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ShortEssayontheTownPlanningofHarappanCivilization

ThemoststrikingfeatureofHarappancivilizationisitstownplanningandsanitation.Thebasiclay
outof
largeHarappancitiesandtownsshowsaregularorientation.Onefindsthestreets"andlaneslayout
accordingtoasetplan:themainstreetsrunningfromnorthtosouthandthecrossstreetsandlanesrunning
atrightanglestothem.
TheHarappancitieswerethecreationofcarefulforethoughtandplanning,asisindicatedbythestriking
regularityofthedivisions,thesuccessfullyalignedstreets,theorientationofallprincipalstreetstothe
pointsofthecompass,thecorrespondenceofthehousesandpublicbuildingswiththeorientationof
thoroughfares,etc.
Streetsvariedfrom9feetto34feetinwidthandranstraightsometimesasfarashalfamile.They
intersectedatrightanglesdividingthecityintosquareorrectangularblocks.Insidethissquareoroblong,
theareaisintersectedbyanumberofnarrowlanescrowdedwithhouses.AtMohenjodaroeachlanehada
publicwell,andmostofthehouseshadaprivatewellandbath.Nowherewasabuildingallowedtoencroach
onapublichighwayasinSumer.
ImportantHarappancities,suchasMohenjodaro,Harappa,Kalibangan,DholaviraandSurkotada,were
dividedintotwopartsafortifiedsettlementonthehighmoundsdesignatedas'citadels'andthemain
residentialareastothewestofitcalled'lowertown'.
AtHarappa,Mohenjodaro,KalibanganandSurkotada,therewasa'citadel',smallerinareathanthe'lower
town'andinvariablylocatedtothewestofit.ThecitadelatMohenjodarocontainedmanyimposing
buildingsallmadeofkilnburntbricks,forexample,thegreatbath,thecollege,thegranaryandthe
assemblyhall.
HarappawasregardedasanothercapitaloftheIndusEmpire.Heretothenorthofthecitadel,laythe
workmen'squarter,theirworkingplatform,andagranarytheentirecomplexsuggestingahighdegreeof
regimentationoftheirpopulation.
Situatedontheleftbankofthedesiccatedriver(Ghaggar)SaraswatiinRajasthan,Kalibanganrevealsthe
samepatternofplanningasdoMohenjodaroandHarappa,witha'citadel'onthewestsideanda'lower
town'ontheeast.Thusthecitadelcomplexconsistedoftwoequalandwelldefinedparts,onetothesouth
containingseverallargemudbrickplatformsmeantforspecificpurposesandtheothertothenorth
containingresidentialhouses.
Theplatformswereseparatedonefromtheother,asalsofromthefortificationwall:Therewasthusregular
passagesaroundthemtheentirecomplexonthisplatformthewell,thebathingpavements,andtheclay
lined'firealtars'hadaritualisticpurpose.Asimilarindicationisgivenbyanotherplatform,onthetopof
whichwerelocatedawell,a'firealtar',andarectangularpitlinedwithkilnburntbricks,containingantlers
andbonesofcattle,whichseemtosuggestasacrifice.
ThelowertownatKalibangan,whileshowingtheusualgridpatternofmainthoroughfares,subsidiary
streets,crossstreetsandlanes,revealedthatittoowasfortified.Piercingthefortificationwall,whichwas
madeofmudbricks,therewereatleasttwogateways,oneonthenorthernsideleadingtotheriverand
anotheronthewestprovidingaccesstothecitadel.InwidththeKalibanganlanesandstreetsfollowedaset
ratio:thus,whilethelaneswere1.8mwide,thestreets,inmultiplesoftheformer,were3.6,5.4,and7.2m
wide.
AtSurkotada,thesettlementpatternofHarappa,Mohenjodaro,andKalibanganisrepeated,butwitha
difference.Thecitadelandthelowertownwerejoined,althoughtheirrelativedirectionalpositionremained
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thesame,theformertothewestandthelattertotheeast.
AsatKalibangan,boththecitadelandthelowertownwerefortified.Eachhaditsindependententrance,
locatedonthesouthernsidetherewasalsoanintercommunicatinggatebetweenthetwo.Inadditionto
mudbricks,stonerubble,whichiseasilyavailableintheneighbourhood,wasliberallyusedforconstruction.
AttherecentlyexcavatedHarappancityofDholavira,thereexistedthreeprincipaldivisions,insteadofthe
usualtwoatothersites.Thefirsttwodivisionsthe'citadel'andthe'middletown'werefortifiedwithstone
masonry.ThewholeplanningresemblestheEuropeancastlehavingtwowellfortifiedareas.The
fortificationswereprovidedwithbastionsatfrequentintervalsaswellasgates,narroworwide.
