Aircraft Performance and Design

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198
Aircraft Performance
and Design
198.1 Aircraft Forces and Subsystems
Atmosphere Aerodynamic Forces Propulsion Subsystems
Weight Fractions
Francis Joseph Hale

North Carolina State University
198.2 Level Flight

198.3 Climbing Flight
198.4 Turning Flight
Two major considerations in the performance and design of an aircraft are its range and maneuverability.
Range deals with how far the aircraft can fly with a given fuel load and given payload under specified
flight conditions. Maneuverability treats turning rates, rates of climb, and acceleration. A performance
analysis starts with knowledge of the physical characteristics of an aircraft, either actual or hypothetical,
and determines how the aircraft will fly under various flight conditions. The converse of the performance
analysis is the design of an aircraft to meet a set of operational requirements and constraints. Design,
however, is an iterative process, and the first few tries, which yield major aircraft characteristics, may
be referred to as conceptual or feasibility designs. The performance analysis and preliminary design
processes are often intertwined in a series of iterations and it may be difficult to distinguish between
the two.
The flight path and behavior of an aircraft are determined by the interaction between its characteristics
and those of the environment in which it is operating namely, the atmosphere. The aircraft characteristics can be categorized as its physical characteristics, such as shape, mass, volume, and surface area;
the characteristics of the propulsion, guidance, and control subsystems; and the structural characteristics,
such as loading and temperature limitations and the stiffness (rigidity) of the structure. The environment
affects the flight of an aircraft through the field forces, surface forces, and inertia forces. The only field
force that needs to be considered is gravity, which appears as the weight and is a function of the mass of
the aircraft. The surface forces are the aerodynamic forces (lift, drag, and side forces), which are strongly
dependent on the shape and surface area of the aircraft, especially of the wings, and the properties of
the atmosphere. The inertia forces result from non-equilibrium processes and are very important in
dynamic and stress analyses of aircraft.
Aircraft operational units are still principally English and will be given preference over SI units in this
article with distance in nautical miles (nmi), airspeed in knots (kt) and feet per second (ft/sec), force
and weight in pounds (lb), and pressure in lb/ft2, where 1 nmi = 1.15 mi = 1.84 km; 1 kt = 1 nmi/h =
1.15 mi/h = 1.84 km/h = 0.51 m/sec; 1 ft/sec = 0.59 kt; 1 lb = 4.448 N = 0.4535 kg; and 1 lb/ft2 = 47.87 Pa.
2005 by CRC Press LLC
1586_book.fm Page 2 Tuesday, May 11, 2004 1:46 PM
198-2
The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
TABLE 198.1 Standard Atmosphere Ratios

Altitude (1000 ft)
Density ratio s
Sonic ratio a*
10
20
30
36
40
50
60
1.000
1.000
0.738
0.965
0.533
0.929
0.374
0.821
0.297
0.867
0.246
0.867
0.152
0.867
0.094
0.867
Note: ro = 23.769 104 lb-s/ft2; ao = 1116 ft/sec.
198.1 Aircraft Forces and Subsystems

