Descriptive Mineralogy

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DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY
MINERALOGY
BY
WILLIAM SHIRLEY BAYLEY,
PH.D.
PBOFXBSOR OP GEOLOGY. T7NTVTBBSITY OF ILLINOIS

AUTHOR OF "BLEMENTABY CBYSTAI,IX)OKAPHX "
"WITH
D.
TWO
HTCnSTDKED
AND SIXTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS
APPLETON AND COMPANY

NEW YORK AND LONDON
1917
COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY
D APPLETON AND COMPANY
TO
MY HELPER
MY WIFE
THIS
BOOK
IS
DEDICATED
PREFACE
THE
following pages are presented with the purpose of affording
students a comprehensive view of modern mineralogy rather than a

detailed
knowledge of
many
minerals
The
-minerals
description are not necessarily those that are most
The
that occur in greatest quantity

scientific interest or of
list
selected
common nor
for
those
includes those that are of
economic importance, and, in addition, those
that illustrate some principle employed in the classification of minerals.
The volume
is
not a reference book.
It does not pretend to furnish
It is offered solely as
a complete
a textbook
discussion of the mineral
kingdom, nor a means of determining the nature of any mineral that

may be met with The chapters devoted to the processes of deter"
minative mineralogy are brief , and the familiar key to the determina"
is omitted
tion of species
In place of the latter is a simple guide
to the descriptions of minerals to be found in the
For more complete determinative
body
of the text.
tables the reader is referred to
one
many good books
subject.
that are devoted entirely to this phase of the

In the descriptions of the characteristic crystals of minerals
both the
Naumann and
of the
the former because of
its
the Miller systems of notation are employed,
almost general use in the more important refer-
ence books and the latter because of

crystallography investigations
both notations
by employing
its
The
almost universal use in modern
student must be familiar with
It is thought that this familiarity
the two
notations side
by
can be best acquired
side
In preparing the descriptive matter the author has made extensive

use of Hintze's Handbuch der Mvrwralogie. The figures illustrating
crystal forms are taken
from many
VII
sources.
few
illustrations
have
PREFACE
viii
been made especially for this volume.
Figures copied to illustrate
special features are accredited to their authors.
mainly from the Mineral Resources of

given for the year 1912 because this
the
Umted
The
statistics
States
They
are
are
was a more nearly normal year
in
trade than any that has followed
The author
is
under obligation to the McGraw-Hill Book Company

a number of illustrations originally published
for permission to reproduce
in his Elements of Crystallography,
and
also for the use of the original
engravings m making the plates for Figures n, 33, 71, 90, no, 114, 115,
118, 160, 191, 194, 224, 240,
and
248.
W.
S.
BAYLEY.
CONTENTS
PART
GENERAL CHEMICAL MINERALOGY

CHAPTER
I
II
PAGE
THE COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

THE FORMATION OF MINERALS AND THEIR ALTERATIONS
17
i
PART
II
INTRODUCTION THE ELEMENTS
36
IV THE SULPHIDES, TELLURIDES, SELENIDES, ARSENIDES, AND
III
ANTIMONIDES
V THE
68
SULPHO-SALTS AND SULPHO-FERRITES.
Il6
VI THE CHLORIDES, BROMIDES, IODIDES, AND FLUORIDES.

VII THE OXIDES
VIII THE HYDROXIDES
IX. THE ALUMINATES, FERRITES, CHROMITES AND MANGANTTES
X. THE NITRATES AND BORATES
XI THE CARBONATES
XII THE SULPHATES
XIH THE CHROMATES, TUNGSTATES AND MOLYBDATES
XIV THE PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES.
XV THE COLUMBATES, TANTALATES AND URANATES
XVI THE SILICATES

XVII THE SILICATES
XVIII THE SILICATES
XIX THE SILICATES
XX THE SILICATES
XXI THE SILICATES
THE ANHYDROUS ORTHOSELICATES

THE ANHYDROUS METASILICATES
THE ANHYDROUS TRIMETASILICATES.
THE ANHYDROUS POLYSILICATES
THE HYDRATED SILICATES
THE TITANATES AND TTTANOSILICATES.
134
146
179
195
205
212
236
253
261
293
300
PART
359
408
426
..
441
461
III
DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY
XXII GENERAL
XXIH
PRINCIPLES OF BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS.
CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OP THE
AND Aero RADICALS,
ix
467
MORE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS

.
483
CONTENTS
APPENDICES
CHAPTER
I
PAGE
GUIDE TO THE DESCRIPTIONS or MINERALS

495
II LIST or THE MORE IMPORTANT MINER AIS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR PRINCIPAL CoNSTrrui'Nib
515
III LIST OP MINERALS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR CRYSTALLIZATION
IV LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

INDEX
521
527
529
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE
PAGE
...
Sodium
Potassium fluosihcate crystals
Cross-section of symmetrical vein
fluosihcate crystals
14
14
21
4 Cross-section of vein in green porphyry

5 Dionte dike cutting granite gneiss
6 Vein in Griffith mine
7 Vein forming original ore-body, Butte, Mont
8
24
26
27
27
28
Druse of Smithsonite
9 Geodes containing calcite

10 Alteration of ohvine into serpentine
29
31
11
Etch
12
Crystal of diamond with rounded edges and faces
38
13
Octahedron of diamond
38
42
figures in cubic face of
diamond
38
14 Principal "cuts" of diamonds

South Africa
15 Premier diamond mines
The Cullman diamond

17 Gems cut from Culhnan diamond
1 8 The Tiffany diamond
43
16
43
44
44
19 Sulphur crystals
20 Distorted crystal of sulphur.
47
...
21
Copper
22
Crystal of copper from ELeweenaw Point

Plate of silver from Comagas Mine, Cobalt
23
47
53
crystal
53
57
Octahedral skeleton crystal of gold with etched faces

25 Iron meteonte
26 Widmanstatten figures on etched surface of meteonte
58
24.
27
28
Realgar crystal
65
66
70
Stibrute crystal
72
Galena crystal
30 Galena crystals
81
29
31
Chalcocite crystal
32
Complex
33
Tetrahedral crystal of sphalerite
85
chalcocite twin
85
88
34. Sphalerite crystal
35 Sphalerite octahedron
36 Greenockite crystal
37
Pyrrhotite crystal.
82
88
88
91
92
xu
PAGE
FIGURE
38
Cinnabar crystals
39
Group
98
of pyrite crystals in
which the cube predominates
102
40 Pyrite crystals on which 0(111) predominates
102
41
Pyrite crystal
102
42
Group
43
Pyrite mterpenetration twin
of pyrite crystals
103
103
44 Marcasite crystal
Marcasite crystal with forms as indicated
45
m Fig
no
no
no
no
44
46 Twin of marcasite
47
Spearhead group of marcasite
48 Arsenopynte crystals
49
112
ng
Crystal of pyrargyrite
50
Crystal of proustite
119
51
121
52
Bournonite crystal
Bournonite fourlmg twinned
53
Enargite crystal
123
54
Stephanite crystal
55
Tetrahednte crystal
125
I2 8
56
Chalcopynte crystal
I3I
57
Chalcopynte
121
131
Chalcopynte twin
59 Hopper-shaped cube of halite
60 Group of fluonte crystals from Weardale Co
58
13!
135
139
61
Crystal of fluonte
!4O
62
Interpenetration cubes of fluonte, twinPhotographs of snow crystals
147
63
140
64 Zmcite crystal
65
66
Hematite
!^
j^
j^
^5
crystals
Corundum
67 Corundum
68 Corundum
crystal
crystal
crystal
69 Quartz crystal exhibiting rhombohedral symmetry

70 Ideal (A) and distorted (B) quartz crystals
71 Etch figures on two quartz crystals of the same form
159
160
72
73
Group of quartz
Tapenng quartz
crystals
crystal
78
79 Cassitente twinned
80 Rutile crystals
81. Rutile eightluig twinned
ufa
Supplementary twins of quartz.

76 Quartz twinned
75
Cassitente crystal
Cassitente crystal
jgo
X5X
74 Quartz crystal
77
159
,162
I0 3
169
^
j$g
172
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE
82
Rutile twinned
83
Rutile cycbc sixling twinned

Rutile twinned
84
85 Anatase crystal
86 Anatase crystal
87
88
I77
I77
I7 3
Brookite crystals
Brucite crystal
91
Pisohtic bauxite from near
92
Diaspore crystals
93
Mangamte
94
Group
Rock Run
192
Magnetite crystal
100
101
Chrysoberyl pseudohexagonal sixling
102
Hausmanmte
Calcite crystals
Calcite crystals
109
Calcite
204
207
209
211
214
214
214
.......
112
Calcite
1 16.
203
....
Calcite
115 Thin
203
Prismatic crystals of calcite
Calcite
198
no
Artificial
ig5
196
203
in
113
193
Chrysoberyl crystal
Chrysoberyl twinned
107
108
98
Boracite crystal
Calcite crystal
I92
crystals
99
105
106
I9O
. .
mangamte
Borax crystal
104 Colemamte crystals
187
crystal
103.
jg^
Spinel crystal
114
184
. .
95 Mangamte crystal twinned

96 Spinel twin
97
!3 2
89 Limonite stalactites in Silverbow mine.

90 Botryoidal hmorute
of prismatic
214
215
215
twin and polysynthetic
215
216
trilling.
twin of calcite
section of marble viewed
216
by polarized fight.
224
118 Tnlhng of aragomte

119 Withente twinned
224
226
120. Cerussite crystal
121. Cerussite tnllmg twinned
227
227
122. Cerussite trilling twinned
227
123. Radiate groups of cerussite on galena
124. Dolomite crystal.
Group of dolomite crystals.
216
224
Aragonite crystal
117. Aragonite twin
125.
172
j^
^.
. .
.
-228
229
230
X1V
FIGURE
PAGE
.232
126
Malachite crystal
127
128
Azurite crystals
233
Trona
235
129
Gayhissite crystal
235
130
Glauberite crystal
237
131
Thenardite crystal
Thenardite twinned
237
132
133.
134.
crystal
Bante
Bante
237
crystals
239
crystals
240
135. Celestite crystals
241
136
Anglesite crystal
243
137. Anglesite crystal
243
138
Anglesite crystal
243
139.
Gypsum crystals
Gypsum twinned
Gypsum twinned
247
140.
141.
247
248
Epsomite crystal
143. Hanksite crystal
142.
250
252
144. Crocoite crystals
253
145. Scheelite crystal
255
146. Scheelite crystal
Wulfemte
148 Wulfemte
147
255
crystal
257
crystal
257
Wolframite crystal
150. Monazite crystal
149
151
Xenotime -crystals
152
Apatite crystal
153
Apatite crystal
154-
Vanadimte
Amblygomte
265
vanadmite
267
262
Olivemte
159
160
Skorodite crystal
Radiate wavelhte on a rock surface
Samarskite crystals
163
Olivme
27^
286
.
crystals
>
Nephehue
crystal,
3P3
,
3O7
3Og
3IO
,,
297
166. Garnet crystal (natural size)
16^)
164 Willemite crystal

Phenacite crystal
Garnet crystals
Garnet crystal
287
165
167
168
2 ^6
161. Columbite crystals
162
.272
158
crystal.
crystal
157. Lazulite crystals
264
267
crystal
155. Skeleton crystal of
156
250
.310
31O
I
Xv
PAGE
.
Zircon crystals
.......
Zircon twinned
,
170
171
172
173
.317
.
Thorite crystal
Andalusite crystals
3I p
, 2O
Topaz crystals
175 Topaz crystal
176 Topaz crystal
177 Danbunte crystal
174
32
323
,24
325
178
Zoisite crystal
179
1 80
Epidote crystal
^ 2g
328
181
Epidote crystals
Chondrodite crystal
333
182
Datolite crystal
334
183
Staurolite crystal
337
184
Staurolite crystal twinned
337
185
1 86
Staurolite crystal twinned
33-7
Sodalite mterpenetration twin of t\vo dodecahedrons
340
187
Prehmte
344
1 88.
Axinite crystal
189
Axmite
190
Dioptase crystal
Percussion figure
191
crystal
346
crystal
348
349
192. Biotite crystal

193. Biotite twinned about a plane
Etch figures
195 Muscovite crystal
194
356
196
Beryl crystals
..
Beryl crystals
198. Cross-section of pyroxene

199 Enstatite crystal.
200 Wollastomte crystal
203
371
Interpenetration twin of augite
373
205, Hedenbergite crystal

206* Acnute crystal
3 76
207.
Spodumene
crystal.
371
372
360
360
363
366
368
37*
204 Diopside crystals
349
356
197
201. Augite crystal

202. Augite twinned
346
347
379
3&>
208 Rhodonite crystals

209;.
3^4
210.
394
Ampibole crystals
Kyanite crystals
211 Bladed kyanite crystals
212. Calarmne crystals
213. Orthoclase crystals
in
a micaceous quartz
schist
......
395
30
410
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS
xvi
PAGE
FIGURE
214 Orthoclase crystals

215 Carlsbad mterpenetration twins of orthoclasc
216 Contact twin of orthoclase according to the Carlsbad law
217
218
410
410
4IO
Baveno twins of orthoclase

Manebach twin of orthoclase
411
411
crossed nicols
219 Section of mirocline viewed between
220 Adulana crystal
4x4
414
221
Albite crystals
419
222
Albite twinned
419
Albite twinned
224 Twinning stnations on cleavage piece of ohgoclasc
225 Albite twins with the crystal axis
223
226
Position of "rhombic sections" in albite
227
228
Diagram
419
420
420
420
of crystal of tnclimc feldspar
420
Potash-oligoclase crystal
422
229
Scapohte crystals
230 Chntonite twinned according; to the mica law
231 Cknochlore crystal
424
427
430
Clmochlore twinned according to mica law

Chnochlore with same forms as
Fig 232
Clmochlore tnllmg twinned according to mica law
430
236
Pennimte crystal
Pennimte crystal twinned
430
237
Vesuviamte crystals
232
233
234
235
430
430
430
433
238. Tourmaline crystals
436
239 Tourmaline crystals

Cooling crystal of tourmaline
436
436
240
241
Cordiente crystal
242
Apophylhte crystals
246
Phillipsite
Harmotome
248
crystal
254 Chabazite crystal

Chabazite mterpenetration twin
256. Phacohte with same form as in Fig 254
257 Analate crystal
447
448
448
449
450
452
453
,
252 Natrohte crystals
255
447
fourling twinned like pmllipsite

Sheaf-like aggregates of stilbite
Thomsomte
249 Laumontite crystal

250 Divergent groups of scolecite crystals
251 Scoleate crystal
253.
439
444
Heulandite crystal
,
244 Heulandite, var beaumontJte
245 Philhpsite mterpenetration twin
243
247
434
...
453
456
t
4^ 7
457
457
FIGURE
258
xvi
PAGE
Analcite crystal
259 Ilmemte
crystal
4 9
463
260 Titanite crystal
4 g4
Titanite crystal
Titanite crystal
4^4
454
468
265
266
Simple blowpipes
Bellows for use with blowpipe
Candle flame showing three mantles
Reducing flame
267
Oxidizing flame
261
262
263
264
268. Props
and position
4 gg
47o
4y Z
4^ r
of charcoal
4 ^5
PART
CHAPTER
THE COMPOSITION AND
Definition of Mineral.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
mineral
is
definite inorganic,
chem-
that occurs as a part of the earth's crust. It possesses

characters which are functions of its composition and its structure.
Most minerals are crystallized, but a few have been found only in an
ical
compound
amorphous,
colloidal condition.
These are regarded as
gels,
or solid
colloids.
The most
since
essential feature of a mineral
is its
chemical composition,
be dependent all its other properties.

Occurring as Minerals. The chemical
this are believed to
upon
Chemical
Substances
substances found native as minerals
may be
classed as elements
and
compounds The latter comprise chlorides, fluorides, sulphides, oxides,

hydroxides, the salts of carbonic, sulphuric, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and silicic acids, a large series of complicated compounds known
as the sulpho-salts, a few derivatives of certain metallic acids the
ferrites
besides other salts of rarer occurrence,
aluminates and the
some simple and others exceedingly complicated, and possibly many

a gel and a crystalloid. In some of these
In others, some groups are
classes all the compounds are anhydrous.
other
of
the
members
while
groups contain one or more
anhydrous
solid solutions of gels or of
molecules of water of crystallization.
The sulphides, chlorides and fluorides are derivatives of EfeS, HC1,

and ifeFs, respectively. They may be regarded as having been produced from these compounds by the replacement of the hydrogen by
metals.
Illustrations:
CuaS, CuS, NaCl, CaF2.
The hydroxides and
the oxides
may be looked upon
as derivatives of
water, the hydroxides through the replacement of one atom of hydrogen

by a metal, and the oxides through the replacement of both hydrogen
The
atoms
mineral,
bructte,
/OH
according to this view
Mg/
X)H
is
H(OH)
H(OH)
derived from rr^rr\ by replacement of two hydrogen atoms in two

molecules of water
by one atom
of
Mg
>0, and tenonte
is
Cuprite
Cu/
CuO, the former derived by replacement of each atom of hydrogen m

one molecule of water by an atom of Cu, and the latter by replacement
of the two hydrogens by a single Cu
The salts of carbonic acid (H2 COs) are the carbonates, those of sulphuric acid (HaSO*) the sulphates, those of orthophosphoric acid
(HsP04) the phosphates, those of orthoarsemc acid (HsAsO^ the arsenates, those of orthoantimomc acid (HaSbO-i) the antimonates and those
of the silicic acids, the silicates
and antimonites that
(H3 Sb03 )
There
a few arsenites
are, in addition,
are salts of arsemous (HsAsOa)
and antimonous
acids
The
silicic
principal silicic acids whose salts occur as minerals are normal

acid (H4Si04), metasihcic acid (HaSiOj), and tribilicic acid
The
(HiSiaOs)
as normal
metasihcic and the tribihcic acids
be regarded
may
acid from which water has been abstracted,

that pyrosulphuric acid is ordinary sulphuric acid less
silicic
way
2H2SO*- H2
H2 S 2
(HO)4Si-H2 0=H2 Si03,
3(HO)4Si-4H20=H
Faydite
is
m the same
H20, thus:
Fe2 Si04,
wollastonite,
metasihcic acid
4 Si30, tnsihcic acid.
CaSiOs, and
ortkoctase,
The alummates and ferntes may be regarded as
KAlSisOs-
the hypothetical acids AIO(OH) and FeO(OH), both of which exist as minerals,
the first under the name dtaspore and the second under the name
goethite.
Spinel
is
the
yO A10
.(MgAfeO*),
\0-A10
magnesium aluminate, Mg<f
and magnofernte the corresponding
mon
salts of
mineral magnetite
is
ferrate
MgFe2 04. The

X) FeO
the iron ferrate Fe<;
very com-
or FesO*,
In
X>-FeO
this
compound
state.
the iron
is
partly in the ferrous and partly in the ferric
COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION
There are other minerals that differ from those of the classes above
mentioned in containing more or less water of crystallization These
are usually separated from those
which there is no water of
lization
under the name
of
hydrous
crystal-
salts
Besides the classes of minerals considered there are others which

which two substances that
exist
appear to be double salts,
may
independently occur combined to form a third substance with properties different
or NasAlFe,
is
from those of its components Cryolite, sNaF-AlFa

an example The sulpho-salts furnish many other
examples
Further, a large number of minerals are apparently isomorphous
These are homogeneous mixtures
mixtures of several compounds
of
two or more
substances
that
crystallize
with the same
sym-
that
consequently,
may crystallize together Their
physical properties are continuous functions of their chemical comOther minerals are apparently solid solutions in one anpositions.
and,
metry,
other of simple crystallizable

gels and adsorbed substances
and salts, and of

some of the commoner
salts, of gels, of gels
Among
these are
silicates.
Determination of Mineral Composition. Since the properties

of minerals are functions of their chemical compositions, it is important
that their compositions be known as accurately as possible. It is
necessary in the first place that pure material may be secured for study
Pure material is most easily secured by making use of the differences
in density exhibited
by
different
compounds
The mineral
to be studied
pounded to a powder, sifted through a bolting doth sieve and shaken

up with one of the heavy solutions employed in determining specific
is
gravities.
When
the solution
is
brought to the same density as that
under investigation all material of a higher specific gravity

will sink.
The material with a density lower than that of the soluMaterial with a specific gravity identical
tion will rise to the surface
If the mixing is done
with that of the solution will be suspended in it
in a separating funnel of the proper type, the materials may be drawn
of the mineral
off into
may be
with
it.
densities, and thus the pure mineral

separated from the impurities that were originally incorporated
After the purity of the substance is assured by examination
beakers in the order of their
under the microscope,
it is ready for analysis

of the purified material is determined by the
of chemistry known as analysis and synthesis.
The composition
ordinary methods
In analysis the compound is broken into its constituent parts and
these are weighed, or it is decomposed and its constituents are trans-
From the weights

formed into known compounds which are weighed
thus obtained the proportions of the components m the original substance may be easily calculated if the weight of the original substance
be known
In synthesis the compound
is
up from known elements
built
or
compounds
decomposed by heat into lime
if its components are trans(CaO) and
the
known compounds CaSCU and KaCOj, the process is
formed into
If the mineral caicite
is
(CaCOs)
carbonic acid gas (CCte), or
If the known substance CCfe is allowed to act upon the

known substance CaO and the resulting product is a substance possess-
analysis
all
ing
the properties of
caicite,
the process
The
Analytical Methods.
is
analytical
synthesis.
methods made use
of
in
(i) the ordinary wet methods of chemical analysis,

the
methods
of blowpipe analysis, in which the mineral is
(2)
dry
treated before the blowpipe without the use of liquid reagents except
mineralogy are
a very subordinate degree, and (3) microchemical methods, performed on the stage of a compound microscope.
Blowpipe and microchemical analyses are made use of principally
for the identification of minerals
By their aid the nature of the atoms
a compound may easily be learned, but the proportions in which
to
these atoms are combined
The methods
Wet
methods
Analysis.
determined only with the greatest
difficulty.
For exact determinations of composition the wet

most
of chemistry are usually employed, since these are the
accurate ones
They
are identical
manuals of quantitative
discussion here
follows.
is
are mainly qualitative
They
analysis,
with the methods described in
and
no detailed
by Prof Tschermak as
therefore require
are well illustrated
mg. of the mineral goethite (in which qualitative tests

of iron oxide and water) are roasted in a glass tube,
This when caught and condensed m a second tube
given off
If 734
show the presence

water
is
containing dry calcium chloride increases the weight of this second

tube by 75 mg
The residue of the mineral left in the first tube now
weighs about 660

sist
mg
An
examination of this residue shows
it
to con-
Since only iron oxide and

of these two constituents ought to
exclusively of the iron oxide (FejjOs)
water are present in goethite the sum

But 660+75 *
equal the original weight of the mineral before roasting
the
The difference i mg.
73SJ whereas
original weight was 734
is|
due to unavoidable errors of manipulation.

be neglected in our calculations
The
As
it is
very small
it
may"
results of the analysis are generally expressed in percentages.

which are obtained by dividing the weights
by the weight of the original substance
of the different constituents
660- 734= 89
Thus:
92 per cent Fe2 0s

75"~734= 10 22 per cent EfeO
Total
100 14
The usual methods of analysis are, however, more indirect than this,
the components of the substance to be analyzed being first transformed
into known compounds and then weighed
For instance, common salt
known by
is
of the
pure
qualitative tests to contain only Na and CL If 345 mg.

be dissolved in water and the solution be treated with
salt
silver nitrate
under proper conditions a precipitate of
silver chloride
formed so long as any sodium chloride remains in the solution. The

silver chloride is separated from the solution by filtration
It contains
is
all
is
m the 345 mg
the chloride present
determined to be 840
mg
was separated contains

but now
After drying,
of salt
its
The solution from which the silver
weight
chloride
the sodium that was originally present in

in combination with nitric acid
It contains
all
the
salt,
also
any excess of silver nitrate that was added to precipitate the chlorine
it
is
NaCl
AgNOs - AgCl
salt
The
filtrate is
the excess silver
reagent
+ NaN03
filtrate
precipitate
now treated with hydrochloric acid to precipitate

The silver chloride precipitate is removed by filtra-
a solution containing sodium salts of nitric and hydrosome free acid of each kind. Sulphuric acid is
now added and the whole solution is evaporated to dryness. The free
acids are driven off by the heat and the sodium salts are transformed
tion, leaving
chloric acids besides
Na2S04 The residue consisting exclusively of NaaSO*

now found to weigh 419 mg.
The 345 mg of salt have yielded 840 mg. of AgCl and 419 mg. of
NagS04 The silver chloride is known to contain 24 74 per cent of
chlorine and the sodium sulphate 32 39 per cent of sodium. The 840
into the sulphate,
is
mg
of
AgCl contain
207.8
mg
contain 135 7 mg. of sodium.

207.8
and
135 7
of chlorine,
Hence 345
and the 419
mg
mg. or 60.23 per cent

mg. or 3934 per cent
343.5 mg.
mg
of salt yield
99.57 per cent
Cl,
Na
of
Records of Analyses. The composition of minerals like that of

other chemical compounds is determined in percentages of their components and is recorded as parts per 100 by weight. A weighed quantity
of themmeral is analy/ed, the products of the analysis are weighed and the
percentage of each constituent present is found by dividing its weight
by the weight of the original substance, as has already been indicated
In chemical treatises the results of the analyses are usually recorded
In mineralogical works it is
to write the percentage composition in terms of the
in percentages of the elements present.
more common
oxides of the elements, partly because the old analyses are recorded in
this way and partly because certain relations between the mineral
components can be better exhibited by comparison of the oxides than

by comparison of the elements present in them.
The record of the analysis of a magnestte may be given as.
Mg=2835
Fe= 34
0=14 25
0=5698
MgO=47 2 5
FeO= 43
per cent,
per cent,
or as
per cent,
per cent,
C02=S2
per cent,
per cent,
24 per cent,
Total =99 92 per cent.
Total =99,92 per cent

Calculation
of
Formulas.
After the determination of the per-
centage composition of a mineral, the next step is to represent this

composition by a chemical formula a symbol which indicates the
relative
of the
number
number
of elementary
atoms
in the mineral's molecule, instead
of parts of its constituents in 100 parts of its sub-
stance.
The
enough
construction of a formula from the analytical results is simple

in principle, but in practice it is often made difficult by the
fact that
many
several distinct
apparently pure substances are in reality composed of

compounds so intimately mtercrystalhzed that it is
In the simplest cases the formula is

impossible to separate them
derived directly from the results of the analyses by a mere process of
division.
The atomic weights
of the chemical elements are the relative weights
of the smallest quantities that
may enter into
chemical combination with
one another, measured in terms of the atomic weight of hydrogen which

is taken as unity, or of oxygen taken as 16.
Thus the atomic weights
and oxygen are approximately 14 and 16 respectively, i.e.,

the smallest quantities of nitrogen and oxygen that can enter into combination with each other and with hydrogen are in the ratio of the
of nitrogen

TABLE OF ATOMIC WEIGHTS
The
quantities that possess these relative weights

Often the apparent ratios ot the elements in
combination are different from the uitios between their atomic weights,
but this is always due to the fact that one or the other of the elements
values 14
known
are
is
16
as atoms
present in more than
smallest possible quantity,
its
in a greater
by a single atom For instance, there are

several compounds of oxygen and nitrogen known, in which the weight
relations between the two elements may be represented by the followIf the
24, 14
16, 14
14 : 8, 14
32, and 14 : 40
ing figures
second of these compounds consists of one atom each of nitrogen and
oxygen, and these are the smallest quantities of the elements that
can exist in combination, the several compounds must be made up thus
amount than
is
represented
14
14
NO
16
14
N2
NO
14
24
14
32
N2
N02
40
5
for
can exist only in quantities that weigh 14, 28, 42 times as much
as the smallest quantity of hydrogen present in any compound, i e
in quantities of 16, 32, 48, etc , times the weight
the single atom, and
,
atom In order that even multiples of 14 and

the ratios given above, their terms must be multiquantities that will yield the following results.
of the single hydrogen

1 6 shall exist in
plied
by
28
16
14
28
16
48
which are the weights respectively

in the above formulas
If, then, the elements combine
or in
some multiple
be in one of these
ratios,
numbers
of
80
atoms lepresented
in the ratio of their
atomic weights,
by analysis must
and consequently they furnish the data from
of the substance analyzed
gold chloride, for example, analysis
35 13 per cent Cl,
the ratio of 64.87
of the
28
32
of this ratio, the figures obtained
which the formula
Au and
14
In
the gold and the chlorine are united in
35 13 or -i-I.
tjj
atoms of gold and of chlorine
may be deduced
shows the presence of 64 87 per cent
is,
The combining
ratio of single
however, 196 7
35
5,
or
-2Z
oo
dently in gold chloride the ratio of gold to chlorine
is
V i-
only one-third
as great as is the ratio between the atomic weights of these elements,

or the ratio of the chlorine to the gold three times as great. Hence
1
is
The atomic weight
taken as 16
of
hydrogen
is
more accurately
008,
when
that of oxygen
there must be three times as much chlorine in gold chloride as would

be represented by a single atom of chlorine, or there must be three
atoms of chlorine in the compound, for we cannot imagine a quantity
of gold present which is equivalent to one-third of an atom of
gold
Gold chloride is therefore AuCls
We
can now prove our conclusion by calculation

One atom of
three atoms of chlorine ought to combine in the ratio of
gold and
1967:1065
(le,
our conclusion
If
355X3)
is
and the
correct,
AuCls, then the quantities of gold and of

chlorine yielded by the analysis should be in this ratio
The figures
obtained are in the ratio of 64 87 : 35 13
Multiplying both terms of
gold chloride analyzed
is
by 3 031 we obtain 196 62 . 106 5, which is approximately

the ratio expected.
In practice, the same result as that outlined above is reached by
this ratio
dividing the results of analyses by the atomic weights of the various

elements or groups of elements concerned
The quotients represent the
of
or
the
numbers
elements
proportional
groups present. If the small-
assumed as
est quotient is
the
other
quotients
atoms represented by the
between this and

atoms or groups of
unity, the ratios existing
indicate
number
the
of
latter.
Illustrations,
Gold Chloride
Au
Cl
Atomic Weights
Result of Analysis
=
*
64 87 per cent
196 7
35 5
35 13
Ratios
Quotients
=
-
3298
9896
=
=
Tin Chloride
Sn
45 26 per cent
Cl
54 74
The formula
SnCU
25,
or, if
FeO=
analysis
recorded
From
and
may yield:
384
*
4 04
542
of the tin chloride,
C= 14.26, Mg= 28 37;
the form of oxides:
002=52.24,
either of these results the
43
by the method described.
C=i4 2611 97=1 188=1
formula
is
009,
Mg= 28 37- 23.94= i

Fe~
=
=
of the gold chloride is AuCls,
Fe=.34, 0=5703,
easily obtained
117 4
35 5
Magnesium carbonate on
MgO=47
186=1.000,
.34-5588= .006= .006,
0=57.03-15 96=3 573=3-i2,
or,
MgCOs,
if
we
neglect
the small
quantity of iron present
10
From the second set of
0)2=5224-4389=1
we have*
figures
19
= 1,
or
>
MgO=47 25 3990=1 184=1,

FeO= 437184= 006,
MgO
MgCOs,
which
C02,
by methods like
made more difficult by the
All formulas are derived
the processes are
is
the
same as
written in a different
these,
but in
way
many
cases
impossibility of deciding
whether those substances that are present in small quantities

are present as impurities or whether they exist as essential parts of
the compound
positively
Formulas of Substances Containing Two or More Metallic

Elements or Acid Groups. In the illustration given above the compounds consist of but one kind of metallic element combined with one
kind of acid
Often in the case of minerals there are present two or
more metallic elements, and less commonly several acid groups. When
two metals are present in definite atomic proportions the formula is
written in the usual manner, as
in
of
the majority of cases,
when two or more
in different specimens of
same proportion
for the mineral dolomite,
of several substances
known
i atom
not as
metallic elements are present
a mineral they are not found always
For
in the
consist of isomorphic mixtures

instance, many calcium-magnesium car-
the mineral
bonates are
is
CaMg(COs)2
which calcium and magnesium are present in the ratio of one atom
each to two parts of the acid group COa. Very often, and perhaps in
may
which the ratio of calcium to magnesium present

to i atom, but in which this ratio is as 2 atoms
in
to i atom, 3 atoms to 2 atoms, or a ratio which would have to be

represented by irrational figures like 2 7236 atoms to i 5973 atoms
Each one
as
of these
compounds properly
aCaCOa+MgCOs, 3CaC03 +2MgCO3
requires
a separate formula,
but practically the entire

series of compounds is represented by a single symbol, thus (Ca Mg) COs,
indicating that in the series we have to do with mixtures of carbonates
of calcium and magnesium, or with complex molecules containing in
,
etc
different instances different proportions of the
two carbonates.
For
greater defimteness the symbol of the characteristic element of the
substance which
is
in largest quantity in the
compound is
when
calcium
carbonate
is
first,
(Ca Mg)COs,
when
carbonate
(Mg Ca)COs
pnagnesmm
predominates
as
defimteness
is
usually written
excess,
or
If still greater
desired small figures are placed below the symbols of the

Mgi)COs or (Ca3 Mg2)C03, to indicate
elements concerned, as (Ca2
the respective proportions present.
(Ca2
Mgi)COs
signifies
that the
11
mineral thus represented contains calcium and

magnesium in
ratio of 2 atoms of the former to i of the latter
the
Compounds Containing Water. Often salts that separate from

aqueous solutions combine with certain definite proportions of water
Sometimes this water combines with the anhydrous
of the com-
portion
pound to form a double salt, as MgSO4+ 7 2 0, or MgS04 7H2

At other times a portion of the water, in the form of the
group (OH),
called the hydroxyl group, occupies the pl ace
a metallic element, and, occasionally, that
usually occupied by
an
usually occupied b>
acid group, or by oxygen, as in Mg(OH)2

Water of Crystallization. Double salts
composed
of
an anhydrous
portion combined with water are usually well crystallized

Although
the water appears in many cases to be but
loosely combined with the
remainder of the compound it is an essential part of its
crystal particle,
even a portion of it the crystal

system of the compound
Water in this form is known as water of
often changed
crystalliza-
for
is
by the
tion,
loss of
and the compounds are designated hydrates

7 HaO forms orthorhombic
The magnesium sulphate MgSO*
crystals
By evaporation of a hot solution of this substance the sulphate

MgSO4 6H20 separates as monochmc crystals.
Gypsum is CaSOi 2H2 O Its crystallization is monoclinic When
heated to 200
anhydrite,
Water
pound
in
it
passes into the anhydrous orthorhombic mineral
CaS04
of crystallization
which
it exists
may
frequently be driven from the
com-
by continued
heating at a comparatively low

gradually an increase in the tem-
temperature. It is usually given off

perature causing an increase in the quantity of water released until
In many instances such a
finally the last trace disappears
very high
off
the last traces of the water that it
temperature is required to drive
would appear that some of it is held m combination in a

manner from that in which the remainder is held Indeed, it
all
certain that double salts
containing water
different
is
not at
of crystallization
are
any essential respect from ordinary atomic molecules in

which hydrogen and oxygen are present in atomic form.
Combined Water. Water of crystallization is thought of as
as water because of the ease with which it
existing in the compound
off
can be driven
Compounds in which the hydroxyl group is present
different in
upon being heated to comparatively high temperatures

of water are present, but not united as water.
elements
the
In them
combinations with the other constituents of the
their
from
freed
When
yield water only
compound by heat they
unite to form water
Because
its
elements
12
are thought of as closely combined with the other elements in the

molecule, this kind of water is often distinguished from water of crystallization
by
the term combined water.
Bructte
(Mg(OH) 2 ) and
(Cu2(OH) 2 C0 3 ) are minerals

When heated they yield water
malachite
containing the elements of water

=
according to the reactions Mg(OH) 2
= CuO+CuC03
2 0.
MgO+H2 O
and
Cu2 (OH) 2 COs
+H
is not only more difficult to separate from its comwater of crystallization, but when the combination
broken the chemical character of the original substance is radically
Combined water
bination than
is
is
may be seen from the reactions above indicated. Morewater is given off suddenly, at a certain minimum
combined
over,
not gradually as in the case of water of crystaland
temperature,
changed, as
lization.
Blowpipe Analysis. Although blowpipe analysis serves merely to

identify the chemical components of minerals, it is a most important
aid to mineralogists in their practical work
Nearly all minerals may be recognized with a close degree of accuTo distinguish
racy by their morphological and physical properties
between several minerals that are nearly alike in these characteristics,
In"
however, the determination of composition is often important
cases of this kind a single test made with the blowpipe will frequently
give the desired information as to the nature of some one or more of
the chemical elements present, and thus in a few

identified beyond mistake
moments the mmeial
may be
The apparatus necessary to perform blowpipe analysis is very

simple and the number of pieces few
These, together with all the
reagents in sufficient quantity to determine the composition of hundreds
may be packed into a box no larger than a common lunch

box
(See pp 467-470)
For more refined work than the mere testing of minerals a larger
collection of both apparatus and reagents is necessary, but it no case
is the quantity of material consumed in
blowpipe analysis as great as
when wet methods of analysis are used
of minerals,
Principles Underlying Blowpipe Analysis. The principal pheare the basis of blowpipe work are the simple ones known
nomena that
in chemistry as volatilization, reduction, oxidation,
For
used
volatilization experiments charcoal sticks
and solution
and
glass tubes are
blowpipe serves to direct a hot blast upon the assay. The

volatilized products collect on the cool parts of the charcoal which
they coat with a characteristic color, or upon the cooler portions of

tlie glass
The
tubes
sublimates that collect in the tubes
13
may be
tested
with reagents or examined under the microscope
Some
volatile substances impart a distinct
to an otherwise colorless flame
These
and characteristic
may be tested in
color
the direct flame
of the blowpipe
Oxidation and reduction experiments are usually performed either

on charcoal or in glass tubes Oxidations are effected in
open tubes
and reductions in those closed at one end The products of the oxidation or of the reduction are studied
and from
their characteristics the
nature of the original substance is inferred

The solution of bodies to be tested is often
made in the usual manthem

with
ner,
by treatmg
liquid reagents, but more frequently
it is accomplished by fusion of a small quantity of the body with
borax
(Na2 B 4 07 ioH2 0) or microcosmic salt ((NH4)NaHPO4 4H2 Q). The
i.e
molten reagent dissolves a portion of the substance to be tested and in

many cases forms with it a colored mass From the color of the mass
the nature of the coloring matter may be learned.
Although the underlying principles of blowpipe analysis are simple
the reactions that take place between the reagents and the
assay are
often very complex.
More explicit details of the operations of qualitative blowpipe
analysis are given in Part III
Microchemical Analysis. The processes of microchemical analysis

are limited in their application to the detection of a single element or,
at most, of a very few elements in small quantities of minerals.
They
are employed mainly in deciding
whose nature
is
suspected
the basis of
The principle at
upon the composition
of a substance
microchemical methods
is the manuby treatment of the mineral under

investigation with some reagent, and the identification of these precipitates through their optical and morphological properties.
all
facture of crystallized precipitates
is
In practice, a small particle of the mineral the nature of which it

desired to know is placed on a small glass plate, which may be covered
with a thin film of Canada balsam to prevent corrosion, and is

moistened with a drop or two of some reagent that will decompose
The solution thus formed is slowly