Banawali(Haryana)wasonemorefortifiedtownoftheHarappancivilization.Althoughthegeneral
principlesofHarappantownplanningwerefollowedheretoo,yetthereweresomesignificantdepartures
fromtheestablishednorms.Thetownlackedthegeneralconceptionofachessboardorgridironpatternof
planning.
Heretheroadsareneitheralwaysstraightnordotheynecessarilycuteachotheratrightanglesand
systematicdrainageistheexceptionthantherule.Lastly,thegeneralsubdivisionofametropolitanor
urbantownshipintotwodistinctlyseparatewalledestablishmentsdoesnotholdgoodatBanawali.
Still,theavailableevidenceprovesthatthereisabasicuniformityintheplanningofmostHarappan
townships,includingBanawali,irrespectiveoftheirspatialdimensions.Anothersignificantaspectofthe
Harappantownplanningwastheprovisionofsegregatedhouses,amodernfeature.Thelowertownshipwas
populatedbythemerchants,artisansandcraftsmen,whilethepriestlyandrulingclassoccupiedthecitadel.
HarappanGateways:
MostofthelargeHarappantowns,describedearlier,wereencompassedbyelaboratelydesignedwallswith
gateways.TheIndustownspossessednogeneralsystemofurbanfortification,whichwasoftenmassive,as
atKalibangan,butthegatewaysweresimpleentrypointstothetowns.AtSurkotadaandDholavirathese
gatewayswerequiteelaborate,whileatothertownstheywereverysimple.
Someofthegatewayshadattachedguardrooms,whichwereinvariablyverysmall.TheHarappan
fortificationswerenotmeanttodefendthetownshipsfromstrongattacksbyenemiesbutweresafety
measuresfromrobbersandcattleraiders.Thefortificationsalsoprovidedprotectionagainstfloodsand
servedasthehallmarkofsocialauthorityovertheareatheycommanded.
DrainageSystem:
TheelaboratedrainagesystemisauniquefeatureoftheIndusValleycivilization,thelikeofwhichhasnot
yetbeenfoundinanyothercityofthesameantiquity.Belowprincipalstreetsandmanylanesranamain
drain,1to2ftdeep,coveredwithbricksorstones,andprovidedwithsumpsandinspectiontrapsatregular
intervals.
Individualhousedrains,eachonewithitsownsumppit,openedintothestreetdrains,whichintheirturn
openedintothegreatculvertsemptyingintotheriver.Allsoakpitsanddrainswereoccasionallyclearedby
workmen,anddrainswereprovidedwithmanholesatintervalsforcleaning.Thiselaboratedrainage
system,likethetownplanning,constitutesanotablepointofdifferencewithSumer,wheretheinhabitants
had,inmostcases,verticalpotterydrainageshaftsbeneaththeircourtyards,butthesehadnooutlet.
Altogether,theextentofthedrainagesystemandthequalityofthedomesticbathingstructuresanddrains
areremarkable,andtogethertheygivethecityacharacterofitsown,particularlyindicatingsomesortof
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highlyeffectivemunicipalauthority.Thesefeaturesofurbanizationandtownplanningarefurtherreflected
inthegenerallay
outandarchitectureoftheHarappancitiesandtowns.
Streets:
TheInduscitieswerebuiltonpre
arrangedplansasitisevidentinthecaseofMohenjodarowhichisvery
wellpreserved.Therewassomekindofmunicipalorcivicauthoritywhichcontrolledthedevelopmentofthe
city.Thestreetsraninstraightlinesandcrossedoneanotheratrightangles.Thestreetsalignedfromeast
towestorfromnorthtosouth.
Themostfamousstreetcalledthe'FirstStreet'ofMohenjodarowas10.5mwideandwouldhave
accommodatedsevenlanesofwheeledtrafficsimultaneously.Theotherroadswere3.6to4mwide,while
thelanesandalleyswere1.2m(4feet)upwards.Thestreetsandlaneswerenotpavedandmusthavebeen
fullofdirtanddust.The'FirstStreet'was,however,surfacedwithbrokenbricksandpotsherds.
Bricks:
Harappa,Mohenjodaroandothermajortownswerebuiltentirelyofbricks.Allthebricks,burntorunburnt,
werewellproportioned.ThesundriedbrickswereusedatMohenjodaromainlyforfillings,butatHarappa
itsometimesalternatedwithburntbrickcoursebycourseandatKalibanganitseemstohavebeen,if
anything,morecommon,burntbrickbeingalmostexclusivelyreservedforwells,drainsandbathrooms.
Thepredominantbricksizewas7x14x7thatisaratioof1:2:4.Verylargebricksmeasuring51cmormore
wereusedtocoverdrains.Thebricksweremadefromalluvialsoil(i.e.,depositofearthleftbyflood)and
shapedinanopenframemould.Recessingandfroggingwerestillunknown.Kilnsofbrickhavebeen
discoveredatanumberofplacesandsomeofthemwereprobablyassociatedwithcopperworking.