Atmosphere
Although the standard atmosphere comprises a number of concentric layers surrounding the Earth, only
the first two layers of the lower atmosphere are of interest. The troposphere starts at sea level and is
characterized by a decreasing ambient temperature. At 36,089 ft (11,000 m) above sea level (the tropopause), the temperature becomes and remains essentially constant in the stratosphere until reaching an
altitude of 82,021 ft (25,000 m). In the troposphere, as the atmospheric temperature decreases so does
the local speed of sound a, thus affecting the Mach number M; in the isothermal stratosphere the sonic
velocity remains constant. Table 198.1 is an abbreviated listing, as a function of the altitude h, of the two
atmospheric ratios of most interest namely, the density ratio s (r/ro), where r is the atmospheric
density at altitude h and rp is the sea level density (r = ros), and the sonic ratio a* (a/ao). The standardday sea level values of ro and ao are given below Table 198.1.
A commonly used exponential approximation for the density ratio s is
s = r / r o @ exp(-h / b)
(198.1)
where b is an empirical factor with a generally accepted value of 23,800 ft (7254 m). Because the
atmosphere is assumed to be an ideal gas, variations in the actual temperature and pressure will produce
appropriate changes in the actual density. Consequently, on a hot day or with a below-standard barometric
pressure, the density will be lower than the standard value for that altitude and the aircraft and propulsion
system will perform as though at a higher altitude.
Aerodynamic Forces
In coordinated flight, the two principal aerodynamic forces are the lift L and the drag D. The lift is
perpendicular to the velocity (airspeed) of the aircraft and has the primary function of compensating for
the weight of the aircraft. The drag is parallel to the airspeed and resists the motion of the aircraft. The
wing is the major source of lift and drag, and is designed to maximize the lift while minimizing the drag.
Wing parameters of importance with respect to performance are (1) the wing span b, the distance
from wing tip to wing tip; (2) the average chord cw, the distance from the front (leading edge) of the
wing to the back (trailing edge); and (3) the wing area S, the area of one side of the wing to include the
area included by the fuselage. The ratio of the wing span to the average wind chord is the aspect ratio
AR of the wing, a measure of the narrowness of the wing. The following relationships are useful:
S = bc w ;
AR = b / c w = b 2 / S
(198.2)
The lift and drag forces can be obtained from the following expressions:
L = 12 r o sV 2 SC L = qSC L ;
D = 12 r o sV 2 SC D = qSC D
where q is the dynamic pressure and CL and CD are the dimensionless lift and drag coefficients.
(198.3)
198-3
Aircraft Performance and Design
20
(L/D)max
15
(L /D)
CD = 0.0165 + 0.0468CL2
10
3
2
Lift Coefficient, CL
FIGURE 198.1 Typical variation of L/ D with CL for a specified drag polar.
The drag polar is an expression for CD as a function of CL and is an important performance and design
parameter. The parabolic drag polar is an approximation that can be used with many subsonic (and thinwinged supersonic) aircraft configurations and can be written as
C D = C DO + KC L2 where K = 1 /(peAR)
(198.4)
CDO is the zero-lift drag coefficient of the aircraft, KC L2 represents the drag-due-to-lift coefficient, and e
is the Oswald span efficiency (on the order of unity and less). The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) or (CL/CD)
represents the aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft. It has a maximum value that is a design characteristic
of the aircraft. This maximum value (L/D)m cannot be exceeded, although the aircraft may, and usually
does, fly at lower values. The expression for the maximum (L/D) of a parabolic drag polar is
(L / D)m = 1 /[2(KC DO )1/2 ]
(198.5)
A large (L/D)m calls for low values of K (high AR and large e) and CDO. Figure 198.1, a typical plot of
the (L/D) ratio for a specific aircraft and specific parabolic drag polar shows the variation in (L/D) as CL
varies. Typical values of (L/D)m for several classes of aircraft are: 35 for sailplanes, 18 for Mach 0.8
transports, 7 for supersonic aircraft, and 3 for helicopters.
Propulsion Subsystems
Current aircraft engines are air breathers that produce thrust or power, or a combination thereof. The
turbojet engine represents a thrust producer, whereas an internal combustion engine in combination with
a propeller (a piston-prop) represents a power producer. Turbofans, unducted fans, turboprops, and
propfans combine the characteristics of both to varying degrees. Turbofans and unducted fans are usually
described in turbojet terms and turboprops and propfans in piston-prop terms.
The actual performance and functional relationships of an aircraft engine should be obtained from
power plant charts. However, to a first approximation, the thrust T (lb) produced by a turbojet can be
considered to be independent of the airspeed and, for a given throttle (percent rpm) setting, to be directly
proportional to the atmospheric density, so that
198-4
T(h) @ To s
(198.6)
where To is the thrust at sea level. Furthermore, the fuel consumption rate (lb/h) is proportional to the
thrust, so that
dW f / dt = cT
(198.7)
where c, the thrust specific fuel consumption (tsfc), has the units of lb/h/lb or h-1. Although c varies
somewhat with airspeed and altitude, it may, again to a first approximation, be assumed constant for all
altitudes and airspeeds. For current turbine engines, the maximum thrust-to-engine weight ratio (T/We)
@ 68. Piston-prop engines can be aspirated or turbocharged, and produce shaft power (HP), measured
in units of horsepower (hp), which is assumed to be independent of the airspeed but to vary with altitude
and power setting. The decrease with altitude of the HP of an aspirated engine is similar to that for the
turbojet, but the HP of a turbocharged engine with a constant power setting remains constant until the