The plate is then placed beneath
by exposure to the
the objective of a
microscope
and the crystals formed during the evaporation are investigated Or,
after a solution of the assay is obtained there is added a small
it
air
evaporated
quantity
of
some reagent and the
microscope.
By
resulting precipitate
their shapes
and
is
studied under the
optical properties the nature of the
14
FIG
FIG
Sodium
Fluosilicate Crystals
Potassium Fluosihcate Crystals
Magnified 72 diam
Magnified 140 diam,
(After Rosenbusch
(After Rosenbusch

crystals
15
produced is determined, and in this way the nature of the conhave obtained from the mineral particles is discovered
stituents they
large
number
each of which
is
of reagents ha\ e been used

microchemical tests
best suited to some particular condition
The most
generally useful one is hydrofluosihcic acid (H 2 SiF b ). If small fragments of albite and of orthoclase are placed on separate glass slips, such
as are used for mounting microscopic objects, and each is treated with
a drop of this reagent and then allowed to remain in contact with the
a few minutes until the solutions begin to evaporate, those
portions of the solutions remaining will be discovered to be filled with
air lor
The crystals in the solution surrounding the albite are

habit
hexagonal
(Fig i), while those in the solution surrounding
the orthoclase are cubes, octahedrons or combinations of forms belonging
little
crystals
to the isometric system (Fig
fluosihcate
The
and the
albite, consequently,
compound
of
2).
The former
are crystals of sodium
latter crystals of the corresponding
potassium
is
potassium salt
a sodium compound and the orthoclase a
In similar manner, by means of
this or of
other reagents the constituents of many minerals may be easily detected

The method, however, is made use of only in special cases, when for
some reason or other analytical methods are not applicable
Synthesis is the opposite of analysis. By the analytical
processes compounds are torn apart, or broken down, whereas by synthetical operations they are put together or built up
Synthetic methods
Synthesis.
are employed principally in the study of the constitution of minerals

and of their mode of formation, and in the investigation of the conditions that determine the different crystal habits of the same mineral
of synthetic reactions are often spoken of as artificial
The products
minerals because
made through man's agency
In
many
instances
these artificial minerals are identical in every sense with natural minerals
Consequently, they may often serve as material for study, when the
quantity of the natural mineral obtainable is too small for the purpose
Classification of Minerals. Classification is the grouping of
objects or phenomena in such a manner as will bring together those
that
a're
related or that are similar in
many
respects
and
will separate
those that are different

Since minerals are chemical compounds whose properties depend upon
most logical classification must be based upon

chemical relationships. But their morphological and physical properties
are their most noticeable features, and hence these should also be taken
into account in any classification that may be adopted.
Probably
their compositions, then*
the most satisfactory method of classifying minerals
is
to
group them,
16
first,
in accordance with their chemical relationships and, second,
morphological and physical properties

The first division is into the great chemical groups, as, for instance,
The second division
the elements, the chlorides, the sulphides, etc
is the separation of these great groups into smaller ones comprising
accordance
\\ith their
These
minerals possessing the same general morphological features
smaller groups may contain only a single mineral or they may contain
If the basis of the subgroupmg
a large number of closely allied ones
members of subgroups
one
member
are
more
than
usually isomorphous compounds
containing
Thus the subdivisions of the great chemical groups are single minerals
and small or large isomorphous groups of minerals, arranged in the
is
manner
of crystallization, it follows that the
order in which their metallic elements are usually discussed in treatises

on chemistry For example, the great group of carbonates embraces
minerals that are salts of carbonic acid (EfeCO'j)

This great group
divided into smaller groups along chemical lines, as for instance, the
normal carbonates, the hydrous carbonates, the basic carbonates, etc
all
is
These smaller groups are
finally divided into subgroups according to

morphological properties the normal salts, for example, being
divided into the two isomorphous groups known as the calcite and the
aragonite groups, and a third group comprising but a single mineral
their
In certain
outlined above
specific
may be
mining students
it is
cases
some other classification than the one

For instance, in books written for
desirable
often found that a classification based
nature of the metallic constituent
more
upon the
than the more

strictly scientific one outlined above, because such a classification
emphasizes those components of the minerals with which the mining
student is most concerned
In books written for the student of rocks,
on the other hand, the most important determinative features of minerals
is
of
are their morphological characters, hence
interest
these the classification
be based primarily on manner of crystallization

In the present volume the classification first outlined is used, but
because such a small proportion of the known minerals are discussed
may
the beauties of the classification are not as apparent as

they would be
were ail described
CHAPTER
II
THE FORMATION OF MINERALS AXD THEIR ALTERATIONS

The
Origin of Minerals.
compounds,
existing
Minerals, like other terrestrial chemical

are the result of reactions between chemical substances
When
upon the earth
they are the direct result of the action
of elements or
compounds not already existing as minerals they are said

to be primary products, when formed
by the action of chemical agents
upon minerals already existing they are often spoken of as secondary,
this distinction of terms is not always applied
Quartz (SiCb), formed by the cooling of a molten magma, is pnmar> ,
when formed by the action of water upon the siliceous constituents of
though
rocks
it is
secondary
The Formation
of
Primary Minerals
Minerals are produced in a

a
under
Even the
great variety of conditions
ways
same mineral may be produced by many different methods The more
great variety of
common methods by which primary
minerals are formed are
precipita-
tion from a gas or a mixture of gases, precipitation from solution, the

cooling of a molten magma, and abstraction from water or air by plants
and animals
Emanations of gases are common in volgases escaping from volcanic vents are mainly
Deposits from Gases.

canic districts
The
water vapor, hydrochloric acid, sulphur dioxide, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia salts and carbon dioxide, besides small quantities of other
gases and the vapors of various metallic compounds
of these with one another or with the oxygen of the
momac (NHiCl) and

reaction
other substances
upon the rocks
in the
may
By
air,
the reactions
sulphur, salam-
be formed, and by their
neighborhood halite (NaCl),
ride (FeCls), hematite (Fe20s) and
many
other
ferric chlo-
compounds may be
produced
The production
of minerals through the reactions set
various gases and vapors is

from the gaseous condition
by sublimation
known as pneumatolysis
known as sublimation
is
up between
Their separation
Minerals formed
are usually deposited as small, brilliant crystals on the

upon the walls of cavities and crevices in them.
surfaces of rocks or
17
18
Thus
are produced are often quite simple.
dioxide
the reaction between sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur
yields
=
sulphur (2H2S+S02 3S+2H20), as does also the reaction between the
The reactions by %\hich they
=
gas and the oxygen of the atmosphere (HjS+O H2O+S)
hot
of
action
the
Ferric chloride may be produced by
hydrochloric
first
named
acid
iron-bearing material deep within the earth's inbeing volatile at high temperatures escapes to the air
upon some
terior
This
Here
as a gas
it
may
react with water vapor, with the resulting for-
mation of hematite (2FeCl3+3H2 0=Fe203+6HCl)

of
carbonic acid
gas
By
the action
oxides, carbonates are formed,

In other cases, however, the reactions
volatile
upon
(Fe203+2C02=2FeCOa+0)
are very complicated
Precipitation from Solution. Nearly all substances are soluble

an appreciable degree in pure water An increase in temperature
usually increases the quantity of the substance that can be dissolved,
to
as does also an increase of pressure

Moreover, the solubility of a
salt is increased on the addition of another salt containing no common
ion, and, conversely,
common
is
diminished in the presence of another having a
ion
Thus, gypsum (CaS04 2H20) is sparingly soluble in

becomes much more soluble upon the addition of salt
On the other hand, salt (NaCl) is much less soluble in water
(NaCl)
containing a little magnesium chloride (MgClo) than it is in pure water.
When a solvent contains a maximum amount of any substance that
water, but
it
hold under a given set of conditions the solution is said to be

From a saturated solution under ordinary conditions
precipitation results Upon the evaporation of the solvent, the lowering
it
may
saturated
of its temperature or of the pressure under which it exists, or the addition to the solution of a substance containing an ion already in the
solution. Of course, the addition of a substance which will react with
the solution and produce a
compound
insoluble
it
will also
cause
precipitation
The
following table contains the results of various experiments
the solubility of some
common
SOLUBILITY OF VARIOUS COMPOUNDS IN 100 PARTS PURK
(The
Halite (NaCl), at
results are given in parts
35 68
Fluonte (CaF2 ), at 15^
0037
Gypsum (CaS04 2H 0),ati5
250
Anhydrite (CaS0 4),
in the cold
Celestite (SrS0 4), at 14
on
minerals
00025
015
WATFR
by weight)
Calcitc (CaCO,), in the

cold
Strontiamte
002
(SrCO,) in
the cold
Magnetite (F
00555
t
e() 4 )
00035
FORMATION OF MINERALS
19
PERCENTAGES OF VARIOUS MINERALS SOLUBLE IN WATER \T 80
(When
treated 30 to 32 da\s)
Galena (PbS)
Stibmte (Sb 2 S 3 )
5 01
Pynte (FeS 2 )
179
Sphalerite (ZnS)
Chalcop>nte CCuFeS 2
Bouraomte f(Pb Cu)SbS 3 )
075
Arsenopynte (FeAsSj
1669
99
025
So many substances that are usually regarded as insoluble are known

be dissoh ed under conditions of high temperature and pressure that
no substance is behe\ ed to be entirely insoluble
to
Po\\dered apophylhte ((HK) 2 Ca(Si0 3 )2

that
H2 0),
which
is
silicate
generally regarded as insoluble in water, is dissoh ed sufficiently

in this sohent at a temperature of i8o-iQO and under a
pressure of
10-12 atmospheres to }ield crystals of the same substance upon cooling
is
Water containing gases or traces of salts is usually a more efficient

When the gases are lost, or the
dissolving agent than pure water
salts are decomposed by reactions with other compounds,
precipitation
may
ensue
PARTS OF VARIOUS MINERALS DISSOLVED ix 10,000 PARTS OF VARIOUS

SOLUTIONS
Gold loses
23 per cent of its \\eight
when
treated with 10 per cent soda
solution at 200
One
part gypsum
(CaSO 4 2H2 0)
Only 4 part dissolves
solution
dissolves in 199 parts of saturated
in 200 parts
NaCl
pure \\ater
Pyt lie (FeSo) loses 10 6 per cent of its mass upon boiling for a long time
Under the same circumstances galena loses 2 3
with a solution of Na 2 S
per cent
One
surface
commonest
carbon dioxide
of the gases found in water on the earth's

is an active agent in decomposing sili-
This
which it is dissolved
in dissolving carbonates, so that water
water
Its dissolving
than
solvent
more
a
pure
powerful
usually
cates
is
of the
is
and
increases with the pressure, as in the case of pure water, but

The action of carbonated
diminishes with increasing temperature
power
water on
silicates is
due to the replacement of the silicic acid by carbonic

of bicarbonates, which are usually more soluble
acid and the production
The greater solubility of carbonthan the corresponding carbonates

water
is also due to the formation of
in
carbonated
like
calcite,
ates,
action
of carbonated water upon calthe
For
bicarbonates
example,
cite
(CaCOs)
is
as follows
CaC03+H20+C02 =CaIfc(C03)2.
20
Carbonated water
is
more
to escape under this condition
When
escapes, or evaporation takes place,
and the
because of the inability of the

pressure is removed the CCb
reverse reaction occurs, as
under pressure
effective as a solvent
CCb
CaH2 (C0 3 )2= CaC0 3 +H 2 0+CO 2

dissolving effect of carbonated water upon various carbonates
and other minerals and the influence of pressure and temperature upon
the solution of a carbonate are indicated in the three tables following
The
SOLUBILITY OP CERTAIN CARBONATES IN 10,000 PARTS OF
CARBONATED
WATER
(The results are given
Calcite
(CaC0
Dolomite (CaMg(CO s ) 2 ) at 18
Magnesite (MgCOs), at 5
in parts
by weight)
Sidente (FcCO,) at 18
Witherite (BaCOj) at 10
13
Strontiamte (SrCOi), at 10
10 o
at 10
3 ),
PERCENTAGES OF \ARIOUS MINERALS SOLUBLE
328
Apatite
INFLUENCE
OF
533
Olivme ((Mg Fe) 2 Si0 4 )
536
211
Magnetite (Fe 3
TEMPERATURE AND
(The
atmos at 19
32
56
75
90
results are given

2
Precipitation
3)
IN CARBONATED
13
4 under
atmos
845 parts
105
62 o
035
82 o
659
100 o
from Atmospheric Water
in dissolving mineral matter
821
WATER
29 3
730
4 620
5 120
3
m parts per 10,000 by weight)
Temp
579 parts
821
018
2111
307 to
4)
PRESSURE UPON THE SOLUTION OF
MAGNESIUM CARBONATE (MgC0

i
(Ca(F CIXPCX).)
fi
CARBONATFD WATLR
IN
Apatite (Ca (F Cl)(POi)0
Ohgoclase
(NaAlSi3 8 + CaAl(SiO) 4 )
Hornblende (complex silicate)
Serpent] ne (KUMgsSi'Oo)
12
treated 7 weeks)
(When
Adulana (KAlSiaOs)
7 2
170
400
ooo
Rain
is
an active agent
absorbs small quantities of carbon

other
and
as it passes
substances
dioxide, sulphur gases
through the
it
act
atmosphere
may
upon many compounds, dissolving some, decomSince
it
posing others and forming soluble compounds from those that would
otherwise be practically insoluble Moreover, it transports the dissolved
materials from one portion of the crust to some other
portion, where,
may be precipitated The rain water
that penetrates the earth's crust, dissolving and
precipitating in its
under favorable conditions, they
21
is known as vadose water

It is an important
agent in ore-formation, since it may collect mineral matter from a great
mass of rocks and precipitate it in some favorable place, thus making
course through the crust,
ore bodies
Springs are the openings at which underMuch of the water flowing
the meteoric water which has circulated through the
Deposits of Springs.
\\ater escapes to the earth's surface
ground
from springs
crust
and
is
is
again seeking the surface
Where
dissolves certain materials
material
may
In
its
course through the crust
reaches the surface
it
be dropped in consequence of
(i)
some
evaporation of the
it
of this
\\ater,
or (2) the escape of carbon dioxide, or (3) the oxidation of some of its
constituents through the action of the air, or (4) the cooling of the water
in the case of warm or hot springs
The
deposits thus formed
may
occur as thin coatings on the rocks
over which the spring water passes, or as layers in the bottom of the
spring and the stream issuing from it
Among the commonest minerals
thus deposited are calcite (CaCOs), aragomte (CaCOs), siderite (FeCOs)
and other carbonates, gypsum (CaSO-i 2H20), pynte (FeS2), sulphur

The carbonates are deposited largely
(S), and limonite (Fe4O3(OH) 6 )
in consequence of the escape of
quence of cooling, and limonite
water contains EkS, this reacts

with the oxygen and a deposit
of
sulphur
ensues
C02 from the water, gypsum in conseand sulphur through oxidation. If the
_
j,
(compare
18)
When
curs
rocks
may
the precipitation oc-
cracks or fissures in the
the precipitated matter

partially or completely fill
the fissure, producing a vein,

the precipitated matter may
or,
fill
irregular cavern forming a

It sometimes covers
bonanza
an
the walls of cavities or the surfaces of minerals already existIn

ing, giving rise to a druse
other cases precipitation

occur while the solution
FIG 3
Cross-section of Symmetrical Vein

(Aflts
Le Neue Foster
(a)
Decomposed rock
($)
Galena
(6)
Quartz crystals
(d)
Sidente
may
is dripping from an overhanging surface,

crevices between
the
precipitate may fill the tiny
making a stalactite, or
into
a
mass
loose
the
compact rock
grains of sand cementing
Mmerals produced by precipitation
are often beautifully crystallized.
22
of needles yielding globular and other

imitative shapes, while in still other instances they occur as pulverulent
The fillings of veins are often arranged symor amorphous masses
metrically, similar materials occurring on opposite sides of their central
At other times they form groups
planes in bands, as shown in the figure (Fig 3)

have been concentrated and deposited in this way
Some important
ores
Deposits from Hot Springs.- The water of hot springs deposits a

Practically all
greater variety of minerals than that of cold springs
of salts are
solutions
in
hot
or
in
hot
water
are
soluble
minerals that
among them
Among
those of economic value
may be mentioned
cinnabar (HgS) and stibnite (Sb2Ss)

Deposits from the Ocean and Lakes. The water of the ocean and
of many lakes is rich in dissolved salts. That of lakes, however, is often
saturated or nearly so, while that of the ocean is not near the saturation
Consequently, while many lakes may deposit mineral subpoint.
do so except under peculiar conditions When

separated from the mam body of water, it may
leave
all
of
and
its mineral matter behind
Lakes may also
evaporate
a
with
similar
result
In
each
case
the deposits
completely evaporate
form layers or beds at the bottom of the basin in which the water was
stances, the ocean does not
a portion of the ocean
is
collected.
In other instances the water brought to the ocean or a lake may

contain substances which will react with some of the materials already
present and produce an insoluble compound which will be precipitated
Of
course, the nature of the beds thus formed will
depend upon the
character and proportions of the substances that were in the water

The ocean will yield practically the same kinds of compounds all over
the world and the beds deposited by the evaporation of ocean water
will be formed in nearly the same succession everywhere
In the case
of enclosed bodies of
tion of the water
Many
water
like lakes or seas
in
which the composi-
the deposits formed may also differ

of the deposits formed in bodies of water are of great eco-
may
differ,
nomic importance and, consequently, are extensively worked

Probably the most important are the beds of salt (NaCl) and of gypsum
(CaSO4 2H20), although borax (Na2 B4 7 ioH2 0) was foimerly
obtained in large quantity from the deposits of some of the lakes in
the desert portions of the United States
In the following table are given the results of analyses of water of
the ocean and of Great Salt Lake, in Utah, calculated on the
assump-
tion that the elements are
combined
in
the
manner indicated
the
column on the
left
The
23
results of the analyses of the waters of
a few
noted lakes are given in the succeeding table

COMPOSITION OF SAXTS CONTAINED IN
WATER OF THE
OCEA.N AND GRE\T
LAKE
(Parts in 1000 of Water)
NaCl
KCI
II
27 3726
8 1163
in
118 628
5921
1339
MgCL
3 3625
6115
14 908
CaS0 4
3229
9004
858
2437
3 0855
MgS0
Na S0
9 321
5 363
RbCl2
0190
MgBr2
0547
0034
0081
Ca (P0 ) 2
0156
0021
CaC0
FeC0
0434
0019
0780
OOII
0149
0024
35 0433
12 9427
Si0 2
II
149 078
Atlantic off Norwegian Coast

Anal>st, C Schmidt
Average of Five Analyses, Caspian Sea at depths of from i
Water
of
Analyst,
III
tr
to 640
Schmidt
Great Salt Lake, Utah
Analyst,
O D
Alien
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION or THE RESIDUES OF A
FE\\
LAKE WATERS
Deposits from Magmatic Water. Equally important in depositing

mineral matter is the water that escapes from cooling lavas and other
molten magmas designated as juvenile water All molten magmas
existing under pressure, i e , at some distance beneath the crust, contain
the components of water, which escape as the magma cools or when the
pressure diminishes, whether the diminution of the pressure
is
due to
24
the escape of the lava to the surface or to the cracking of the crust
its passage to the surface the hot water carrying dissolved salts penetrates all the cracks and cavities in the rocks through which it passes
In
in its ascent
and deposits
types of deposits
with which
it
comes
substances which
FIG. 4
its
burden of material, forming veins and other
components may decompose the materials

contact, replacing them wholly or in part by the
Or, its
in
it is
carrying or
by
the products of decomposition
Cross-section of Vein in Green Porphyry

The
splotches are feldspar crystals
The white
rock where not affected by the vein
is
The vein
fairly
filling is
chalcedonj
uniform character of the
seen on the right side of the picture
The
rude banding parallel to the vein is due to

changes that have proceeded outward from the vein-mass into the rock
Since in
many
cases
fluorine, its action
magmatic water contains corrosive gases, such as

on the rocks which it traverses is profound
A
crack in the rocks
may be
tiny
gradually widened and the material on both
sides of it be replaced
by new material, thus producing a vein which
is sometimes difficult to
distinguish from a vein made in other
ways
(Fig 4)
This process
metamorphism
and bodies
It is
is
known
as metasomatism, which
an important means
of producing
is
one kind of
pseudomorphs
of mineral matter
sufficiently rich in metallic contents to
constitute ore-bodies
25
Solidification from Molten Magmas. A molten

magma, such as a
liquid lava, is probably a solution of various substances mainly silicates
in one another, or in a hot solvent
Upon cooling or upon change
of conditions, such as may arise from loss of gas or water or from reduction of pressure, this hot solution graduall}
deposits
stituents as definite chemical
compounds
slo\\,
solidify
and
the entire mass
as constitute
compounds
some
of its con-
further cooling other

the rate of cooling has been
Upon
so on, until finally, if

may separate as an aggregate of minerals
many of the rocks,
as granite for instance,
and main
lavas
If the cooling has been rapid, some of the material
as definite minerals \\hile the remainder solidifies as a
such
of the
ma\ separate
homogeneous
Sometimes the minerals thus formed
are bounded by crystal planes, but usually their growth has been so
interfered with that it is only by their optical properties that they can
be recognized as crystalline substances
The nature of the minerals
glass, as in the case of
most lavas
that separate depends upon a great variety of conditions, the most

important of which is the chemical composition of the magma
In some cases the minerals separating from a magma tend to segresome limited portion of its mass and thus produce an accumulagate
tion that may be of economic value, le, the magma dijfa entities
Magnetite (FesGO, ilmenite ((Fe Ti) 2 3 ), pynte (FeS 2 ) and a few other
minerals are sometimes segregated in this way in very large masses
Metamorphic Minerals Many minerals are characteristic of rocks
that are in contact with others that were once molten
They were
formed by the gases and hot waters given off from the magmas before they
The hot solutions with their charges of gas and salts penetrated
cooled
the pores of the surrounding rock and deposited in them some of their
material
They reacted with some of the rock's components, producing
new compounds, and extracted others, leaving pores into which new
In some cases the entire body
supplies of gas and water might enter
of the surrounding rock has been replaced by new material for some
distance from the contact
Beyond this belt of most profound meta-
morphism are other
belts in
which the rock
is less
altered, until finally in
Into the outer contact

the outer belt is the unchanged original rock
the
and
belt perhaps only gas penetrated
changes here may be entirely
Near the contact the changes may be metasomatic

Minerals formed by these processes near the contact of igneous masses
pneumatolytic
are frequently referred to collectively as contact minerals.

In other cases new minerals may be produced in rocks in consequence
of
crushing
Hot water under high pressure

attended by heat
A part of the materials of the
chemical changes
greatly facilitates
26
crushed rock dissolves, reactions are set up and new compounds may
The new minerals produced are more stable than the
be formed
and have in general a greater density and consequently
ones
original
The type of metamorphism that produces these

kno\\n as dynamic metamot phtsm
Organic Secretions. The transfer of mineral substances from a
state of solution to the solid condition is often produced through the aid
a smaller volume
effects is
crustaceans, like
Mollusca, like the oyster, clam, etc
the lobster or crab, the microscopic animals and plants known as proof organisms
FIG 5
Diorite
Dike Cutting Granite Gneiss
Pelican Tunnel, Georgetown, Colo.
(After Sptirr and Garry
tozoans and algae and many other animals and vegetables abstract
mineral matter from the water in which they live and build up for themselves hard parts
These hard parts, usually in the form of external
shells,
are composed of calcium carbonate (CaCOs), either as calcite or
aragomte, of silica (8102) or of calcium phosphate Cas(P04)2. Although

not commonly regarded as minerals these substances are identical
with corresponding substances produced by inorganic agencies l

Paragenesis. It is evident that minerals produced in the same
1
Plants and animals upon decaying yield organic acids which may attack minerals
already existing and thus give nse to solutions which may deposit pynte (FeSa),
hmomte (a hydrated iron oxide) or some other metallic compound This process,
however,
is
properly simply a phase of deposition from solutions
\\ay
27
generally be found together. A certain association of minerals

thus characterize deposits from magmas, another association
\\ ill
will
FIG 6
Vein in
Griffith Mine,
Two
Georgetown Colo Showing

(After Spwr and Garry )
,
Periods of Vein
Deposition
gn
ff
= wall rock
= comb quartz
Balanceôf vein-filling
p
is
= sphalerite
= pynte
chalcopynte
= galena
a mixture of manganese-iron carbonates
15
10
It
Mont
\Z
13
SH-
(After W.H
Weed)
Vein Forming Original Ore-Body, Butte,
7
Fault breccia, (2) ore, (3) altered granite, (4) first-class ore, (5) crushed quartz and
bormte, (6) fault clay, (7) solid pyrite and bormte, (8) crushed quartz and pynte, (9) solid
white quartz, 6 inches,
enargite ore with bormte, (10) banded white quartz and bormte, (n)
(12) solid bormte, (13) solid pynte with bormte and quartz blotches, (14) bormte, (15) granite.
FIG
(i)
those precipitated from water, another those produced by contact

This association of minerals of a similar origin is known
action, etc
28
From a study of their relations to one another the

as their paragenesis
order of their deposition may usually be determined
Occurrence. The manner of occurrence of mineral substance is
of the variextremely varied, as may be judged from the consideration
water
occur
in
ous ways in which they are formed
Deposits laid down
as
beds
the
in beds or in the cement uniting grains of sand, etc such
,
of salt
2H2 0) found in many regions

magmas may form great masses
Those
(NaCl) or gypsum (CaSO*
of rock
produced by the cooling of

such as granite, \vhich when it occurs as the filling of cracks in other
rocks is said to have the form of a dike (Fig 5)
Deposits made by
or magwhether
meteoric
water,
matic
may
may
give rise to veins, which
be straight-walled or branch-
ing, like the veins of
quartz (Si02)
that are so frequently seen cutting
various siliceous rocks
When the
veins aie
by meteoric water
have a comb-structure
filled
they often
the filling consisting of several sub

stances arranged in definite layers
following the vein walls (see p 21)
If the
composition of the depositing

whether meteoric or mag-
solution,
matic, has remained constant for a
long
time the vein
be
filled
It its
com-
may
with a single substance
changed during the time
position
the filling was in progress the layers

are of different kinds
Further, it
FIG 8
Druse of Smithsomte (ZnCO3 )

on Massive Smithsomte
deposition continued uninterruptedly
the layers
may match
sides of the vein
on opposite
and the succession
the same from walls to center

If, however, after the partial
or complete filling of the crack it was reopened and the new crack was
filled, the new vein when filled would be unsymmetncal if the new crack
may be
occurred to one side of the center of the original vein

(Fig 6)
Repeated
reopening may give rise to a vein that is so lacking in symmetry that
it is difficult
(Fig 7)
to trace the succession of events
Veins
filled
by magmatic water
by which
it
was produced
more homo-
are frequently
geneous.
Druses (Fig 8) arise when deposits

simply coat the walls of
fissures.
29
In
many cases they may be regarded as veins, the development of which

has been arrested and never completed
When the deposits coat the
walls of hollows within rocks they are known as
Geodes
geodes (Fig 9)
are common in limestones and other easily soluble rocks in \*hich
cavities
be dissolved
may
Gases and water under great pressure

scopic pores existing in all rocks
penetrate the microand there deposit material which may
may
the pores and cement the rocks

If the deposited material is metallic
the rocks may be transformed into masses sufficiently rich in metallic
fill
matter to become ore-bodies

It
body
well represented by
impregnation
such
as
those
the Black Hills
in
ores,
When
is
rocks are decomposed
bv
of this kind is
some
known
as
an
of the low grade gold
the weather they are broken
up
Geodes Containing Calcite (CaCOs) Crystals
FIG 9
The rains wash the disintegrated substance into streams In its course
downward to lakes or the ocean, the heavier fragments, such as metallic
may
particles,
settle
while the
lighter
portions
are carried along
These
minother
and
materials, consisting of gold, magnetite, garnet, pyrite
bed
m
the
stream
loose
a
erals of
deposit
specific gravity, form
Thus the heavy
parts
may
accumulate
in the
stream bottoms
high
which
The
is
known
as a placer.
bottom near the shores as

principally of quartz, but
and other
silicates,
is
often found in placer deposits

which the
be carried to the lake or sea into
may
may accumulate
lighter portions
streams enter and
Gold
as sand
gravel, sand,
many
silt,
on beaches and on the

Most sand consists
etc
sands contain also grains of feldspar
and sometimes other compounds
30
Minerals, like living things, are constantly

Circulating waters may dissolve them in part,
Alteration of Minerals.
subject to change
or completely, and transport their material to a distant place, there
or in some new
depositing it either in the form it originally possessed
substance
form
On the other hand, the mineral
may be decomposed
into several
compounds some
of
which
may
be carried
off,
while others
are left behind

Again, the material remaining behind may combine with other matter held in the water causing the decomposition,
and may form with it a new mineral or a number of different minerals
This is
part metasomatism
occupying the place of the original one
The atmosphere may also act as a decomposer of minerals Through
the agency of its oxygen it may cause their oxidation, or it may cause
them to break up into several oxidized compounds Through the agency
of its moisture, it may dissolve some of these secondary substances or
The substances thus

hydrated compounds
water and carried off, or they may remain
to mark the place of the mineral from which they were derived
it
may form with them

may be dissolved
formed
in
Water, containing traces of salts, or gases in solution are exceedingly

active agents in effecting changes in minerals
Many examples of the
alteration of practically insoluble minerals under the influence of dilute
solutions are
by a
when acted upon

(MgCb)
up magnesium and
magnesium
its calcium
Monticelhte (CaMgSi04) when acted upon
known
solution of
Calcite (CaCOs), for instance,
takes
chloride
some f
by solutions of alkaline carbonates breaks up into a magnesium silicate
and calcium carbonate. Dilute solutions of various salts are constantly
circulating through the earth's crust and are there effecting transformations in the minerals with which they come in contact
On, or
near, the surface the transformations are taking place more rapidly
loses
than elsewhere because here the solutions are aided in their decomposing action by the gases of the atmosphere
The effect of the air in causing alteration
is seen in the green coatthat covers surfaces of copper or of

In this particular case the
copper compounds exposed to its action
coating is due to the action of the carbon dioxide and the moisture of
ing of malachite
((CuOH^COs)
the atmosphere. Other substances in contact with the

with their own oxides, sulphides, etc.
air are
coated
Pseudomorphs When the alteration of a mineral has proceeded

a manner that the new products formed have replaced it
particle
in such
by
particle a pseudomorph results
stance
crystallizes as a single
Sometimes the newly formed subhomogeneous gram filling the entire
space occupied by the original substance
Usually, however, the alter-
FORMATION OP MINERALS
31
ation begins along the surfaces of cracks or fissures in the

body undergoing alteration, or upon its exterior, thus producing the new material
at several places contemporaneously
When the
ment takes
place
(Fig
this
manner the
10)
resulting
replace-
mass
is
a network of
new substance or an aggregate of grains with the outward

form of the replaced mineral
With respect to their method of formation chemical pseudomorphs
may be classified as alteration
pseudomorphs and replacement
fibers of the
pseudomorphs
Alteration
Pseudomorphs
Pseudomorphs.
of this class
may
be defined as those which retain
some or
all
of the constituents of
the original minerals from which

they were derived.
Paramorphs.
Pseudomorphs
composed of the material of the
pseudomorphed substance without
addition
any
or
component
subtraction
of
known
as
are
FIG 10
Alteration of Ohvine into Ser-
The alteration is proceeding

pentine
from the surface of the crystal and
from surfaces of cracks that tra\erse
The black specks and streaks
paramorphs.
it
Paramorphism
in the case of
It results
into
new
is
possible only
dimorphous bodies.
represent magnetite formed during the
process
(After Tschermak
from the rearrangement

bodies of
the particles of which the original body
was com-
posed.
Illustrations
Calcite (hexagonal CaCOs) after aragomte (orthorhombic CaCOs), orthorhombic sulphur after the monoclinic variety.
Partial Pseudomorphs. The great majority of pseudomorphs
retain a portion, but not all, of the material of the original mineral
They may be formed by the addition of material to the original body,
by the loss of material from it, or by the replacement of a portion of
its
material
by new
material
Pseudomorphs formed by the addition of substance to that already

The substances most frequently added in the proexisting are rare
such pseudomorphs are oxygen, sulphur, the hydroxyl
group (OH) and the carbonic acid group (CDs and COs)
Illustrations Malachite ((CuOH^COs) after copper, aoid argentvte
duction of
(Ag2S) after s^her.
Pseudomorphs
resulting
from the
loss of material are
not common.
32
They
of a
are caused
by
the abstraction of one or
more
of the constituents
compound
Native copper after cupnte (Cu20)
Illustration
The
number of partial pseudomorphs are formed by the subsome of the components of the original mineral by a new
greater
stitution of
material
Limonite (Fe403(OH) 6 ) pseudomorphs after sidente

be formed by the following reaction
Illustrations
(FeCOs)
may
4 FeC0 3
Cerussite
+ 20+3H2 = 4C02 +Fe4
3 (OH) 6
(PbCOs) may be formed from galena (PbS), thus
PbS+40+Na2 C03 = PbC03 +Na2 S04

Replacement Pseudomorphs. Often the entire substance of a
is replaced by new material, so that no trace of its original
In this case the nature of the pseudomorphed minmatter remains
eral can be discovered only from the form of the pseudomorph
Illustrations
Quartz (Si02 ) after calcite (CaCOa) and gypsum
mineral
(CaSO4 2H2 0)
after halite
(NaCl)
Mechanical Pseudomorphs. The processes described above as

originating pseudomorphs are chemical, and the resulting pseudomorphs
There is another
are sometimes designated chemical pseudomorphs
class of pseudomorphs, however, in which the substance of a crystal
has not been replaced gradually by the pseudomorphing substance
In this class the pseudomorphing substance simply fills a mold left by
the solution of some preexisting crystal
Thus, if a sulphur crystal
should become encrusted with a coating of bante (BaS04) and the
temperature should rise until the sulphur melts and escapes, there
would be
left
a mold of
itself
constructed of bante
now, a solution
If,
of calcium carbonate should penetrate the cavity and fill it with a deposit
of calcite (CaCOs), the mass of calcite would have the shape of a crystal
of sulphur.
Pseudomorphs
of
this
kind are known as mechanical
pseudomorphs
Weathering.The term
weathering
is
applied to the
sum
of all the
changes produced in minerals by the action of the atmosphere upon

them Although nearly all minerals show some traces of weathering,
may often be detected only by the slight differences m color

by surfaces that have been exposed for a long time to the
the air when compared with fresh surfaces produced by frac-
these traces
exhibited
action of
ture or cleavage,
33
The weathering of minerals is often of great economic

importance
Veins of sulphides and a few other compounds
may be oxidized where
Some of the decomposition products thu?
they outcrop on the surface
formed may be soluble and others insoluble The insoluble
products
may remain near the surface while the soluble ones are carried downward by ground water along the course
of the vein
Here a reaction
ensue between the soluble salts and the
undecomposed portion of
the vein with the result that metallic compounds
may be
may
precipitated,
thus enriching the original vein matter and causing it to be

changed
from a comparatively lean ore to one of great richness
Pynte veins on the surface are often marked by accumulations of
hmonite derived by the oxidation of the sulphide With this may be

mixed insoluble carbonates, silicates and other salts of valuable metals
present in the original sulphide
Weathering may extend downward
along the veins for a short distance, replacing their upper portions with
the oxidized decomposition products
This portion of a vein is often
of
as
the
o
wdized
and
this
is
sometimes the richest portion
zone,
spoken
of the vein
It may be rich because less valuable substances have
formed soluble salts and have been drained away
Below the oxidized zone may be another zone less rich in valuable
compounds than the oxidized zone, but much richer than the material
below it
The soluble decomposition products of the upper portion of
the vein may percolate downward, and react with the unchanged vein
matter, precipitating valuable metallic salts

Although the original
vein matter may contain an inconsiderable quantity of the valuable
material, the precipitation in it of additional stores of material of the
same kind may raise the percentage of this constituent to a point where
This belt of enriched ore is known as the
it is profitable to mine it
zone of secondary em ichment

The oxidized zone extends
downward from the surface to a depth at

which the atmosphere and meteoric water become exhausted of their
oxygen a depth which varies with local conditions The zone of
secondary enrichment extends from the bottom of the oxidized zone
to a short distance below the level of the ground water, beyond which
solutions will diffuse and thus be carried away from the vein. Below
the zone of enrichment the original
vein-filling
may
reach
downward
indefinite distances
many veins exhibit the features described, it follows that the

many mines must grow poorer with depth, and that in many
Since
ore of
near the surface

in weathering and secondary enrichinvolved
of the changes
instances the richest ore
Some
is
34
ment
of sulphide veins in limestone are indicated
by the following
reac-
tions in the case of a vein containing pyrite (FeS 2 ), sphalerite (ZnS),
and galena (PbS)

(1)
The
first
change produced at the surface
may
be the oxidation
of the sulphides to sulphates
(a)
(b)
(c)
(2)
These
ZnS+40=ZnS04,
PbS+40=PbS04 (anglesite);
FeS 2 +70+H20=H2 S04+FeS0 4
may react
with the limestone as follows

(smithsomte)
(a)
ZnS04 +CaC03 +2H2 0=ZnC03
(b)
PbS04 +CaCO3 +2H2 0=PbC03
(gypsum)
CaS04 2H2 0,
CaS04
(gypsum)
(cerussite)
(3)
Some
of the sulphates
altered sulphides
may
and carbonates
carried
down
into the un-
react with these, yielding

Cgalena)
(a)
PbS04 +FeS2 +02 =PbS+FeS04 +S02
(J)
PbC03 +FeS 2 +02 =PbS
(sidente)
(galena)
FeCOs
S02
(galena)
GO PbS04 +ZnS = PbS+ZnS04

(galena)
(<0
The PbS
PbC03 +ZnS = PbS
replacing the
(smithsonite)
ZnC03
ZnS and deposited
in the cracks in the original
mixture of PbS, ZnS and FeS 2 increases the percentage of this compound
in the vein and thus enriches it.
There is also an increase in the percentage of ZnS brought about by

the reactions between the zinc salts (ia and 20), and the pyrite, analogous
to those between the lead salts and pyrite (30 and 36)
Thus
(sphalerite)
ZnS04 +FeS2 +02
ZnC03 +FeS 2 +02
= ZnS
ZnS
FeS04 +S02
(sphalerite)
FeC03 +S02
The
also
35
zinc salts produced in reactions $c and $d if carried downward

have the opportunity to react \\ith the pynte in the same way
If the
enrich
it
The
ZnS
is
will
deposited in fissures in the vein matter this will tend to
with zinc
oxidized zone contains (smithsonite) ZnCOs, (anglesite) PbSO4,
(cerussite)
PbCOa and
in the oxidized zone,
is
(limomte) Fe2(OH) 2
The ZnS04 formed

,
so readily soluble in water that
the other oxidized compounds and
is
carried
it is
downward.
also
leached from
PART
II
CHAPTER
III

the 1,000 or more distinct minerals recognized by mineralogists
few are important because they
a
few
(some 250) are common
only
constitute ores, others because they are components of rock masses,
and others simply because of their great abundance Only a few miner-
OF
alogists profess acquaintance
with more than 500 or 600 minerals
The
majority are familiar with but 300 or 400, relying for the identification of
the remainder upon the descriptions of them recorded in mmeralogical
treatises
Only the minerals commonly met with and those of economic or of

They should
special scientific importance are described m this book
be studied with specimens before one, in order that the relation between
Minthe descriptions and the objects studied may be forcibly realized
It is primarily
eralogy cannot be studied successfully from books alone
a study of objects and consequently the objects should be at hand for
inspection
Mineral Names.
in the termination "ite
The names
"
This
is
of the great majority of minerals end

derived from the ancient Greek suffix
which was always appended to the names of rocks to signify that

The first portion of the name, to which the suffix is
added, either describes some quality or constituent possessed by the
mineral, refers to some common use to which it has been put, indicates
the locality from which it was first obtained, or is the name of some
"itis"
they are rocks
person intended to be complimented

described the mineral bearing it
1
Collections of the
common
by
the mineralogist
first
minerals in specimens large enough for convenient

of the mineral dealers whose
may be secured at small cost from any one

addresses may be found m any mmeralogical journal
study
who

The
following examples taken from
Dana
illustrate
37
some of these
The mineral hematite (Fe2 3 ) is so named because of the red

principles
of
its
color
powder, chlorite (a complicated silicate), because of its green
color, sidente
(FeCOs), from the Greek word for
iron,
because
it
con-
tains this
metal, magnetite (FeaO-i) after Magnesia in Asia, goethite

(FeO(OH)) after the poet Goethe
The names
of a few minerals
end in "ine," "ane," âse," ôte," etc

"
all end in "ite
Occasionally,
but the present tendency is to ha\ e them

the same mineral may have two names
This
may
be due to the fact
was discovered by two
mineralogists working at the same tune

in different places, or it may be due to the fact that the mineralogists of
different countries prefer to follow different precedents set by the old
that
it
For example, the minGermans and by most Englishby the French The Germans follow
mineralogists of their respective nationalities

eral
(Mg
Fe)sSi04
is
called
ohmne by
speaking mineralogists, and peridot
the
mineralogist Werner, who first used the name ohvine in

French follow the French teacher Hauy, who proposed
the
while
1789,
name
the
peridot in 1801
the
German
ELEMENTS
The elements that occur in nature are few in number, and these,
with rare exceptions, do not occur in great abundance
They may be
the
carbon
into
the
following groups
group, the sulphur
separated
silver group, and the platinum-iron
these
comprise only a single mineral, while others
group
six
or
seven
Only a portion of these are described
comprise
group,
the arsenic group, the
Some
of
THE NON-METALS AND METALLOIDS

CARBON GROUP
The carbon group embraces
several minerals of which one
is
dia-
mond, another is an amorphous black substance known as schungite,

and the other two are apparently but different forms of graphite
The element may thereupon be regarded as tnmorphous Diamond
and graphite are both important.