Sometimesthebrickswerestockedinlargeheapswithwoodfireinbetween.Theoutsideofthepilewas
coveredwithmudplastertoretaintheheat.Thebrickswerewellbakedtoalightredcolour.Wedgeshaped
brickswereusedintheliningofwells,whileformakingthebathroompavementswatertight,smallbricks(5
*11x24cm)wereemployed.
Insomebathroomsasortofplasterofbridedustandlimewasreported.Lshapedbrickswerepreferredfor
corners.Thelateroccupantssometimesremovedthebricksoftheoldhousesandreusedthem.Thiswas
possibleowingtothenonstickingnatureofthemud.
Buildings:
ThebuildingssofarunearthedintheHarappancitiesfallintothreemainclasses:(i)dwellinghouses,(ii)
largerbuildings,(iii)publicbaths,granaries,etc.
Thereismuchvariationinthesizeofdwellinghouses.Thesmallesthavenomorethantworooms,whilethe
largestaresovastastorankalmostaspalaces.Thebuildingsweremostlyplain,withoutanyrecessionor
plasters.OnlyinthefloorofonehouseatKalibanganornamentalbrickswereused.Probablytheverandahs
weredecoratedwithwoodenscrewswhichhavenowperished.Thegroundfloorofasmallhousemeasured8
x9mandofthelargeonewasdoubleitssize.
Thehouseswereseparatedfromoneanotherbyaboutafoot,probablytoavoiddisputewiththeneighbour,
andthespaceinbetweenwasbrickedupateitherendtopreventthethieffromscalingthewalls.Thewalls
wereverythickwhichsuggeststhatsomeofthehousesweredoublestoreyedSquareholesonthewalls
remindthattheupperfloorsandroofrestedonwoodenbeams.
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Theroofsweremadeofreedmattingandthencoveredwiththickcoatingmud.Themattingwastiedtothe
woodenbeamswithcordssomeimpressionsofthecordarestillnoticeable.Afewstaircasesofburntbricks
have,nodoubt,beendiscoveredbut,asarule,woodenstaircaseswereusedwhichhavemostlyperished.
Thestairwayshadhighnarrowsteps,sometimes38cmhighand13cmwidetoeconomizespace.Theroofs
wereflatandwereenclosedbyaparapet.Todraintherainwater,guttersofpotteryweremadeanumberof
themhavebeenfoundatChanhudaro.Norooftileshavesofarbeentraced.
Ordinarilytherewasanentrancetothehousesfromthestreetside.Thehouseswerequitecommodious,
dividedintowellsizedrooms,containingwellsandbathrooms,andprovidedwithcovereddrains,
connectedwithstreetdrains.
TheopencourtwasthebasicfeatureofhouseplanningintheIndusvalleyasinBabylon.Thecourtyard,
whichwasusuallypavedwithbrickslaidflat,wassurroundedbychambers,anddoorsandwindowsopened
intoit.Thekitchenwasplacedinashelteredcornerofthecourtyard,andthegroundfloorcontainedstore
rooms,wellchambers,bath,etc.
Doors,WindowsandStairs:Doorswerepossiblymadeofwoodandwereplacedattheendsofthewalls,not
inthemiddle.Ordinaryhousesveryrarelyhadwindowsintheirouterwalls.Possibly,perforatedlattices
wereusedaswindowsorventilatorsatthetopofthewall.
Stairways,madeofsolidmasonry,arefoundinnearlyeveryhouse.Theywerebuiltstraightandsteep,with
treadsunusuallynarrowandhigh.Insomecases,thestairwaysledtotheupperstorey'swhichcontained
thebathandthelivingandsleepingapartments.
Kitchen:
Thekitchenwassmall.Fuelwasplacedonaraisedplatform.Cookingwasmostlydoneinthecourtyardsin
theopen.Aroundbreadovenhasbeenunearthedinwhich'tandooriroties'weremade.Sometimesbetween
thekitchenandthelargerrooma'servinghatch'(anapertureinthewall)wasmade,potteryvesselswitha
holeinthebottomweresunkinthekitchenforwastewater.Thewatergraduallyranintotheearth.
BathroomandToilet:
Everyhousehaditsbathroomwhichwasonthesideofthestreet.Latrines,thoughfoundrarely,lay
betweenthebathroomandstreetfortheconvenientdisposalofwater.Thebathroomsandlatrinesonthe
firstfloorhadbrickchannels.
Thewallsofthebathroom(generallyasquaresmallroom)werewainscotedwithbrickslaidonedgessoasto
standthreeinchesabovethelevelofthefloor.Ithadbrickpavementslopingtowardsonecorner.Pottery
raspswereusedtoremovethickenedcuticle.Potterypipes,eachprovidedwithaspigotsothattheyfitted
together,wereusedfordrainage.
