitable for thin shells (< 2 inches (50mm)) (from
a cost viewpoint)
RE/PV-89

ASME Code Design Thickness

Equations for Shells and Heads

Spherical Shells
PR
t=
2SE 0.2P

Limits

t 0.356R
P 0.665SE

Spherical shells based upon the outside radius

PR O
t=
2SE + 0.8P

Note that this

equation is similar
to the equation used
for piping
RE/PV-90

Pressure Vessel Heads

Pressure Vessel Heads

t=

Ellipsoidal

PDK
2SEt
or P =
2SE 0.2 P
KD + 0.2t

where

1 D
K = 2 +
6 2 h

For a 2:1 ellipsoidal head K=1

RE/PV-91

ASME Code Design Thickness

Equations for Heads

Pressure Vessel Heads

Conical (without transition knuckle)

D

PD
t=
2 cos (SE 0.6P )
PD O
t=
2 cos (SE + 0.4P )

Limits:
Half Apex Angle, <30
P 1.25SE
RE/PV-92

ASME Code Design Thickness

Equations for Heads

Pressure Vessel Heads

Toriconical heads (conical portion)

PD
tc =
2 cos (SE 0.6P )

Limits r > 0.06DO

r > 3tk
mandatory if >30

Knuckle portion

PLM
2SE 0.2 P
Di
L=
2 cos
L
1

M = 3 +
r
4

tk =

tK

Di

tc
RE/PV-93

Pressure Vessel Heads

t

Pressure Vessel Heads

Torispherical

PLM
2SEt
t=
or P =
2SE 0.2P
LM + 0.2t

where

L
1
M = 3+

r
4

for the typical case where

r=0.06L and L=skirt OD,
0.885PL
t=
SE 0.1P

RE/PV-94

Weld Examination

Welds shall be examined by full or spot

radiography
Full Radiography of the entire length of the
weld joint
Spot Radiographic examination of one spot in
each 50 feet (15M) or fraction thereof for each
welder, weld method, or type of joint

Ultrasonic examination may be substituted for

radiography for the final closure seam if it is not
possible to obtain interpretable radiographs

RE/PV-95

Efficiency of Welded Joints (E)

(Excerpt from ASME Code Table UW-12)

Degree of Radiographic
Examination
No.

Type of Joint

Full

Spot

None

Double-welded butt joint or singlewelded butt joint with backing strip

which does not remain in place

1.00

0.85

0.70

Single-welded butt joint with backing

strip which remains in place

0.90

0.80

0.65

Single-welded butt joint without use

of backing strip

0.60

Type 1 joints are generally required for refinery vessels

Hemispherical and ellipsoidal heads are either seamless or 100%
radiographed and use a joint efficiency of 1
RE/PV-96

Allowable
Stress Table
Reproduced from ASME
Section II, Part D.
P-nos and Group Nos
are used to combine similar
materials for the purpose of
specifying postweld heat
treatment and welding
requirements.

RE/PV-97

Allowable
Stress Table
(continued)

Reproduced from ASME

Section II, Part D.
NP = not permitted.
The referenced notes
provide additional
requirements, cautions,
limitations, or comments.

RE/PV-98

Allowable
Stress Table
(continued)

Reproduced from ASME

Section II, Part D.
Values in italics are
governed by time
dependent (creep) effects,
and may deform over
time.
At elevated temperatures,
allowable stresses decline
rapidly. A small
temperature change may
lead to a large thickness
change.

RE/PV-99

Exercise

What is the approximate required thickness

of the following cylindrical vessel?

Material = SA 516, Grade 65

Inside diameter = 10 feet

Design temperature = 750 F

Design pressure = 500psi

Joint efficiency 0.85 (spot radiography)

RE/PV-100

Nozzle Details

Although nearly any orientation is possible, for

ease of design and reinforcement, nozzles should
be perpendicular to the shell

Nozzles (and reinforcement) in heads are

normally parallel to the vessel axis. To comply
with the above point they are normally located
within the center 80% of the head diameter

Although not prohibited by codes, avoid

locating nozzles in or near vessel weld seams

Nozzle and any reinforcement will interfere with

the ability to inspect and NDE the vessel weld
RE/PV-101

Nozzle Details

Nozzle to shell welds are difficult to examine,

especially to radiograph, because of the difficulty
in accessing welds between two components at a
right angle and the interference in the readings
caused by the geometrical changes

RE/PV-102

Vessel Fabrication
Nozzles

A. Pipe Couplings - Generally Avoided

C. Built-up Nozzles

B. Forged Steel Nozzles

D. Integrally Reinforced Nozzles

RE/PV-103

Flared Nozzles

For high pressure, high temperature, cyclic, and

other critical services, flared nozzles as shown on
the following slide are often used. They

Separate the mechanical and thermal stress zones

Remove mechanical stresses from the heat affected
zone at the weld
Improve welding access and permit the weld to be
radiographed
Smooth the stress transition from the heavy nozzle
forging to the shell
Are, however, expensive
RE/PV-104