Isometric (hextetrahedral)
Hexagonal (ditngonal scalenohedral)
Diamond
Graphite
Diamond
(C)
in irregular
usually found in distinct crystals or
In some
robin's
a
to
head
a
from
size
egg
pin's
masses, varying
"-are
but
found
are
individual
exceedingly rare
cases large
they
pieces
The diamond
is
38
The
Cullman diamond (Fig 16),

or 621 grams, or i 37 Ib ,
carats
weighed 3,024!
It was cut
measured
and
112x64x51
known
largest ever found,
as the
mm
into nine fine
gems and a number
of smaller
ones (Fig 17)
In composition the diamond is pure carbon, but it is a form of carbon that is not
ignited
Etch Figures on
Cubic Face of Diamond
FIG
ii
(After Tscher-
Crystal
At
when
high temperatures, however, especially

the presence of oxygen, it burns freely
with the production of CC>2, and, in the case
in
of
mak)
and burned at low temperatures
opaque
varieties,
Its crystallization
little
is
hedral class), and the forms on the crystals often

hedrally hemihedral, although the
ash
isometric
(hextetra-
appear to be tetra-
etch figures on cubic faces suggest
hexoctahedral symmetry
(Fig
n).
Octahedrons, tetrahedrons, icositetrahedrons and combinations of these
forms are common, and in nearly all

cases the interfacial edges are rounded
and the
crystal faces curved
Some-
times this curving is so pronounced

that the individuals are practically
12)
spheres (Fig
mon
Twins are com-
with 0(in) as the twinning
plane (Fig
13),
The
cleavage of diamond is perfect parallel to the octahedral face.
This
is
an important
FIG 12
Crystal of Diamond with
Rounded Edges and Faces (Krantz )
characteristic, as the lapidary
makes use
of
it
the preparation of stones for cutting

Its
fracture is conchoidal
Its specific gravity is
in
3 52 and its hardness greater than that of

other known substance
Most diamonds
any
are
dark and opaque, or, at most, translucent, but

many are found that are transparent and colorless
FIG 13
Octahedron of
Diamond
Twinned
aboutO(m)
so-called white stones
blue
or nearly so
Gray, brown, green, yellow,
and red tinted stones are also known, and,
with the exception of the blue and red diamonds,

these are more common than the
colorless, or
luster of all
diamonds
is
adamantine, and
INTRODUCTIONTHE ELEMENTS
39
their index of refraction is very high, n=z

4024 for red rays, 2 4175 for
In consequence of their strong
yellow rays, and 2 4513 for blue ra>s
dispersion, the reflection of light from the inner surfaces of transparent
stones
very noticeable, causing them to sparkle brilliantly, with a

of colors
It is this latter fact and the
great hardness
of the mineral that make it the most valuable of the
gems The mineral
is a nonconductor of electricity
is
handsome play
Three
varieties of the
the trade
Gem
diamond have received
distinct
names
in
These are
diamonds, which are the transparent stones,
Bort, or Bortz, gray or black translucent or opaque rounded masses,

with a rough exterior and the structure of a crystalline aggregate, and
Carbonado, black, opaque or nearly opaque masses possessing a
crystalline structure, but no distinct cleavage
are
The only minerals with which diamond is liable to be confused

much softer, and, consequently, there is little difficulty in dis-
tinguishing between
Syntheses
them
diamonds
Small
have
been
made by
fusing in an
electric furnace metallic iron containing
a small quantity of carbon and

mass
a
the
in
of
bath
molten lead
cooling
suddenly
They have also
been made by heating in the electric arc pulverized carbon on a spiral
immersed
hydrogen under a pressure of 3,100 atmospheres
third method, which resulted in the production of tiny octahedrons,
consisted in melting graphite in olivine, or in a mixture of silicates
"
blue ground," with
having the composition of the South African
of iron wire
the addition of a
Occurrence
little
metallic aluminium or
and Origin
Diamonds
magnesium
are found (i) in
clay,
sand
or gravel deposits or in the rocks formed by the consolidation of these

substances, where they are associated with gold, platinum, topaz,
garnet, tourmaline and with other minerals that result from the decomposition of granitic rocks, (2) in a basic igneous rock containing fragments of shale (a consolidated mud) and (3) small diamonds have been
discovered in meteorites
The manner of origin of diamonds has been a subject of contromany years The most popular theory ascribes the diamonds
m the rock magmas
igneous rocks to the solution of organic matter
versy for
in
Another theory
crystallization of the carbon upon cooling
the
of
magma. The
regards the carbon as an original constituent
to have been
believed
are
diamonds in sand, sandstone, granite, etc ,
and the
in river channels
transported from their original sources and deposited
or on beaches.
40
The principal localities from which diamonds are obtained

Madras Presidency in India, the Province of Mmas-Geraes in
Localities
are the
the Island of Borneo, the valleys of the Vaal and Orange

Rivers, and other places in South Africa, and the valley of the Mazarum
River and its tributaries in British Guiana
Recently diamond fields
have been discovered in New South Wales, Australia, in the \alley of
Brazil,
the Kasai River
meen
the Belgian Kongo, in Arkansas,
district, British
and
in the
Tula-
Columbia
In the United States a few
gem diamonds have been found from
tune to time in Franklin and Rutherford counties in North Carolina,

soils and sands in the
in the gold-bearing gravels of California, and
Alabama, Virginia, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, Idaho an^l

(the Dewey diamond) found near Richmond, Virginia,
Oregon
a few years ago is valued at $300 or $400
The principal source of diamonds and carbonado in Brazil at the
of
states
A stone
present time is Bahia, where the mineral occurs in a friable sandstone

The output of this region has decreased so greatly
along river courses
in the last few years that although a mass of carbonado weighing 3,073
diamond material ever found) was obtained

impure diamond rose from $10 50 per carat
in 1896 and $85 oo per carat for the best
oo
to
carat
1894
$36
per
carats (the largest mass of

in 1895, the price of this
1916
the United States is that
only diamond field of prominence
which has recently been exploited near Murfreesboro in Arkansas, where
quality
The
the conditions are similar to those existing in South Africa

The diaa basic igneous rock (pendotite) that cuts through Scindmonds occur
stones
and
"
The pendotite is weathered to a, soft earth or

which the diamonds are embedded
Up to the end of
quartzites
"
ground
1914 over 2,000 diamonds had been found, mostly small stones weighing
One, however,
The rough unsorted stones
weighed 8 carats and another 7^ carats
in the aggregate 550 carats, valued at about $12,000
Three stones that were cut were found
are valued at $10 per carat
to be worth from $60 to $175 per carat

The district has not yet been
The diamonds
sufficiently developed to prove its commercial value
in British
Columbia occur
The few that have thus
same kind of rock as those

Arkansas
been found are too small for any practical
in the
far
use
In former times the mines of India and Borneo were very productive, the famous Golconda district m India for a long period furnishing
most
of the
The
gems
to
commerce
African mines were opened in 1867
Since this time they
mil,
Ji/JjJkMIiJWTS
41
have been practically the only producers of gem material in the world
It is estimated that the quantity of uncut diamonds
yielded by the
mines near Kimberly alone have amounted in value to the enormous
sum of $900,000,000 The output of the African mines in 1913 was

sold for about $53,000,000, being over 95 per cent of the world's outOf this amount about $9,000,000 worth of stones
put of gem material
were furnished by German Southwest Africa, the balance
by the
Union of South Africa The diamonds are found in a pendotite which
occurs in the form of volcanic necks, or " pipes," cutting carbonaceous
The
igneous rock is much weathered to a soft blue earthy mass

"
blue earth
Near the surface where exposed to the action
of the atmosphere the earth is yellow
The diamonds are scattered
shales
known
as
"
through the weathered material
in quantities
amounting to between
and
6 carat per cubic yard

E\tr action
Where the diamond occurs in sand and gravel
tained by washing away the lighter substances
3
In South Africa and Arkansas the mineral
is
it is
ob-
found in a basic volcanic
rock which weathers rapidly on exposure to the air

The weathered
rock is mined and spread on a prepared ground to weather
When sufficiently disintegrated
formed
monds
water
is
added to the mass and the
mud
thus
allowed to pass over plates smeared with grease

The diaand some of the other materials adhere to the grease, but most
is
of the valueless material
is
carried off
by the water
Transparent diamonds constitute the most valuable gems
Uses
Perfectly white stones, or those possessing decided tints of red,

are the most highly prized
They are sold by
weight, the standard being known as the carat, which, until recently,
was equivalent to 3 168 grains or 205 milligrams At present the metric
in use
rose, green or blue
carat
is
almost universal use
This has a weight of 200 milligrams
price of small stones depends upon their color, brilliancy and size
a perfectly white, brilliant, cut stone weighing one carat, being valued
The
As the size increases the value increases in a much

at about $175 oo
greater ratio, the price obtained for large stones depending almost solely
upon the caprice of the purchaser
Nearly
all
the
gem diamonds put upon
the market are cut before
diamond cutting are Antand

New York in America
World
Old
werp and Amsterdam
For the former only
rose
the
and
brilliant
the
are
cuts
The favorite
being
offered for sale
The
chief centers of
in the
octahedral crystals, or those that will yield octahedrons by cleavage,

are used, for the rose cut distorted octahedrons or twinned crystals
In producing the "brilliant" a portion of the top of an octahedron is cut
42
off
and a small portion
of the
On
bottom
the remainder are cut three
or four bands of facets running horizontally around the stone (see Fig 14)
The
"rose" has a
of 24 or
more
flat
facets
base surmounted by a pyramidal dome consisting

In late years the shapes into which diamonds are
cut have been determined
less
by the decrees of fashion and more by the

desire
to sa\e as
much ma-
terial as possible, and, conse-
Grona
Back, or Pavilion
common than
Step or Trap
Rose
quently, irregularly shaped cut

diamonds are much more
formerly (com-
pare Fig 17).
Diamonds
also
are
employed
as cutting tools
Small
fragments, or splinters of gem

quality, are used for cutting
and
Crown
Side View
Pavilion, or Base
Brilliant
FIG 14
"
Principal
cuts
"
of
Diamonds
polishing
diamonds and
other gems, and small crystals

with crystal edges for cutting
Small cleavage pieces

glass
are utilized in the manufacture of engravers' tools and writing instruments
Recently diamonds with small holes of from 008 to 0006 of an
inch drilled in them, have been employed as wne dies
Bort is also used as a polishing and cutting material, while carbonado,
nearly all of which comes from Brazil, is used in the manufacture of
Diamond drills consist of hollow cylinders of soft

boring instruments
iron set at their lower edges with 6, 8 or 12 black diamonds
By rapid
revolution of this a "core"
may
be cut from the hardest rocks
Some Famous Diamonds The largest diamond ever found the Cullinan was picked up at the Premier Mine (Fig 15) in the Transvaal in
January, 1905, and was presented to King Edward of England as a birthday gift in 1908 (Figs 16 and 17 ) It weighed about 3,025 carats (about
The next largest was found in June, 1893, at the Jagersi 37 pounds)
It is known as the Excelsior
fontem mine
It weighed in its natural
state 971 carats and was 3 inches long in its greatest dimension
It was
valued at $2,000,000
It is said to have been
presented by the Presi-
dent of The Orange Free State to Pope Leo XIII

The third largest
is the Reitz
It is a 640-carat stone found at the same mine
during
the close of 1895 This, though smaller, is said to be handsomer than the
Excelsior
The most noted diamond in the world is the
which
stone
Kohmoor,
weighed, before cutting, 186 carats

belonging to the crown of England
now
a brilliant of 106 carats,

Other famous diamonds aie the
It is
FIG
15,
Premier Diamond Mines
pIG
X 6,
in
South Africa
-The Cullman Diamond.
(Natural size
43
FIG 17
Gems Cut from
the Cullman
Diamond
(Two-lifthb nat si/c
Orlov, 193 carats, the property of Russia, the Regent or Pitt diamond
the Green diamond of Dresden,
weighing 48 carats, and the Blue
of 137 carats belonging to France,
Hope diamond, weighing 44 carats

The " Star of the South," found in
Brazil,
weighed 254 carats bcfoie
The
cutting and 125 .iftcnvard
Victoria diamond from one of the
Kimberly mines -weighed 457 carats
It has been cut to a
\\hen found
perfect brilliant of 180 carats valued
at $1,000,000
FIG
-The Tiffany Diamond
18
ural size
(Kindness of TiJJany
enormous proportions
(Nat-
& Co
of the
mond
(Fig
York
is
1 8)
The Tiffany dianow owned in New
double
brilliant
of
golden yellow color weighing 128^

carats (25 702 grams) and valued at
When it is remembered
$100,000
that a five-carat stone is large, the
above-named gems are better appreciated.

Graphite (C)
Graphite, or plumbago, occurs principally in amorphous masses of a

black, clayey appearance, in radiated masses, in brilliant lead black
scales or plates,
and occasionally in crystals with a rhombohedral habit

Like diamond, graphite consists of carbon
Crystals from Ceylon
yield C=794o, Ash=is 50, Volatile matter=s 10.

often impure from admixture with
clay, etc.
The mineral
is
45
Crystals of the material are so rare that their symmetry is still in

Their habit is hexagonal (ditngonal scalenohedral class)
Measurements made on the interfacial angles of crystals from Ticon-
doubt
i 3859
These possess a rhomboderoga, New York, gave a c=i
hedral symmetry
All crystals are tabular and nearly all are so distorted
that the measurements of their interfacial angles cannot be
depended
for
accuracy
They apparently contain the planes R(ioTi),
OP(IOOO), COP2(II20), and 2P2(lI2l)
Graphite is black and earth} or lustrous, according as it is impure
or pure
It is easily clea\ able parallel to the basal
plane and the cleavlaminae
are flexible
It is very soft, its hardness being only 1-2,
age
upon
its
density about
25
Its luster
even in the thinnest flakes

Graphite
temperatures
is
is
metallic
and the mineral
is
opaque
conductor of electricity
infusible and noncombustible even at moderately high
Like diamond, however, it may be burned under cerIt is a
tain conditions at \ ery high temperatures (65o-7oo)

It is unaffected
common
the
acids
and
is
not
acted
the
by
upon by
atmosphere
When, ho\\e\er, it is subjected to the action of strong oxidizing agents,
such as a \\arm mixture of potassium chlorate (KClOj) and fuming

it
changes to a }ello\\ substance kno^n as graphitic acid
nitric acid,
It is thus distinguished from amorphous carbon, like

(CnKLiOj)
and
anthracite
Moreo\er, man\ forms of graphite, \\hen
schungite
moistened with fuming nitric acid and heated, s\\ell up and send out
worm-like processes Those \\hich do not act thus are called graphititc
is of both types
Natural graphite
Its color, softness and infusibility serve to distinguish graphite from

It ma\ be distinguished from
other minerals but molybdenite (p 75)
this mineral by the fact that it contains no sulphur
all
Crystalline graphite is made on a commercial scale

of
treating anthracite coal or coke containing about 5 75 per cent
It also separates \\hen molten iron conash in an electric furnace
taining dissolved carbon is cooled
Syntheses
by
Occurrence and Origin

Graphite occurs as thin plates and scales
certain igneous rocks,
gneisses, schists and limestones, as large
coarse granite dikes (pegmatite) and
scales
crystalline limestones,
and as amorphous masses at the contacts of igneous rocks with carbona-
The mineral is also found in veins cutting sedimentary

and metamorphic rocks Crystals are found only in limestone
The occurrence of graphite m sedimentary and igneous rocks sugceous rocks
several
been formed
gests that it may have
that the material in limestone and quartz-schist
ways
may
It is
thought
represent carbo-
46
naceous material that was deposited with the sediments and which has
The material
since been carbonized by heat and pressure
peg-
matite
may
be an original constituent of the
magma
that produced the
and the graphite may be the product of pneumatolytic processes

it may have been produced by deposits from vapors that accom-
rock,
i
If this be true, the mineral

panied the formation of the pegmatite
found in metamorphosed limestone and schist may be of contact origin,
i e
it may have been produced by the migration of gases and solutions
The
from igneous rocks into the mass of the surrounding sediments
similar
the
mineral
been
a
vein deoosits probably had
having
origin,
,
On the
deposited mainly in cracks traversing metamorphic rocks
other hand, graphite, in some instances, appears to be a direct separation from a molten
magma
The
principal foreign source of supply for commercial

In the United States the mineral has
the Island of Ceylon
been mined on the southeast side of the Adirondacks in New York,
Localities
graphite
is
in Chester County, Pennsylvania,
near Dillon, Montana,
at several
Arkansas, Georgia, Alabama and North Carolina, in Wyopoints

in
ming,
Baraga County, Michigan, and to a small extent in Colorado,
It occurs also abundantly at many other
and
Wisconsin
Nevada,
in
places
Its chief source in the
George,
New York
United States
is
Graphite, near
Lake
Graphite is obtained on a commercial scale by grindPreparation

the
rock
ing
containing it and floating the graphite flakes
Uses
Crude graphite, or plumbago, is used in the manufacture of
stove and other polishes, and of black paint foi metal surfaces, for both
of which it is especially valuable on account of its noncorrodmg
propji-
The
mixed with clay and made into crucibles

It is also ground and used m this form
"
u
as a lubricant for heavy machinery, and is compressed into
black lead
ties
purified mineral
is
for use at high temperatures
centers for lead pencils
Production
The quantity of crude graphite mined
the United
States during 1912 amounted to 2,445 tons > valued at $207,033, besides
which there were manufactured 6,448 tons, valued at $830,193. The
imports were 25,643 tons, valued at $709,337
Schungjte is a black, amorphous carbon with a hardness of 3-4

and a spgr. of i 981
It is soluble in a mixture of HNOs and KClOj
without the production of graphitic acid. It occurs in some
crystalline
schists.
47
SULPHUR GROUP
Sulphur
known
The two
is
crystalline
in at least six different forms, four of
best
known forms
crystallize respectively in the
orthorhombic (orthorhombic bipyramidal

(prismatic class) systems
The former
which are
and the monoclimc
class)
separates from solutions of sulphur
carbon bisulphide and the latter separates from molten masses

Both the orthorhombic and the monoclimc phases are believed to be
formed by natural processes, but the latter passes over into the former
in
so that its existence as a mineral cannot be definitely

Selenium and tellurium, which are also members of the sulTellurium occurs in rhombohedral
phur group, are extremely rare
crystals and selenium in mixed crystals of doubtful character with
upon standing,
proven
sulphur and tellurium
Sulphur (S)
Sulphur occurs in nature as a lemon-colored powder, as spherical or
globular masses, as stalactites and in crystals
Chemically it is pure sulphur, or a mixture of sulphur and clay,
FIG 20
FIG 19
FIG
19
Sulphur Crystals with P,
in
ooi
FIG 20
(), 3?, 113
It
P,
on
(), and oP,
(c)
Distorted Crystal of Sulphur
bitumen or other impurities.

rium, selenium and arsenic
(s),
(Forms same as
in Fig. 19
sometimes contains traces of
tellu-
Crystals of sulphur are usually well formed combinations of orthorhombic bipyramids and domes, with or without basal terminations.
Their axial ratio
8108
9005
The
principal
forms observed
are P(in), POO(IOI),

6(011), iP(ii3) and oP(ooi) (Figs 19 and
of
the
habit
The
crystals is usually pyramidal, though crystals
20)
are
habit
a
tabular
with
quite common
Their streak is light lemon yellow,
are
of
yellow
sulphur
Crystals
48
The
mineral has a resinous
luster
Its hardnebs
is
only
5-2,
and
Its fracture is conchoidal and cleavage imperdensity about 204

It is transparent or translucent, is brittle and is a nonfect
Its indices of refraction for sodium light
area = i 9579,
j8a 0377, 7 = 2
Massive sulphur varies
from yellow to yellowish brown

and amount of impurities
In mass it posnearly always crystalline
according to the character
greenish gray, etc

it contains
Its powder
,
2452
in color
is
sesses a lighter color than the crystals or the massive sulphur

At a temperature of 114 sulphur melts, and at 270 it ignites,
At about 97
burning with a blue flame and evolving fumes of SO 2
it
It is insoluble in
water and
soluble in oil of turpentine, carbon bisulphide
and chlo-
passes over into the monoclimc phase
acids,
but
is
roform
There are few minerals that are apt to be mistaken for sulphur.
all of them it may be distinguished by its bnttleness and by the
fact that it melts readily and burns with a nonlummous blue flame
Crystals with the form of the mineral are produced by
Syntheses
the evaporation of solutions of sulphur in carbon bisulphide, and also
by sublimation from the fumes of ore roasters
Sulphur occurs most abundantly m regions
of active or extinct \olcanoes, and in beds associated with limestone
From
In volcanic regions it is produced by

and gypsum (CaSO* 2H20)
reactions between the gases emitted from the volcanoes, or by the reacThe deposits in
tions of these with the oxygen of the air (seep 18)
gypsum beds may
result
from reduction of the gypsum by organic
Sulphur is formed also as a decomposition product of sulphides

In Iceland and other districts of hot springs sulphur is often deposited
matter.
in the
form
of
powder as the
result of reactions similar to those that
take place between the gases of volcanoes

These hot springs are always
connected with dying volcanoes, being frequently but the closing
stages of their existence
The localities at which sulphur is known to exist are

Those of commercial importance are Girgenti m Sicily,
numerous
very
Cadiz in Spam, Japan, and in the United States, at the geysers 'of the
Napa Valley, Sonoma County, and at Clear Lake, Lake County,
California, at Cove Creek, Millard County, Utah, at the mines of the
Utah Sulphur Company in Beaver County, in the same State, at
The
Thermopohs, Wyoming, and at various hot springs in Nevada
Localities
mineral occurs also abundantly in the Yellowstone National Park, but

cannot be placed on the market because of high transportation charges

Its principal occurrence
La
Calcasieu Parish,
the United States
where
it
is
at
49
Lake Charles
in
impregnates a bed of limestone at
a depth of from 450 to 1,100 feet

coastal districts of Texas
Here it
It occurs also
is
abundantly in the
associated with
gypsum
Sulphur, when mined, is mixed with clay, earth, rock and

other impurities
Until recently it was purified by piling in heaps and
Extraction
igniting
portion of the sulphur burned and melted the balance,
off and was caught

A purer product is ob tamed by dis"Flowers of Sulphur" are made in this way
At present
much of the sulphur is extracted by treating the impregnated rock
retorts with steam under a pressure of 60 pounds and at a temperature
which flowed
tillation
The
sulphur melts and flows to the bottom of the retorts

drawn off
In Louisiana and Texas, superheated steam is forced downward into
the sulphur-impregnated rocks. This melts the sulphur, which constitutes about 70 per cent of the rock mass
The melted sulphur is
forced to the surface and caught in wooden bins
The crude material
of 144
from which
it is
has a guaranteed content of over 99! per cent sulphur

Uses
the manufacture of some
Sulphur, or brimstone, is used
making gunpowder, and m vulcanizing rubber

and elasticity It is used extensively in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid, but is rapidly giving way to pynte
It is also utilized for bleaching straw, in the manfor this purpose
ufacture of certain pigments, among \\hich is vermilion, and in the
kinds of matches,
to increase its strength
preparation of certain medicinal compounds

Most of the domestic product
Production
Calcasieu Pansh,
La
is
at present
from the
where about 300,000 tons are mined annually.
New
mines have been opened near Thermopolis in Wyoming, in Brazona County, Texas, and at Sulphur Springs, Ne\ada. The total
amount of the mineral mined in 1912 was 303,472 tons, valued at $5,256,422
most
Besides, there were imported about 29,927 tons valued at $583,974,

of which came from Japan
Sicily is the largest producer of the
mineral, extracting about 400,000 tons annually.
ARSENIC GROUP
arsenic group comprehends metallic arsenic, antimony, bismuth
(according to some mineralogists), tellurium, besides compounds
The
and
of these metals with each other
The only members

antimony
They
all crystallize
in the
rhombo-
system (ditrigonal scalenohedral class).

of the group that are at all common are arsenic and
hedral division of the hexagonal
50
Arsenic (As)
Arsenic
is
rarely found in crystals
It usually occurs
botryoidal or globular forms

Specimens of the mineral are rarely pure
They
massive or in
usually contain
some antimony, and traces of iron, silver, bismuth, and other metals
The crystals are cubical in habit, with an axial ratio of i i 4025
The principal forms observed are oR(oooi), R(ioTi), JR(ioT4),
|R(oil2) and
^(0332) Twins are rare, with -|R(oil2) the
.
twinning plane
Arsenic is lead-gray or tin-white on fresh fractures, and dull gray or
nearly black on surfaces that have been exposed for some time to the
atmosphere
The fracture of massive

Crystals cleave readily parallel to the base
hardness is 3 5 and its
is
Its
mineral
brittle
is
uneven
The
pieces
Its streak is tin-white tarnishing
density 5 6-5 7
It is
an
electrical
soon to dark gray
conductor
be distinguished from nearly all other minerals,

of the rarer metals, by the color of its fresh
and
some
except antimony
Arsenic
surfaces
may
easily
From
these,
distinguished
by
its
with the exception of antimony, it is also readily

action on charcoal before the blowpipe, when it
volatilizes completely
without fusing, at the same time tmgeing the
flame blue and giving rise to dense white fumes of As20s, which coat the
charcoal
The fumes of arsenic possess a very disagreeable and oppressive odor, while those of
antimony have no
distinct odor
Arsenic has been obtained in crystals by subliming

Syntheses
arsenic compounds protected from the air
It has also been obtained
the wet way by heating realgar (As2Sa) with sodium bicarbonate at
300

Arsenic often accompanies ores of antimony,
silver, lead and other metals in veins in crystalline rocks, especially in
their upper portions, where it was formed by reduction from its compounds
Locahties
The silver mines at Freiberg, and other places m Saxony
afford native arsenic in some quantity
It is found also in the Harz, at
Zmeov
in Siberia, in the silver mines of Chile and elsewhere.

Within the boundaries of the United States arsenic occurs only in
small quantity at Haverhill, N
at Greenwood, Me and at a silver
and gold mine near Leadville, Colo
Uses
Arsenic is used only in the forms of its compounds
The
native metal occurs too sparingly to be of commercial importance.

Most
of the arsenic
compounds used
by smelting
smelter fumes produced
in
51
commerce are obtained from

and gold ores
arsenical copper
Antimony (Sb)
Antimony
is
more common than
arsenic,
which
It is generally found in lamellar, radial
respects
though rhombohedral
Most antimony
crystals are
it
resembles in
many
and botryoidal masses,
known
contains arsenic and traces of silver, lead, iron and
other metals
Its crystals are
ratio of
c=i
rhombohedral or tabular in habit, and have an axial

The forms observed on them are the same
3236
those on arsenic with the addition of ocP2(ii2o), and several

rhombohedrons Twinning is often repeated The cleavage is perfect
as
parallel to
oP(oooi)
exhibits brilliant cleavage surfaces with a tin-white color

the color is dark gray
surfaces
The mineral differs from
exposed
arsenic in its greater density which is 6 65-6 72, and in the fact that it
Antimony
On
melts (at 629) before volatilizing

the garlic odor of arsenic fumes
Its fumes,
moreover, are devoid of
Crystals of antimony are often obtained from the flues of

Syntheses
furnaces in which antimomal lead is treated. They have also been
made by the
reduction of antimony compounds
by hydrogen
at a high
temperature
Occurrence and Localities
Antimony occurs in lamellar concretions

and at nearly all of the arsenic localities
in limestone near Sala, Sweden,
mentioned above, especially in veins containing stibnite (Sb2Ss) or silver

It is found also in fairly large quantities in veins near Fredencton,
ores
York County, New Brunswick, in California and elsewhere
Uses
Although the metal antimony is of considerable importance
from an economic point of view, being used largely in alloys, the native
Some of
mineral, on account of its rarity, enters little into commerce
the antimony used m the arts is produced from its sulphide, stibnite
Most of the metal, however, is obtained in the form of a
(see p 72)
lead-antimony alloy in the smelting of lead ores and the refining of pig
lead
Bismuth (Bi) is usually in foliated, granular or arborescent forms,

and very rarely in rhombohedral crystals, with a c=i i 3036 It is
Its streak is
silver-white with a reddish tinge, is opaque and metallic
at
It
fuses
271. On charcoal
white, its hardness 2-2 5 and density 98
in HNOs
When
dissolves
It
a
it volatilizes and gives
yellow coating
'
52
this solution is diluted
a white precipitate results
in veins with ores of silver, cobalt, lead
and
zinc
The mineral occurs

It is of
no commercial
In 1913
importance Most of the metal is
about
Bolivia
and
Ibs
the United States produced 185,000
606,000 Ibs
obtained in the refining of lead
Tellurium (Te) usually occurs in prismatic crystals with a tin-white

and in finely granular masses in veins of gold and silver ores,
Its hardness is 2 and density 6 2
especially sulphides and tellundes
color
Before the blowpipe it fuses, colors the flame green, coats the charcoal
with a white sublimate bordered by led, and yields white fumes
The mineral tellurium is of little value as a source of the metal

Most of that used in the arts is obtained as a by-product in the electrolytic refining of copper made from ores containing tellundes and
from the flue dust of acid chambers and smelting furnaces The United
States, in 1913, produced about 10,000 Ibs of tellurium and selenium,
valued at $3^,000
THE METALS
The metallic elements occur as minerals
tity,
most
m comparatively small quan-
of the metals used in the industries being obtained
compounds
Iron, the
most common
from
of all the metals used in
their
com-
is rare as a mineral, as are also lead and tin

Silver, copper, gold
and platinum are sufficiently important to be included in our list for
Gold and platinum are known almost exclusively in the metallic
study
merce,
state
native,
and some
large portion of the copper produced in this country

of the silver
Silver, copper, lead, gold,
mercury and the
alloys of gold
is
also
and mer-
cury crystallize in distinct crystals belonging to the isometric system

(hexoctohedral class)
Platinum, as usually found, is in small plates
and grains Crystals, however, have been described and they, too, are
Platinum and iron are separated from the other metals and,
together with the rare alloys of platinum with indium and osmium, are
The reason for this is
placed in a distinct group which is dimorphous
isometric
that platinum, although isometric in crystallization, often contains

notable traces of indium, which in its alloy with osmium is hexagonal
(rhombohedral)
Indium, thus, is dimorphous, hence platinum which
forms crystals with it and is, therefore, isomorphous with it, must also
be regarded as dimorphous The various platinum metals thus comIron is placed in the same group because
pnse an isodimorphous group
it is
so frequently alloyed with platinum

The metals are, therefore,
two groups, one of which comprises the metals named at
divisible into
53
the beginning of this paragraph and the other consists of the rare metals,
The
palladium, platinum, indium, osmium, iron and their alloys
metal
tin,
which
group, but since
is
tetragonal
it is
m its native condition, constitutes a third
extremely rare
not be referred to again
it will
GOLD GROUP
This group embraces the native metals, copper, siker, gold, goldamalgam (Au Hg), siher-amalgam (Ag Hg), mercury, and leal All
crystallize in the isometric system (hexoctahedral class), and all form
twins, with 0(in) the twinning plane
Copper, silver and gold are
the most important
Copper (Cu)
Most
its
of the copper of
sulphides
found native
in
flakes,
commerce
is
obtained from one or the other of
large portion, however, is

This occurs
tiny grams and
groups of crystals
and
in
large
masses of irregular shapes

In spite of its softness copper is better
It is
crystallized than either gold or silver
true that
its crystals
are usually flattened and
otherwise distorted, but, nevertheless, planes

can very frequently be detected upon them
-
*
The principal forms
observed
rr.i
-,
>v
are oo O oo (100),
/
FIG
O(no), 0(ni), and various tetrahexahedra

and icositetrahedra. (Figs. 21 and 22 ) Someoo
2i.
^^
20
&
Copper Crystal
*
,
M Q *^
1
2 io' (h).
times the crystals are simple, in other cases they are
twinned
parallel
to
Often they are skeleton

crystals
Groups of crys-
very common
These possess the arborescent forms so frequently
tals
are
seen
in
specimens
from
Keweenaw Point in Mich-
Crystal of Copper from Keweenaw Point,

Mich with wO(iio) and 202(211)
FIG. 22.
igan, or are groupings of

simple forms extended in
the direction of the cubic
axes.
Cbpper
is
very ductile and very malleable
Its hardness is
only
54
It possesses no cleavage, and its fracdensity about 88

In color it is copper-red
is hackly
ture, like that of the other metals,
In very
a
darker shade of red
by reflected light, often tarnishing to
2 5-3
and
its
thin plates
and
1083
is
it
The metal
translucent with a green color
easily dissolves in acids
It
fuses at
an excellent conductor of elec-
is
tricity
Its
characteristic chemical reaction
most
is
its
solubility in nitric
acid with the evolution of brownish red fumes of nitrous oxide gas
Copper may easily be distinguished from all other substances except
gold
and a few
alloys
by
its
malleability
and
color
It
is
distinguished
bead and by its solubility in nitric

from gold by
acid with the production of a blue solution which takes on an intense
From the alloys
azure color when treated with an excess of ammonia
the color of its borax
that resemble
the fact that
same time
its
may be distinguished by its greater softness and

no
coatings when heated on charcoal, while at the
yields
solution in nitric acid yields the reaction described above
it,
Syntheses
metal in
copper
it
Copper crystals separate upon cooling solutions of the

magmas and upon the electrolysis of the aqueous solu-
silicate
tions of its salts
Occurrence
The principal modes of occurrence of the metal are, (i)
as fine particles disseminated through sandstones and slates, (2) as solid
masses filling the spaces between the pebbles and boulders making up
known as conglomerate, (3) in the cavities in old volcanic lavas,

as amygdaloid, (4) as crystals or groups of crystals imbedded
the calcite of veins, (5) in quartz veins cutting old igneous rocks or
the rock
known
and (6) associated with the carbonates, malachite and azurite,

and with its different sulphur compounds, in the weathered zone of
schists,
many veins
of copper ores
The copper
that occurs in the upper portions of veins of copper

That which occurs in conglomsulphides is plainly of secondary origin
erates and other fragmental rocks and in amygdaloids was evidently
deposited by water, but whether by ascending magmatic water or by

descending meteoric water is a matter of doubt
Localities
Native copper
is
found
in Cornwall,
England, in Nassau,
and other South American countries,

Germany,
in the Appalachian region of the United States and in the Lake
Superior
region, both on the Canadian and the American sides
The most important district in the world producing native copper is
on Keweenaw Point, in Michigan The mineral occurs mainly in a bed
in Bolivia, Peru, Chile
of conglomerate of which
found abundantly
it
constitutes from
also in sandstone
and
i to 3 per
cent, though it is
in the amygdaloidal cavities

of lavas associated with the
conglomerates
which groups
in
many
of bright copper
parts of the district
silver in visible grains
55
Veins of caicite, through
en stals are scattered are also very plentiful

The copper is nearh always mixed with
and patches
Extraction and Refining

The rock containing the native metal is
crushed and the metal is separated from the useless material by wash-
The
ing
concentrates, consisting of the crushed metal

and other impurities are then refined
particles of rock
methods or by
The
Uses
mixed with
by smelting
electrolysis
uses of copper are so
many
that
all of
even the important
uses cannot be mentioned in this place

Both as a metal and in the form
of its alloys it has been employed for utensils and war implements since
the earliest times
In recent times one of
its
principal uses has
been for
the making of telegraph, telephone and trolley wires