critical altitude (15,000 to 20,000 ft) is reached and then decreases with altitude. The approximations for
the density relationships are
HP @ (HP)0 s(aspirated) and HP @ (HP)0 (s / s cr ) (turbocharged)
(198.8)
where scr is the density ratio at the critical altitude. Figure 198.2 shows the qualitative relationship of
the HP with altitude of the two types of engines. (The variation of turbojet thrust is similar to that shown
for the aspirated engine.) The propeller converts the shaft horsepower into the thrust power P, which is
equal to the product of the thrust and airspeed TV. The shaft power, thrust power, and thrust are related
by the expressions:
P = TV = kh p (HP);
T = kh p (HP) / V
(198.9)
where hp is the propeller efficiency (on the order of 80 to 85% for a well-designed, constant speed
propeller) and k is a conversion factor with a value of 326 when V is in knots. Note that for a given
horsepower, the thrust power of a piston-prop is independent of the airspeed. However, the available
thrust is inversely proportional to V, decreasing as the airspeed increases, whereas the thrust of a turbojet
120
Altitude (1,000 ft)
100
80
Turbocharged engine
60
40
Aspirated engine
20
Critical altitude
0
100
200
300
400
500
Available HP
FIGURE 198.2 Variation of piston-prop HP with altitude, both aspirated and turbocharged.
600
198-5
is constant and the thrust power (TV) increases with V. Because of these differences, propeller and jet
aircraft fly differently for best performance. The fuel consumption rate (lb/h) of a piston-prop is proportional to the HP being delivered, so that
dW f / dt = c *(HP) = c * TV /(kh p )
(198.10)
where c*, the horsepower specific fuel consumption (hpsfc) with units of lb/h/hp, has the same variations
as the tsfc and will also be assumed to be constant. Current piston-prop engines are relatively small (less
than 1000 hp) because they are the heaviest of all the engines with (HP)m/We @ 0.5 hp/lb of engine weight.
The specific fuel consumption is an extremely important performance parameter. Some typical values,
all expressed as an equivalent tsfc (lb/h/lb), are listed below.
Rocket engines
Ramjets
Turbojets (with afterburner)
Turbojets
High-bypass turbofans
Turboprops
Piston-props
10
3
2.5
0.91.0
0.60.8
0.50.6
0.40.5
The order of this list also indicates the relative airspeed regime of the flight vehicles in which these engines
are used. Piston-props are used in aircraft with airspeeds on the order of 220 kt or less; turboprops have
higher speeds up to Mach 0.7 or so; turbofan engines for airspeeds up to M 0.85; and so on up the speed
ladder with turbojets (and very low-bypass turbofans) in supersonic aircraft, ramjets for M 3.0 and higher,
and rocket engines in missiles and space boosters. Furthermore, the piston-prop engine is the least
expensive and the heaviest of the engines, and the cost increases and weight decreases as the list is ascended.
Weight Fractions
Weight may well be the most important consideration in the design and performance of an aircraft. Every
extra pound of weight is accompanied by an increase in the wing area and in the thrust and fuel required,
all leading to a further increase in aircraft weight and thus adversely affecting performance and costs
(both initial and operating) of the aircraft. Weight fractions are useful in performance and design analyses
and are obtained by expressing the gross (total) weight of the aircraft Wo as the sum of the weights of
the major components and then dividing each weight by the gross weight. Using a simple weight
breakdown made up of the structural weight Ws, the engine weight We, the fuel weight Wf, and the payload
weight WPL, the gross weight Wo of the aircraft is the sum of these component weights. The weight fractions
are obtained by dividing through by Wo to obtain
1 = Ws / Wo + We / Wo + W f / Wo + WPL / Wo
(198.11)
With this breakdown, Ws includes not only the weight of the structure, but also the weight of everything
not included in the other categories. It includes the weight of all the equipment and landing gear, for
example, and even the weight of the flight and cabin crews when appropriate. Aircraft manufacturers
often lump Ws and We together into the operational empty weight and combine Wf and WPL into the useful
load. In Equation (198.11), the sum of the individual fractions must always be unity. For a turbojet,
We / Wo = (Tm / Wo ) /(Tm / We ), and, for a piston-prop, We / Wo = (HPm / Wo ) /(HPm / We ). Values of Tm /Wo
are on the order of 0.25 to 0.35 for large high-subsonic transports and on the order of 0.1 hp/lb of aircraft
weight for the HP/Wo of the typical piston-prop.
Although the determination of Ws is quite complex, order of magnitude values for Ws/Wo can be used
to give a feel for its size and significance. As Wo increases, Ws/Wo decreases because, for example, minimum
volume requirements for cabin and cargo space and fixed equipment weights have a higher impact on
198-6
the structural weight fractions of the smaller aircraft. For large subsonic transports, Ws/Wo values are on
the order of 0.45, but smaller aircraft, such as fighters and general aviation aircraft, can have values in
excess of 0.55. Note that in this article the structural weight does not include engine weight.
The payload ratio (the payload weight fraction) is of major interest inasmuch as it relates the payload
weight to the gross weight of the aircraft. For example, WPL/Wo = 0.1 means that 10 pounds of aircraft
weight is required for each pound of payload (or excess weight). As WPL/Wo is equal to unity minus the
sum of the other weight fractions, any increase in any of these three either decreases the payload weight
fraction, thus increasing Wo or decreasing the payload, or decreases Wf /Wo, thus decreasing the range.
For example, the increase of Tm/Wo to convert a CTOL aircraft to a V/STOL aircraft can either dramatically
reduce the range and payload or increase the gross weight.
198.2 Level Flight