Flared Nozzles

1
3

RE/PV-105

Nozzle Reinforcement

Nozzle opening reduces the shell strength

Replace cross-sectional area of metal removed

Available reinforcement includes excess shell and

nozzle thickness

Limits of effective reinforcement defined by the

code

RE/PV-106

Nozzle Reinforcement

Additional reinforcement may be provided by

surface pads, insert plates, thickened full or
partial shell courses, or thickened nozzle necks
(integrally reinforced)

RE/PV-107

Section A-A

Vent hole

RE/PV-108

Nomenclature and Formulas

for Reinforced Openings
rn

tn

Dp
Reinforcement zone

trn
te

2.5t or 2.5tn + te
Use Smaller Value
t

2.5t or 2.5tn Use

Smaller Value

tr
c

h
d or Rn + tn + t
use larger value

d
d or Rn + tn + t

RE/PV-109

Opening Reinforcement
A = Reinforcement area required
A1 = Area available in shell
A2 = Area available in outer nozzle
A3 = Area available in inner nozzle
A4 = Area available in welds
A5 = Area available in pad (if required)
A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 (if required)

(Special Code rules apply for closely spaced nozzles)

RE/PV-110

Computer Programs

Vessel designs are calculation intensive, and require

attending to many details and Code requirements.
Computer programs ease the number crunching
burden on the engineer and accommodate Code
requirements. Two programs are
COMPRESS
VCESage

Specialized finite element programs are used for

detailed local analysis
RE/PV-111

Pressure Testing

RE/PV-112

Pressure Testing

In this section the basic Code requirements

for pressure testing are outlined.

The attendee will understand the methods of

pressure testing, and their strengths and
weaknesses, and will also be able to determine
the required test pressure for given design
conditions.

RE/PV-113

Pressure Testing

Pressure testing is required by the ASME Code

Testing confirms the vessel integrity by stressing it to

a level greater than it will see in operation

Testing to be performed after all fabrication, welding,

and heat treatment is completed

Testing should occur prior to any painting or priming

Testing to be observed by the authorized inspector

RE/PV-114

Pressure Testing

Test pressure may be based upon either

The design pressure (this is the normal method)
MAWP of the full, corroded or uncorroded
thickness

Two types of pressure are accepted by the Code:

Hydrostatic
Pneumatic

RE/PV-115

Hydrostatic Pressure Testing

Vessel is filled with water and pressured to the

required value
Section VIII Division 1 minimum required test
pressure at all locations = 1.3 DP SC/SH
Use the lowest SC/SH ratio (This factor increases
the level of stress during test to the relative level
seen in operation)
Recommended test temperature is 30F (17C)
over MDMT
Temperature is of the metal, not the test fluid
Addresses the potential for brittle fracture

RE/PV-116

Hydrostatic Pressure Testing

Test is safer due to incompressibility of water

(or other fluid)

Little energy is stored in the test fluid under

pressure

Easy to see and detect leaks; large water

molecule may not reveal some small openings
May add a dye or luminescent material to see
leaks

RE/PV-117

Hydrostatic Pressure Testing

Adequate supply of suitable water may be

difficult to obtain

For example, where stainless steel is present,

chlorides are limited to 50ppm

Some environments and internals (e.g. refractory)

may make hydrostatic testing undesirable

RE/PV-118

Pneumatic Pressure Testing

Test pressure is provided by compressing air

or another gas
Section VIII Division 1 minimum required test
pressure at any point = 1.1 DP SC/SH
As with hydrostatic testing, pressure may be
based upon the design pressure or the full
corroded or uncorroded thickness
Use the lowest SC/SH ratio

Metal test temperature must be at least 30F

(17C) over the MDMT
RE/PV-119

Pneumatic Pressure Testing

Very dangerous due to stored energy in the

compressed gas

Heat of compression, and subsequent cooling,

may mean a loss of test pressure

Existence of a leak may be detected by a loss of

(i.e. difficulty maintaining) internal pressure

RE/PV-120

Pneumatic Pressure Testing

May be difficult to see leak locationcolored smoke

sometimes added

No extra weight or hydrostatic pressure to consider

Does not damage refractory or impact the process

RE/PV-121

RE/PV-122

Exercise

What is the required hydrotest pressure for

the following vessel?
Material = ASME SA 516 Grade 65
Design Pressure = 500psig
Design Temperature = 800F

RE/PV-123

Evaluation, Repair, and Alteration

RE/PV-124

Evaluation, Repair, and Alteration

This section introduces the concepts, common

means, and Codes applicable to repairs,
alterations, and the evaluation of damage to
pressure vessels.

The attendee will develop an understanding

of the requirements applicable to repairs and
alterations and will be aware of the means of
evaluating pressure vessels for continued
service.