It is employed
in
all
the
and
extensively
electroplating by
great newspapers
publishers,
and
bell
is an important constituent of the valuable

alloys brass, bronze,
metal and German silver
Its compound, blue vitriol (copper sul-
phate), is used in galvanic batteries, and

are utilized as pigments
The
its
compounds with arsenic
amounted to 1,126,was obtained from its carThe quantity obtained from the native metal is
bonates and sulphides
unknown The contribution of the United States to this total was
about 621,000 tons, valued at about $206,382,500, of which 115,000 tons
was native copper from the Lake Superior region The largest single
mass ever found in the Lake Superior region weighed 420 tons
Production
ooo tons
world's production of copper
but a large portion of
in 1912,
this
Silver (Ag)
Silver is usually
found in irregular masses, in
flat scales, in fibrous
and in crystal groups with arborescent or acicular forms

Sometimes the crystals are well developed, more frequently they exhibit only a few distinct faces, but in most cases they are so distorted
dusters,
that
to make out their planes

unknown The mineral as
it is difficult
Pure
silver is
tains traces of gold,
ing
upon
copper, and often some
it is
usually obtained con-
of the rarer metals, depend-
its associations.
Ideally
developed
ooOoo(ioo),
silver
006(110),
more complicated forms
crystals
are
rare
They
0(in)
The majority
show
and other
usually
various tetrahexahedrons
of the crystals are distorted
curved faces and rounded edges, and many
of
them by
by
flattening or
56
The arborescent groups usually branch at angles of 60,

elongation
Twins
one of the characteristic angles for groups of isometric crystals
are quite common, with O(iii) the twinning plane
Silver is a white, metallic mineral
when
its
surfaces arc clean
and
As it usually occurs it possesses a gray, black or bluish black

fresh
tarnish which is due to the action of the atmosphere or of solutions
The tarnish is commonly either the o\ide or the sulphide of silvci
The mineral has no cleavage
Its fracture is
and
(hardness 2-3), malleable and ductile,
and
of heat
electricity
Its
density
is
with the character and abundance of
is
II is soft
hackly
an excellent conductor
about 10
its
5,
varying slightly
impurities
fuses
It
at
960
It is readily soluble in nitric acid forming a solution from which
a white curdy precipitate of silver chloride is thrown down on the
This precipitate is easily distinguished from
addition of any chloride
the corresponding lead chloride
by
its insolubility in
Crystals bounded by 0(in) and
hot water
oo (100) have been

Synthesis
the reduction of silver sulphate solutions, with sulphurous
o
made by
acid
Native silver is found in veins with calcite (CaCOO?

and
other gangues traversing crystalline rocks, like
quartz (8102),
various
and
lavas, and also in veins cutting conglomerates
granite
and other rocks formed from pebbles and sands It is also disseminated
Occurrence
in small particles through these rocks
It occurs invisibly disseminated
small quantities through many minerals, particularly sulphides,

and visibly intermingled with native copper It is abundant in the upper
in
weathered zones of many veins of silver-bearing ores, and

the zones
of secondary enrichment in the same veins
It also occurs in small
quantity
(see
placers
In general,
its
is
similar to that of gold
silver is
found are too numerous
origin
59)
Localities
to mention
The
localities in
which
Andreasberg in the Harz has produced
many
fine crys-
principal deposits now worked are at Cobalt

in Canada, in Peru, in Idaho, at Butte, Montana, in Arizona and at
tallized specimens
many
places
The
Colorado
On Keweenaw
Point, in Michigan, fine
have been found in the calcite veins cutting the copper-bearing

rocks, and masses of small size in the native copper so abundant in the
district
Indeed some of the copper is so rich in silver that the ore
was in early times mined almost exclusively for its silver content
At
crystals
present the silver is recovered from the copper in the refining process
At Cobalt the mineral occurs
well defined veins one inch to one foot

more in width, cutting a series
beds of fragmental and igneous rocks
or
of slightly inclined
57
pre-Cambnan
The
\eins contain native silver,

sulphides and arsenides of cobalt, nickel, iron and copper, caicite and a
little quartz
Many of the veins are so rich (Fig 23) that Cobalt has
become one of the most important camps
native silver in
producing
the world.
Silver is obtained from
placers in small
quantity by the methods made use of in obtaining gold (see p 6i\
i e , by hydraulic
When it occurs in quartz veins or complex
mining
ores such as constitute the oxidized portion of ore-bodies, the mass

may be crushed and then treated with quicksilver, which amalgamates
with the native
FIG. 23
silver
and
Plate of Silver from Confagas

ins
as free milling
Weight 37
The
a refining process.
methods.
Such ores are known
gold, forming an alloy.
Ibs.
Mine Cobalt
(Photo by
silver is freed
Dimensions
32X14X1
C W. Knight )
from the gold and other metals by
It is separated from native copper
by electrolytic
ses
Silver is used in the arts to a very large extent
Jewelry,
ornaments, tableware and other domestic utensils, chemical apparatus
and parts of many physical instruments are made of it It is used also
in the production of mirrors and in the manufacture of certain compounds

Its alloy with copper forms the
used in surgery and in photography
staple coinage of China,

tries,
and the
Mexico and most
of the
South American counmost countries In
coinage of
subsidiary (or small)

it is used in the coinage of silver dollars
the United States
tions of the dollar as small as the dime.
The
and of
silver corns of the
frac-
United
States are nine-tenths silver and one-tenth copper, the latter metal being
added to give hardness English corns contain i2| parts silver to one
58
In 1912 the world's coinage of silver consumed 161,part of copper

of $171,293,000
763,415 02 with a value after coinage
The total production of silver in the United States
Production
,
valued at over $39,197,000, of

which about $100,000 worth came from placers and $325,000 worth
The balance was obtained by
from the copper mines of Michigan
during 1912 was over 63,766,000 oz
of gold, lead, copper and

smelting silver compounds and in the refining
silver
of
The world's production
zinc ores
during 1912 was 224,488,-
valued at over $136,937,000, but most of this was obtained

The
from the compounds of silver and not from the native metal
but
is
not
mineral
the
definitely known,
proportion obtained from the
ooo oz
valued at
Canada was more than 30,243,000 oz
where
the ore is
from
this
of
all
came
Cobalt,
$17,672,000 and nearly
production
of
native silver
Gold (Au)
of the world has been obtained

the
large portion of the gold
The greater portion of the metal is so very finely
form of native metal
disseminated through other minerals that no sign of

detected even with high powers of the microscope
in
such minute quantities
taining
it
it
is
its
very widely spread,
jn appreciable quantities
are little
presence can be
Although present
rocks con-
many
Its visible grains, as usually found,
rounded particles or thin plates or

mixed with sand or gravel, or tiny
scales
irregular masses scattered through white
vem-
quartz
Native gold rarely occurs in well formed

The metal is so soft that its crystals
crystals
are battered
pressure.
and distorted by very
slight
Occasionally well developed crys-
bounded by octahedral, dodecahedral

and compllcated ico sitetrahcdral and tetrahexahedral faces are met with, but usually
tals,
FIG 24 -Octahedral Skeleton Crystal of Gold with

Etched Faces
,_,,,-
the crystals are elongated or flattened
Skele-
ton crystals
(Fig. 24) and groups of crystals are more frequently found

than are simple crystals. Twins are common, with O(iii) the twin-
ning plane
As found in nature, gold
often contains traces of iron
ties of
is frequently alloyed with silver and it

and copper and sometimes small quanti-
the rarer metals
Gold containing but a trace
of silver
up
to
16
per cent of this metal

is
known simply
it
larger
When
as gold
said to
is
the percentage of silver present is

When the percentage reaches
be argentiferous
20 per cent or above the alloy
and bismuth
is
called clectru
,:
Palladium, rhodium
gold are alloys of the last-named metal roth the rare metals
palladium or rhodium or with the more
The
59
common bismath
color of the different varieties of the mineral varies
from pinkish
silver-white to almost copper-red

Pure gold is golden yellow
With
increase cf silver it becomes lighter in color and T\ith increase in copper,
darker
The rich red-yellow ot much of the gold used in the arts is due
to the admixture ot copper

In very thin plates or lea\ es
is
translucent
a
\\ith
blue
or green tint
gold
ooi
mm
Gold is soft, malleable and ductile Its luster is, of course, metallic
and its streak, yellow When pure its density is 1943, its hardness
between 2 and 3, and its fusing point 1062
The metal is insoluble in
most acids, but it is readily dissolved in a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids (aqua regia)
phere
-which
It
is
not acted upon by water or the atmosit from the other substances
Its negative properties distinguish

it
resembles in appearance
Crystals of gold
Syntheses
tion of AuCls in
It is a good conductor of electricity.

have been obtained by heating a soluand by treating an acid solution of the
amyl alcohol,
same compound with formaldehyde
Occurrence
Native gold is tound in the quartz of veins cutting
through granite and schistose rocks, or in the gravels and sands of rivers
whose channels cut through these, and in the sands of beaches bordering
gold-producing districts
It
is
sometimes found in the compacted
gravels of old river beds, in a rock known as conglomerate, and in sandstones

It is also present in small quantities in many volcanic rocks,
and is disseminated through pyrite (FeS2) and some other sulphur com-
pounds and
their oxidation products
The gold in quartz veins occurs as grains and scales scattered through
quartz irregularly, often in such small particles as to be invisible to the
Pyrite
crystals in cavities in the quartz
On surfaces exposed to the
is nearly always associated with the gold.
naked eye, or as aggregates of
weather the pyrite rusts out and stains the quartz, leaving
it
cavernous
or cellular
of the world's supply of gold has come from placers. These
are accumulations of sand or gravel in the beds of old river courses
Most
The sands
of
modern streams often contain considerable quantities of

of the older streams were much larger than the modern
Many
gold
ones draining the same regions and, consequently, their beds contain
more gold This was originally brought down from the mountains or
60
The sands and

highlands in which the streams had their sources
their
and
greater portion
gravels were rolled along the streams' bottoms
The
was swept away by the currents into the lowlands

being much heavier than the sands and pebble
grains,
gold, however,
merely
rolled
from which
along the bottoms, dropping here and there into depressions
in
volume
the gold
As the streams contracted
it could not be removed
grains were covered by detritus, or perhaps a lava stream flowing along
These buried river channels with
the old river channel buried them
their stores of sands, gravels
With
and gold constitute the placers
the
gold are often associated zircon crystals, garnets, diamonds, topazes

and other gem minerals Alluvial gold is usually in flattened scales or
Some of the nuggets are so

in aggregates of scales forming nuggets
it
is thought they may have
that
in
more
or
weight,
large, 190 pounds
been formed by some process of cementation after they were transported
to their present positions
The gold-quartz veins are usually closely associated with igneous
rocks, but the veins themselves may cut through sedimentary beds or
crystalline schists
The
veins are supposed to have been filled from

the oxiMetallic gold is also present
below by ascending solutions
the zones of
many veins of gold-bearing sulphides and
the
iron
enrichment
At
the
surface
sulphides are oxidized
secondary
into sulphates, leaving part of the gold
the metallic state and dissolvdized zones of
ing another part which
is
carried
downward and
precipitated
Vein gold occurs

greater or less quantity in
all districts of crystalline rocks
It has been obtained
large quantity
along the eastern flanks of the Ural Mountains, this having been the
Principal Localities
most productive region

It has
been obtained
in the world between the years 1819 and 1849

from the Altai Mountains in Siberia, from the
also
southeastern Brazil, from the highlands of many of the

Central and South American countries, and from the western portion of
the United States, more particularly from the western slopes of the Sierra
mountains
Nevada Mountains and the higher
portions of the
Rocky Mountains
In recent years auriferous quartz veins have been worked at various
m Alaska, at Porcupine,
Ontario, and other points in Canada

great placer mines of the world are in California, Australia and
In Australia the principal gold mines are situated
Alaska
the streams
points
The
rising in the
Victoria
mountains of
The
lately attracted
New
valleys of 'the
much
South Wales and
Yukon and
attention,
and
their extension into
other rivers
in the past
Nome have yielded much of the metal

The most important production at present
Alaska have
few years the beach
sands off
is
from South Africa
61
where the metal occurs in an old conglomerate In the opinion of some

geologists this is an old beach deposit, in the opinion of others the gold
was introduced into the conglomerate long after it had consolidated
The sands
States
have
many streams in Europe and in the

many years been "panned" or cashed
of
for
South Atlantic
States, before the discovery of gold
eastern United
The
for gold
California, in
1849, yielded annually about a million dollars' worth of the precious

All of it was obtained by working the gra\ els and sands of small
rivers and rivulets
Many of these streams have been worked o\er
metal
several times at a profit and the mining continues to the present day
Small quantities of gold have also been obtained from streams in Maine,
New
Hampshire, Maryland and other Atlantic coast states

Gold is extracted from alluvial sands
and from placers by washing in pans or troughs The sand, gravel
and
foreign
particles
are carried
currents
away by
of water
and
the gold settles down with other heavy minerals to the bottom of the
shallow pans used in hand washing, or into compartments prepared for
it
when the
in troughs
ward
collected
left
by shaking
The
dissolves
processes are on a larger scale
quicksilver
it
with mercury
is finally
driven off
Auriferous beach sands and
behind
or, quicksilver,
many
It
is
\\hich
afterit
by heat and the gold

lake,
swamp and mer
sands are dredged, and the sand thus raised is treated by similar methods
Sands containing as low as 15 cents' worth of metal per cubic yard can
be worked profitably under
f a\
orable conditions
Where
the gold occurs free (not disseminated through sulphides)

in quartz the rock is crushed to a fine pulp -with -water and the mixture
The gold
allowed to flow over copper plates coated \uth quicksilver
unites with the quicksilver
is
driven off
by
with mercury
When
trated,
roasted
is
and forms an
alloy
from which the mercury
The process of forming

known as amalgamation
heat
allo}s of silver or gold
the gold is disseminated through sulphides, these are concenfreed from the gangue material by washing and then
This liberates the gold which
is
collected
by amalgamation,
chlorine or cyanide solutions and then precipitated

Uses
Gold, like silver, is used in the manufacture of jewelry and ornaments, in the manufacture of gold leaf for gilding and in the produc"
It also contion of valuable pigments such as the "purple of Cassms
or
is
dissolved
by
stitutes the principle
medium
for coinage in nearly all of the
most
States
important countries of the world The gold coins of the United
contain
Britain
of
Great
Those
in
contain 900 parts gold
916 66
1,000.
parts, the remaining parts consisting of copper
and
silver
The
total
62
gold coinage of the United States mints from the time of their organiThe
zation to the end of the year 1912 amounted to $2,765,900,000
value to $360,coined in the world's mints in 1912 amounted
gold
and that consumed
671,382,
in arts
and
industries to $174,100,000
Jewelers estimate the fineness of gold in carats, 24-carat gold being pure
and 6 parts
Eighteen-carat gold is gold containing 18 parts of pure gold
is
The
added to
of some less valuable metal, usually copper
copper
color
a
it
darker
The
increase the hardness of the metal and to give
gold used most in jewelry is 14 or 12 carats fine
The total value of the gold product of the United
Production
Of this the following states and
States during 1912 was $93,451,000
territories were the largest producers
Alaska
$17,198,000
California
20,008,000
Colorado
18,741,000
Of the
total product, placers
Nevada
South Dakota
Utah
gelded gold valued
$13,576,000
7,823,000
4,312,000
at $23,019,633,
and
The balance of the gold was

quaitz veins, metal valued at $62,112,000
obtained from ores mined mainly for other metals, and in these it is
Moreover, some of the ore in quartz
probably not in the metallic state
veins is a gold telluride, but by far the greater portion of the product
from the quartz veins and placers was furnished by the native metal
The world's yield of the precious metal in 1912 was valued at $466,-
136,100
The
principal producing countries
and the value
of the gold
produced by each were

South Africa
$211,850,600
United States
Mexico
$24,450,000
93,45 1,500
India
11,055,700
Australasia
54,509,400
Canada
12,648,800
Russia
22,199,000
Japan
Lead
4,467,000
occurs very rarely as octahedral or dodecahedral crystals,

and as small nodular masses in districts containing man-
in thin plates
It usually contains
ganese and lead ores and also in a few placers
small quantities of silver and antimony
The native metal ha } the
same properties as the commercial metal Its hardness 13 i 5 and
1
113 It melts at about 33 5

The mineral is of no commercial importance
density
The metal
is
obtained
from galena and other lead compounds
Mercury
from which
occurs as small liquid globules in veins of cinnabar

(HgS)
it
has probably been reduced by organic

substances, and
ift
63
the rocks traversed by these veins

The native metal possesses the
as the commercial metal
It solidifies at
39, when
same properties
it
crystallizes in octahedrons
13 6
ha\mg a
cubic cleavage
Its density is
Its boiling-point is 350
The commercial metal
Amalgam
(Ag Hg)
is
is
obtained from cinnabar (p 98).
found in dodecahedral crystals in a few places,
associated with mercury and silver ores

It occurs also as embedded
dense masses and as coatings on other minerals
It is silvergrams,
white and opaque and gives a distinct silver streak when rubbed on
Its hardness is about 3 and its density 13 9
When heated
copper
in the closed tube
it
yields
a sublimate
of
mercury and a residue of
On
charcoal the mercury volatilizes, leaving a silver globule,

soluble in nitric acid
silver
PLATINUM-IRON GROUP
The
platinum-iron group of minerals
num and the
The
may
be divided into the plati-
compnses only iron and nickeland the former, the metals

it on, both of which are extremely rare,
The
platinum, indium, osmium, ruthenium, rhodium, and palladium
platinum metals probably constitute an isodimorphous group since
they occur together in alloys, some of which are isometric and others
Platinum is the only member of the group
hexagonal (rhombohedral)
iron subgroups
latter
of economic importance.
Platinum
(Pt)
Platinum occurs but rarely in crystals It is almost universally

found as granular plates associated with gold in the sands of streams
and rivers, and rarely as tiny grains or flakes in certain very basic
igneous rocks
As found in nature the metal always contains iron, indium, rhodium,

palladium and often other metals. A specimen from California yielded:
Au
Pt
85 50
80
Fe
6 75
Ir
i
05
^Rh
i
oo
Pd
60
Cu
i
40
IrOs
Sand
Total
10
2 95
101 15
the metal occurs usually in grains and plates, nevertheless

On them cubic faces are the most
its crystals are sometimes found.
the
octahedrons, the dodecahedrons and
prominent ones, though
Like the crystals of silver
identified
also
been
have
tetrahexahedrons
Though
and
distorted.
gold, those of platinum are frequently
64
more gray than that of silver Its

Pure
Its hardness is 4-4 5 and density 14 to 19
streak is also gray
It is malleable and ductile, a good
platinum has a density of 21 5
conductor of electricity, and it is infusible before the blowpipe except
The
color of platinum
is
little
It is not dissoh ed by any single acid, though soluble,

in very fine wire
Its melting temperature is 1755
like gold, in aqua regia
Crystals have been obtained by cooling siliceous mag-
Syntheses
containing the metal, and

cooling the mixture
mas
Occurrence
Platinum
by
dissolving the metal in saltpelei
found
is
in the sands of rivers or
and
beaches
in placer deposits in which it occurs in flattened scales or in

small grains
Nuggets of considerable size are sometimes met with,
and
It is present also in
the largest known weighing about iSf kilos
basic
in
certain
small quantity
igneous rocks, like pendotite
very
all
auriferous placer districts and
It occurs
Localities
nearly
in small quantities in the
sands of
many
among them the Ivalo
rivers,
Lapland, the Rhine, the rivers of British Columbia, and of the Pacific
It is more abundant in the Natoos Mountains in Borneo, on
States
in
the east flanks of the Ural Mountains in Siberia, in the placer of an

New South Wales, Australia, and the sands of rivers of
old river in
the Pacific side of Colombia
chromite (p 200)
It
is
nearly always associated with

may prove to be of con-
recent discovery which
siderable importance is near Goodsprmgs, Nev where platinum is in

the free state associated with gold in a siliceous oie
,
The
native metal
is
probably an original constituent of some pen-
dotites (basic igneous rocks)
Its presence
placers
is
due to the
disintegration of these rocks
by atmospheric agencies
The metal is separated from the sand
with which it is mixed by washing and hand picking
The metallic
powder is then refined by chemical methods
Extraction and Refimng
On
Uses
rosion of
account of
its
infusibihty
most chemicals the metal
and
its
power to
resist the coi-
used extensively for ciuciblcs

and other apparatus necessary to the work of the chemist
It is also
used by dentists and by the manufacturers of incandescent electric
It is an important metal in the manufactuie of physical and
lamps
certain surgical instruments,
age
is
and was formerly used by Russia
The most important use
of the metal in the industries
for coinis
in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid

Sulphur dioxide (SCb) and steam when
mixed and passed over the finely divided metal unite and foim HjSOi
More than
process
half of the acid
made
at present
as
manufactured by
this

Production
Most
of the platinum of the world
is
65
obtained from
small quantity is washed from the

placers in the Urals in Russia
sands of gold placers in Colombia, Oregon and California, and an even
smaller quantity is obtained during the refining of copper from the ores
of certam
314,751 oz
of
The
The output
mines
1912 was
about 300,000 oz
and of the United States 721 oz (equiv-
total production of the world in

for Russia
Colombia about 12,000 oz
m this year was
alent to 505 02 of the refined metal, valued at $22,750)

In addition,
the refining of copper bullion imported
about 1,300 oz were obtained
from Sudbury, Ont and m the treatment of concentrates from the

New Rambler Mine, Wyoming Of this about 500 oz were produced
,
pIG
35
i ron Meteorite (Sidente) from Canyon Diablo, Arizona

Ibs
(Field Columbian
Museum
Weight 265
from domestic ores The importations into the United States

same year were about 125,000 oz valued at $4,500,000
for the
Platinum-iron, or iron-platinum (Pt Fe), contains from 10 per cent

It
It is usually dark gray or black and is magnetic
to 19 per cent Fe
Its crystals
Urals
in
the
the
rivers
of
sands
with
is found
platinum
are isometric
at
Iron (Fe) occurs in small grains and large masses in the basalt
in
Greenother
a
few
at
and
points
Greenland,
Ovifak, Disko Island,
of iron are found in the sands of some
land, and alloys consisting mainly
The native metal always
rivers in New Zealand, Oregon and elsewhere
of iron, however, is
occurrence
common
most
The
contains some nickel
When
it is aUoyed with Ni
also
bodies
these
In
meteorites
(Fig 25)
66
surfaces of meteoric iron exhibit

polished and treated with nitric acid,
penes of lines (Widmanstatten figures), that are the edges of plates of
These are so arranged as to indicate
different composition (Fig 26)
that the substance crystallizes in the isometric system
Pt) and platin-iridium (Pt Ir) are alloys of indium and

platinum found as silver- white grains with a yellowish tinge, associated
with platinum in the sands of rivers in the Urals, Burmah and Brazil
Iridium
(Ir
Their hardness
and
its
FIG
26
is
6 to
fusing point
is
7,
and density 22
The mineral
is
isometric
between 2i5o-225o.
Widmanstatten Figures on Etched Surface of Meteorite from Toluca,

Mexico
(One-half natural size )
(Field Columbian Mit\cntn )
Palladium (Pd) is usually alloyed with a little Pb and Ir

It is
found in small octahedrons and cubes and also in radially fibrous grams
in the platinum sands of Brazil, the Urals and a few other places
It is
whitish steel-gray in color, has a hardness of 4 to 5 and a
density of
ii 3 to ii 8
It fuses at about 1549
Its crystallization is isometric
About 2,390 oz
1912, but
metal were produced in the United States during

was obtained during the refining of bullion. The
of the
all of it
imports were 4,967 oz
Allopalladium (Pd)
valued at $213,397
is
probably a dimorph of palladium
in six-sided plates that are
It
is
found
probably rhombohedral, intimately asso-
ciated with gold, at Tilkerode,
Harz
67
Ir) and mdosmine (Ir Os) are foundm crystals and

and plates that are apparently rhombohedral They
consist of Ir and Os m different proportions, often with the addition
of rhodium and ruthenium
Osmiridium is tin-white and iridosrmne
Osmiridium (Os
flattened grams
steel-gray
with
KNOs
Their hardness
and
osmium o\ide
is
6 to 7 and density 19 to 21
When
heated
both yield the distinctive chlorine-like odor of

(Os04) and a green mass, \\hich, when boiled with
KOH,
Both are insoluble in

water, leaves a residue of blue indium oxide
concentrated aqua regia
occur
\\ith
platinum in the sands of
They
rivers
the
Colombia, Brazil, California,
Urals, Borneo, New South
Wales, and a few other places
by
They
are distinguished from platinum
and insolubility in strong aqua regia

refined indium is about 5,000 oz of which
greater hardness, light color
The
world's product of
Its value is $63 per oz

the United States furnishes about 500 oz
were
the
into
United States during 1911
3,905 oz, valued at
Imports
native
are
The sources of the metal
indium, osrniridmm,
$210,616
platinum, copper ore and bullion
two sources
in the refining process
The metal
is
obtained from the last
CHAPTER
IV
THE SULPHIDES, TELLURIDES, SELENIDES, ARSENIDES AND

ANTIMONIDES
THE
of elements acting
sulphides are combinations of the metals, or
with sulphur
They may all be regarded as derivatives of
like bases,
hydrogen sulphide (H2 S) by the replacement

metallic element
The
of the
hydrogen by some
tellundes are the corresponding
compounds of
and the selemdes of EkSe
With the same group are also placed the arsenides and the antimonides, derivatives of HsAs and HsSb, because arsenic and antimony
EfeTe,
part the sulphur of the sulphides, forming with these

mixtures
isomorphous
The minerals described in this volume may be separated into the
so often replace
following groups and subgroups

I The sulphides, tellundes and selemdes of the metalloids arsenic,
antimony, bismuth and molybdenum

II
The
sulphides, tellundes, selemdes, arsenides
and antimonides
of the metals
(a)
The monosulphides,
H3 As, H3 Sb
(&)
The
2
etc
(Derivatives of HsS, HgSe, HsTe,
disulphides, etc
(Derivatives of 2HsS, 2H2Te, 2HsAs,
H3 Sb)
All sulphur compounds when mixed with dry sodium carbonate

(Na2COs) and heated to fusion on charcoal yield a mass containing
sodium sulphide (Na2$)
If the mass is removed from the charcoal,
placed on a bright piece of silver and moistened with a drop or two of
water or hydrochloric acid, the solution formed will stain the silver a
dark brown or black color (AgsS), which will not rub off
The sulphides
yield the sulphur reaction
when heated with
the carbonate on platinum
foil, the sulphates only when charcoal or some other reducing agent is
added to the mixture before fusing Moreover, the sulphides yield
sulphureted hydrogen when heated with hydrochloric acid, while the

sulphates do not. These tests are extremely delicate.
By the aid of
SULPHIDES, TELLURIDES, ETC

the
one the sulphur in any compound may be detected

By the
others the sulphates may be distinguished from the
first
aid
of
69
the
sulphides
The selemdes are recognized by the strong odor evolved \\hen heated
before the blowpipe
Selenates and selemtes give their odor only after
reduction with Na2COs
The tellundes, \\hen wanned with concentrated HoSO-t, dissolve and
yield a carmine solution from which water precipitates a black gray
powder of tellurium
All substances containing arsenic and antimony yield dense white
in the oxidizing flame
The fumes of
fumes when heated on charcoal
arsenic possess a characteristic odor while those of antimony are odorless

When heated in the open tube, arsenides and compounds \\ith sulphur
and arsenic yield a very volatile sublimate composed of tiny white crystals
The corresponding
(AS203)
sublimate for antimomdes and for
compounds with antimony and sulphur is nonvolatile, or difficultly

It is usually found on the under
volatile, and apparently amorphous
side of the tube
THE SULPHIDES, SELENIDES AND TELLURIDES OF

THE METALLOIDS
The
sulphides of the metalloids include
compounds
of sulphur
with
arsenic, antimony, bismuth and molybdenum and a selemde and several

tellundes of bismuth
Only the sulphides are of importance. One,
shbmte (Sb2Ss), is utilized as a source of antimony
Realgar (As 2 S2 )
Realgar occurs as a bright red incrustation on other substances,
crystals implanted on other
It is usually associated with the bright yellow orpunent
minerals
as
compact and granular masses and as
(P 7i)
Absolutely pure realgar should have the following composition

The mineral, however, usually
As, 70 i per cent, S, 29 9 per cent
It may be looked upon as a
contains a small amount of impurities
derivative of
by two
H2 S
in
which the hydrogen of two molecules
arsenic atoms, thus*
H2 S
As=S
yielding
H2 S
As=S,
is
replaced
70
short and prismatic

Crystals of realgar are usually
habit
They
c
=i 44
monoclmic (prismatic class) with an
faces
are
The characteristic prismatic
i
5'
973 and /3=66
5b
oo
P
conwith
These
(oio)
(b)
(w)ooP(uo) and (J)ooP2(2io)
The terminations are (r) \? 00(012) or
stitute the prismatic zone
axial ratio a
are
(q)
Pob (on)
orthodome
in combination with the basal plane
(a) (Toi),
and one
27
more
The crystals
of several
or
striated vertically
= 105
parallel
to
oo
P 5b
Realgar Crystal
(c),
Poo,
in
(b)
on
oP, ooi
(q)
and P,
and
(/)
oo
P5
It
is
(H= 5-2), resinous in luster

Its streak
aurora-red or orange in color
and
the mineral are

lighter shade, but with
fre-
is
quently intermingled small quantities of orpito its streak a distinct
ment which impart
Its density is 3 56
yellow tinge
oio
possesses a distinct cleavage
(fc)ooPoo
sectile, soft
27
(See Fig
pyramids
are usually small and are

ilo
Prismatic angle 1 10
34'
The mineral
FIG
(0 oP(ooi), the
splinters
it
is
often
translucent
parent, and strongly pleochroic
In thin
or
trans-
red
and
Its
yellow tints, but in masses it is opaque
indices of refraction are not known with accuracy, but its double re-
fraction
is
strong
030)
It
is
a nonconductor of
electricity
When
heated on charcoal before the blowpipe realgar catches fire

and burns with a light blue flame, at the same time giving off dense
When
clouds of arsenic fumes and the odor of burning sulphur (SOs)
heated in a closed tube it melts, volatilizes and yields a transparent
red sublimate in the cold parts of the tube
and its reaction for sulphur distinguish realgar
other minerals but cinnalar, the sulphide of mercury (p 9#)
Its bright red color
from
It
all
may
specific
be distinguished from cinnabar by its softness, its low

gravity and the arsenic fumes which it yields when heated on
easily
charcoal
On
exposure to the air and to light realgar oxidizes, yielding orpi-
ment (As2Ss) and
arsenolite (As20s)
Syntheses
Realgar is often produced in the flues of furnaces
which ores containing sulphur and arsenic are roasted
Crystals have
also been produced by heating to 150 a mixture of AsS with an excess
of sulphur in a solution of bicarbonate of soda sealed
a glass tube
Occurrence Localities and Origin
dated with orpiment and
Realgar occurs in masses asso

scattered
grams
through it at all places
71
where the latter mineral is found

It also occurs associated with silver
and lead ores in many places It is found in crystals
implanted on
It "is also
quartz and on the walls of cavities in lavas
occasionally
a deposit from hot springs
In the United States it forms seams in a
Its crystals are found in calcite in San
sandy clay in Iron Co Utah
Bernardino and Trinity Counties, California, and with
it is
,
orpiment
deposited as a powder
by
the hot water of the Norns

Geyser basin in the
Yellowstone National Park

In most cases
it is
a product
of the interaction of arsenic
and
sul-
phur vapors.
Uses
The
native realgar occurs in too small a

quantity to be of
An artificial realgar
commercial importance
"
the manufacture of white-fire "
and
is
employed in tanning
Orpiment (As 2 S3 )
Orpiment, though more abundant than realgar, is not a common
It is usually found
foliated or columnar masses with a.
mineral
bright yellow color
Its
name
pigmentum, meaning golden paint
The pure mineral
a contraction from the Latin
aun-
refers to this color
contains 39 per cent of sulphur and 61 per cent

to the formula As2Sa
It thus contains
of arsenic, corresponding
about 9 per cent more sulphur than does realgar.

The monoclmic orpiment crystals have the symmetry of the prisTheir axial ratio is 596 i
matic class
665 with =89 19'
Though
*
always small they are distinctly prismatic with an orthorhombic habit

Their predominant faces are the ortho and clino pmacoids, several
prisms and the orthodome
The cleavage of orpiment is so perfect parallel to o P ob (oio) that

even from large masses of the mineral distinct foliae may be split
These are flexible but not elastic The mineral, like many other
Its luster is pearly on cleavage faces,
flexible minerals, is sectile
which are always
vertically striated,
and
is
resinous
on other surfaces
The color of pure orpiment is lemon-yellow, it shades into orange

when the mineral is impure through the admixture of realgar Its
streak
is
hardness
is
always of some lighter shade than that of the mineral Its

In small pieces orpiment
5-2 and its density about 34
is i
translucent and possesses an orange and greenish yellow pleochroism

heated to 100 it becomes red and assumes the pleochroism of
When
however, resumes its characteristic color and pleochroism

upon cooling. When heated to 150 the change is permanent. The
mineral is a nonconductor of electricity.
realgar.
It,
72
the same as those described

properties of orpiment are
tube is yellow instead
closed
for realgar, except that the sublimate in the
The chemical
of red
Synthesis
Orpiment is produced in large plcochroic crystals by
treatment of arsenic acid with 2 S under high prcssuie
Orpiment occurs in the same
Occurrence, Localities and Origin
Small specks of it occur

found in the deposits
forms and in the same places as does realgar
NY
on arsenical iron at Edenville,

The origin of orpiment is similar
of Steamboat Springs Nevada
to that of realgar
It is also formed by the oxidation of this mineral
Uses
Native orpiment mixed with water and slaked lime is used
It is also employed as a pigin the East as a wash for removing hair
ment in dyeing Most of the As23 of commerce is a manufactured
It
is
also
product
STIBNITE GROUP (R>Q )

3
The stibmte group of sulphides contains several isomorphous

compounds, of which we shall consider only two, viz Uibmtc
and Usmuthimte (61283)
The general formula of the group is
The gioup is
which R stands for Sb or Bi and Q for S 01 Se
All the members have a distinct
orthorhombic (bipyramidal class)
,
cleavage parallel to the brachypmacoid which yields flexible laminae

Sfobnite (Sb 2 Sa)
Stibmte
is
the commonest and the most important ore of antiIt
mony
in
tals,
is
found in acicular and prismatic crys-
radiating
groups of
crystals
and
fibrous masses
Chemically, stibmte
is
the antimony tnsul-
SboSa, composed of SI), 71 4 per cent

and S, 28 6 per cent Ab found, however, it
usually contains small quantities of iron and often
phide,
traces of silver
FIG
28
Stibmte Crys(w)
OOP So, oio (ft), 2P2^
tal
121 00
M p no
and P,
Crystals of
,,
ca ^ ec^
99 2 6
habit
and gold
stibmte are often very comnh-
11,
They are orthorhombic with an

*
axial ratio
10179 and a columnar or
acicular
The most important forms m the prismatic zone are oo P(no) and oo P 56 (oio). The
acutely terminated by P(iu), ^4(431) and 6P2(36i),
iii(.p)
prisms are often

or bluntly terminated by iP(ii3),
Sometimes the crystals
(Fig 28)
are rendered very complicated
by the great number of their terminal
SULPHIDES, TELLURIDES, ETC.
73
Dana figures a crystal from Japan that possesses a terminaplanes

no A ilo=89 34'
tion of 84 planes
the
of
Many
crystals of this mineral, more particularly those with
an acicular habit, are curved, bent or twisted
whether
Nearly
"all,
curved or straight, are longitudinally striated
The
cleavage of stibmte
is
very perfect parallel to
The mineral
leaving striated surfaces
is
soft
oo
P 06
(H=2) and
(oio),
slightly
is about 4 5
Its color is
lead-gray and its streak
In very thin splinters it is translucent in red or
yellow
In these the indices of refraction for yellow light have been
tints
determined to be, 0^=4303 and 7=3 194
Surfaces that are exposed
to the air are often coated with a black or an iridescent tarnish
The
sectile
little
Its density
darker
luster of the mineral is metallic
It is a nonconductor of
electricity
Stibmte fuses very easily, thin splinters being melted even in the
When heated on charcoal the mineral yields antiflame of a candle
mony and sulphurous fumes,
the former of which coat the charcoal white
When heated in the open tube SCb is

evolved and a white sublimate of Sb20s is deposited on the cool walls of
In the closed tube the mineral gives a faint ring of sulphur
the tube
in the vicinity of the assay
and a red coating of antimony oxysulphide It is soluble in nitric acid

with the precipitation of Sb20s
Stibmte may easily be distinguished from all minerals but the other
by the test for sulphur From the other sulphides it is distinguished by its cleavage and the fumes it yields when heated on char-
sulphides
coal
differs
Its closest resemblance is with galena (PbS), which, however,

from it in being less fusible and in yielding a lead globule when
fused with sodium carbonate on charcoal.
Moreover, galena possesses
a cubic cleavage
Stibnite is produced by heating to 200, a mixture of
Syntheses
sulphur and antimony with water under pressure, and by the reaction of
H2S on antimony oxide heated to redness
The mineral
is
found as crystals
quartz veins cutting crystalline rocks, and in metalliferous veins associated with lead and zinc ores, with cinnabar (HgS) and barite (BaSO-i)
The finest crystals, some of them 20 inches in length, come from mines
The mineral
in the Province of lyo, on the Island of Shikoku/Japan
in
Brunswick, in Rawdon township, Nova

Scotia, at many points in the eastern United States, in Sevier Co
Arkansas, in Garfield Co , Utah, and at many of the mining districts in
occurs also
York Co
New
the
Rocky Mountain
States
In Arkansas stibmte
is
in quartz veins following the bedding planes
74
With it are found many lead, zmc and

and sandstones
In Utah
iron compounds and small quantities of rarer substances
the mineral occurs m veins unmixed AMth other minerals, except its
of shales
veins follow the bedding of sandstones

and conglomerates
Here, as in Arkansas, the stibnite is believed to
have been deposited by magmatic waters
Uses
Stibnite was powdered by the ancients and used to color the
The
o\\n oxidation products
At present it is used to a slight extent in

eyebrows, eyelashes and hair
vulcanizing rubber and in the manufacture of safety matches, percussion
Its principal value is as an ore of
caps, certain kinds of fireworks, etc
antimony
Practically all of the metal used in the arts is obtained
from this source
Antimony is chiefly valuable as an alloy with other
metals
With tin and lead it forms type metal The principal alloys
With lead, tin and copper
with tin are britannia metal and pewter
it
constitutes babbit metal, a hard alloy used in the construction of
locomotive and car journals, and with other substances it enters into
The
the composition of other alloys used for a variety of purposes
double tartrate of antimony and potassium is the well known tartar
emetic.
The pigment, Naples yellow,

The total quantity of
Production
is
an antimony chromate.
mined in the world can-
stibnite
not be accurately estimated

That mined in the United States is very
small in amount, most of the antimony produced
this country being
obtained in the form of an antimony alloy as a by-product in the smelting
of antunomal lead ores
Bismuthinite (Bi 2 S 3 )
Bismuthimte is completely isomorphous with stibnite It rarely,

however, occurs in acicular crystals, but is more frequently in foliated,
fibrous or dense masses
Its axial ratio is 968
985.
The angle noAiTo = 88 8'

The mineral resembles stibnite
in color
and
streak, but its surface is
often covered with a yellowish iridescent tarnish

Its fusibility
hardness are the same as those of stibnite but its density is 6 8-7 i
is
an
electrical
and
It
conductor
In the open tube the mineral yields S02 and a white sublimate
which melts into drops that are brown while hot, but change to opaque
On charcoal it yields a coating of yellow 81203 which
yellow when cold
changes to a bright red Bils when moistened with potassium iodide
The mineral
dissolves in hot nitric acid, forming a solution,
which upon
the addition of water gives a white precipitate of a basic bismuth nitrate.
?5
Bismuthmite is distinguished from stibmte by the

coating on charand by its complete solubility in HNOa
coal
Crystals have been obtained
Syntheses
BioSs
by
cooling a solution of
m molten bismuth, and by cooling a solu.ion made by heating

m a solution of potassium sulphide in a closed tube at 200.