College:
Severaldwellinghouses,largeandsmall,havebeenunearthedatMohenjodaro.TherewerelargeKhans
(inns),storehousesandwatchtowers.Thereisanextensivebuilding,onthewestofthestupamound,which
measures69x23.5m.Itwasapriestlycorporation.ItcontainstheGreatBathwhichwasexcavatedbySir
JohnMarshall.Thewholecomplexisasinglearchitecturalunitwithwallssometimes1.2mthick.Itmight
havebeenacollegehenceitisnamedthe'CollegiateBuilding'.
AssemblyHall:
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OnthesouthofthestupaatMohenjodarohasbeendiscoveredahall,8msq,witharoofhaving20
rectangularbrickpiersinfourrowsoffivepierseach.Therearefourwellpavedaisleswhichareseparated
byrowsofpillars.Thehallwasusedforsomereligiousassembly.SirJohnMarshallcomparesitwitha
Buddhistrockcuttempleofalaterdate,whileMackaycallsitalargemarkethallwithlinesofpermanent
stallsalongtheaisles.
Storehouse:
AtHarappaabuildinghasbeendiscoveredmeasuring50*40meterswithacentralpassage7metreswide.
Itwasagiganticstorehouseforgrain,cottonandothermerchandise.Somebuildingswereusedaseating
housestheyhavedepressionsinthefloorswhichoneheldlargepotteryjarsforliquids,grainsandother
foodstuffs.
Palace:
Ashortdistancefromthe'FirstStreet'atMohenjodarotherewasapalatialbuildingofexcellentmasonry.It
hastwospaciouscourtyards,servantquartersandstorerooms.Itwaseitheratempleortheresidenceofthe
Governor.
Population:
Thepopulationofthecitygraduallyincreasedandthebighousesweredividedintosmallerones.Inlater
stages,civicruleswerenotstrictlyfollowed.Theentirecitywasprotectedbya'citywall'.Asmallforthas
beenlaidbareinmostoftheimportantcities.
AlthoughitisdifficulttoestimatethepopulationoftheHarappancities,Lambrickhasmadeacasefora
figureof35,000atMohenjodaro,baseduponcomparisonwiththepopulationofacityofcomparableareain
Sindin1841.
AnotherestimatebyFairservicesuggestsaslightlyhigherfigureof41,000.Hehasalsosuggestedafigureof
23,000forthelowercityatHarappa,excludingthecitadel.AccordingtoAilchins,Harappa'spopulationmay
wellhavebeenmoreorlessthesameasofMohenjodaroasbothwereoftheequivalentsize.S.R.Rao
estimatedthepopulationofLothaltohavebeenaround15,000whereasaccordingtoS.P.Gupta,Lothalmay
nothaveaccommodatedmorethan2,000to3,000peopleduringitspeakperiod.
FoundationDeposits:
ItwasusuallybelievedthatHarappansdidnotusefoundationdeposits,asystemprevalentinBabyloniaand
Egypt.Suchdepositshelptheexcavatortofixthedateorhistoryofthebuilding.However,atKotDijiand
Allahdinostonefoundationshavebeenunearthed.Butnothingisknownabouttheceremonicsassociated
withthelayingoffoundation.
HouseholdArticles:
VarioushouseholdarticleshavebeenfoundatHarappansites.Theseweremadeofpottery,stone,shell,
faience,ivory,andmetal.Copperandbronzeappeartohavereplacedstoneasthematerialforhousehold
implements.Potterysuppliednumerousarticlesforthekitchenincludingfleshrubbers,cakemoulds,
dippers,beakers,bowls,goblets,dishes,basins,pans,saucers,ladles,heaters,jarstands,storagejars,etc.
Gobletswithpointedbaseswerethecustomarydrinkingvessels,whichwereusedonlyonce.Querns,
palettes,andjarstandsfigureamongarticlesofstone.Jarcoversandladleswerealsomadeofshell.There
wereneedles,awls,axes,saws,sickles,knives,fishhooks,chisels,etc.madeofbronzeorcopperthefirst
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twoalsoinivory.Blocksofleadwereprobablyusedasnetsinkers.
Technology,ArtsandCrafts:
TheHarappancraftsmenexhibitadegreeofuniformitysimilartothatfoundintownplanningandstructure
plans.Indeed,itissomarkedthatitispossibletotypifyeachcraftwithasinglesetofexamplesdrawnfrom
onesitealone.Itisnotyetestablishedwhetherthisfeaturewasachievedbythecentralizationofproduction,
linkedwithefficiencyofdistribution,orwhetherbyotherfactors,butineithercaseifcallsforspecial
attention.

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