For any aircraft in unaccelerated level flight,
L =W;
T = D; dX / dt = V
(198.12)
The weight, however, does not remain constant during flight. As fuel is used, the weight decreases at a
rate that is the negative of the fuel consumption rate (Equation (198.7)), so that for a turbojet dW/dt =
-cT. The instantaneous range (mileage), the nautical miles per pound of fuel, is equal to dX/dt divided
by dW/dt and, with the relationship from Equation (198.13) that the required thrust T = W/(L/D), can
be expressed as
dX / dW f = V / cT = V (L / D) / cW
(198.13)
The last expression of Equation (198.13) shows that the best mileage (maximum range per pound of
fuel) of an aircraft is obtained when the product of V and (L/D), which are coupled, is maximized, and
c and W are individually minimized. Because W decreases along the flight path, the mileage improves
with time and distance.
Although the mileage at a particular point or instant of time is of interest, the range for a given amount
of fuel and set of flight conditions and the amount of fuel required to fly a specified range (from point
1 to point 2) are of greater interest. With c assumed constant, integrating the mileage over the cruise
flight path while holding V and CL (and thus L/D) constant, yields the Breguet range equation in the form:
X = [V (L / D) / c] ln MR = [V (L / D) / c] ln[1 / (1 - z)]
(198.14)
where the mass ratio MR = W1/W2 and the cruise-fuel weight fraction z = DW f / W1 = (MR - 1) / MR. In
order to keep both V and L/D (i.e., CL ) constant along the flight path as fuel is used, the altitude must
increase so as to keep W/s constant (see Equation (198.15)). The required flight path angle, however, is
sufficiently small (<1) so that the level flight approximation is still valid. Such flight is known as cruiseclimb. It gives the maximum range for a given fuel load and, for long flights in a controlled area, can be
approximated by a series of constant altitude legs with appropriate altitude increases (stepped altitude
flight). Note that the larger the product of V and L/D is, the longer the range.
The airspeed V and the lift coefficient CL (and thus L/D) are related by expressions from Equation
(198.12) and Equation (198.3) namely,
V=
2(W / S)
;
r o sC L
CL =
2(W / S) (W / S)
=
q
r o sV 2
(198.15)
198-7
Equation (198.15) shows that for a give CL, a high airspeed V calls for a high wing loading (W/S) and a
small s (a high altitude) for good range performance. Consequently, turbojet aircraft must fly high and
fast to achieve their best range performance; reduced flight times and flight above weather are accompanying bonuses. The best-range airspeed (and maximum range) of a particular turbojet is 60% greater
at 30,000 ft than at sea level, and 80% greater at 35,000 ft. For long-range subsonic transports, design
W/S values are on the order of 120 to 135 lb/ft2. Shorter-range and fighter aircraft have lower values to
meet requirements for shorter runway lengths or for greater maneuverability.
For a piston-prop, the relationships of Equation (198.13) still apply, but now the thrust power TV is of
primary interest and equilibrium requires that the thrust power be equal to the drag power (TV = DV).
The required thrust power P TV = WV/(L/D). With dW/dt = -dWf/dt = -c*TV/(khp), the mileage
(nmi/lb) of a piston-prop is
dX / dW f = kh pV /(c TV ) = kh p (L / D)(c * W )
(198.16)
Note that the mileage of a piston-prop is explicitly independent of the airspeed, which must, however,
be that required to achieve the desired L/D. Good mileage still calls for a high L/D and low values of c*
and W as for the turbojet. Holding CL (and thus L/D) constant yields the piston-prop version of the
Breguet range equation:
X = [326 h p (L / D) / c*] ln MR = [326 h p (L / D) / c*][ln1 /(1 - z)]
(198.17)
with V in kt. Although the range is explicitly independent of V, V must have the value appropriate to the
cruise (L/D). Increasing V by increasing the altitude or W/S will not increase the range but will decrease
the flight time (and increase the power required). Although the maximum range occurs when (L/D) is
at its maximum value, the associated airspeed, especially with an aspirated engine, is usually much lower
than the maximum airspeed of the aircraft and the required power for cruise is below the best operating
point for the engine. Consequently, the cruise of a piston-prop is customarily at 75% of the maximum
power available to reduce flight time and favor the engine. With respect to other power plants, whereas
a turbojet is a single-flow engine that produces only jet thrust, a turbofan is a multiflow engine that uses
a turbine to drive a multibladed ducted fan that produces thrust power in addition to jet thrust. It has
characteristics of both turbojet and propeller aircraft, and its performance (and specific fuel consumption)
lies in the region between the two but closer to the turbojet. The turbojet range equation is normally used.
A turboprop, on the other hand, is primarily a power producer, with little or no jet thrust, that uses the
piston-prop equations and is replacing the piston-prop because it is lighter and capable of higher speeds.
It has a lower CDO, but a higher sfc, than the piston-prop. (Derating a turboprop results in an altitude
variation of the power which resembles that of a turbocharged piston-prop.) The maximum airspeed of
a turboprop with a conventional propeller is limited by the drop in hp at the higher airspeeds. The propfan
uses a double row of multibladed, variable camber propellers to increase the operating airspeed. The
unducted fan (UDF) with an ultrahigh bypass ratio is still driven directly from the turbine, but resembles
the propfan in appearance and approaches its performance. The absolute ceiling of an aircraft occurs when
the maximum available thrust of a turbojet is equal to the required thrust, Tm = W/(L/D)m, or when the
maximum available power of a piston-prop is equal to the required power, (HP)m = WV/[khp(L/D)m]. At
the ceiling, the rate of climb is zero and the aircraft cannot turn without losing altitude.
198.3 Climbing Flight