,
uent of veins associated
\vith quartz,
Bismuthmite occurs as a constitbismuth and chalcopynte, in which
was probably formed as a product of pneumatolytic processes It is

found at Schneeberg and other points in Saxony, at Redruth and
elsewhere in Cornwall, near Beaver City, Utah, in a gold-bearing veiii
it
at
Gold
Hill,
garnet, etc
N C and
Haddam, Conn
Rowan County,
in granite at
in a vein containing
benl,
TETRADYMITE GROUP
This group comprises a series of tellundes and selemdes of bismuth
that have not been satisfactorily differentiated because of the lack of
accurate analyses
Tetradymite, the best known member of the group, is probably an

isomorphous mixture cf bismuth tellunde and bismuth sulphide of the
It occurs in small rhombohedral cnstals with the
formula Bi2(Te 8)3
loli A 1101 = 98 58'
and
Its crystals are bounded
i 587
axial ratio i
.
by rhombohedrons
and 2R(202ii)) and the basal plane
(R(ioTi)
|R(oil2),
(oP(oooi)). Interpenetration fourlings are common with
The mineral is, however, more frequently found
the twinning plane
It possesses a
Its color is lead-gray
in foliated and granular masses.
Its hardness
perfect cleavage parallel to the base
electncal
conductor
a
is
It
about
good
density
74
occurrences
County,
the
are Zsubkau,
Hungary,
Va,
5-2 and
Its best
in
its
known
Davidson
and at
near Highland, Mont
and at Bradshaw City in Arizona It occurs in
near Dahlonega,
Montgomery Mine
Whitehall,
is
Ga
quartz veins associated with gold in the gold sands of some streams
The other members of the group appear to be completely isomorphous
color from tin-white through gray to
with tetradymite. They vary
black.
Molybdenite (MoS)
This mineral, which is the sulphide of the rare metal molybdenum,
does not occur in large quantity, but it is so widely distributed that it
It occurs principally in black scales scatseems to be quite abundant
76
tered through coarse-grained, crystalline, siliceous rocks and granular

limestones and in black or lead-gray foliated masses
The theoretical composition of molybdenite is 40 per cent sulphur
and 60 per cent molybdenum Usually, however, the mineral contains

small quantities of iron and occasionally other components
Scales and plates
Crystals of molybdenite are exceedingly rare
not usually posbut
do
with
met
often
are
with hexagonal outlines
they
measurements
accurate
The
faces
to
sess sufficiently perfect
>ield
measurements that have been obtained appear to indicate a holohedral
i 908
hexagonal symmetry with an axial ratio i
The
cleavage of molybdenite is very perfect parallel to the base.

The mineral is sectile and so
flexible but not elastic
The laminae are
soft that it leaves
a black mark when drawn across paper
Its luster is metallic, color lead-black,
is
4 7.
black
In very
Otherwise
it is
thm flakes
opaque
Its density
and streak greenish
is translucent with a green tinge

a poor conductor of electricity at ordiconductivity increases with the temperature
the mineral
It
is
nary temperature, but its

In the blowpipe flame molybdenite is infusible
It, however, imthe
a
the
of
flame
to
color
Naturally, it
edges
yellowish green
parts
yields all the reactions for sulphur,
and
in the
open tube
it
deposits a
Molybdenite is decomposed
pale yellow crystalline sublimate of MoOs
by nitric acid with the production of a gray powder (MoOs)
By
from
its color, luster
all
and
softness molybdenite
minerals but graphite
From
is
easily distinguished
this it is distinguished
by
its
Moreover, a characteristic test foi all molybdenum compounds is the dark blue coating produced on porcelain when
the pulverized substance is moistened with concentrated sulphuric
reaction for sulphur
acid
and then heated
until almost
dry
Before this test can be applied
to molybdenite, the mineral must first be powdered and then oxidized by roasting in the air for a few minutes or by boiling to dryness
with a few drops of
HNOs
Crystalline molybdenite has been prepared by the action

of sulphur vapor or EfeS upon glowing molybdic acid
It has also been
Syntheses
produced by heating a mixture of molybdates and lime, in a large excess

of a gaseous mixture of HC1 and EfeS.
Occurrence, Localities arid Origin
Molybdenite generally occurs
êmbedded as grams in limestone and in the crystalline silicate rocks,
as, for instance, granite and gneiss, and as masses in quartz veins, at
Arendal,
It is
at Blue Hill Bay, Maine, at Haddam, Conn ,

Ontario, and at many points in the far western states
Norway,
Renfrew Co
thought to be of pneumatolytic
origin.
77
Uses
The mineral is the principal ore of the metal molybdenum,
the salts of which are important chemicals employed
principally in
analytical work, especially in the detection and estimation of phosphoric
The mol^bdate of ammonia (NH^MoO^ the principal salt
acid
employed in analytical processes, is easily obtained by roasting a mixture of sand and molybdenite and treating the oxidized product with
ammonia Other molybdenum salts are used for giving a green color
The metal
to porcelain
used
is
in
an alloy (ferro-mol}bdenum)
for
hardening steel, as supports for the lower ends of tungsten filaments in

electric lamps and for making ribbons used in electric furnaces
There was no production of molybdenite in North

Production
America during 1912
The imports of the metal into the United States
aggregated 3 5 tons, valued at $4,670.
of the ore is not known*
The value
of the imports
THE SULPHIDES, SELEWIDES, ETC., OF THE METALS

THE METALLIC MONOSULPHIDES, ETC
The
in
metallic monosulphides, monoselemdes, etc
which the hydrogen
replaced
by metals
of
are
compounds
H2 S, H2 Se, H2Te,
Among
HsAs, and HsSb are

them are some of the most important
ores
They may be separated into several groups of which some are

among the best defined of all the mineral groups, while others consist
simply of a number of minerals placed together solely for convenience
In addition, there are a few members of this chemical
seem
to have no close relationship with any other memwhich
group
These are discussed separately
bers
of description
The groups
The
The
The
The
The
The
described are as follows:
Dyskrasite Group
Galena Group
Chalcocite Group.
Blende Group
Millerite
Group
Cinnabar Group.
DYSKRASITE GROtJP
This group includes a number of arsenides and antimonides, some
of which apparently contain an excess of the metal above that necesand HsSb. Although their comsary to satisfy the formulas HsAs
78
not understood, they are generally regarded as basic comfew of them are well crystallized, but their composition is
pounds
doubtful, because of the difficulty of obtaining pure material for analSome of them are probably mixtures The members of the
yses
position
is
group,
all
of which are ccmparatrvely
rare, are wkitneyite
(CuoAs),
algodomte (CueAs), domeykite (CuaAs), horsfordite (Cu^Sb) and dyskrasOther minerals are known which may properly be placed
ite (AgaSb)
here,
but their identity
is
doubtful
further discussion are domeykite
Domeykite (CuaAs)
in botryoidal
The only two members
known only
is
that need
and dyskrasite
in disseminated particles
and dense masses and small orthorhombic
crystals
and
It
be a mixture of several components, which in other proportions
may
It becomes
form algodomte It is tin-white or steel-gray and opaque
dull and covered with a yellow or brown iridescent tarnish when exIt is the
Its hardness is 3-4 and density about 73
posed to the air
most
easily fusible of the copper arsenides
Its principal occurrences
the silver mines of Copiapo and Coquimbo in Chile, associated

T\ith native copper at Cerro de Paracabas, Guerrero, Mexico, at Shelare
don, Portage Lake, Michigan, and on Michipicoten Island, in

The last two occurrences are in quartz veins
Superior, Ontario
Lake
Dyskrasite (AgaSb) occurs in foliated, granular and structureless

masses and rarely in small orthorhombic crystals with an hexagonal
habit
Their axial ratio
is
5775
yielding star-shaped aggregates
and
streak,
but
its
6718,
Twinning
The mineral has a
is
frequent,
silver-white color
exposed surfaces are often tarnished yellow or
bUck
opaque and sectile Its hardness is 3 5-4 and density about 9 6

It is a good electrical conductor
Dyskrasite is soluble in HNO^
It occurs principally in the silver
leaving a white sediment of Sb20s
mines of central Europe, and especially near Wolfach, Baden, St
Andreasberg, Harz, and at Carnzo, in Copiapo, Chile.
It
is
GALENA GROUP
The
minerals comprising the galena group number about a dozen

the holohedral division of the regular system (hexcrystallizing
octahedral class)
in which
They possess the general formula
RQ
represents silver, lead, copper and gold, and

sulphur, selenium
and tellurium The group may be divided into silver
and
compounds
lead compounds, thus
((Ag Au) 2Te),
(A) argentite (Ag2 S), hessite (Ag2 Te), petzite
naumanmte (Ag2 Se), agmlante (Ag2 (Se
S)),
jalpaitc
79
((Ag Cu) 2 S) and eukante ((Ag Cu) 2 Se), and (B) galena (PbS\ altaite
Of these onh two are of importance,
(PbTe), and dausttalite (PbSe)
viz, galena, and argentite
unimportant ores
Hessite
and
petzite are comparative!}
of gold
Argentite (AgoS)
its occurrence, is an
Argentite, though not very widespread
It is found in masses, as
important ore of silver
coatings, and in crys-
tals or arborescent
groups of crystals
Argentite contains 87 i per cent silver and 12 9 per cent sulphur when
It is usually, however, impure through the admixture of small
pure
quantities of Fe, Pb, Cu, etc
The forms most
frequently observed on argentite crystals are

ooOoo(ioo), ooO(no) and 0(in), though various wOoo (hid) and
wOm (hll) forms are also met Tvith The crystals are often distorted
and often they are grouped in paiallel growths of different shapes

The twins
Twinning is common, with 0(in) the twinning plane
are usually penetration twins
The habit of most crystals is cubical
or octahedral
Its streak is a little darker
The
Argentite is lead-gray in color
mineral is opaque
Its luster is metallic, its hardness about 2 25 and*
density
It is sectile,
73
has an imperfect cleavage and
is
a conductor
of electricity
When heated on charcoal argentite shells and fuses, yielding sulphur

fumes and a globule of silver It is soluble m nitric acid
Argentite is easily recognized by its color, its sectility, the fact that
it yields a silver globule when fused with Na2COs on charcoal and yields
the sulphur test with a
Syntheses
silver corn
Crystals of argentite
with sulphur vapor or dry

in a closed tube at 200
hot
silver
be obtained by treating red

and by heating silver and SCb
may
HfcS,
The mineral is found in the secondOccurrence, Localities and Origin

with silver and other sulphides
associated
of
veins
zones
enrichment
ary
in
many
silver-mining districts
In Nevada
it
the Comstock lode and in the Cortez district
is
an important ore at
is found also near
It
Port Arthur on the north shore of Lake Superior, in Ontario, and assoThe ores of
ciated with native silver in the copper mines of Michigan
Mexico, Chile, Bolivia and Peru are composed largely of this mineral.
Much of the silver produced in this country is obtained
Production
from argentite, though by no means so great a quantity as is obtained
from other
sources*
80
Hessite (Ag2 Te) and Petzite ((Ag Au) 2 Te)
These two minerals, though comparatively rare, are prominent

sources of gold and silver in some mining camps
They usually occur
together associated with other sulphides.
Hessite is the nearly pure silver tellunde and petzittf, &n isomorphous
mixture of gold and silver tellundes, as indicated by the following analyColorado
ses of materials from the Red Cloud Mine, Boulder Co
,
The minerals
crystallize in all respects like argentite
They
are
opaque and lead-gray to iron-black in color, sectile to brittle, have a

hardness between 2 and 3 and a specific gravity of 8 3-9, increasing with
the percentage of gold present
They are good conductors of electricity
Before the blowpipe, both minerals melt easily to a black globule, at
same time coloring the reducing flame greenish and giving the odor
of tellurium fumes
When acted upon by the reducing flame, the globule
the
becomes covered with little crystals of silver With Na2COs on charcoal

both minerals yield a globule of silver, but the globule obtained from
hessite dissolves in
warm HNOs,
while that obtained from petzite
In the open tube both yield a white sublimate

becomes yellow (gold)
of TeO2 which melts, when heated, to colorless drops
When heated
with concentrated H^SCU, they give a purple or red solution which, upon
the addition of water, loses its color and precipitates blackish gray,
powdery tellurium. The minerals dissolve in HNOs From this solution
HC1
throws
down white
silver chloride
Both the minerals resemble very closely many forms of argentite

and galena, from which, however, they may be distinguished by the
reactions for tellurium
Petzite and hessite may be distinguished from
one another by the test for gold
Moreover a fresh surface of hessite
blackens when treated with a solution of KCN, whereas a surface of
petzite remains unaffected
Octahedrons of hessite are obtained by the action of

Syntheses
tellurium vapor upon glowing silver in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and
dodecahedrons of petzite upon similar treatment of gold-silver alloy
Both minerals are believed to be primary deposits origOrigin
inating in
magmatic
solutions
quartz, fluonte, dolomite,
They occur
in veins with native gold,
and various sulphides and other tellundes.
81
These tellundes, together uith others to be described

113), are important sources of silver and gold in the mines at
Transylvania, at Cripple Creek and in Boulder Co Colo and
Localities
later (p
Nagyag,
at Kalgoorhe,
siderable,
The
Australia
but since
it is
quantity of tellundes mined
conimpracticable to separate these t\\o tellundes
from the other compounds
of gold
and
silver
mined with them,
is
it is
possible to estimate the proportion of the metals obtained from
im-
them
Galena (PbS)
Galena, the most important ore of lead, occurs in great lead-gray
crystalline masses, in large and small crystals, in coarse and fine granukr
Much galena contains
aggregates, and in other less common forms
m which
silver,
cf
it
becomes an important ore
of this
metal
of the sulphides cf silver, zinc, cadmium, copper and bismuth and

silver and gold
When the percentage of silver
ties
in
case
Galena rarely approaches the theoretical composition 13 4 per cent

It usually contains small
sulphur and 86 6 per cent of lead
quanti-
some cases native
present reaches 3 oz per ton the mineral

silver is
apparently
present in
some
is
ranked as a
silver ore
This
an isomorphous mixture
cases as
other cases in distinct

sulphide and
minerals included within the galena
Galena crystals usually possess a cubical habit,
of
silver
though
very
with the
crystals
common
The
octahedral
habit
are
principal forms observed are
ooOoo(ioo), 0(in), ooO(no), mQoo(klo) and

Twins are common,
(hlT) (Figs 29 and 30)
mQm
the twinning face

Galena is well characterized
FlG
\\ith
by
good conductor of
On
Its luster is
-Galena ays-
'
its
lead-gray
color, its perfect cleavage parallel to the cubic faces
and by its great density (8 5)

tallic and its hardness about 2
29
Its streak
an^ Q,
ni
,?
(o)
meis
grayish black.
It is
electricity
charcoal galena fuses, yielding sulphurous fumes and a globule

which may easily be distinguished from a silver globule
The charcoal around the assay is coated with a yellow
softness
of metallic lead,
by
its
sublimate of lead oxide (PbO)

the separation of sulphur
Its color
and
The
mineral
is
soluble in
luster distinguish galena from nearly
all
HNOs
with
minerals but
more
difficult
From this mineral it is easily distinguished by
the
antinot
it
does
that
fact
the
and
yield
by
fusibility, by its cleavage,
charcoal
on
mony fumes when heated
Unite
its
82
to the sulphate (anglesite) and carbonate

the upper portions
consequently it is usually not found
of veins that are exposed to the action of the air.
Crystals of galena result from heating a mixture of
Syntheses
Galena weathers readily
(cerussite)
lead oxide with
with
HgS
NEUCl and
at a red heat
sulphur, and from treatment of a lead salt
Small crystals have been produced by heating
FIG 30
Galena Crystals (<*>OQ(IOO) and O(in)) partly covered by Manasitc,
from the Joplm District, Mo
(After U 6 T Smith and C I bitbentlial )
T
in a sealed glass tube at
solution of
8o-9o
pulverized cerussite (PbCO,j) in a water
HkS
Veins of galena containing
silver (silver-lead) were

probably
produced by ascending solutions emanating from bodies of igneous
Origin
was probably deposited by groundwater that dissolved the sulphide from the surrounding sedimentary
rocks
Galena is also in some cases a metamorphic product
rocks, while the galena in limestone
Occurrence
The
mineral occurs very widely spread
It is
found
in veins associated with quartz (SiCfe), calcite (CaCOa), bante

(BaSOi)
or fluonte (CaF2) and various sulphides, especially the zinc
sulphide,
sphalerite, in irregular masses filling clefts and cavities in limestone,

in beds,
and
and other forms
in stalactites
83
characteristic of
water
deposits
It occurs also as pseudomorphs after
pyromorphite the lead phosThe form that occurs in veins is often silver bearing, while that
phate
in limestone is usually free from silver
Galena is mined m Cornwall and in

Derbyshire, EngMoresnet
land,
district, Belgium, at various places in Silesia,
In the United States it occurs in veins at
Bohemia, Spam and Australia
Me
at
St
Lawrence
Co N Y at PhoenL\ville, Penn at
Rossie,
Lubec,
Localities
in the
Austin's
Mines
Wythe Co
in
Va
and
at
many
mined
other places
It is
at various points in
for silver in Mexico, at Leadville, Colo ,

Montana, in the Cceur d'Alene region in Idaho and at
many other places

Rocky Mountain region
The most extensive galena deposits in this country are in Missouri,
the corner made by the states of Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa, and
Kansas
In these districts the galena, associated
Cherokee Co
in the
m
in
with sphalerite (ZnS), pynte (FeS2), smithsomte (ZnCOs), calamine

((ZnOH) 2 SiO3 ), cerussite (PbC03 ), calcite (CaCOa) and other minerals,
fills cavities in limestone
Extraction of Lead and Silver from Galena
The ore is first crushed
and concentrated by mechanical or electrostatic methods, and the
concentrates are roasted to convert them into oxides and sulphates
The mass is then heated without access of air, sulphur dioxide being
driven
lead
off,
and
leaving metallic lead carrying impurities, or a mixture of
silver
The processes employed in refining the impure lead vary with the
nature of the impurities
Uses
Galena is employed to some extent in glazing common
stoneware
lead
It
is
also used in the preparation of white lead
As has
alrercly
been stated,
and a very important
ore of silver
pigments
The metal
lead finds
many
it is
and other
the most important ore of
uses in the arts
Its
most common
type metal, pewter and babbitt metal

have already been referred to (p 74) Solder is an alloy of tin and lead,
Wood's metal a mixture of lead, bismuth, tin and cadmium The special characteristic of Wood's alloy is its low fusion point (70)
use
is
for piping
Production
tries
The
Its
alloys,
total production of galena
by the
different coun-
of the world cannot be given, but the world's production of lead
in 1912
The total quantity of lead pro1,277,002 short tons

ores in the same year was
domestic
from
the United States
was
duced by
about 415,395
tons, valued at $37,3 8 5>55
st of this
was obtained
84
About 171,037 tons were soft lead, smelted from ores

from galena
mined mainly for their lead and zinc contents, and the balance from
The importance of galena as an ore
ores mined partly for their silver
be appreciated from the fact that of the $39,197,000
metal produced in the United States during 1912, silver
to the value of about $12,000,000 was obtained from lead ores or from
of silver
may
worth of
this
mixtures of lead and zinc ores
Altaite (PbTe) and clausthalite (PbSe) both resemble galena

Both occur commonly in fine-grained masses, but they
appearance
Altaite is tin-white, tarnishing to
are also found in cubic crystals
Their hardness is 2 5-3
is
lead-gray
yellow or bronze, and clausthahte
and
specific gravity
about 8
They
are associated with silver
and
lead
compounds principally in the silver mines of Europe and South America

Altaite is known also from several mines in California, Colorado and
North Carolina
by
galena
They are distinguished from one another and from

Te and Se
the tests for
CHALCOCITE GROUP
The
chalcocite group includes four or five cuprous and argentous

and tellundes They all crystallize in the ortho-
sulphides, selemdes
rhombic system (rhombic bipyramidal
and
habit,
are isomorphous
are chalcoc^te
The
best
class) often
with an hexagonal
of the group
known members
(Cu2S) and stromeyente (Cu AgJgS, but only the firstAlthough these minerals are orthorhombic, never-
common
named
is
theless
Cu2S
is
known
to exist also in isometric crystals, in
which form
Moreover, stromeyente is an isoisomorphous with argentite

of
mixture
and
Cu2S
morphous
Ag2$
Therefore, it is inferred that
it
is
and AggS are isomorphous dimorphs

Chalcocite (Cu2 S)
is an important ore of
copper though by no means as widely spread as the iron-copper sulIt is usually found in black masses with a dull
phide, chalcopyrite
metallic luster and as a black powder, though frequently also in crys-
Chalcocite (Cu2S), the cuprous sulphide,
tals
of
It is
copper
common
constituent of the enrichment zone of
many veins
ores,
The
best analyses of chalcocite agree closely with the formula

given above, requiring the presence of 20 2 per cent of sulphur and
Iron and silver are often present in the mineral
79 8 per cent of copper
in small quantity
85
In crystallization chalcocite is orthorhombic

(rhombic bipyramidal
i
class) with the axial ratio 5822
Its
9701
contain
.
their
forms oP(ooi),
predominant
series of
prisms of the
as
crystals
ooP(no), ooP 00(010),
P(in),
general symbol -P(iiA). and several bra-
chydomes
Many cf the crystals are elongated parallel to #, and
others are so developed as to possess an
hexagonal habit (Fig 31)
Twins are common according to several laws When the
is
twinning plane
(112) the twins are usually cruciform (Fig 32)

often striated through oscillatory combinations
|P
The zone ooi
is
iioAiib=6o
The cleavage
of chalcocite
Its hardness is 2 5-3
25'
is indistinct, its
and density about
5 7.
Its streak, like its color,
FIG 31
FIG 31
FIG 32
oio
FIG 32
p So oio (ft), o P, no (m), 2?

Chalcocite Crystal
oP, ooi (c),
021 (d), |P w, 023 (<0, P, iii (p) and JP, 113 00
Complex Chalcocite Twin, with o P, no (m) and |P, 112 (p) the Twinning
,
Planes
is nearly black, but exposed surfaces are often tarnished blue or green,
probably through the production of thin films of other sulphides like
The mineral is an excelcovellite (CuS), chalcopynte (FeCuSa), etc
lent conductor of electricity
In the open tube or on charcoal chalcocite melts and yields
phurous fumes
When mixed with Na2COs and heated a copper globule
The
is
mineral dissolves in nitric acid with the production of
sul-
produced.
a solution
that yields the test for copper.

to the oxide,
Upon exposure to the air chalcocite changes readily
and the carbonates, malachite and azurite. In the
cupnte (CusO),
presence of siliaous solutions
(P 44i)
pseudomorph
it
may give
rise to
the silicate, chrysocolla

.
of chalcocite after galena is
known
as
Aomnfe.
86
It occurs at the
erals are
Georgia and in the Polk Co copper

Pseudomorphs after many other copper min-
Canton Mine
mines in Tennessee
common
Chalcocite
is
recognized
by
its
and
color
Massive
crystallization
varieties are distinguished from argentite by greater bnttleness and the

reaction for copper, from bormte (CusFeSs) by the fact that it is not
magnetic after roasting

Crystals of chalcocite have been made in many ways,
and H^S, and by
particularly by heating the vapors of CuCb
Syntheses
more
Measurable crystals have been observed

gently warming CuaO in B^S
the waters of hot springs for
immersed
has
been
that
on old bronze
a long time
common product of the alteration of other copper compounds in the zone of secondary
,
enrichment of sulphide veins.
One
of copper minerals
of
The mineral
is
It is therefore present at
the best
known
most
occurrences
localities
is
Butte,
Mont
Fine crystals of chalcocite occur in veins and beds at Redruth and
at other places
Cornwall, England, at Bristol
in
Bohemia The massive variety
at Joachunthal
In the United States
places
it
occurs
is
Connecticut, and
known at many
red sandstone at Cheshire
found also in large quantities near Butte City in

Montana, and in Washoe and other counties in Nevada, and indeed
in the veins of most copper producing mines
In Canada it is present
in Connecticut
It is
with chalcopynte and bormte at Acton, Quebec, and at several places

in Ontario north of
Extraction
Lake Superior
of Copper
Chalcocite
rarely
occurs
alone
in
large
usually mixed with other compounds of copper,

quantity.
and is treated with them in extracting the metal (see p. 133).
In ores
it is
Stromeyerite ((Ag Cu)2S) is usually massive, but it occurs also in

Their axial
simple and twinned crystals similar to those of chalcocite
i : 9668, almost identical with that of chalcocite
ratio is 5822
The
mineral
gray
is
Its
nitric acid
silver
and
opaque and metallic Its color and streak are dark steelhardness is 2 5-3 and density about 62
It is soluble
It occurs associated with other

sulphides in the ores of
copper mines at Schlangenberg, Altai,
Coquimbo, Copiap6, and other places

California, Arizona, and Colorado,
in Chile,
Kupferberg, Silesia,
in a few mines
and
87
BLENDE GROUP
The blende group of minerals comprises a series of compounds whose
In the blendes
general formula like that of the galena group is RQ
stands for Zn, Cd, Mn, Ni and Fe and
for S, Se and Te
The blendes
color
or
are
than galena
ail
transparent or translucent minerals of a lighter
constitute an isodimorphous
group of a dozen
crystallizing in the tetrahedral division of the regular
(hextetrahedral class), and in hemimorphic holohedral forms of
They
more members
system
the hexagonal system (dmexagonal-pyramidal class)
The group may
be divided into two subgroups known respectively as the sphalerite
and the wurtzite groups

SPHALERITE DIVISION
The most important member
of this division of the blende
group
is
the mineral sphalerite. This, like the other less well known members,
crystallizes in the hemihedral division of the regular system with various
The other members of the group

(MnS), and an isomorphous mixture of FeS and NiS,
tetrahedrons as prominent forms

are alabandite
pentlandite
Sphalerite (ZnS)
Sphalerite, one of the very important zinc ores and one of the most
interesting minerals from a crystallographic standpoint, occurs in amorphous and crystalline masses and in handsome crystals and crystal groups
Botryoidal and other imitative masses are common

Pure white sphalerite consists of 67 per cent of Zn and 23 per cent of
The colored varieties usually contain traces of silver, iron,
sulphur
cadmium, manganese and other metals

the impurities
is
a distinct variety
Franklin Furnace,
Jophn,
of
Sometimes the proportion of
Two
analyses of
Mo
American
Zn
Cd
32 22
67 46
66 69
tr
32 93
them
is regarded as
are
as follows
sphalerites
so large that the mineral containing
Fe
Total
42
99 68
100 04
The hemihedral condition of sphalerite is shown in the predominance

tetrahedrons among its crystal forms and by the symmetry of its
etched figures (Fig. 33).

other hextetrahedrons,
Its
most common forms are

(221),
-Q3.
~(3 21 )
and
^-(331) and other deltoid-dodeca-
88
303(311) and other
hedrons and
ooO<(ioo) and ooO(no)
In
tristetrahedrons
common
are quite
(Fig
addition,
Twins are
34)
and their composition face either

Their twinning plane is
Through twinning, the
(Fig 35), or a plane perpendicular to this
crystals often assume a rhombohedral habit
abundant
The cleavage
compact mass
times be split
of sphalerite
is
perfect pardlel to
of the mineral a fairly
Its fracture
is
conchoidal
When
From a
may some-
ooO(no)
good dodecahedron
pure the mineral
is
As usually found, however, it is yellow,

transparent and colorless
Its streak is
translucent and black, brown, or some shade of red
white.
or
The
masses
look
very much like
brownish, yellow
yellow
FIG
FIG 33
FIG 35
34
o (101) and
Tetrahedral Crystal of Sphalerite Bounded by oo
FIG 33
O (in
and ill), Illustrating the Fact that Its Octahedral Faces Fall into Two Groups
FIG 34
Sphalerite Crystal
FIG 35
is
0,
no
(<*),
and-f
Sphalente Octahedron Twinned about
-,
311 (m)
0(ni)
The hardness
of sphalerite is between 3 5 and 4, and its

resinous
The minei al is difficultly fusible,
Its index of refraction (ri) for
a nonconductor of electricity
lumps of
rosin.
density about 4
and
oo
yellow light
is 2
Its luster
is
369.
when powdered always
yields tests for sulphur under

On charcoal it volatilizes slowly, coating the coal
proper treatment
with a yellow sublimate when hot, turning white on cooling
When
Sphalerite
moistened with a dilute solution of cobalt nitrate and heated

the
The mineral disreducing flame, the white coating of ZnO turns green
solves in hydrochloric acid, yielding sulphuretted hydrogen
By oxidation sphalerite changes into the sulphate of zinc,
and by
other processes into the silicate of zinc, calamine, or the carbonates,

smithsonite and hydrozincite.
89
Syntheses
Sphalerite crystals have been made by the action of
zinc chloride \ apor at a high
temperature
They are also often
produced in the flues of furnaces in which ores containing zinc and sul-
upon
phur are roasted

Sphalerite occurs disseminated through limestone, in streaks and irregular masses in the same rock, and in veins cutIt is often associated with
ting crystalline and sedimentary rocks
The material in the veins is often crystallized Here it is assowith chalcopynte (CuFeS2), fluonte (CaF2 ), bante (BaSCX),
sidente (FeCOs), and silver ores
When in veins it is in some cases the
result of ascending hot waters and in other cases the
product of downgalena
ciated
Much
ward percolating meteoric water.

metamorphic contact deposit.
of the disseminated ore
is
Localities
Crystallized sphalerite is found abundantly at Alston

Moor, Cumberland, England, at vanous places in Saxony, in the BinS Wales, and in nearly all
nenthal, Switzerland; at Broken Hill,
for galena.
Handsome, transparent, deavable masses are

from
Pilos
de
brought
Europa, Santander, Spain. Stalactites are
abundant near Galena, 111
The principal deposits of economic importance in America are those
in Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri and Kansas, where the sphalerite is associated with other zinc compounds and with galena forming lodes in
limestone, and at the silver and gold mines of Colorado, Idaho and Monlocalities
tana
In order to obtain the metal from sphalerite,

Extraction of the Metal
is usually first concentrated by flotation or other mechanical
the ore
The concentrates are then converted into the oxide by roastthe

and
impure oxide is mixed with fine coal and placed in clay retorts
ing
processes.
openmg
These are gradually heated
into a condenser.
reduced to the metal, which being volatile

denser,
where
it
is
distils
The
oxide
is
over into the con-
Other processes are based on wet
safely caught.
chemical methods
Uses of Zinc
sheets
It
is
such as brass,
Zinc
is
used extensively in galvanizing iron wire and
employed in the manufacture of important alloys

and in the manufacture of zmc white, which is the oxide
also
(ZnO), and other pigments

serving timber.
is used for prea

considerable
of
source
the
quan-
solution of the chloride
Argentiferous zinc
is
tity of silver.
showing the quantity of sphalerite produced in the zinc-producing countries are not available The total
Production
amount
The
of metallic
figures
zmc produced
in the year 1912
was 1,070,045
tons,
90
valued at $44,699,166, of which the United States produced from domestic
and in addition used, in the making of zinc compounds,

Of this aggregate, Missouri produced about 149,560
Most of the metal was obtained from sphalerite, but a large
tons
The quantity of silver produced in refining
part came from other ores
zinc ores was 664,421 oz valued at $408,619
ores 323,907 tons,
about 55,000 tons
Alabandite
(MnS)
occurs, however,
Its streak is
and density
is
dark green
39
isomorphous with sphalerite
in dense granular aggregates of
It
is
It is
not an
opaque and
electrical
brittle
conductor
It
usually
an iron-gray color
Its
hardness
When
is 3-4
heated on
charcoal in the reducing flame it changes to the brown oude of manIt is soluble ui dilute HC1
ganese and finally melts to a brown slag
with the evolution of
Alabandite occurs with other sulphides at

the
Tarma, Peru, at Puebla, Mexico, and
EkS
at
Kapnik, Hungary,
United States at Tombstone, Arizona, and on Snake River, Summit Co
Colorado
Pentlandite ((Fe Ni)S) may belong to this group Iron is frequently

Its sulphide, therefore, may be isomorfound in crystallized sphalerite
in
\\hich
with
case
pentlandite, which is probably an
phous
sphalerite,
isomorphous mixture of NiS and FeS, would also belong
the sphal-
The
mineral occurs in light bronzy yellow, granular masses

group
with a distinct octahedral cleavage, a hardness of 3 5-5 and a density of
erite
46
It
a nonconductor of
Pentlandite occurs with

electricity
and
at Sudbury, Ontario,
(FerSg),
(CuFeS2)
chalcopynte
pyrrhotite
where it is probably the constituent that furnishes most of the nickel
is
(seep 92)
from pyrrhotite, which it resembles in appearance,

cleavage and the fact that it is not magnetic
Moreover, it
weathers to a brassy yellow color, while pyrrhotite weathers bronze
It is distinguished
by
its
WURTZITE DIVISION
The
(ZnS),
wurtzite group comprises only two or three members, wurt.iie

All cryspossibly pyrrhottte (Fen S H+1 )
greenoMe (CdS), and
m the holohedral division of the hexagonal system and the first

two are unquestionably heimmorphic (dihexagonal pyramidal class)
Pyrrhotite is the most common.
tallize
Wurtzite (ZnS)
other.
is
one of the dimorphs of ZnS, sphalerite being the

masses and
fibers
It occurs in brownish black crystals,
91
Its
crystals are combinations of

ooP(ioib) with 2^(2021) and
oP(oooi) at one end, and a series of steeper pyramids at the
other
Their axial ratio is i : 8175
The a&gk ion Aoili=4o 9',
2P(022l) A2P(022I) = 52 2J
The mineral is brownish black to brownish yellow and its streak
is brown
Its hardness is between 3 and 4 and its sp
gr is about 4
f
conducts electricity very poorly

In chemical and physical propit resembles sphalerite
Its crystals ha\e been produced by
fusing a mixture of ZnSO.4, fluonte and barium sulphide
They are
It
erties
frequently observed as furnace products

Wurtzite occurs as crystals at the original Butte Mine, Butte,
Montana, and in a mine near Benzberg, Rhenish Prussia, at both
places associated \\ith sphalerite
They also occur \uth
silver ores
near
Oruro and Chocaya, Bolivia, and near Quispisiza, Peru

Greenockite.
wurtzite
'
Greenockite (CdS)
In
8109
an
have
Its crystals
general
The
36)
completely isomorphous with
ratio
habit they are
those of wurtzite but they contain
planes (Fig
is
axial
like
many more
ioTiAoiTi =
and small The
angle
39 58
Crystals are rare
mineral usually occurs as a coating on other
minerals,
color
Its
especially sphalerite
honey to orange-yellow,
yellow, and its luster glassy or resinous
transparent or
TII
is
translucent and
Its hardness is 3-3 5
Its
index
of
j j
It
is brittle
w=2
refraction
it
FIG 36
tal
F?
When
688
becomes carmine,
color on cooling.
Greenockite Crys-
OOP,
x
i_
and density about 4 9
heated in the closed tube
but
is
streak orange-
its
^>
o001
p> Iol2
aP,
ioT<^(w),
IOI
and
(c)
(l) ls
JL^
(The form
often pres-
ent at the upper end of

the crystals )
changes to its original

It yields the usual reactions for sulphur and cadmium, and dissolves
it
HC1, yielding H2 S
a mixture of CdO, BaS,
Crystals have been obtained by melting
and CaF2, and by heating cadmium in an atmosphere of EfeS to near
in
fusing point
The
crystals occur with
on sphalerite
mineral
is
prenmte
common
in the zinc regions of
Fnedensville, Pennsylvania,
furnace product
Greenockite
and as coatings
Missouri and Arkansas, and at
at Bishoptown, Scotland,
92
Pyrrhotite (Fe n S n +i)
of
Pyrrhotite, or magnetic pyrite, occupies the anomalous position

being one of the most important ores of nickel, whereas it is essen-
a sulphide of iron The name is really applied to a series of

compounds whose composition ranges between FesSo and Feu>Si7
The crystallized material is in some cases FerSs, and in others, FenSi2
tially
It is
probably a solid solution of FeS2 or S in the sulphide of iron (FeS)
As usually found, pyrrhotite
is
in bronze-gray granular masses, that
Good
tarnish rapidly to bronze on exposure to the air

the mineral are rare.
crystals of
The percentages of Fe and S

Analyses of pyrrhotite vary widely
60
are
to
6, and those corresponding
S,
FeySs
Fe,
4,
39
corresponding
Much of the mineral contains in addito FenSi2 are Fe, 61 6, S, 38 4
tion to the iron and sulphur sufficient nickel to render it an ore of this
metal, but it is probable that the nickel is present in pentlandite (see
p 90) or some other nickel compound embedded in the pyrrhotite
Analyses of pyrrhotite from various
localities are
Fe
Co
Schneeberg, Saxony
39 10
tr
Brewster,
37 98
6r 77
61 84
NY
Sudbury, Ontario
Gap Mine, Penn.
The few
38 91
Ni
25
4 66
56 39
55 82
38 59
crystals of pyrrhotite
5 59
Total
100 87
100 07
99 96
100 oo
known are distinctly hexagonal in

c=i i 7402 They are com-
habit with a
monly tabular or acutely pyramidal, but
it
has not been established that they are hemimorphic, although the almost universal presence of FeS in
FIG 37 -Pyrrhotite Crystal
oP, oooi (c), P, ion (s);
4 P, 4041
I0lo (m)
(), and
COP,
crystals
of wurtzite
would
mdlcate that the two sub stances are isomor,
Phous
_,
The
.
f
tabular crystals possess a broad
basal plane, which
surmounts hexagonal prisms

and a series of
ooP(ioTo) and oop 2 (ii2o)
pyramids, of which 2P(2O2i), JP(ioT2), P(ioli) and P2(ri22) are the