RE/PV-125

Evaluation

If damage (e.g., corrosion, thinning, cracks, bulges) is

detected or metallurgical damage is suspected (e.g.,
cyclic or creep range operation), an evaluation for
continued service may be required

Some damage may not require repair

Isolated pitting corrosion
Local thin areas if
It is shallower than the corrosion allowance
There are no cracks, sharp corners or other stress
raisers (e.g., its not near a nozzle)
Thin areas deeper than the corrosion allowance may not
require repair if there are no cracks, sharp corners or
stress raisers

RE/PV-126

Evaluation

Significant damage requires repair or, alternatively, a

fitness for service (FFS) evaluation

The evaluation may determine that repair or replacement is

not required, a cost and downtime savings

Consider a formal fitness for service evaluation, especially

if the vessel

operated in the creep range

is deformed
has significant corrosion damage
experienced operational upsets including overpressure or
overheating
was subjected to cyclic loading
has been damaged (e.g. cracks) or deformed (e.g. bulges)
RE/PV-127

Evaluation

API 579 Fitness for Service, provides a basis for evaluation of

Brittle fracture (Section 3)

General metal loss (Section 4)
Local metal loss (Section 5)
Pitting corrosion (Section 6)
Blisters and laminations (Section 7)
Weld misalignment and shell distortion (Section 8)
Crack-like flaws (Section 9)
Creep range operation (Section 10)
Fire damage (Section 11)

API 579 considers three levels of evaluation

Level 1 Uses simple, conservative criteria with a minimum of inspection

and component date. Performed by plant inspector or engineer.
Level 2 uses the same input as level 1, but requires a more detailed
analysis. Performed by plant engineer of FFS expert.
Level 3 A detailed, precise, evaluation, requiring detailed inspection
and component data. Performed by an FFS specialist.
RE/PV-128

Evaluation

FOS calculations and their interpretation are

performed by specialists using software tools such as
PREFIS.

For service in the creep range, a remaining life

evaluation is necessary as a minimum. The evaluation
is performed by a specialist using OMEGA. The
older Larsen-Miller life fraction approach may also
be sufficient in some situations.

RE/PV-129

Exercise

In each of the following cases, what is your initial

evaluation of the flaw? In each case the flaw has
no sharp corners or cracks.

RE/PV-130

Repairs and Alterations

Scope of the familiar design codes covers new

construction only

For repairs and alterations (revamps), other documents

govern

As with codes for new construction, the applicable

document depends upon local laws and regulations
Two common documents are:
NB23 - National Board Inspection Code
API 510 - Pressure Vessel Inspection Code, Maintenance,
Inspection, Rating, Repair, and Alteration

RE/PV-131

Repairs and Alterations

Determine if vessel changes (including new design

conditions) qualify as a repair or an alteration
Use the applicable Code, e.g., NB-23
Repairs are restoration to original condition
using original fabrication methods
Alterations are changes in the pressure
containing shell
Requirements applicable to alterations are more
stringent than for a repair

RE/PV-132

Repairs and Alterations

All modifications must be designed and performed

in accordance with the governing Codes.

Design should be performed by an experienced,

licensed, professional engineer.

All work to be observed and approved by the

Authorized Inspector.

Vessel is registered with, for example, the National

Board. Complete National Board form R-1 for
repairs and R-2 for alterations (see Appendix D).

RE/PV-133

Repairs and Alterations

Rerates, i.e., evaluation for more severe operation

condition(s) are a special form of alteration

Suitability for service is determined per the original code

of construction.
Suitability of the materials for the intended atmosphere
must be checked, even if it has not changed.
Thoroughly inspect the vessel by both visually and
nondestructive means.
Perform a complete metallurgical evaluation to determine
the present metallurgical condition if damage is suspected
(e.g., creep, fatigue, embrittlement, etc). Removal and
testing of samples may be necessary.
Use of the new (often greater) allowable stresses may be
permitted if
The vessel was built after 1968
Impact test (Charpy V-notch) data is available
RE/PV-134

Repairs and Alterations

Repair methods include

Complete removal of shallow cracks, leaving a
thin area if the remaining thickness is sufficient.
Contour all surfaces and junctions.
Local thin areas and areas where deeper cracks
were removed may be restored by weld buildup.
PWHT may be necessary.
Replace shell sections.
Corners to be contoured
Remaining shell to be supported and stable
during replacement
PWHT may be required
Other repair methods (e.g., overlay plates) as
described in the Piping and Valve seminar.

RE/PV-135

Repairs and Alterations

Proper fabrication methods must be used for the

alteration, considering that the vessel has been in
service

More care may be needed to prevent damage (e.g.

maintenance of proper pre, during, and post-weld heat
temperatures, sequence of welding, dehydrogenization,
existence of coke)

Thoroughly inspect and possibly test the modifications

If the vessel is relocated, or the length/diameter is

increased, review wind and earthquake
RE/PV-136

FCC Repair
Replacement of FCC
cyclones, with the
vessel top head, may
qualify as a repair
Cut and reweld to be in
the cylindrical portion
to ease fit up

RE/PV-137

Questions

RE/PV-138