The steady-state climbing flight equations are
T - D - W sin g = 0;
L - W cos g = 0;
R / C = dh / dt = V sin g
(198.18)
198-8
where g, the climb (flight path) angle, is the angle between the horizon and the airspeed vector. The two
climb equations of interest are
sin g = (T - D) / W = (T / W ) - [cos g /(L / D)];
R / C = V sin g = (TV - DV ) / W
(198.19)
The first expression in Equation (198.19) shows that g is determined by the excess thrust (the thrust
not needed to overcome the drag) per unit weight, whereas the R/C is determined by the amount of
excess power per unit weight. The two climb programs of special interest are steepest climb, gm, and fastest
climb, (R/C)m. Both have their largest values at sea level, where the excess thrust and excess power are at
a maximum, and both decrease with altitude until g and R/C both go to zero at the absolute ceiling.
Using the expressions of Equation (198.19), the climb performance can be obtained either graphically
(as sketched in Figure 198.3 for a turbojet) for various altitudes, weights, power settings, and velocities,
or by analytic methods.
Thrust
Drag
(T D)max
Airspeed
(a)
Thrust power
Drag power
(TV DV)max
Airspeed
(b)
FIGURE 198.3 Climb relationships for a typical turbojet: (a) climb angle g; (b) rate of climb R/ C.
198-9
Climb angles for conventional aircraft are not large, as can be seen by dropping the drag term in
Equation (198.20) to obtain the inequality that sin gm < (Tm/W), which shows that the maximum climb
angle for a high-performance turbojet transport, with Tm/W = 0.33, will be less than 19. Obviously, g
for (R/C)m will be less. As expected, the higher the available thrust for a turbojet and the higher the
available power for a piston-prop, the better the climb performance is. In general, the turbojet outclimbs
the piston-prop and the climb airspeeds are higher.
198.4 Turning Flight