;
most frequent
The angle loli AoiTi = S3
(Fig 37 )
The
When
cleavage of pyrrhotite is not always equally distinct
it is parallel to ooP2(ii2o)
There is also often a parting
Its fracture is uneven
The mineral is brittle.
parallel to the base
It is opaque, and has a metallic luster
Its color varies between bronzemarked
93
Its hardness is
yellow and copper-red, and its streak is grayish black
a little less than 4 and its density about 4 5
All specimens are magnetic
but the magnetism varies greatly in intensity,
being at a maximum in
The mineral
the direction of the vertical axis
is
a good conductor of
electricity.
Pyrrhotite gives the usual reactions for iron and sulphur,

It
times, in addition, the reactions for cobalt and nickel
posed by hydrochloric acid with the evolution of

easily be detected by its odor.
From
the
many
sulphides
in appearance, this mineral
and density and by
its
more or
may
less closely
easily
and someis decomEbS, which may
resembling pyrrhotite
be distinguished by
its color
magnetism
Syntheses
Crystals may be obtained by heating iron wire or
or
to redness in an atmosphere of dry HoS and by
FeCk
Fes04,
dry
heating
2S
Fe
in a closed tube with
a solution
cf FcCls saturated with
Locd^tês and Origin

Pyrrhotite occurs completely
vein
also
and
as
fissures,
filling
crystals embedded in other minerals
It occurs also as impregnations in various rocks
constituting veins
and as a segregation in the coarse-grained basic rock known as nonte,
Occurrence,
where
it is
rock
It
believed to have separated from the magma producing the

also in some cases be a product of metamorphism on the
may
borders of igneous intrusions

It is found at Andreasberg, Harz, Bodenmais, Bavaria, Minas
Geraes, Brazil, various points in Norway and Sweden, and on the
In North America crystals occur at Standish, Maine,

and at Elizabethtown, Ontario
at Trumbull, Monroe Co
The mineral has been mined at Ducktown, Tenn at Ely, Vermont,
lavas of Vesuvius
N Y
and
at
Its
Gap Mine,
Lancaster
Co Penn
,
mines at present, however, are at Sudbury,
in Ontario,
where the
mineral is associated with magnetite, chalcopynte and pentlandite

((Fe Ni)S) on the lower border of a great mass of igneous rock (norite).
Besides these there are present also embedded in the pyrrhotite
small quantities of other minerals, so that the ore as mined is very
complex.
Pyrrhotite
siderite
is
sometimes found altered to
pyrite, to
limomte and to
(FeC03 )
off the
Pyrrhotite is crushed and roasted to drive
is then placed in a furnace and
It
of
the
sulphur
greater portion
The nickel, copper and some of the
smelted with coke and quartz
of the fused sulphides, collect as a matte in the
with
some
iron, together
Extraction
94
bottom of the furnace from which
The matte
is
it is
withdrawn from time to time
next roasted to transform the iron
it
contains into oxides
and the remaining nickel and copper are separated by patented or secret
methods
The mineral is sometimes worked for the sulphur it conUses
tains
this
Its principal use, however,
metal used in
is
as a source for nickel, nearly
all of
America coming from the nickehferous variety found
at Sudbury, Ontario
The metal
nickel has
come
into extensive use in the past
few years
with the manufacture of armor plate for warships

The
addition of a few per cent of nickel to steel hardens it and increases
in connection
its
strength and elasticity

Nickel is also extensively used in mckel-platmg and in the manufac-
German
ture of alloys
silver is
an alloy of
nickel, copper
and zinc
nickel currency of the United States contains about 25 per cent
The
Ni and
Cu
Monel metal is a silver-white alloy containing about

It is stronger than
per cent Fe and 29 per cent Cu
is
a
and
finish
takes
It is
brilliant
impervious to acids
ordinary steel,
made directly at Sudbury, Ont by smelting
Production
The production of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite (CuFeS)
the
at
Sudbury mines in 1912 amounted to 737,584 short tons The
value of the matte produced was $6,303,102, and the value of nickel conAbout half of the nickel was used
tained in it was about $16,000,000
in America, the remainder, amounting to $8,515,000, was exported, after
75 per cent
75 per cent Ni,
being refined in the United States

Formerly the United States produced a considerable quantity of nickel from domestic ores, most of
from pyrrhotite, but the mines have been closed down within the past
It is, however, produced as a by-product in the
refining
of copper ores to the amount of about 325 tons
annually, This is worth
it
few years.
about $260,000 (see also
p, 400).
MILLERITE GROUP
This group comprises sulphides, arsenides and antimonides of nickel.
millmte (NiS),mccohte (NiAs), ante (Ni(Sb As))
It includes the minerals
Of these only millente and nicbwthauptite (NiSb) and a few others

common The minerals all crystallize
the hexagonal
colite are at all
system, possibly in the rhombohedral division (ditrigonal scalenohedral

Well defined crystals are, however, rare and often
class).
capillary so
that their
symmetry has not been determined with
certainty.
95
Mfflerite (NiS)
Millerite
is
by
easily recognized
most frequently
its
brass-yellow color
It occurs
in slender hair-like needles, often aggregated into tufts
woven together
or radial groups, or,

on other minerals
like
wads
of hair, forming coatings
Pure millente contains 35 3 per cent sulphur and 64.6 per cent nickel
a little Co and Fe.
It frequently contains also
Crystals are thin, acicular or columnar with prismatic and rhom-
bohedral faces predominating, and an axial ratio of i

330, or of
if the rhombohedron 311(0331) is taken as the
ground form
The mineral
It
is elastic
Its hardness
opaque and brassy yellow
is
9886
3-3 5 and density about 5
is
Its streak
greenish black.
is
It is
5.
an
excellent conductor of electricity
The mineral
yields sulphurous fumes

borax and microcosmic
with
ing
gives,
in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe
it
the open tube. After roastsalt, a violet bead when heated
in
On
charcoal with
NaaCOs
it
yields a magnetic globule
Bunches of yellow acicular crystals of N1S have been

Synthesis
formed by treatment of a solution of NiSO^ with H^S, under pressure.
Millerite occurs as long acicular crystals in cavities in
Localities
other minerals at Joachimthal, in Bohemia, and at many places in
In the United States it forms radiating groups in cavities in
Saxony
NY
At the Gap Mine, Lancaster Co

hematite (F&Os) at Antwerp,
Penn , it forms coatings on other minerals and at St Louis, Mo and
Wis it occurs in
Nowhere does it occur in
at Milwaukee,
stone,
delicate tangled tufts in geodes in limesufficient quantity to constitute
an ore.
Niccolite (NiAs)
Niccolite usually occurs massive, though crystals are
of
economic importance only
in a
few
known
It is
localities
Theoretically, the mineral contains 56 10 per cent As and 43 90 per

it contains also Sb, S, Fe and often small
cent Ni, but as usually found

quantities of Co, Cu,
Pb and Bi
hexagonal and hemimorphic (prob:

The prism
ably dihexagonal pyramidal class), with a c=i : 8194
ooP(ioTo), and oP(oooi) are the predominant forms, with the
Its crystals,
which are
rare, are
pyramids P(ioTi)
and ^(5057)
The mineral
pale copper-red
is
less
well
developed
and opaque
It has
The
angle
a brownish
96
The surfaces
The minspecimens are tarnished with a grayish coating
eral is a good conductor of electricity
In the open tube mccohte yields arsenic fumes and often traces of
black streak.
of nearly all
862
On
charcoal with
HNOs
It dissolves in
solution, thus
Na2COs
mccohte from
Occurrence
and
The apple-green
ammonia
and
nickel
other minerals, except, perhaps,
breit-
and
all
kaupttte, which, however, contains
schists
yields a metallic globule of nickel
produced, becomes sapphire-blue on addition of
Its peculiar light pink color
distinguish
it
with the precipitation of AsgOa

its
reactions for arsenic
antimony
principally in
Niccohte occurs
veins
in
crystalline
sedimentary rocks, associated with silver
in
metamorphosed
and cobalt sulphides and arsenides
The
principal locality for mccohte in North America is

Cobalt, Ontario, where it is found with native silver and silver, cobalt,
and other nickel compounds, all of which are thought to have been deLocal^foes
by hot waters emanating from a mass of diabase In Europe it

abundant at Joachimsthal in Bohemia, and at a number of other
posited
is
places in small quantity

Although rich in nickel, the mineral
is
not used as an ore at present,
except to a very minor extent, most of the nickel of

obtained from other compounds (see p 94)
commerce being
It is of a light copper-red color, much

Breithauptite (NiSb) is rare
that
of
than
Its hardand
its streak is reddish brown
mccohte,
brighter
is 5 5 and density about 7 9
Its crystals are hexagonal tables
with an axial ratio i i 294, and a distinct cleavage parallel to oP(ooi)
ness
It usually occurs
foliated and finely granular

dendritic groups,
It is a frequent furnace product, when
and Sb are smelted It is found at Andreasberg, Harz
aggregates and
in dense masses
ores containing
Ni
at Sarrabus,
is
m Sardinia,
at Cobalt,
distinguished from mccohte
by
its
Ont and
at a few other places

It
deeper color and its content of Sb.
,
Covelhte (CuS)
Covellite, or indigo copper, is the cupric sulphide, chalcocite being
the corresponding cuprous salt
It is called indigo copper because of
the deep blue color of its fresh fracture. It is often mixed with other
copper compounds from which
it
has been derived by alteration
usually occurs massive, but crystals are

ore of copper.
known
It is
It
an unimportant

The
theoretical
66 44 per cent
Cu
often traces of lead
97
composition of the mineral is 33 56 per cent S,

It usually, however, contains also a little iron and
and
silver
Crystals of covellite are not
common.
c-i
usually tabular
3 972 and their habit
is
are hexagonal \\ith
The forms observed

icTi /\oi Ti = 77
42'.
perfect cleavage parallel to oP(oooi)
In
are oP(oooi), oo P(iolo), P(ioTi)
The mineral has one
They
and JP(ioT4)
thin splinters it is flexible

Its hardness is i 5-2 and density about
Its color is dark blue and its streak lead-gray to black
It is
46
opaque, with a luster that

It is
frequently dull
The blowpipe
these exceptions
sometimes nearly metallic, but more

conductor
is
a good
electrical
reactions of covellite are like those of chalcocite, with

Covellite burns îth a blue flame when heated on
and yields a sublimate of sulphur in the closed tube

Covellite is distinguished from other minerals than chalcocite by
its reactions for Cu and S and the absence of reactions for Fe.
It is
charcoal,
distinguished from chalcocite

that it ignites on charcoal
The treatment
Syntheses
and EkS
by
in a closed tube at
The mineral has
its
color
and density and by the
fact
of green copper carbonate with water
8o-9o
yields small grains of covellite
also been produced
by the action of HsS upon vapor

a solution of copper sulphate
with
treating sphalerite
in a sealed glass tube containing C02 at a temperature of iso-i6o
of CuCl2,
for
and by
two days
It is
and Origin The mineral is comparatively rare
abundant in Chile and Bolivia and at Butte, Mont and is found in
It usually occurs as
crystals on the lava of Vesuvius and elsewhere
an alteration product of other copper-sulphur compounds, especially in
Localities
the zone of secondary enrichment of copper veins

Uses
It is mined with other compounds and used as a source
of copper,
CINNABAR GROUP
This group comprises sulphides, selenides and tellundes of mercury
The group is dimorphous, with its members crystallizing in henuhedrons
of the isometric system (hextetrahedral class)
and
in tetartohedrons
The isometric
hexagonal system (trigonal trapezohedral class)
as cinnabar
form
the
and
as
metacmnabante
hexagonal
HgS is known
to these are known the rare
addition
In
is important
the
latter
Only
of the
compounds
(HgTe),
(Hg(S Se)), tiemanmte (HgSe) and

which are isometric
onofnte
all of
coloradcnte
98
Cinnabar (HgS)
the only compound of mercury that occurs in sufficient
Nearly all of the mercury,
quantity to constitute an important ore
it
The mineral occurs
from
or quicksilver, in the world is obtained
Cinnabar
is
The ore is a red crystalline mass that

both crystallized and massive
is easily distinguished from all other red minerals by its peculiar shade of
color
and
its
great weight.
it contains 13 8 per cent S
and 86
per cent Hg
the
admixture
Massive cinnabar is, however, usually impure through
of clay, iron oxides or bituminous substances
Occasionally the quanTheoretically,
tity of organic material present
is
so large that the mixture
is
inflam-
mable.
Though cinnabar
is
usually granular, massive or earthy, it sometimes occurs beautifully crystallized
complex and highly modi-
in small
hexagonal crystals that exhibit

tetartohedral forms (trigonal trape-
fied
Usually the crys-
zohedral class)
tals are
rhombohedral or prismatic
habit
Their
axial
ratio
is
Planes
belonging to
more than 100 distinct forms have
i
FIG 38 -Cinnabar Crystals with

R,
iolo (m), fR, 4045 (0,
R, 2025
(/), R, loTi (0 and o&, oooi (c)
The
teristics.
prismatic crystals,
this country, are often bounded
1453
been observed, but the crystals on
which they occur aie usually so

small that few of them are of importance as distinguishing characwhich are the most common in
by ooR,
(rolo)
and
R, (4045)
Their cleavage is
Others, however, are very complicated
perfect parallel to oo R(ioTo).
The mineral is slightly sectile It is transparent, translucent or
(Fig
38)
opaque,
streak
Its
is
is
of a cochineal-red color, often inclining to
scarlet
Its hardness is only
2-2 5 and
its
brown, and its

density about
and is a nonconductor of electricity

on
the other hand, is a good conductor
dimorph, metacinnabante,
It
is
The indices
circularly polarizing
of refraction of cinnabar are
co= 2 854,
==3 201
When
heated gently in the open tube cinnabar yields sulphurous

fumes and globules of mercury. On charcoal before the
blowpipe it
volatilizes completely.
There are only a few minerals with which cinnabar
is
likely to
be
SULPHIDES, TELLURIDES ETC
99
confused, since its color and streak are so characteristic

red minerals but realgar it may easily be
distinguished by
reaction
From
realgar
it is
by
distinguished
its
From
its
great density
all
sulphur
and
its
greater hardness
Pseudomorphs of cinnabar after stibnite, dolomite ((Ca Mg)COsJ,

pynte and tetrahednte (a complicated sulpho-salt) have been described
Synthesis
Crystals ha\ e been made b> heating mercury in an aqueous solution of
HbS
and On gin
Cinnabar is usually found in
veins cutting serpentine, limestones, slates, shales and \anous schists
It is associated \Mth gold, various sulphides, especially pynte and marOccurrence
casite
(FeS 2 )
Localities
calcite
(CaCOs), barite (BaSO-i), fluonte (CaF2 ) and
also found impregnating sandstones and other sedimenquartz

and
sometimes as a deposit from hot springs
Its depositary rocks,
tion is thought to be the result of precipitation from ascending hot
It
is
number
Crystallized cinnabar occurs at a
of places in
Bohemia,
Nevada, and at
Hungary, Serbia, Austria, Spam,
ether localities m Europe Asia and South America
The principal deposits of economic importance are at Almaden
California, Texas,
in Spain, at Idria in the
Province of Carmola, Austria, at
Bakhmut
in southern Russia, at various points along the Coast
Ranges in Calin Nevada,

and
Washoe
Counties
Nye
The
at many points in Oregon and Utah, and at Terhngua in Texas
mineral is also abundant in Peru and in China but in these countries
The California cinnabar district
it has not yet been mined profitably
extends for many miles along the Coast Ranges, but at only about a
ifornia, in
Esmeralda, Humboldt,
dozen places
is
the mineral mined
The Spanish mines, near the city of Cordova, have been worked
Much of the ore is an impregnation of
for many hundreds of years
sandstone and quartzite the mineral sometimes comprising as much
as 20 per cent of the rock mined
The metallurgy of cinnabar
Extraction
is
exceedingly simple
It
mixed with limestone, and

conducting the fumes into a condensing chamber that is kept cool.
The sulphur gases are allowed to escape through the chamber in which
consists simply in roasting the ore alone, or
the mercury
is
collected
Uses of Metal
portant one
finds
in the extraction of
many
uses in the arts
gold and
silver
by
Its
most im-
the amalgamation
the essential constituent of the pigment vermilion, which

a manufactured HgS. In its metallic state it is largely employed in
process
is
is
Mercury
It
is
100
the
making
of mirrors, of barometers,
Some
instruments
thermometers and other physical
of the salts are important medicinal preparations
while others are used in the manufacture of percussion caps

The world's annual production of quicksilver,
Production
all
of
The
not far from 4,000 metric tons
is obtained from cinnabar, is

Of this
United States produced 940 tons in 1912, valued at $1,053,941
at
valued
about
total California yielded 20,524 flasks of 75 Ibs each,
which
To
at $190,907
$863,034, and Texas and Nevada 4,540 flasks valued
tons
of
ore
mined
I39>347
produce these quantities of metal California
Ibs
The California ore yielded
and Texas and Nevada 16,346 tons
of metal per ton
and the Nevada and
Metacmnabarite (HgS)
is
mineral with a black streak

density of 7 8
California
It
is
Texas ore 20,8 Ibs,
generally found as a gray-black massive

It
is brittle,
has a hardness of 3 and a
associated with cinnabar at
and Mexico, and at a few places
some
of the
mines in
in other countries
It is
exceedingly rare.
THE METALLIC DISULPHIDES, DISELENIDES AND DIARSENIDES

The
diselemdes, ditellundes, diarsemdes and diantifrom the corresponding monocompounds m that they
contain double the quantity of S, Se, Te and Sb
They are divisible
into two groups, one of which comprises sulphides, arsenides and antidisulphides,
monides
differ
monides of
iron,
the tellundes
manganese, cobalt, nickel and platinum, and the other
and selemdes
of gold
and
silver,
GLANZ GROUP
The glanz group
Its
members are
and
is
an excellent
characterized
brilliant luster.
by
illustration of
an isodimorphous group.
their hardness, opaqueness, light color
Hence the name
of the group
In composition
the minerals belonging to the group are sulphides, arsenides or antimomdes of the iron-platinum group of metals, with the general formula
RQ2
in
which
R is Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, and Q=S, As and Sb
position of the
/S
Fe/
and
The commore simple members may be represented by the formula
of those in which arsenic or
antimony replaces a part of the
<As=As\
S
y>Fe.
It
is
probable, however, that
some
of the cobalt
and
nickel arsenides

are mixtures
All
in
101
and that
their indicated compositions are only approximate

group are believed to be dimorphous, crystallizing
the isometric (dyakisdodecahedral class), and in the orthorhombic
members
of the
systems (orthorhombic bipyramidal class), though not all have as yet

been found in both forms
The most important members of the group, as
at present constituted, are as follows
Isometric
Orthorhombic
FeSg
Pynte
Hauente
Marcasite
MnS2
FeAsS
Arsenopyrite
FeAs2
CobalMe
CoAsS
Lolhngite
Glaucodot
Gersdor/tte
(Ni Fe)AsS
(Ni Fe)(As Sb S) 2
Wolfachite
Korymte
Ullmamte
NiSbS
CoAs2
NiAs2
PtAs2
Smdtite
Ckloanthite
Sperryhte
Safflonte
Rammdsbergite
The group is divided into two subgroups, the regularly crystallizing

minerals forming the pynte group and the orthorhombic ones the marThe most important members of the former group are
casite group
The most important members
pynte, cobaltite, smaltite and chloanthite
of the marcasite group are marcastte, arsenopynte and lolhngite.
PYRITE
The
division
crystallization of the pyrite
(dyakisdodecahedral
occurrence of the form

pyrite that
it
class)
210,
group
of
is
is
in the parallel
the
isometric
so frequently seen
heimhedral
system.
The
on the mineral
has received the name pyritoid
The group is so perfectly isomorphous that a description of the forms

on one member is practically a description of the forms on all.
Pynte (FcS 2)
of all minerals, is found under a
Pyrite, one of the most common
as crystals, as crystalline aggregates and
great variety of conditions
It occurs under practically all conditions and in
as crystalline masses
all
situations
brilliant luster
It is easily recognized
and
its
hardness,
by
its
bright yellow color, its
102
Pyrite containing, theoretically, 46 6 per cent of iron and 53 4 per

cent of sulphur is usually contaminated with small quantities of nickel,
FTC 39
Group
of Pyrite Crystals in
are striated parallel to the edge between oo
cobalt, thallium
oo (100)
and
/20oo\
I
(210)
An auriferous variety is worked

the aggregate a large quantity of the precious
and other elements
for gold, yielding in
FIG 40
FIG 40
The
which the Cube Predominate
IK, 4 i
Pynte Crystals on which
(in) Predon mates
o=0,
and
210
FIG 41
metal
Pynte Crystal with
Sometimes arsenic
is
oo
02, 210
20,
Fe=44
and 0,
in
present in small quantity
the crystals from French Creek, Penn
8=5408, As=o
(e)
24,
Co=i
(a)
Analysis of
gave
75,
Ni=o
18,
Cu=oos, =100
50.
SULPHIDES, TELLURIDE3, ETC

The number
42
have been observed on pynte crystals
The cube and
Hintze records 86
very large
FIG
of forms that
Group
of
103
Pynte Crystals
in
^-^
the pyntoid
ooQ2 (210) Predominates
\\hich
Daly-Judge Mine, near Park City, Utah
(After
is
Bmtfaett
From
(210) are the most common of these, though the octahedron and the
dodecahedron are not rare Four distinct types of crystals may be
recognized, viz those with the cubic (Fig 39),
the octahedral (Fig. 40), and the pyntoid

habits (Figs 41 and 42), and those that are
interpenetrating twins (Fig 43)
The
cubic
and the pyritoid planes are often striated

parallel to the edges between these faces The
interpenetrating twins are twinned about the
0(ni)
The cleavage
plane
its
fracture
Its
brittle
about
5.
of
pynte
conchoidal.
hardness
Its
is
luster is
is
imperfect and
The mineral is
6-6 5 and density
very
brilliant
and
brassy yellow and its

With steel
streak greenish or brownish black
word
name from the Greek
meaning fire. It
metallic
electricity
Its color
and
is
FIG 43
Pynte InterpeneTwo PyntrationTwin
toids
about
Os, 210) Twinned
O in
is
strongly thermo-electric.
hence
it
strikes fire,
is
a good conductor of
its
In the closed tube pynte yields a sublimate of sulphur and a residue

is magnetic
On charcoal sulphur is freed This burns with the
that
blue flame characteristic of the substance
The
globule remaining after
Treated with
nitric acid the

magnetic
heating
of
residue
a
flocculent
dissolves
mineral
sulphur, which when
leaving
be
dried and heated may readily
ignited
some time
for
is
Pynte in some of its forms so closely resembles gold that it is often

known as fool's gold There is, of course, no difficulty in distinguishing
between the two metals, since pyrite contains sulphur and is soluble in
nitric acid, while gold contains no sulphur and is insoluble in all simple
acids.
The mineral
is most easily confounded with chakopynte (CuFeS>),

the
in hardness of the two easily serves to distinguish
difference
though
them Chalcopynte may be readily scratched with a knife blade or a
file,
The
while pyrite resists both
latter mineral, moreover, contains
no copper
Syntheses
Small crystals of pyrite are produced by the action

of iron enclosed in a sealed tube
HaS on the oxides or the carbonate

heated to 8o-9o, also by the passage
of
of
EbS and FeCla vapors through
a red-hot porcelain tube.

Pynte occurs in veins and as grains or
In rocks it usually appears as
of rocks.
in
all
kinds
embedded
crystals
but in vein-masses
appear either as crystals, with other

minerals, or as radiating or structureless masses occupying entirely the
vein fissures
In slates it often occurs in spheroidal nodules and
crystals,
it
may
concretions of various forms, and also as
embedded
crystals.
The
the product of igneous, metamorphic and aqueous agencies

Pyrite weathers readily to hmonite. In ore bodies near the
surface it is oxidized. A portion of the mineral changes to FeSQt
mineral
is
which percolates downward and aids in the concentration of any

may be present m small quantity in the ore.
Another portion of the iron remains near the surface in the form of
valuable metals that
This covering of oxidized material
lunonite
and
it is
characteristic of
Localities
few of
its
mines of
all
known
as the
"
"
gossan
pyrite deposits
crystals are so widely distributed that
but very
most important occurrences may be mentioned here In the

Cornwall, Eng and in those on the Island of Elba very large
crystals are
in
Pynte
is
found
Fine crystals also come from
many
different places
Bohemia, Hungary, Saxony, Peru, Norway, and Sweden

In the United States the finest crystals are at Schoharie and Rossie,
Y ; at the French Creek mines in Chester Co and at Cornwall,
,
105
Lebanon Co Penn and near Greensboro and Guilford Co

,
Massive pyrite occurs

Spain, at
Rowe, Mass
in Louise
Co Va
,
in great deposits at
in St
and
in
the Rio
Carolina
Tmto mines
Lawrence and Ulster counties,
Pauldmg Co
Much
Ga
in
X Y
of the massive
pynte in the veins of Colorado, California and of the southern states,

from Virginia to Alabama, is auriferous and much of it is mined for the
gold
it
contains
Uses
Pynte is used principally in the manufacture of sulphuric

The mineral is burned in furnaces and the 862 gases thus result-
acid
ing are carried to condensers \\here they are oxidized by fineh divided
The residue, which consists
platinum or by the oxides of nitrogen
largely of Fe20s, is sometimes smelted for iron or made into paint
This residue also contains the gold and other \aluable metals that may
have been
The
in the original pyrite.
sulphuric acid obtained from pyrite enters into
facturing processes
artificial fertilizer
The
greater portion of
it
is
many manu-
consumed in the
industry
Pyrite is mined in the United States in Franklin Co

Alameda and Shasta Counties, California, in Louisa, Pulaski
and Prince William Counties, Va in Carroll Co Ga in St Lawrence
Co N Y m Clay Co Alabama, and at the coal mines in Ohio.
The total production
Illinois and Indiana where it is a by-product
of the United States in 1912, amounting to 330,928 long tons, was
Production
Mass
in
\alued at $1,334,259
Virginia
is
by
far the largest
producer
In
addition to this quantity the trade consumed 970,785 tons of imported

ore, most of which came from Spain, and utilized the equivalent of
260,000 tons of pynte m the shape of low grade sulphide copper ores
from Ducktown, Tenn and zinc sulphide concentrates from the Mississippi Valley and elsewhere for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
,
amount of sulphuric acid manufactured in the United States

The total
during 1912 was 2,340,000 short tons, valued at $18,338,019
The
total
world production of pyrite is about 2,000,000 tons annually

Small quantities of the mineral are also mined for local consumption
Much
in Lumpkin Co
Georgia, and near Hot Springs, Arkansas
,
aunferous pynte has also been mined in the southern states and the
Rocky Mountain region for the gold it contains This metal is separated from the pyrite partly by crushing and amalgamation and partly
by smelting or by leaching processes. In the former case the gold
occurs as inclusions of the metal in the pynte.
106
Cobaltite (CoAsS)
Cobaltite
is
a alver-nvhite or steel-gray mineral occurring in massive
forms or in distinct crystals exhibiting beautifully their hemihedral

It is completely isomorphous with the corresponding nickel
character
compound, gersdorffite (NiAsS), and consequently mixtures of the
two are common

Cobaltite usually contains some iron and often a little nickel
As and 35 5
Theoretically, it consists of 19 3 per cent S, 45 2 per cent
The compositions
Co
and that
of crystals
of a massive variety
As
Co
Siegen
45 31
Nordmark
44 77
The
19 35
20 23
crystallization of cobaltite
of pyrite, though the
number
The
33 71
29 17
4 72
is
Ni
Fe
i
Total
100 oo
63
i
68
100 57
perfectly isomorphous with that

is far smaller
The
of its forms observed
most common planes are those of
fracture
from Siegcn, Westphalia,
from Nordmark, Norway, are as follows
oo
oo (100) ,
0(i 1 1 ) and
(210)
oo (100)
Its
cleavage of cobalt is fairly good parallel to oo
The color
is uneven, its hardness is 5 5 and its density about 6 2
of the mineral, as stated above, varies between silver-white
and
steel-
a good conductor of electricity

gray
In the open tube cobaltite reacts for S and As
On charcoal it
yields a magnetic globule which when fused with borax on platinum
Its streak is grayish black
It
is
It weathers fairly readily to the rosewire yields a deep blue bead

colored cobalt arsenate known as erythnte (Coa(As04)2 SEfeO)
By its crystallization and color cobaltite is distinguished from

From most of
nearly all other minerals but those of the same group
these it is easily distinguished by its blowpipe reactions foi sulphur,
arsenic and cobalt

Cobaltite occurs mainly
veins that are
believed to have been filled by upward moving solutions emanating
from igneous rocks

cobalt
Localities
some
It is associated with
compounds and with

Cobaltite
crystals occur at
is
silver
compounds
and copper ores
of nickel
not very widely distributed
and other
Large, hand-
Tunaberg in Sweden, at Nordmark, Norway,

at Siegen, Westphalia, and near St Just in Cornwall, England
It is
found also in large quantity at Cobalt, Ontario, associated with silver
ores and nickel compounds
107
Uses
Cobaltite is said to be used b\ jewelers in India in the production of a blue enamel on gold ornaments
It is employed also in the
manufacture of blue and green pigments and in the manufacture of com-
pounds used
in small quantity in the various arts

Smalt is the most
valuable of the cobalt pigments and is at present the chief commercial
compound of this metal It is a deep blue glass that cheers from
ordinary glass in containing cobalt in place of calcium
from cobaltite and from other cobalt ores b\ fusion
Smalt
\\ith a
is
made
mixture of
quartz and potassium carbonate
Certain cobalt compounds are sugand varnishes The mineral is also

utilized as an ore of cobalt, \\hich in the form of stelhte, an alloy composed of 70 per cent cobalt, 15 per cent chromium and 15 per cent
gested as excellent driers for oils
or tungsten, bids fair to acquire a large use as a material

of table cutlery and edged tools
The use of the
molybdenum
for the
manufacture
metal has also been suggested as a material for coinage in place of

nickel.
Most
Production
of the cobalt of
trade in the form of the oxide
It
is
commerce
is
handled by the
\ anous cobalt
produced from the
minerals, mainly as a by-product in the extraction of nickel,
ver>
obtained from ccbaltite
little is
have furnished a large quantity
The mines
of cobaltite
and hence
at Cobalt, however,
and smaltite \uthin the past
few years and these have gone into the manufacture of the oxide, of
uhich about 515 tons -\\ere produced in 1912, ha\mg a \alue of
$317,165
Smaltite (CoAs>)
Smaltite
is
another important ore of cobalt
It is
found in crystals
and masses
is 71 88 per cent As and 28 12 per cent
usually contains also S, Ni, Fe and frequently traces of
Pb Since it is isomorphous \uth the arsenide of nickel
Its theoretical composition
Co, though
Bi,
it
Cu and
Moreover,
chloanthite (NiAs2), mixed crystals of the t\\o are common
mixsharply defined crystals have been found to consist of mechanical
tures of several
compounds
Smaltite occurs in small crystals of cubical habit with ooOoo (100),

0(in) and various pyritoids predominating
The mineral is tin-white to steel-gray, and opaque, and has a grayish
black streak
Its cleavage
It
is
is
often covered îth an iridescent or a gray tarnish.
indistinct, its fracture uneven, its hardness
5-6 and
It is a good electrical conductor

density 6 3-7
Before tie blowpipe on charcoal smaltite yields arsenic fumes
and a
108
magnetic globule of metallic cobalt

rose-colored solution
The mineral
by its
color
the lack of
it
and a
is fairly
It
is
soluble in
HNOs,
yielding
As2Os
distinguished from most other minerals
precipitate of
easily
From cobaltite it is distinguished by

and blowpipe reactions
From a few others that are not described in this volume
S
can be distinguished by its crystallization or by quantitatn e analysis

Smaltite crystals are produced when hydrogen acts at a
Synthesis
of cobalt and arsenic

high temperature upon a mature of the chlorides
with cobaltite
associated
found
is
Smaltite
Occurrence and Ongm
in nearly all of its occurrences
It is especially
abundant at Cobalt, Out
most other cobalt minerals,

presence is indicated by
which coat its surfaces wherever these
Its methods of occurrence, origin and uses
are exposed to moist air
are the same as for cobaltite (p 107).
As
in the case of
its
deposits of rose-colored erythnte
tics
Chloantfaite (NiAso) resembles smaltite in most of its characterisThe two minerals grade into each other through isomorphous
mixtures
known
are
Those mixtures
which the cobalt arsenide
in
as smaltite, while those in which
called chloanthite
The pure
in
is
excess
NiAs predominates
chloanthite molecule
is
Ni= 28
arc
per cent,
As =7 1 9 per cent
The two minerals can be distinguished when unmixed with one
another by the blowpipe reactions for Co and Ni
In mixed ciysUis
the predominance of one or the other arsenides can be determined only
by quantitative
analysis
Chloanthite containing
from Chatham, Conn
much
where
it
iron is distinguished as thathamite,

occurs with arsenopynte and niccohte in
a mica-slate
The mode
it is
of occurrence of chloanthite
found are the same as
and the
localities at
which
in the case of smaltite.
Spenyhte (PtAs2 )
It is referred to here because it is the
Sperryhte is extremely rare
only platinum compound occurring as a mineral
Chemically, it is
43 S3 P er cent As and 56 47 per cent Pt, but it contains also small
quan-
tities of
Sb,
Pd and Fe
Its crystals are simple

oo
0(no) and
contain only 0(iu), ooOoo(ioo),

Their habit is usually octahedral or
They
several pyntoids
cubical
The mineral
ness
is
is opaque and
and
6-7
density 10 6
tin-white,
and
its
streak black
Its hard-

In the closed
glass tube
it
109
remains unchanged, but in the open tube
When dropped upon red-hot platinum

immediately melts, giving rise to fumes of As20s, and forming
blisters on the foil that are not
distinguishable from the original platinum
it
gives a sublimate of AsÔs
foil it
in color or general character
and aqua
It is
shnvh soluble
in
HC1
concentrated
regia
The mineral has been produced by leading arsenic fumes

Synthesis
over red-hot platinum in an atmosphere of h\drogen
Sperrylite occurs as little crystals comembedded in the chalcopynte (CuFeSo) and the gossan of a
and in the chalcop\nte of a gold-quartz vein near Sudbury,
in
covelhte at the Rambler Mine, Encampment, \V\ormng,
Ontario,
pletely
nickel mine,
and as
The
flakes in the sands of streams in the Co\\ee Valle\
Macon Co Ga
,
native platinum, from which they are

of course, easily distinguished by the test for arsenic
Uses
The sperryhte from Sudbury and \V} ommg furnish much of
flakes resemble very close,!}
the platinum produced in the United States (see p 64)
MARCASITE
Dl\ ISIOX
Three members of the marcasite group are important, all are interesting from the fact that they are so alike in their cr\stalhzation that a
description of the forms belonging to any one of them might serve as a
The
description of those belonging to all others
group
is
orthorhombic (rhombic bipyramidal
approximately a
'
c=
crystallization of the
class),
with an axial ratio
1:12
Marcasite (FeS 2 )
Marcasite, the dimorph of pynte, resembles this mineral so closely
that in massive specimens it is difficult to distinguish between the two
are nearly alike in hardness, in color and in chemical properties
Its density is less
color than pynte
is a little lighter
(about 4 9), and it possesses a greater tendency to tarnish on exposed
They
Marcasite
surfaces
This tarnish indicates that the mineral
is
more
susceptible to altera-
One of the products of this alteration is ferrous sulpynte

its taste upon touching the tongue
phate, which may often be detected by
tion than
is
to specimens of the mineral
In crystallized specimens there
least difficulty in distinguishing

is
between them, suice
is
not the
their crystallization
very different
Marcasite is orthorhombic (rhombic bipyramidal
class),
with the
110
simple crystals often possess a tabular

In the former case oP(ooi) is
or a pyramidal habit (Figs 44 and 45)
the latter case the two domes P 60 (101)
the predominant face, and
axial ratio 7662
Its
2342
FIG 45
FIG 44
Marcasite Crystal with
FIG 44
oP,no(w), oP,ooi(c), Pô on
(/)
013
PM
Marcasite Crystal with Forms as Indicated in Fig 44, and
FIG 45
and P,
and JPS5
(T)
in
101
(e)
(s)
(on) The other forms observed on most crystals are oo P(iio),

often |P oo (013)
and
P(III),
Twins are very common, with oo P(no) the twinning plane (Fig 46)
Sometimes these are aggregated by repeated twinning into serrated
groups known as cockscomb twins or spearhead twins (Fig 47), because
andP
<56
FIG 47
FIG 46
FIG 46
FIG 47
Twin
of Marcasite
Spearhead Group of Marcasite

about
of the outlines of their edges.
In
about
oo
P(iio)
Fourling Twinned about
no
and then
i To
many
instances the crystals aie acic-
columnar in habit, forming radiating groups with globular, remform and stalactitic shapes
Concretions are also common
The basal
ular or
usually striated parallel to the edge between it and

The fracture
cleavage is distinct parallel to oo P(iio)
plane
The
is
P oo (on)
is
uneven
SULPHIDES, TELLURIDES, ETC.
Ill
When powdered marcasite is treated \\ith cold nitric acid and

allowed to stand, it decomposes \uth the separation of sulphur
Marcasite readih alters to limonite
The fact that pyrite, sphalerand other minerals form pseudomorphs
chalcopyrite,
ite,
after
it
indicates that, under suitable conditions, it alters also to these comThe mineral is in most cases a direct result of precipitation
pounds
from hot solutions

Marcasite crystals ha\e been prepared by the reduction
in an atmosphere of EfeS
charcoal
FeSQi by
Occurrence ani Uses
The mineral, like pyrite, is found embedded
Synthesis
of
the form of crystals and concretions, and also as the
in rocks in
It constitutes nearly the entire filling of some

gangue masses of veins
on
druses
the walls of cavities in both rocks and minerand
forms
veins,
It also replaces the organic matter of fossils preserving their shapes
thus producing true pseudomorphs
When associated \\ith pyrite it is mined together \\ith this mineral
als
as a source of sulphur
Localities
Crystalline
near Carlsbad
Bohemia
marcasite occurs
that
it is
mined
found in Derbyshire, England, and crystals
such great quantity
The cockscomb variety is

at Schemmtz in Hungary

at Andreasberg and other places in the Harz
the mineral occurs as crystals at a great number of places, being parthe lead and zinc localities of the Mississippi
ticularly abundant
and
Valley, where
Galena,
111
it
sometimes forms
stalactites
The
stalactites
from
often consist of concentric layers of sphalerite, galena
and
crystallized marcasite
Arsenopyrite (FeAsS)
Arsenopyrite, or mispickel,
the most important ore of arsenic

compact and granular masses. It is a
is
found in crystals and

silver-white metallic mineral resembling very closely cobaltite in its
in
It is
general appearance
The formula FeAsS
for arsenopynte
is
based on analyses like the
following.
As
45 62
Specimen from Hohenstein, Saxony
France
Mte
from
45 78
Chalanches,
Specimen
S
19 76
ig 56
Theoretically, the mineral consists of its components
proportions,
As 46 per
specimens the iron
is
cent,
S 19
per cent,
replaced in part
by
Fe
Total
34 64
34 64
100 02
99 98
m the following
Fe 34 3 per cent
cobalt, nickel or
In
many
manganese.
112
Sometimes the cobalt is present in such

is smelted as an ore of this metal
The
large quantity that the mineral
Its crystals are

i 1882
6773 i
usually simpler than those of marcasite (Fig 48), though the number of
planes observed in the species is larger. Most of the untwmned crystals
axial ratio of arsenopynte
is
are a combination of oo
with JP66 (014), or

or POO(IOI),
matic habit.
the
same
and
repetition
The
with
as
in
angle
no/\i"io=
13'
horizontally,
the planes
ated parallel to the edge
oo
are
and
ooP(no)
stri-
often
are
stri-
P(no) A? *> (101)
The cleavage of arsenopynte is quite perfect

The mineral is brittle and its fracture uneven
and density about 6
is
marcasite,
often met
is
The brachydomes
48-Arsenopynte Crystals with cop,

ated
no (m) iP oo 014 (M), and P 5 on (j)
FIG
(on),
and have a prisTwins are not
The twinning plane
rare
68
P(no)
P 06
parallel to
Its
ooP(no)
hardness
is
5-6
Its color is silver-white to steel-gray, its streak
It is a good conductor of electricity

grayish black
In the closed tube arsenopynte at first gives a red sublimate of
AsS
and then a black mirror of arsenic On charcoal it gives the usual
Cobaltiferous varieties react for
reactions for sulphur and arsenic
cobalt with borax. The mineral yields sparks when struck wilh. steel
and emits an arsenic smell It dissolves m nitric acid with the separation of sulphur
Arsenopynte
by
is
the absence of
distinguished from the cobalt sulphides
and arsenides
Co
Synthesis
Crystals of the mineral are produced by heating in a
closed tube at 300 precipitated FeAsS in a solution of NaHCO*
Occurrence
Arsenopynte crystals are often found disseminated
the gangue minerals of

through crystalline rocks, and often embedded
Like pyrite and marcasite they frequently fill vein fissures. Its
veins
and lead ores, chalcopyrite, pynte and sphalerite

is abundant at Freiberg, m Saxony, at
Tunaberg, in Sweden, and at Inquisivi Mt Sorato, m Bolivia
It also occurs in fine crystals at Francoma in New
Hampshire, at
associates are silver, tin
Localities
The
mineral
Blue Hill
Maine, at Chatham in Connecticut, and at St. Francois,
Beauce Co, Quebec
Massive arsenopynte is found near Kecscville

Co
Essex
N Y
near Edenville, Orange
and
at Re\\ald,
Flo\d Co
113
Co and near Carmel, Putnam Co

Va In most cases it is appaiently
,
a result of pneumatoh sis

Uses
Arsenopynte was formerly the source of nearly all the arsenic
of commerce
The mineral is concentrated b\ mechanical methods, and
the concentrates are heated in retorts,
FeAsS = FeS+As
place
when the following reaction takes

arsenic being volatile is conducted
The
into condensing chambers where it is collected

When the mineral contains a reasonable amount of cobalt or of gold these metals are extracted
Uses of Arsenic
though
its
The metal
compounds
find
pigments, in tanning, etc
arsenic has \ery
little
use in the arts,
applications as insecticides, medicines,

basis of most of these is AsoOs, and
many
The
produced directly from the fumes of smelters working on arsenical

silver and copper ores
Only a portion of such fumes are saved,
this is
gold,
however, as even half of those produced at a single smelter center

(Butte, Montana), would more than supply the entire demand of the
United States for arsenic and
its
Under these conditions
compounds
the mining of arsenical pynte as a source of arsenic has ceased so far

as the United States is concerned
Lollingite (FeAso)
isomorphous
is not
is
usually massive, though
its
rare crystals are
in e\ery respect with those of arsenopynte
mineral
common
Most specimens
The pure
are mixtures of lollmgite with
arsenopynte or other sulphides or arsenides.

The mineral is silver-white or steel-gray Its streak
is grayish black
It readily fuses to a mag5-5 5 and density about 72
It is soluble in
netic globule, at the same time evolving arsenic fumes
Its
hardness
is
HN03
It usually occurs in veins associated with other sulphides
and
arsen-
found at Pans, Maine; at Edenville and Monroe, N. Y.;

at vanous mines in North Carolina, and on Brush Creek, Gunnison
ides
It is
Co., Colo
At the last-named
crystalline aggregates, in twins
and
locality the mineral is in star-shaped
and
trillings,
associated with siderite
barite.
SYLVANITE GROUP
all of
sylvanite group includes at least three distinct minerals,
is
The
which are ditellurides of gold or silver.
isodunorphous.
group
The pure gold tellunde is known only in monochmc crystals, but the
The
isomorphous mixtures of the gold and

monochmc and orthorhombic crystals
silver
compounds occur both in
114
Monoclmic prismatic
Orthorhombic bipyramidal
Calavente
AuTeo
(Ag Au)Te2
Krennente
Syhamte
While occurring only

All three minerals are utilized as ores of gold
a few places, they are sufficiently abundant at some to be mined
in
Calaverite
(AuTe2 )
Calavente is a nearly pure gold chloride

However, it is usually
An analysis of a
intermixed with small quantities of the silver tellunde
Te=5727, Au=4i
specimen from Kalgoorhe, Australia, gave

Ag= 5 8
Calaverite crystallizes
37,
the monoclmic system (prismatic class) in
and deeply striated

1449 with =90 13'
crystals that are elongated parallel to the orthoaxis

in this direction.
Their axial ratio
'
is i
6313
The prominent forms are ooP 66(100), ooPD(oio), oP(ooi),

-Poc(ioi), +P6o(ioT), -2Poo(20i), +2P66(2oT), and P(in)
Twinnmg is common and the resulting tuiins are very complicated
Usually, however, the mineral occurs massive and granular
Calavente is opaque, silver-white or bronzy yellow in color and has a
yellow-gray or greenish gray streak. Its surface is frequently covered
with a yellow tarnish. The mineral is brittle and without distinct cleav-
and density 9 04
charcoal before the blowpipe the mineral fuses easily to a yellow
globule of gold, yielding at the same tune the fumes of tellurium oxide.
age
Its hardness is 2-3
On
a deep red solution. When

a rusty mass of spongy gold
usually yields a slight precipitate of silver
It dissolves in concentrated EfeSO.*, producing
treated with
HNOs it decomposes, leaving
The solution
treated with
HC1
chloride
Calaverite
tellurium
is
It is distinguished
from
fetzite (p
80),
by
by the
test for
its crystallization
and the fact that it gives a yellow globule when roasted on charcoal,
and from sylvamte by the small amount of silver it contains, its higher
It is distinguished
specific gravity, its color and its lack of cleavage
from krennente by its crystallization
Occurrence
The
mineral occurs in veins with the other tellurides
associated with gold ores in Calaveras
mentioned
for petzite (see
81)
Co
Cal
It is believed to
and at the localities

have been deposited
by pneumatolytic processes or by ascending magmatic water at comparatively low temperatures.

Uses.
The mineral is mined with other tellundes
and at Cripple Creek, Colorado, as an ore of gold
115
in Boulder
Co
Sylvamte (Ag Au)Te2

Sylvamte
more common than calavente
is
mixture of gold and
an isomorphous
It is
silver tellundes in the ratio of
about
Analyses
follow
Te=62
Te=59
Te=58
Au=24 45
Au=26 36
Au=29 35
91
Theoretical for AgTe + \uTe
I
II
III
I
16
78
39
86
Ag=n
74
Total=ioo oo
"
ico oo
k *
100 oo
and III Specimens trom Boulder Co
II
Ag=i3
Ag = i3
Colo
In crystallization the mineral is isomorphous with calavente, with

a b . c= i 6339 i : i 1265 and $=90 25'
Its crystals
are usually rich in planes, about 75 ha\mg been identified
Their habit
an
axial ratio
is usually tabular parallel to ooP ob (GIO), with this plane,

P 5c (101),
The mineral also
oP(ooi), oo P 5b (100) and 2P2(T2i) predominating
occurs in skeleton crystals and in aggregates that are platy or granular
P<X(IOI) the twinning plane
Twinning is common, \\ith
Many
twinned aggregates form networks suggesting writing, hence the name

"
''
often applied to the mineral by the Germans
Schnfterz
Sylvamte is silver-white or steel-gray and has a

and a silver-white or yellowish gray streak
brilliant metallic
Its hardness is
luster
between
and
and
its
densiU
fect cleavage parallel to oo
Its
P ob
9-8 3
Moreover,
it
possesses a per-
(oio)
chemical properties are the same as those of calavente, but the
silver precipitate
produced by adding
HC1
to its solution
m HNOs
from the gold tellunde by

((AgAu^Te) and lessite (AgsTe) by
It is best distinguished
always large
cleavage and
is
its
from fetzite
its
and by the yellow metallic globule produced when the
It is distinguishable from krennente by
roasted on charcoal
crystallization,
mineral
its
is
crystallization
Localities and Origin

veins at Offenbanya and
Boulder
tities
Co
Colo
Sylvanite occurs with the other tellundes in

in Transylvania, at Cripple Creek and
near Kalgoorhe,
Australia, in small quan-
Nagyag
near Balmoral in the Black
Bay, Ontano
by hot vapors
Uses
Creek and
It is
in
Like calavente
mined with
it TV as
and at Moss, near Thunder
deposited
calaverite as a gold
Boulder Co Colo.
,
Hills,
by magmatic
and
water, or
silver ore at Cripple
CHAPTER V
THE SULPHO-SALTS AND SULPHO-FERRITES
THE
arsenic acid,
sulpho-salts are salts of acids analogous to
and arsenious acid, HsAsOs, and the corresponding antimony acids

HsSb04 and EfeSbOs The sulpho-acids differ from the arsenic and the
antimony acids in containing sulphur in place of oxygen, thus HsAsS-i,
The mineral enargite may be regarded as
HsAsSa, 3 SbS4 and H3 SbS 3
a salt of sulpharsenic acid, thus CusAsS-i, copper having replaced the
Proustite, on the other hand, is AgsAsSs, or a
hydrogen of the acid
The salts of sulpharsenic acid are called

salt of sulpharsemous acid.
sulpharsenates, while those derived from sulpharsemous acid are known
The sulpharsenates are not represented among the
as sulpharsemtes
commoner minerals, although the copper salt enargite is abundant at a
few places
A number of salts of other sulphur-arsenic acids are known
but they are comparatively rare

There is another class of compounds with compositions analogous
to those of the sulpho-salts, though their chemical nature is not well
understood
This
is
the group of the sulpho-ferntes

We know that
may act as acids under certain conditions
certain hydro-sides of iron
The sulpho-ferrites may be looked upon as salts of these acids in which,

however, the oxygen has been replaced by sulphur, as in the case of the
Thus by replacement of
sulpho-acids referred to above
by S,
feme hydroxide Fe(OH)s the compound Fe(SH)s or HsFeSs results

The salts of this acid are sulpho-ferrites This acid, by loss of HaS,
may give rise to other acids in the same way that sulphuric acid (EfeSO/O,
by
loss of
HaO,
gives nse to pyrosulphuric acid
In the case of the
The copper salt of

sulpho-acid we may have HsFeSs H2S=HFeS2
this acid is the common mineral chalcopyrite, CuFeS2
The
sulpho-salts are very numerous, but only a few of

importance to warrant a description in this book
sufficient
116
them are
of
SULPHO-SALTB
AND SULPHO-FERRITES
117
THE SULPHARSENITES AND SULPHANTIMONITES

The sulpharsemtes and sulphantimomtes are denvatives of the
ortho acids HsAsSs and
ORTHO SULPHO-SALTS
The ortho
salts are
compounds in \\hich the hydrogen of the ortho

metals
replaced by
They include a large number of minerals,
of which the following are the most important.
acids
is
Boitrnomte
Orthorhombic
(Cus Pb)s (SbSs)2
Pyrargynte AgsSbSa
Hexagonal
Proustite
Hexagonal
AgsAsSs
PYRARGYRITE GROUP
Pyrargynte (AgsSbSs)
Pyrargyrite, or dark ruby silver, is an important silver ore, especially
and the \\estern United States. The name ruby silver
in Mexico, Chile
is
given to
it
because thin splinters transmit deep red light

ores in compact masses, but
usually mixed with other

handsome crystals
is
The mineral
it
also forms
The composition of pyrargyrite is represented by the formula AggSbSs

which demands 17 82 per cent S 22 21 per cent Sb 59 97 per cent Ag
Many specimens contain also a small quantity of arsenic, through the
The analyses given
admixture of the isomorphous compound proustite
below show the effect of the intermixture of the two molecules
,
Sb
Andreasberg, Harz
17 65
Mexico
17 74
22 36
22 39
17 95
18 58
Zacatecas,
Freiberg,
The
Saxony
As
Total
99 77
100 44
60 04
60 63
27
2 62
crystals of pyrargyrite are rhombohedral

class), with an axial ratio i
Ag
59 73
99 78
and hemunorphic
8038
They are
The species is very rich
The most prominent
than 150 having been reported
(ditngonal pyramidal
usually quite complex and are often twinned.

in forms, not less
of these are
ooP2(ii2o),
scalenohedrons
R3 (2i3i)
ooP(ioTo), R(ioli), -iR(oil2) and the

In the commonest
and iR3 (2i34) (Fig

^49)
twinning law the twinning plane
is
ooP2(ii2o) and the composition
118
axes in the twinned portions are parallel and the

o=P2(ii2~o) planes coincident, so that the t\\m at a hasty glance looks
like a simple crystal
The angle roll /\lioi = 71 22'
The
face oPfooi)
The
ture
is
Its frac-
to
R(ioTi)
cleavage of pyrargynte is distinct parallel
The mineral is apparently opaque and
conchoidal or une\ en
color
is
grayish black in reflected light,
but
is
its
trans-
parent or translucent and deep red
in transmitted
purplish red
For lithium
streak
Its
light
03=3084,
conductor
light
is
=2881
It is
not an
In the closed tube the mineral fuses
electrical
easily
and
When heated
ghes a reddish sublimate
sodium carbonate on charcoal it is reduced to a
/
^
P\ra^g\nte with
1 1 20
(a)
I
g^bule
acid,
of
silver, \vhich,
yields
silver
when
chloride
dissolved in nitric
when
The mineral dis-
precipitate
treated \\ith a soluble chloride
solves in nitric acid with the separation of sulphur

It is also soluble in a
precipitate of antimony oxide
and a white
strong solution of
KOH
From
this solution
HC1
precipitates orange
Sb2Ss (compare proustite)
The
and streak
color
of p>rargynte, together with its translucency,
Its reaction for silver

from nearly all other minerals
distinguish
serves to distinguish it from cuprite, dnnalar and realgar, which it sometimes resembles
The distinction between this mineral and its isomorph, proustite, is based on the streak and the reaction for antiit
mony.
Pyrargynte occurs as a pseudomorph after native
other
hand
it is
silver.
On
the
occasionally altered to pynte or argentite, and some-
times to silver
Syntheses
Microscopic crystals ha\e been made by heating in a
porcelain tube, metallic silver and antimony chlorides in a current of
IfeS, and by the action of the same gas at a red heat on a mixture of
and melted antimony* o\ide
metallic silver

Pyrargynte occurs in veins associated with other compounds of silver and scmetimes with galena and
arsenic
It is
most common
in the zone of secondary enrichment of
The
crystallized variety is found at Andreasberg in the

Harz, at Freiberg, in Saxony, at Pnbram, in Bohemia, at many places
in Hungary, and at Chanarcillo, in Chile
The massive variety is worked
silver veins.
as an ore of silver at Guanajuato in Mexico and in several of the western

states, as, for instance in the Ruby district, Gunmson Co and in other
,
AND SULPHO-FERRITES
SULPHO-SALTS
mining
districts
m Colorado,
119
near Washoe and Austin, Nevada, and at

Utah and Arizona
several points in Idaho, Ne\v Mexico,
The mineral
Uses
an important ore of
is
the western United States
Mexico and
silver in
in
with other sulphurbearing ores of sil\er, the metal being extracted from the mixture by
the processes referred to under argentite,
It is usually associated
Proustite (AgsAsSs)
Proustite, or light ruby siher,
differs
It
from the latter mineral
is
isomorphous with p\rargynte
It
m place of antimony
in containing arsenic
occurs both massive and in crystals, and like pyrargynte
is
an ore
of
silver
The formula abo\e given demands 19 43 per cent S, 15 17 per cent

The analysis of a specimen from Mexico
As, and 65 40 per cent sih er
that
correspond \ery nearly to these
yields figures
Cr}stals from
Chanarcillo contain a slight admixture of the antimony
As
Mexico
19 52
14 98
Chanarcillo, Chile
19 64
13 85
Like pyrargynte, proustite

matic or acute rhombohedral
is
Sb
i
Total
Ag
65 39
65 06
41
rhombohedral
The forms
compound
99 89
99 96
Its crystals are pris-
present on
them are much
numerous than those on the corresponding

antimony compound, the predominant ones being
ocp 2 (ii2o), iR(ioT4 ), -iR(oil2), Rd (2i3i),
~|R4 (3557J and other scalenohedrons (see Fig
Twins are common, the t winning planes
50)
being (i), parallel to JR(iol4) and (2) parallel to
less
R(ioTi)
The
tite
= 7i 12'.
angle io7i Alici
cleavage, fracture and haidness of prousThe
are the
same as
pyrargynte Its hardabout 5.6 The mineral
is 2 and its density is

transparent or translucent
ness
is
for
light
and
scarlet
FlG
So-Crystal of
JJJHJ
(j/)
Jj
and -|R, 0112 ().
Its color is grayish black
m transparent pieces by transmitted light.
by reflected
Under the
long-continued influence of daylight the color deepens until it becomes

Its streak is cirnabar-red to brownish
darker than that of pyrargynte
black
Its luster is
adamantine.
It is
a nonconductor of electncity
=2
For sodium light 03=3 0877,

7924
In the closed tube proustite fuses easily and gives a
slight
sublimate
120
of \\hite arsenic oxide
In
its
other chemical properties
it
resembles
pyrargyrite except that it gi\es reactions for arsenic \\here this mineral
reacts for antimony, and yields onh sulphur \\hen dissohed in
HNOa
From
solution in
its
KOH a yellow
precipitate of As^Ss
is
thrown do\\n
of HC1 (compare pyrargyrite)

Proustite differs from pyra g \nte in Us color, transparency and
It is distinguished from
streak, as \vell as in its arsenic reactions
upon the addition
cinnabar and cuprite (CuO) b> the arsenic test

Syntheses
Crystals of proustite ha\e been produced by reactions
analogous to those that yield p\rargynte, when arsenic compounds are
in place of antimon\ compounds
The mineral occurs under the same conditions and with
Occurrence
employed
the same associates as pyrargyrite and

products as pyrargynte
Localities
Freiberg and
Handsome
crystals
Wolfach
Uses
and at Chanarcillo
and with other ores of silver
in Chile
In the western United States
Ruby
localities
district, Colorado, at
it is
alteration
of
in
proustite
occur at
Baden, at Markirchen
It is associated with pyrargyrite
more particular!}
and in all other
mined as an ore of
quite abundant,
Poorman
where pyrargynte occurs
same
yields the
other places in Saxony, at
and
in Alsace
in the
it
In
lode in Idaho,
many
it is
silver
Bournonite ((Pb
Cu2 )3(SbS3 ) 2 )
Bournomte is a comparatively rare mineral It occurs either in

compact or granular masses or in well developed crystals of a steel
It is not of any economic importance except as it
gray color
mixed with other copper compounds exploited for copper
Analyses of bournomte from two localities are given below
S
I-
19 3 6
n. 19 78
may
be
Sb
23
57
23 80
I Liskeard, Cornwall, England

II
Felsobinya, Hungary
These analyses are by no means accurate, but they show the

compomineral to be approximately Pb, Cu, Sb and S, in which the
sition of the
elements are combined in the following proportions 8=19 8

per cent,
7 per cent, Pb 42 5 per cent, Cu 13 per cent
Bournonite crystals are orthorhombic (rhombic bipyramidal
class),
Sb=24
AXD 3ULPHOFERRITES
SULPHO-SALTS
with a
c= 9380
They
8969
121
are usually tabular 'Fig 51;, or
and are often in repeated twins fFig 52*, with

The principal planes observed on
wheel-shaped or cross-like forms
them are oP(ooi),P<^(ioij, POD (011 ),iP(ii2), wP(noi, xPxiioo,
and oo P oc (oio), though 90 or more planes are kno\\ n The most comshort, prismatic in habit,
mon
Angle IIOAIIO 86 20'

twinning plane is oo P(no)
The luster of the mineral is brilliant metallic Its cclcr and streak
oio ; and its

Its cleavage is imperfect, parallel to QC P
are steel-gray
Its hardness is 2 5-3 and density 5 8
fracture conchoidal or uneven
Like most other metallic minerals it is opaque
It is a \ ery poor conc
ductor of electricity
In the closed tube bournomte decrepitates and yields a dark red subIn the open tube, and on charcoal, it gives reactions for Sb, S,
limate
Pb and Cu
When
treated with nitric acid
it
decomposes, producing a
FIG 51
FIG 51
FIG s-
Bournomte Crystal \uth oP ooi
on
FIG 52
(c],
b=
=c
P oo
55
P,
101
(0),
\P 112
no
(m)
Form
u)
and P
x,
in)
Bournonite Fourlmg Tuinned about

Fig 51
(oio;
and a *=
oc
P 55
same as
in
100)
blue solution of copper nitrate that turns to an intense azure blue when
In this solution is a residue of sulphur
an excess of ammonia is added
and a white precipitate that contains lead and antimon\
Bournomte is distinguished from most other minerals by its reactions
From other sulphantunonites it is
for both antimony and sulphur.
its
hardness
and
color,
density.
distinguished by
On long exposure to the atmosphere bournomte alters to the carbonates of lead (cerussitej and copper (malachite and azunte)
Synthesis
Crystals of bournomte have been obtained by the action
.
of gaseous
HkS on the
temperatures
Occurrence
The
chlorides
and oxides of Pb, Cu and Sb, at moderate
mineral occurs principally in veins with galena,

and tetrahednte
sphalerite, stibmte, chalcopynte

Localities.
at
in
Pnbram,
Good
crystals are
Bohemia,
found
in the
Hungary, and at various places
in
mines at Neudorf, Harz;
Kapnik and other places

Chile.
In North America it has
at Felsobanya,
122
been found at the Boggs Mine
Co
Ark
in
Yavapai Co Ariz in Montgomery

and Darling, Lanark Co
,
and at Marmora, Hastings Co
Ontario.
THE SULPHDIARSENITES AND SULPHDIANTIMONITES
number of sulpho-salts are apparent!} salts of acids that

These acids
contain two or more atoms of As or Sb in the molecule
of
abstraction
the
aads
ortho
the
by
may be regarded as derived from
be
of
As
atoms
two
may
HsS, thus The arsemous acid containing
large
Acids with larger proportions

a similar manner from three or
2H3AsS3-H2 S=H4As2 S5
of arsenic may be regarded as derived in
thought of as
more molecules
as minerals.
of the ortho acid
Among
the more
derivatives of sulpharsemous
Only a few of these salts are common

are two that are lead salts of
common
and sulphantimonous
acids,
Jamesomte (PbsSbgSs) and Dufrenoysite (Pb2AsgS5)

salts of the acids H4Sb2Ss and
Both minerals occur in acicular and columnar orthorhombic
Their
crystals and in fibrous and compact masses of lead-gray color
are
brittle
and
have
the
The
minerals
an
is
to
base
parallel
cleavage
Their hardness is 2-3 and density
uneven to conchoidal fracture
The streak of jamesomte is grayish black, and of dufreynosite
5 5-6
Jamesonite and dufrenoysite are lead
H4As2Ss
Both minerals are
reddish brown.
HC1
easily fusible
They
are soluble in
with the evolution of EfeS, giving a solution from which acicular
crystals of
PbCfe separate on cooling
They
are decomposed
by HNOs,
with the separation of a white basic lead salt

They are found in veins
with antimony and sulphide ores abroad and at several points in Nevada
and
in the
antimony mines
in Sevier
Co Arkansas
,
THE SDLPHARSEWATES AND SDLPHANTIMOITATES

The sulpharsenates are salts of sulpharsenic acid, HaAsS^ and the
sulphantimonates, the salts of the corresponding antimony acid, HsSbS^
These compounds are much less numerous among the minerals than the
sulpharsenites
and sulphantimomtes.
former groups
is
Moreover, no member of the

common as several of the members of the latter
The most important member is the mineral enargite (CusAsS^ an orthoas
sulpharsenate, which in a few places
is
wrought as a copper
ore.
SULPHO-SALTS
AND SULPHO-FERRITES
123
Enargite
Enargite, though a rare mineral,
it
is
so
abundant at a few points that
has been mined as an ore of copper

Theoretically, the mineral is 8=326,
As=i9i, 01=483 Most
specimens, however, contain an admixture of the isomorphous antimony compound, jamaiimte^ and consequently sho\v the presence of
A specimen from the
antimony.
As
31 44
17 91
The mineral
class),
oo
with
Fe
Zn
Ins
.33
10
ii
crystallizes in the
usually prismatic,
oo
76
crystals with
and
an
Total
100 32
orthorhombic system (bipyramidal
axial ratio
8694
8308
Their habit
is
they are strongly striated
The
crystals are usually highly modi-
the
following forms predominating
vertically.
fied,
Cu
48 67
Sb
i
Rarus Mine, Butte, Montana, yielded
P 06(100), ooP(no), ooP3(i2o), ooP^fô),

P 06 (oio), and oP(ooi) (Fig 53) Stellar trill-
with ooP2(i2o) the twinning plane, have a

pseudohexagonal habit. The mineral occurs also
ings,
columnar and platy masses

_
FIG ^
Enarglte Crys
Enargite possesses a perfect prismatic cleavage
tal wth M Pj 1IO (m^
It is opaque with a
and an uneven fracture.
OOP 55,100 (a), >pr,
in
grayish black color and streak.
and density 44.
It
is
a poor
Its hardness
is
i2o(A)andoP,oor(c).
electrical conductor.
It is easily fusible before the
blowpipe
When
roasted on charcoal
gives the reactions for S and As, and the roasted residue when
moistened with HC1 imparts to the flame the azure-blue color charit
In the closed tube it decrepitates and gives a

acteristic of copper.
sublimate of S. When heated to fusion it yields a sublimate of arsenic
The mineral is soluble in aqua regia
sulphide
Enargite
is
easily
recognized
by
its crystallization
and blowpipe
reactions
is associated with other copper ores in veins
water
at intermediate depths and in a few replaceby magmatiC
Occuiience.
filled
ment
Enargite
deposits
Although not widely distributed, enargite occurs in large

in
the
copper mines near Morococha, Peru; Copiap6, Chile;
quantities
in the province of La Rioja, Argentine; on Luzon, Philippine Islands,
Localities
124
United States, at Butte, Montana in the San Juan Mountains, Colorado and m the Tmtic District, Utah
At the Butte smelter it
It is smelted as an ore of copper
Uses
and
in the
furnishes the arsenic that is separated from the smelter fumes

upon the market as arsenic oxide (see p 113)
and placed
THE BASIC SULPHO-SALTS

The
basic sulpho-salts are
in
compounds
\\hich there
is
a greater
present than is
Thus, the
necessary to replace all the hydrogen of the ortho acids
The mineral stephcopper orthosulpharsenate, enargite, is CusAsSU
anite is AgsSbS* and the pure silver polybasite AggSbSe
percentage of
Since three atoms of
atoms
elements
the basic
Ag
etc),
(metals,
are sufficient to replace all the hydrogen
atom of antimony and the

and polybasite are in excess
the normal acid containing one
quantities of silver present in stephamte
The
of this requirement, the two minerals are described as basic
exact relations of the atoms to one another in the molecules are
not known
Although the number of basic sulpho-salts occurring as minerals

common These are:
is
large only four are
Stephamte
Polybasite
Tetrahednte
T&nnantite
Orthorhombic
AgoSbS*
(Ag Cu^SbSc
(R")4Sb2 S7
Monoclimc
(R'ÂsoS?
Isometric
Isometric
Stephanite (Ag5 SbS4)

Stephanite, though a comparatively rare mineral, is an important ore
some camps It occurs massive, in disseminated grains and
of silver in
as aggregates of small crystals
Analyses indicate a composition very
dose to the requirements of the formula AgsSbS4
AsandCu
Sb
Ag
16 28
15 22
Crystals, Chanarollo, Chile 16 02
15 22
68 50
68 65
Theoretical
. .
Total
100 oo
tr
99 89
Stephanite crystallizes in hemimorphic orthorhombic crystals (rhombic pyramidal class), with
an
axial ratio .6291
.6851.
The
crystals
are highly modified, 125 forms having been identified upon them.
have usually the habit of hexagonal prisms, their predominant
They
planes
AND SULPHO-FERRITES
SULPHO-SALTS
ooP(no) and oop
being
06(010), terminated
125
by oP(ooi), P(in) and

Twins are
2Poc (021) at one or the other end of the c aus (Fig 54)
common, with oo P(no) and oP(ooi) the t\\ inning planes
The mineral is black and opaque and its streak

It cleaves
is 2 and density =6 2
63
is
Its hard-
black
ness
parallel to oo
ture,
and
has an uneven frac-
06 (oio)
a poor conductor of electricity

charcoal stephamte fuses \ery easily
On
is
a dark gray globule, at the same time

FIG. 54
Stephanite Crystal
yielding the \vhite fumes of antimony oxide
*th oP, oox (),
and the pungent odor of S02 Under the
oio(ft) ooP, !io
|P,
to
<*?,
reducing
the globule is reduced to

t
m-,
i
T
The mineral dissolves in
flame
,,
metallic
silver.
dilute nitric acid
and
easy fusibility,
"
21
its crystallization,
is
and
its
reactions for Ag,
W-
HC1.
distinguished from other black minerals
The mineral
Localities
(P)>
this solution gives a white precipitate with
is easily
Stephamte
S3 2
W,
by
its
Sb and S
associated Tvith other silver ores in the
zone of secondary enrichment of veins at Freiberg, Saxony, Joachimsthal

and Pribram, Bohemia, the Comstock Lode and other mines in the
Rocky Mountain region and at many points in Mexico and Peru.

It is mined together with other compounds as an ore of silver
Uses
It is particularly abundant in the ores of the Comstock Lode, Nev., and
of the Las Chispas Mine, Sonora, Mex.
Polybasite ((Ag-Cu) 9 SbS 6)
is
Polybasite
name
the
usually applied to the mixture of basic sulph-
ai^fomtes and sulpharsemtes of the general formula R^Sb-AsJSe, in

which R'= Ag and Cu. More properly the name is applied to the antimonite, and the corresponding arsenite is designated as pearceite. Several typical analyses
follow
As
17 46
56
H-
17 7i
39
HI.
15 43
IV.
16 37
3 88
Sb
.
Ag
59 22
10.64
SS-I7
68 39
5 is
6793
Cu
15 65
*S ii
$ 13
607
Pb
Fe
Ins
-
42
05
.76
...
I Pearceite Veta Rica Mine, Sierra Mojada, Mexico

II. Crystals of pearceite,
Drumlummon Mine,
III. Polybasite, Santa Lucia Mine, Guanajuato,
IV. Polybasite, Quespisiza, Clule
Marysville, Montana.
Mexico
Total
99 89
99 85
100 09
100.18
DESCRIPTIVE MIXERALOGY
126
The
phous,
crystallization of the
is
Pearceite,
Their axial ratios are
c= 1.7309
7309
habit.
6199
=9
5796
=90'
prismatic, with a distinct

are oP(ooi), P(ni) and
common, with
is
9'
commonly tabular or
The prominent forms
Contact twinning
55 (20!).
crystals are
hexagonal
2P
=i
Polybasite,
The
two minerals, which are completely isomor-
monoclinic (prismatic class)
and oP(ooT) the composition plane

Both minerals are nearly opaque Except
oo
P(no)
the twinning
plane,
in
very thin splinters
thin plates are trans-
Very
they are steel-gray to iron-black in color
and cherry-red Their streaks are black
lucsnt
perfect parallel to oP(ooi)

and density 6-6 2
and
their
Their cleavage is
Their hardness
fracture uneven
is 2-3,
Both minerals are

for Ag, Sb, As and S
easily fusible
They
are readily distinguished from

sulpho-salts by their blowpipe reactions
They
guished
by
their crystallization
guished from one another

contain
Occurrence
ment
by the
usually exhibit the reactions
all
other minerals but silver
From
these they are distin-
and polybasite are distinquantities of As and Sb they
Pearceite
relative
Both minerals occur
in the zone of secondary enrich-
in veins of silver sulphides.
Localities
Lode, Nevada
Polybasite was an important ore of silver in the Comstock

It is at present mined with other silver ores at Ouray,
Colorado, at Marysville, Montana, at Guanajuato, Mexico, and at

various points in Chile
Good crystals occur at Freiberg, Saxony, at
Joachimsthal, Bohemia, and in the mines in Colorado, Mexico and Chile.
TETRAHEDRITE GROUP
The name tetrahedrite is given to a mixture of basic sulphantimonites and sulpharsenites crystallizing together in isometric forms with
a distinct tetrahedral habit (hextetrahedral dass)
The isomorphism
so complete that all gradations between the various members of the
The arsenic-bearing member of the
group are frequently met with
series is known as tennantite and the corresponding
antimony member as
is
letrakednte
The
The
latter
is
the more
common
following six analyses of tetrahedrite will give
great range in composition observed in the species.
some idea
of the
SULPHO-SALTS
Cu
As
Sb
AND
35 85
27 60 25 87 tr
23 51 17 21 7 67 42 oo
I
II
44 27 60
III. 24
IV
24 89 30 18
21 67 24 72
I
II
tr
Zn
Fe
66 5 15
8 28
49
2
27 41
4 27
32 80
5 85
33 53
56
Pb
Hg
Ag
2
Total
30
99 43
55
31 14 54
127
07
So
99 71
100 57
99 36
5 57
16 23
98 51
Xewbur>port, Mass
Cajabamba, Peru
HI
Star City,
IV
Poracs, Hungary.
Arizona.
St'LPHO-FERRITES
Xev
Upon examination
these are found to correspond approximately to
sometimes Co and Ni
When R
formula (CusSb2S-) demands 23

per cent
R"
is Cu2 , Pb, Fe, Zn, Hg, Ag2 and

replaced entirely by copper, the
per cent S, 24 8 per cent Sb and 52 i
the formula R' ^SbaS:, in which the
is
Cu
Analyses of tennantite yield analogous results that may be represented by the formula CusAs2Sr which demands 26 6 per cent S, 20 76
As and 52 64 per cent Cu

Analyses of even the best crystallized specimens rarely yield As or
Sb alone. Moreover, nearly all show the presence of Zn in notable
per cent
The great variation noted in the composition of different

quantity
specimens which appear to be pure crystals has led to the proposal of
other formulas than those given abo\e some being simpler and others
more complex It is possible that the variation may be explained as
due, in part, to
some kind
of solid solution, rather than as the result
It is more probable, however, that

replacement
due to the intergrowth of notable quantities of various sulphides
solely of isomorph'jus
it is
with the sulpho-salts

There is still considerable confusion in the proper naming of the members of the series, but generally the forms composed predominantly of
Cu, Sb and S with or without Zn are known as tetrahednte and those
containing As
place of Sb as tennantite, although several authors
confine the use of the latter term to arsenical tetrahedrites containing a
notable quantity of iron

Since the members of the tetrahedrite series often contain a large
quantity of metals other than Cu and Zn the group has been so subdivided as to indicate this fact
and plumbiferous
Thus, there are argentiferous, mercurial
varieties of tetrahedrite
Some
of these varieties are
utilized as ores of the metals that replace the copper
and
zinc in the
more
128
common
and the bisshown by the fol-
relations of the ordinary (II)
The
varieties
muthiferous tennantites (III) to tetrahednte
(I)
are
lowing three analyses.

S
I
Sb
tr
28 85
II
19 03
III
29 10
ii
44
Cu
Bi
As
24 48
26 61
19
Fe
i
45 39
51 62
13 07
Ag
Total
IQo 15
99 21
i 95
6 51
37 52
Co
Pb
"
3*
04
20
101 07
Fresney d'Oisans, France.
I
II
Cornwall, England.
Cremenz, Switzerland
Ill
The
both tetrahedrite and tennantite are tetrahedral in
crystals of
habit, the principal forms
on them consisting of the simple tetrahedron
and complex tetrahedrons such as
(211),
(332)
together with
the dodecahedron, ooQ(iio) and the cube, ooOoo(ioo)

(Fig. 55)
Twins are common with 0(in) the twinning
plane. These are sometimes contact twins
and sometimes interpenetration twins.
Some
crystals are very complicated, because of the

presence on them of a great number of forms
The
total
number
FIG 55
tal
(d)
have
is
m
L j
^
Tetrahednte Cryso
"
occurs also
and fO, 332 ().
Their hardness varies between 3 and 4 5 and

their density between 4 4 and 5 i
Their color
with -,
no
of distinct forms that
The mineral
about 90.
in 6
dense
and earthy
granular,'
J
been identified
111
o,
masses.
The
fracture of the tetrahedrites
is
uneven
between dark gray and iron-black, except in thin splinters, which

sometimes exhibit a cherry-red translucency. Their streak is like their
is
color.
All tetrahedrites are thermo-electric.
The chemical
properties of the different varieties of tetrahedntes
vary with the constituents present. All give tests for sulphur and for
either antimony or arsenic, and all show the presence of
copper in a
borax bead. The reactions of other metals that may be present
may
be learned by consulting pages 483-494.
The
crystals of tetrahedrite are so characteristic that there is little
danger of confusing the crystallized mineral with other minerals of the

same color. The massive forms resemble most dearly
lownmtie and
chalcocite
From
arseno$yritey
these the tetrahedrites are
SULPHO-SALTS
best distinguished
by
AND SULPHO-FERRITES
their hardness, together with their
129
blowpipe reac-
tions
Tetrahednte appears to
suffer alteration
quite readily, since pseudo-
morphs
of several carbonates
are well
known
and sulphides
after tetrahednte crystals
Syntheszs
Crystals of the tetrahedrites have been made by passing
the vapors of the chlorides of the metals and the chlorides of arsenic or
antimony and EfeS through red-hot porcelain tubes They have also
Roman
had Iain for a long time in the hot

springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains, Haute-Marne, France.
been observed in
coins that
The tetrahedrites are very common in the zone of

Occurrence
secondary enrichment of sulphide veins and in impregnations
They
occur associated with chalcopyrite, pynte, sphalerite, galena and other
silver, lead and copper ores in nearly all regions where the sulphide ores
of these metals are found
They occur
also as primary constituents of
veins of silver ores, where they were deposited by magmatic waters.