One aspect of maneuverability is the ability to turn. The equations governing steady-state turns in the
horizontal plane are
T = D;
L = W / cos f;
g tan f
c =
V
(198.20)
where f is the bank angle (deg), c is the turning rate (rad/sec), V is the airspeed (ft /sec), and g is the
acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft /sec2). The load factor is defined as n = L/W (gs). From Equation (198.20)
and Equation (198.3),
n=
1
L
T
=
= (L / D);
W cos f W
V=
2n(W / S)
2(W / S)
=
r o sC L
r o sC L cos f
(198.21)
When n > 1 g, as in a turn, the airspeed is less than that for wings at level flight with the same power
setting, and the stall speed also decreases. It can be shown that the best turning performance (tightest
turn and fastest turn) for both types of aircraft occurs at low speeds (on the edge of a stall) and at low
altitude while using maximum thrust or power.
Defining Terms
Air breathers Engines that obtain oxygen from the atmosphere.
Aspect ratio Wingspan divided by the average chord length.
CTOL Conventional (horizontal) takeoff and landing aircraft.
Drag polar Drag coefficientlift coefficient relationship.
Lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) Aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft.
Mach number Air speed divided by local sonic velocity.
Mass ratio (MR) Aircraft weight at start of cruise divided by aircraft weight at end of cruise.
Payload ratio Payload weight divided by gross weight of an aircraft.
V/STOL Aircraft capable of both vertical and short takeoffs and landings.
Weight fraction Component weight divided by aircraft weight.
Wing loading (W/S) Aircraft weight divided by wing area (lb/ft2).
References
Anderson, J. D. 1999. Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Hale, F. J. 1984. Introduction to Aircraft Performance, Selection, and Design. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Houghton, E. L. and Brock, A. E. 1970. Aerodynamics for Engineering Students. Edward Arnold, London.
McCormick, B. W. 1979. Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Raymer, D. P. 1989. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Washington, DC.
198-10
Further Information
Aerospace America is a monthly publication of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA) that presents current technical and political activity as well as a look at the future. For subscription
and membership information, call (800) 639-2422.
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features articles on technical specialties and new technology. For subscription and membership information, call (724) 776-1383; fax (724) 776-1615; or e-mail circulation@sae.org.
Air & Space is a bimonthly publication of the Smithsonian Institution that contains a mix of popular
and quasi-technical articles written for the general public, but with items of interest for the more technical
reader. For subscription and membership information, contact Air & Space/Smithsonian, P.O. Box
420113, Palm Coast, FL 32142-0013.
Aviation Week & Space Technology is a weekly publication by McGraw-Hill that is considered by many
readers to be the most important and authoritative aerospace publication of both broad and detailed
interest. For subscription information, call (800) 525-5003.

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1586_book.

fm Page 1 Tuesday, May 11, 2004 1:46 PM

Francis Joseph Hale

198.2 Level Flight

2005 by CRC Press LLC

1586_book.fm Page 2 Tuesday, May 11, 2004 1:46 PM

The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

TABLE 198.1 Standard Atmosphere Ratios

Note: ro = 23.769 104 lb-s/ft2; ao = 1116 ft/sec.

198.1 Aircraft Forces and Subsystems

2005 by CRC Press LLC

1586_book.fm Page 3 Tuesday, May 11, 2004 1:46 PM