Localities
In the United States tetrahedrite occurs at the Kellogg
miles
ten
north of Little Rock, Arkansas, near Central City and
Mines,
at Georgetown, Colorado; in the Ruby

the same State; at the De Soto Mine in
and other mining districts in

Humboldt Co Nevada, and
,
Utah and Arizona It is found also in

Mexico, and at Broken Hill, New South Wales
at several places in Montana,

British
The
Columbia and
in
arsenical tetrahedrites are not quite as
monial variety
Freiberg in
Excellent crystals occur
Saxony, at Skutterud
in
common
in the
as
is
the anti-
Cornish Mines, at
Norway, and at Capelton,
Quebec
The
Uses.
mineral
is
used to some extent as an ore of
copper, the separation of the metals being effected in the

in the case of the sulphides of these substances.
silver or of
same way as
THE SULPHO-FERRITES
Only two sulpho-femtes are sufficiently important to merit descripBoth of these are copper compounds and both are used as
ores of this metal, one chalcopyrite being one of the most important
tion here
ores of the metal at present
The
the acid EfeFeSa,
which
worked
of these minerals discussed, bornite,
first
may be
the second
is
is
a basic salt of
the salt of the derived acid HFeS2,
regarded as the normal acid from which one molecule of
H2 S has been abstracted (see p. n6],
130
Bornite (Cu 5 FeS4 )
Bormte, known also as horseflesh ore because of its peculiar purplishIn Montana and in Chile it conis found usually massive
stitutes an important ore of copper
red color,
Bornite
is
probably a basic sulpho-femte, though analyses yield
vary quite widely, especially in the case of massive varieties

This variation is due to the greater or less admixture of copper sulphides,
The theoretical composition of the
mainly chalcocite, with the bormte
The analyses of a crystallized
mineral is 25 55 S, 63 27 Cu, and 11.18 Fe
lesults that
variety from Bristol,
Conn
and of a massive variety from the Bruce
Mines, Ontano, follow.
Cu
Conn
Bristol,
25 54
Bruce Mines, Ont
The
25 39
crystallization of
combinations of
oo
O oo
bormte
(ico), oo
is
63 24
62 78
Fe
n
n
Ins
20
28
Total
99 98
30
99 75
isometric (hexoctahedral class), in
0(iio),0(rn), and sometimes 202(211)
the twinning plane

Crystals often form mterpenetration twins, with
The fracture of the mineral is conchoidal, its hardness 3 and density
On
about 5
fresh fracture the color varies from a copper-red to a pur-
brown Upon exposure alteration rapidly takes place covering

the mineral with an iridescent purple tarnish. Its streak is grayish
plish
It is a
black
good conductor
of electricity
Chemically, the mineral possesses no characteristics other than those

to be expected from a compound of iron, copper and sulphur
It dissolves in nitric acid with the separation of sulphur
It
and
is
its
easily recognized
by
its
purplish
brown
color
on fresh fractures
purple tarnish.
Bornite alters to chalcopyrite, chalcocite. covellite, cuprite (CuaO),

chrysocolla (CuSiQs 2H20) and the carbonates, malachite and azurite.
On
the other hand, bornite pseudomorphs after chalcopyrite
cocite are not
and
chal-
uncommon
Roman copper
coins found immersed in the water of

France have been partly changed to bornite. Crystals
have been formed by the action of EkS at a comparatively low temperature (ioo-2oo C ), upon a mixture of CuaO, CuO and Fe20s
Bornite is usually associated with other
ores
in
veins
and
copper
lodes, where it is in some cases a primary min-
Syntheses
warm
springs in
eral deposited
produced
by magmatic waters and
in others a secondary mineral

It also sometimes
in the zone of enrichment of sulphide veins.
AND SULPHO-FERRITES
SULPHO-SALTS
impregnates sedimentary rocks, where
its
origin
is
131
part due to contact
action.
The crystallized mineral occurs near Redruth, Cornwall

Localities
Eng and at Bristol, Conn The massive mineral is found at many
It is the principal ore of some of the
places in Norway and Sweden
,
Bolivian, Chilian, Peruvian
Bristol,
Uses
Conn
and Mexican mines and
mines near Quebec
it
of the
Canadian
has been mined at
and at Butte, Montana
Bornite
pounds as an ore
is
mined with chalcopyrite and other copper commetal
of this
Chalcopynte (CuFeS2)
From an economic
of the sulpho-salts, as
point of \ie\\ this mineral is the most important

it is one of the most important ores of copper
FIG 57
FIG 56
FIG. 56
FEG 57
Chalcopynte Crystal with P,
Chalcopynte Crystal with

sometimes approaches
FIG 58
known.
(p),
-P,
ill (p) and
2? x>
201
(3).
Pz
IP
,
772 (&J and
The form ^
212 (x)
P(zio) and
x approaches P *s
(xoi
Chalcopynte Twinned about P(iu)
It occurs both massive
to pyrite in appearance
in
FIG 58
it is
and
often
crystallized.
known
From
its similarity
as copper pyrites.
Crystallized specimens of chalcopyrite contain 35 per cent S, 34 5

per cent Cu and 30.5 per cent Fe, corresponding to the formula CuFeSk,
i
a copper
salt of the acid
HFeS2
quantities of intermixed pyrite.
selenium, thallium, gold and
The
mineral often contains small
some instances
silver
crystallization of chalcopynte
division of the tetragonal
The
It also contains in
is
in the sphenoidal, hemihedral
system (tetragonal scalenohedron
class).
132
The
and
crystals are usually sphenoidal in habit with the sphenoids
3p
2
56 and 57)
(332) the predominant forms (Figs
these there are often present also oo
and a very acute sphenoid that
P oo
(100),
oo
P(no), 2?
approximately
(772),
due to the
oscillation of oo
P(no) and -(in)
common, with the twinning plane
and
oo
(201),
supposed to be
Twins are quite
(Fig 57)
(Fig 58). The plus

while
the minus faces
striated,
parallel to
faces of the sphenoid are often rough

are smooth and even.
The
In addition to
ff
is
P
-(in),
Its hardness is 3 5-4 and

and
color brass-yellow
Old
4.2.
fracture surfaces are often tarnished with an iridescent coating
Its
streak is greenish black. It is an excellent conductor of electricity
fracture of the mineral
density about
is
uneven.
Its luster is metallic
On charcoal the mineral melts to a magnetic globule. When mixed

with Na2COs and fused on charcoal, a copper globule containing iron
When treated with nitric aad it dissolves, forming a green
results.
solution in
which
float
spongy masses of sulphur
ammonia
The addition of
and at the same
to the solution changes it to a deep blue color

time causes a precipitate of red feme hydroxide.
From
the few brassy colored minerals that resemble

by its hardness and streak.
it,
chalcopyrite
is distinguished
When subjected to the action of the atmosphere or to percolating

atmospheric water chalcopyrite loses its iron component and changes
The iron passes into limomte. Bornite,
to covelhte and chalcocite
copper and pyrite are also frequent products of its alteration. In the
oxidation zone of veins it yields limonite, the carbonates, malachite and
and cuprite (Cu20). When exposed to the leaching action of

water, limonite alone may remain to mark the outcrop of veins, the
azurite,
copper being carried downward in solution to enrich the lower portions

of the vein. The deposit of limonite on the surface is known as
Crystals of chalcopyrite have been produced by the
Syntheses
action of HaS upon a moderately heated mixture of CuO and FÔs
cndosed
in
a glass tube.
The mineral has
also been
warm spring waters upon ancient copper

common product of roasting-oven operations
of
Occurrence and Origin.

primary vein mineral, and
coins.
made by the
It
is
action
also a fairly
Chalcopyrite is widely disseminated as a

often found in nests in crystalline rocks.
is
SULPHO-SALTS AND SULPHO-FERRITES

and other sedimentary
It also impregnates slates
altered
and
igneous rocks where, in some cases,
in others is original
It is also
it
is
133
rocks, schists
and
a contact deposit
formed by secondary processes causIts most common associ-
ing enrichment of copper sulphide veins
and
ates are galena, sphalerite
pyrite.
It is the principal
copper ore
the Cornwall mines, where it is associated with cassitente (Sn02),

galena and other sulphides. It is also the important copper ore of
the deposits of Falun, Sweden, of Namaqualand in South Africa,
those near Copiapo in Chile, those of Mansfeld, Germany, of the Rio
Tinto
Butte and other places in Montana, and of
district in Spain, of
the great copper-producing districts in Arizona, Utah and Nevada.

Crystals occur near Rossie, Wurtzboro and Edenville, N. Y., at the
French Creek Mines, Chester Co., Penn., near Finksburg, Md., and at
many other places

The
Extraction
mineral
concentrated
is
by mechanical methods.
The
concentrates are roasted at a moderately high temperature, the iron

being transformed into oxides and the copper partly into oxide and
partly into sulphide. Upon further heating with a flux the iron oxide
unites with this to form a slag and the copper sulphide melts, and collects
at the
bottom of the furnace as
and copper sulphide.
This
is
"
matte/' which consists of mixed copper
roasted in a current of air to free
it
from
By this process all of the copper is transformed into the oxide,

may be converted into the metal by reduction. The metal is
sulphur.
which
finally refined
by
electrical processes.
from chalcopyrite contains

ered by any one of several
Uses.
Much
of the copper obtained
silver or gold, or both,
which
may be recov-
processes.
A large portion of the copper produced in the world is obtained
by the smelting
Production.
of chalcopyrite and the ores associated with it.

The world's total product of copper has been referred
to in another place (p. 55).
Of
this total (2,251,300,000 Ib.) the
States supplied, in 1912, 1,243,300,000
Ib.,
United
of which about 1,000,000,000
were obtained from sulphide ores. Arizona and Montana produced

the greater portion of this large quantity, the former contributing about
Out359,000,000 Ib. to the aggregate, and the latter 308,800,000 Ib
Ib.
United States the most important copper-producing countries

are Mexico, Japan, Spain and Portugal, Australia, Chile, Canada,
Russia, Peru and Germany, in the order named. Practically all of this
side of the
copper, except that from Japan

ores.
and Mexico,
is
extracted from sulphide
CHAPTER VI
THE CHLORIDES BROMIDES IODIDES \ND FLUORIDES
THE
group are 'compounds of metals with
salts belonging to this
hydrochloric (HC1), h>drobromic (HBr), hydnodic (HI) and hydroOf these some are
fluoric (HF) acids
Only a few are of importance
simple chlorides, others are simple fluorides, others are double chlorides
or fluorides (i e cryolite, AlFa^NaF), and others are double hydroxides
and chlorides (atacamite)
THE CHLORIDES
The simple chlorides crystallize in the isometric system, but in different classes in this system. They comprise salts of the alkalies, K, Na
and NKi, and
viz.: sylmte,
Of these only three mmerals are
of silver
Halite
Halite, or
common
native chlorides
crystals,
Pure
of importance,
hahte and cerargynte
salt, is
It is
and
(Had)
the best
colorless,
in granular and
halite consists of 39
known and most abundant
of the
transparent mineral occurring in
compact masses
4 per cent Cl and 60 6 per cent
Na
The
mineral usually contains as impurities clay, sulphates and organic

substances
The several analyses quoted below indicate the nature of
the commonest impurities and their abundance in typical specimens
NaCl
CaCl
MgCl
01
oo
97 35
II.
90 3
98 88
tr
Germany.
III,
II
Stassfurt,
CaS04
...
tr
Na2 S04
2
43
oo
Mg2 S04
Clay
30
23
.79
H2
2 oo
70
33
Vic, France
III. Petit
The
Anse, La.
crystallization of halite
is
isometric (hexoctahedral class), the

Often the
forms being ooOoo(ioo), 0(iu) and ooO(no)

principal
134
CHLORIDES, FLUORIDES, ETC
135
faces of the forms are hollowed or depressed giving nse to
"
what are
called
"
(Fig 59). The mineral occurs also in coarse, granular aggregates, in lamellar and fibrous masses and in stalactites
hopper crystals
Its cleavage is perfect parallel to oo
oo (100)
Its fracture is con-
2-2 5 and density about 217

Halite, when
pure, is colorless, but the impurities present often color it red, gray,
The bright blue motthngs obsened in
yellow or blue
Its hardness
choidal
many
is
specimens are thought to be due to the presence

The mineral is transparent or
of colloidal sodium.
and
translucent
colorless
Its
diathermous and
The mineral
luster
its
saline
\itreous.
is
taste
is
well
Its streak is
known.
a nonconductor of
is
is plastic
under pressure and
increases with the temperature
It
is
electricity.
prG
59
HcpperShaped Cube of
its plasticity
Halite
Its index of refraction
sodium light, = i 5442

In the closed tube halite fuses and often it decrepitates. When
heated before the blowpipe it fuses (at 776) and colors the flame yellow.
for
The chlorine
reaction is easily obtained by adding a small particle cf the

mineral to a microcosmic salt bead that has been saturated with copper
oxide. This, when heated before the blowpipe, colors the flame a bnl-
hant blue.
The mineral
easily dissolves in water,
an abundant white precipitate with
The
solubility
of halite is
and
its
solution yields
silver nitrate.
accountable for a large number of
The
crystals embedded in clays are gradually dissolved,

pseudomorphs.
a
mold
that
leaving
may be filled by other substances, which thus
become pseudomorphs.
Syntheses.
Crystals of halite have been produced
from the gases of furnaces, and by

ing sodium chloride.
crystallization
by sublimation
from solution contain-

Salt/occurs most abundantly in the water of
the ocean, of certain salt lakes, of brines buned deep within the rocks in
some places, and as beds interstratified with sedimentary rocks. In the
latter case it is associated
with sylvite (KC1), anhydrite (CaSO*), gypsum

lite the halite, are believed to have been
(CaSO4 2H2O), etc., which,

formed by the drying up of
were cut
off
from the main
of the various beds
sponding
salts
is
when
salt lakes or of portions of the ocean that

of occurrence
IxxLy of water, since the order
as the order of deposition ot the corresea water at

precipitated by the evaporation of
the sa
me
varying temperatures
(Ojanp pp. 22, 23.)
Below are given figures* showing the composition of the salts in the
water of the ocean, of GF -at Salt Lake, and of the Syracuse, N. Y. and
136
Michigan
artificial
brines (produced
by
forcing water to the
buned rock
salt)
NaCl CaCk MgCl2 NaBr KC1 Na2 S04

I
77 07
7 86
II.
79 57
10 oo
III
95 97
90
IV. 91 95
3 19
I
II
30
CaS04 MgS04
4 63
6 25
69
2
K2 S04
3 89
3 60
5 29
58
54
2 39
48
Atlantic Ocean
Great Salt Lake
HI New York bnnes

IV Michigan bnnes
Wiefine
where
crystals
Germany,
liczka, Poland, Hall, Tyrol,
are found, the Valley of Cardova, Spain, in Cheshire, England and in
At Petit Anse in Louisiana, in the vicinity
the Punjab region of India
Y and in the lower peninsula of Michigan thick beds
of Syracuse,
The
Localities
principal mines of halite, or rock salt, are at

Stassfuit,
of the salt are buried in the rocks far
beneath the surface
Much
of the
comparatively pure and needs only to be crushed to become usable

In most cases, however, it is contaminated with clay and other substances
In these cases it must be dissolved in water and recrystallized
salt is
before
it is
The
sufficiently
pure for commercial uses

at Stassfurt where there
known deposits are
is a great thickness of alternating layers of halite, sylvite (KC1), anhydrite, gypsum,

kieseiite (MgSQa-IfeO) and various double chlorides and sulphates of
best
potassium and magnesium. Although the halite is in far greater quantity than the other salts, nevertheless, the deposit owes most of its value
to the latter, especially the potassium salts (comp. pp. 137, 142)
Uses. Besides its use in curing meat and fish, salt is employed in
glazing pottery, in enameling, in metallurgical processes, for clearing

oleomargarine, making butter and in the more familiar household operations.
It is also the chief source of sodium compounds.
Production
Most
of the salt produced in the United States is ob-
tained directly from rock salt layers by mining or by a process of solution, in which water is forced down into the buned deposit and then to
the surface as bnne, which is later evaporated by solar or by artificial

heat In the district of Syracuse, N.
salt occurs in thick lenses
,
interbedded with soft shales
In eastern Michigan and in Kansas salt

is obtained from buried beds of rock
salt, and in Louisiana from great
dome-like plugs covered by sand, day and gravel. Some of the masses
in this State are 1,756
ft.
thick.
137
The salt production of the United States for 1912 amounted to 33,Of this quantity
324,000 barrels of 280 Ib each, valued at $9,402,772
7,091,000 barrels were rock salt
The imports
of all grades of salt during the
1,000,000 barrels
and the exports about 440,000
same time were about
barrels.
Sylvite (KC1)
Sylvite
is
isometric, like halite, but the etched figures that may be

its crystals indicate a gyroidal symmetry
(pen-
produced on the faces of
The habit of the crystals is cubic with

oo O oo (100)
and
O(ni)
predominating.
Pure sylvite contains 47 6 per cent Cl and 52 4 per cent K, but the
mineral usually contains some NaCl and often some of the alkaline sultagonal icositetrahedral class)
phates.
The physical properties

its
hardness
and n
for
When
is
of sylvite are like those of halite, except that
and the density
sodium
light
99
= i 4903
Its melting
temperatuie
is
738
heated before the blowpipe the mineral imparts a violet tinge

when masked by the yellow flame of
to the flame, which can be detected
sodium by viewing
it
through blue glass
Otherwise sylvite and halite
react similarly.
Halite and sylvite are distinguished from other soluble minerals
by
the reaction with the bead saturated with copper oxide, and from one
another by the color imparted to the blowpipe flame.
Synthesis
Sylvite crystals have been made
to those employed in syntheses of halite crystals
by methods analogous
Occurrence
Sylvite occurs associated with halite, but in distinct
beds, at Stassfurt, Germany, and at Kalusz, Galicia. It has also been
found, together with the sodium compound, incrusting the lavas of
Vesuvius.
Sylvite Is an important source of potassium salts, large quanof which are used in the manufacture of fertilizers,
Uses.
tities
CERARGYRITE GROUP
The
silver.
cerargyrite group comprises the chloride, bromide and iodide of

The first two exist as the minerals cerargyrite and bromargyrite,
both of which crystallize in the isometric system. The isometric Agl

exists only above 146; below this temperature the iodide is hexagonal.
The exhagonal
course, is
modification occurs as the mineral iodyrite, which, of
not regarded as a member of the cerargyrite group
138
Cerargyrite (AgCl)
ore
It is usually
Cerargynte, or horn silver, is an important silver
mixture
the
associated with other silver compounds,
being mined and
smelted without separation of the components

nizable by its waxy, massive character
It is usually recog-
Silver chloride consists of 24 7 per cent chlorine and 75 3 per cent

but cerargynte often contains, in addition to its essential con-
silver,
some mercury, bromine and occasionally some iodine
stituents,
They are isometric
are rare
Crystals
(hexoctahedral class), with a cubical habit,
oo 0(no), 0(in),
20(221)
predominant forms being oo O oo (100),
with
occur
sometimes
Twins
and 202(211)
0(in) the twinning face
The mineral is sometimes found massive, embedded among other min-
their
is more frequently in crusts covering other substances

The mineral is sectile
fracture of cerargynte is conchoidal
Its color is grayish, white
Its hardness is i-i 5 and density about 5 5
erals,
but
The
or yellow, sometimes
brown
On
colorless.
exposure to light
It is transparent to translucent
very poor conductor of
electricity
and
its
Like halite
streak
it is
it
is
turns violet-
white
It is a
diathermous
for
sodium, light = 2 071.

In the closed tube cerargynte fuses without decomposition
On
charcoal it yields a metallic globule of silver, and when heated with oxide
the blowpipe flame it gives the chlorine reaction

of copper
The mineral is insoluble in water and in nitric acid but is soluble in ammonia, and
potassium cyanide. When a particle of the mineral is placed on a

sheet of zinc and moistened with a drop of water, it swells, turns black
and
is finally
reduced to metallic
silver,
which,
when rubbed by a
knife
blade, exhibits the white luster of the metal.
Cerargyrite is easily distinguished from all other minerals, except

the comparatively rare bromide and iodide, by its physical properties and
by the
metallic globule which
it
yields
on charcoal
Crystals of cerargynte have been obtained by the rapid

evaporation of ammoniacal solutions of silver chloride, and by the cooling
of solutions of the chloride in molten silver iodide
Syntheses.
Occurrence
The
mineral occurs in the upper (oxidized) portions of

it is associated with native silver
veins of argentiferous minerals, where

and oxidized products of various kinds
The most important localities of cerargynte are in Peru,

Honduras and Mexico, where it is associated with native silver.
It is also found near Leadville, Colo*; near
Austin, in the Comstock
lode, Nev., and at the Poorman Mine, and in other mines in Idaho
Localities.
Chile,
CHLORIDES, FLfORIDES, ETC

and at
several places in Utah.
Good
crystals occur in the
139
Poorman
Mine.
Extraction
metal
may
When
a silver ore consists essentially of cerargynte the

by amalgamation Ores containing compara-
be extracted
tively small quantities of cerargynte are smelted

The quantity of cerargyrite mined cannot
Production
estimated.
As has been
stated,
it is
be safely
usually wrought with other silver
ores,
THE FLUORIDES
The fluorides are salts of hydrofluoric acid. There are several
known to occur as minerals, but only two, the fluoride of calcium and
FIG 60
Group of Fluonte Crystals from Weardale, Co., Durham, England

Mineral Company )
(Foote
the double fluorides of sodium and aluminium are of sufficient impor-
tance to merit description here.

Fluorite
(CaF2 )
Fluorite, or fluorspar, is the principal source of fluorine. It is usually

a transparent mineral that is characterized by its fine color and its hand-
140
Perhaps there is no other mineral known that

crystals (Fig 60)
The uncrystallized
the beauty of its crystal groups
can approach it
fluorite may be massive, granular or fibrous
Fluonte is a compound of Ca and F in the proportion of 48 9 per cent
F and 51 i per cent Ca Chlorine is occasionally present in minute
some
quantities,
and
AkOs and Fe2 0s
SiCfe,
CaF2
Si02
I
94 72
The
Ky gave
CaC03
,
22
MgO
68
82
crystallization is isometric (hexoctrahedral class),
penetration twins are frequent
The
FIG 61
FIG 62
oo
and
inter-
forms observed are
principal
FIG 62
FIG 6 1
0(ui),
A sample of
are always present
commercially prepared fluonte from Marion,
O oo
100 (a) and

02, 210 (e).
Crystal of Fluonte with
Interpeaetration Cubes of Fluonte, Twinned about O(in)
oo
O oo (100),
oo
02(210) and 462(421) (Fig 61), but some crysmany as 58 forms having been identified upon
tals are highly modified, as
The twins, with O(ni) the twinning plane, are usually

the species
interpenetration cubes, or cubes modified on the corners by the octahedrons (Fig. 62). The mineral occurs also in granular, fibrous and
earthy masses.
The
cleavage of fluorite
is brittle, its fracture is
is
perfect parallel to
uneven or conchoidal,
its
0(in).
hardness
The mineral
is
4 and
its
mdts
at 1387. Its color is some shade of yellow, white, red, green, blue or purple, its luster vitreous, and its streak
is white
Many specimens are transparent, some are only translucent.
density about 3.2.
It
Most specimens phosphoresce upon heating A vanety that exhibits a

The index of refraction
green phosphoresence is known as cfdorophane
for sodium light is 1 43385 at 20.
The mineral is a nonconductor of
electricity.
The
was formerly thought to be

minute traces of organic substance since it is lost
color of the brightly tinted varieties
due to the presence
of

or changed
when the mineral
is
141
heated, but recent observations of the
radium emanations upon light-colored specimens indicate a

deepening of their color by an increase in the depth of the blue tints.
This suggests that the coloring matter is combined with the CaF2- It
may be a colloidal substance
In the closed tube fluonte decrepitates and phosphoresces When
effect of
heated on charcoal
it fuses, colors the flame yellowish red and

yields an
enamel-like residue which reacts alkaline to litmus paper
Its powder
treated with sulphuric acid yields hydrofluoric acid gas which etches
The same effect is produced when the powdered mineral is fused
glass.
its volume of acid potassium sulphate (HKSO*) in a
walls of the tube near the mixture become etched as
tube
The
glass
acted
upon by a sand blast.
though
with four times
Fluonte is easily distinguished by its cleavage and hardness from

most other minerals
It is also characterized by the possession of
fluorine for which it gives dear reactions.
Syntheses
Crystals are produced upon the cooling of a molten mixture of CaF2 and the chlorides of the alkalies, and by heating amorphous
CaF2 with an alkaline carbonate and a little HC1 in a closed tube at 250.
Occurrence, Localities and Origin. The mineral occurs in beds, in
veins, often as the gangue of metallic ores and as crystals on the wails
of cavities in certain rocks.
It is the gangue of the lead veins of northern
England and elsewhere. Handsome crystallized specimens come from

Cumberland and Derbyshire, England; Kongsberg, Norway, Cornwall,
Wales, and from the mines of Saxony. In the United States the mineral
forms veins on Long Island; in Blue Hill Bay, Maine, at Putney, in
Vermont; at Plymouth, Conn at Lockport and Macomb, in New
York, at Amelia Court House, Va., and abundantly in southeastern
Illinois and the neighboring portion of Kentucky, where it occurs associated with zinc and lead ores. These last-named localities, the neighborhood of Mabon Harbor, Nova Scotia, and Thunder Bay, Lake
;
Superior, afford excellent crystal groups.
In nature fluonte has been
apparently produced both by crystallization from solutions and
by
pneumatolytic processes
its place in the rocks is often
that pseudomorph it.
minerals
occupied by calcite, quartz or other
a
as
flux in smelting iron and
The mineral is used extensively
Uses
Since fluorite is soluble in alkaline waters,
other ores, in the manufacture of opalescent glass, and of the enamel

It is also used in the manufacture
coating used on cooking utensils, etc
The
of hydrofluoric acid, which, in turn, is employed in etching glass
for
vases
the
and
are
material
as
varieties
colored
employed
brighter
142
into lenses for optical instruments

transparent, colorless kinds are ground
The mineral is also cut into cheap gems, l:no\vn according to color, as
false topaz, false
as a precious stone, fluorite

ing
Except \\hen used for making lenses or

prepared for shipment by crushing, wash-
amethyst, etc
is
A portion is ground
and screening
The
fluonte produced in the United States is obtained

mainly from Illinois and Kentucky, though small quantities are mined
The production in
in Colorado, New Mexico and New Hampshire
Production
1912 amounted to 116,545 tons, valued at $769,163. Of this, 114,410

tons came from Illinois and Kentucky. The imports were 26,176 tons,
valued at $71,616
THE DOUBLE CHLORIDES AND DOUBLE FLUORIDES

These double salts are apparently molecular compounds, in which
usually two chlorides or two fluorides combine, as in AlFa+3NaF
Moreover, one of the members of the combination of chlorides is nearly
The law of this

always either the sodium or the potassium chloride
"
combination is expressed by Professor Remsen in these words
The
number
of molecules of potassium or
sodium chloride which combine
by the number of chlorine atoms con"

tamed m the other chloride
Thus, if NaCl makes double salts with
MC12 in which represents any bivalent element, only two are possible,
With MC13 three double salts
viz- MCl2 +NaCl and MCl2 +2NaCl
with another chloride
is
limited
with sodium may be formed, etc

These double salts are not regarded
as true molecular compounds, but they are looked upon as compounds
in which Cl and F are bivalent like oxygen
Carnallite
Carnallite
composition
may
(KMgCls
6H2 0)
be regarded as a hydrated double chloride of the

i per cent K, 8 7 per cent
Mg,
MgCk KC1 6H2 O with 14
It occurs
2
distinct crys38 3 per cent Cl and 39 o per cent
tals but more frequently in massive granular aggregates
Its crystallization is orthorhombic (bipyramidal class), but the habit
of its crystals
is
usually hexagonal because of the nearly equal develop-
ment of pyramids and brachydomes.
Its axial ratio
is
.5891
3759.
commonly bounded by oo P(no), P(in), JP(ri2), P(ii3),

oo P eo (oio), 2? a& (021), P 56
(on), |P oa (023), oP(ooi), and P 56 (101).
The angle no A 3 10=61 2oJ'.
Crystals are
Carnallite
to milky white, transparent or

translucent,
Many varieties appear red in the hand specimens
is colorless
and has a fatty luster
143
because of the inclusion of numerous small plates of hematite or

goethite,
or yellow because of inclusions of yelkm liquids or
The
tiny crystals.
mineral has a hardness of 1-3, and a density of 1.60

It possesses no
It is not an electrical conductor.
cleavage but has a conchoidal fracture
It
Its indices of refraction for

deliquescent and has a bitter taste
light are a= i 467, jS= 1.475, 7= 1-494
Before the blowpipe carnalhte fuses easily. In the closed tube it
is
sodium
becomes turbid and gives

panied by
When
tion.
off
much
the odor of chlorine.
water, which
It melts in its
frequently accomof crystalliza-
evaporated to dryness and heated by the blowpipe flame
a white mass results which is strongly alkaline.

in water, forming a solution which reacts for Mg,
Carnalhte
is
own water
is
easily recognized
by its
The mineral
dissolves
K and Cl
solubility, its bitter taste
and the
reaction for chlorine
Synthesis
tion of MgCl2
The mineral separates in measurable crystals from a solu-
and KC1
Carnalhte occurs hi beds associated with
sylvite, halite, kieserite (p. 246),
cipitated
by
Localities
It
Kalusz, in Galicia
is
salts that
found in large quantity at
and near Maman,
Carnalhte
Uses.
and other
have been pre-
the evaporation of sea water or the water of salt lakes
is
used as a
Stassfurt,
Germany, at
in Persia
fertilizer
and as a source of potash
salts.
Cryolite (NasAlFe)
Cryolite usually occurs as a fine-grained granular white mass in

which are often embedded crystals of light brown iron carbonate (siderThe formula given above demands 54 4 per cent F, 12 8 per cent
ite).
Al and 32.8 per cent Na. Analyses of pure white specimens correspond
veiy closely to this

The mineral is monoclinic (prismatic class), but crystals are exceedingly rare and when found they have a cubical habit. Their axial ratio
^=.9662 i i 3882.
ooP(no), oP(ooi), Pco(oTo),
is
=89 49'. The principal forms

P 00(010) and P 06(100), thus
sembling the combination of the cube and octahedron.
are
re-
Twins are com-
mon, with oo P(no) the twinning plane

The deavage of cryolite is perfect parallel to oP(coi). Its fractine
Hardness is 2 5 and density about 3. Its color is snow-white
is uneven.
or greasy and the
inclining to red and brown. Its luster is vitreous
mineral
is
translucent to transparent
Because of
its
low index of
snow.
refraction, massive specimens suggest masses of wet
The
re-
144
fractive index
/3
for
sodium
light is i
It
364
is
a nonconductor of
electricity.
very easily fusible, small pieces melting even at the low

The mineral is soluble in sulphuric acid
temperature of a candle flame
When fused in the closed tube with KHS04
with the evolution of HF
Cryolite
is
is evolved
hydrofluoric acid, and -ft hen fused on charcoal fluorine
color
the
heated
and
reaction
residue treated with Co(NOs)2
gives
it yields
The
forAl
By
the aid of
with sulphuric acid, its fusibility and its

easily distinguished from fluonte, which it
its reactions
physical properties cryolite
most resembles, and from
is
all
other minerals.
The occurrences of cryolite are

small
in
found
has
been
few
It
quantities near Miask in the
very
Ihnen Mts, Russia, near Pike's Peak, Colo, and in the Yellowstone
a great pegmatitic vein

Its puncipal occurrence is
all the mineral used
whence
near
Ivigtut, Greenland,
cutting granite
The associates of the cryolite at this place are
in the arts is obtained
National Park.
sidente, galena, chalcopynte, p^nte, fluonte, topaz and a few rare

The vein is said to be intrusive into the granite. It is
minerals
believed to be a magmatic concentration

Uses. Cryolite was formerly employed principally in the manufacture of alum and of salts of sodium. At present it is used as a flux in
the electrolytic production of aluminium, and is employed in the manufacture of white porcelain-like glass, and in the process of enameling
The mineral is quarried in Greenland and imported into the

United States to the extent of about 2,500 tons annually. Its value is
about $25 per ton.
iron
THE OXYCHLORIDES
The oxychlorides are combinations of hydroxides and chlorides
Some of them are " double salts " in the sense in which this word is
explained
above.
Cu(OH)Cl with
Atacamite
the hydroxide
is
a combination of the oxychlonde
Cu(OH) 2
or
Ncu
Cu(OH) 2
Atacamite (Cu(OH)Cl-Cu(OH) 2 )
Atacamite is especially abundant in South America
The mineral
usually found in crystalline, fibrous or granular aggregates of a bright
green color
Analyses of specimens from Australia and from Atacama, Chile, yield.
is
CHLOEIDES, FLUORIDES, ETC
145
Austraha
Atacama, Chile.
The formula
CuO and
The
with a
lequires 16 6 per cent Cl, 14.9 per cent Cu, 55 8 per cent
12 7 per cent EkO.
crystallization of atacamite is orthorhombic (bipyramidal class),

b : =.6613 : i : .7529
Its crystals are
usually slender
prisms
bounded by ooP(no), ooP(i 2 o), ooPoo (oio), P66 (011), oP(ooi)

and P(III), or tabular forms flattened m the plane of the macropinacoid
oo P 56 (100).
Twins are common, with the twinning plane ooP(no).
The
fracture
cleavage of atacamite is perfect parallel to oo P 06 (oio).

Its hardness is 3-3 5 and
is conchoidal.
density about
Its
3 76.
Pure atacamite is of some shade of green, varying between bright shades

and emerald. Its aggregates often contain red or brown streaks or
grains due to the admixture of copper oxides. It
lucent. The streak of the mineral is apple-green
of electricity
0= 1.861,7=1
is
transparent to transIt is
a nonconductor
Its indices of refraction for green light are
a=i
831,
880
In the closed tube atacamite gives off much water with an acid reacIn the oxidizing flame it fuses and
tion, and yields a gray sublimate
tinges the flame azure blue (reaction for copper chloride).
It
is
easily
reduced to a globule of copper on charcoal and is easily soluble in acids.

Atacamite is readily distinguished from garmerite, malachite and
other green minerals by its solubility in acids without effervescence and
by the azure blue color it imparts to the flame.
Crystals have been produced by heating cuprous oxide
of FeCls, in a closed tube at 250.
a
solution
with
(CugO)
and Origin The mineral is most abundant
Localities
Occurrence,
Synthes^s.
along the west side of the Andes Mountains in Chile and Bolivia. It
occurs also in South Australia, in India, at Ambriz, on the west coast of
Afnca, in southern Spain, in Cornwall, where it forms stalactite tubes,

in southern California, and near Jerome, Arizona. It is formed as the
result of the alteration of other copper compounds,
and
abundantly in the upper
Atacamite changes
portions of copper veins
on exposure to the weather
is
into the carbonate, malachite,
found most
and the
sili-
cate, chrysocolla.
Uses. The mineral is an important ore of copper, but it is mined

with other compounds and consequently no records of the quantity
obtained are available.
CHAPTER
VII
THE OXIDES
THE oxides (except water) and the hydroxides may be regarded as
derivatives of water, the hydrogen being replaced wholly or in part
by a metal. When only part of the hydrogen is replaced an hydroxide
when all of the hydrogen is replaced an oxide results Thus,
sodium hydroxide, NaHO, may be looked upon as HgO, in which Na has
in which both
replaced one atom of H, and sodium oxide, Na20, as KfeO
Ferric oxide and
hydrogen atoms have been replaced by this element
results,
ferric
hydroxide bear these relations to water:
H-0 H
H O
H, Fe
Fe,
feme
YFe
oxide,
2
The
H O
Fe, ferric hydroxide
H-0/
Fe(OH) 3
oxides constitute a very important, though not a large, class of

Some of them are among the most abundant of all minerals
minerals
They are separated into the following groups: Monoxides,

and higher oxides.
sesqui-
oxides, dioxides
THE MONOXIDES
Ice
The
(H2 O)
known that they need no special

The mineral is never pure, since it contains,
properties of ice are so well
description in this place
in all cases, admixtures of various soluble salts.
hexagonal and probably
Its crystallization is
trigonal and hemimorphic (ditngonal pyramidal class).

are
often prismatic, as when ice forms the coverCrystals
In the form
ing of water surfaces, or the bodies known as hailstones
of snow the crystals are often stellate, or skeleton crystals, and sometimes
146
OXIDES
hollow prisms
147
The principal forms observed on ice crystals are oP(oooi)
ooP(ioTo), |P(iol2), P(ioTi) andtfUoli) (Fig 63).

The hardness of ice is about 1.5 and its density 9181
It is trans-
Its
large masses when it appears bluish.
parent and colorless except
It possesses no distinct cleavage
Its fusing
FlG. 63
point
is
Photographs of Snow Crystals, .Magnified about 15 Diameters

Benttey and Perkins )
(After
o and boiling point 100. It is a poor conductor of electricity.

sodium light at 8 are: = 1.3090, = 1.3133.
Its indices of refraction for
COPPER OXIDES
There are two oxides
of copper, the red cuprous oxide (Cu2O) and

Both are used as ores, the former being
the black cupric oxide (CuO).
much more important a source of the metal than the latter

Cuprite (Cu2 O)
Cuprite occurs in crystals, in granular and earthy aggregates and

massive
The mineral is usually reddish brown or red and thus is easily
distinguished from most other minerals.
88.8 per cent Cu and
2 per cent O.
Its composition
when pure
is
In
crystallization the mineral
is
isometric, in the gyroidal hemihedral
division of the system (pentagonal icositetrahedral dass).
Its pre-
148
dominant forms axe ooOoo(ioo), 0(iu), ooO(uo), 0002(210),

sometimes lengthened out into
202(211), 20(221) and 301(321),
fibrous varieties (var chdcotr^ch^te).
capillary crystals, producing
The cleavage of cupnte is fairly distinct parallel to O(in) Its frac-
uneven or conchoidal Its hardness is 3 5-4 and density about 6

The mineral is in some cases opaque, oftener it is translucent or even
ture
is
transparent in very thin pieces
By
reflected light its color is red,
brown and occasionally black. By transmitted light it is crimson When

varieties turn dark and become opaque, but
gently heated transparent
reassume their original appearance upon cooling. Its streak is
they
brownish red and has a
and
brilliant luster
The
finally green.
It is
almost vitreous
When rubbed it becomes yellow
luster of the mineral
a poor conductor
vanes between earthy and

but its con-
of electricity,
Its refractive index

ductivity increases rapidly with using temperature.
for yellow light 2.705
In the blowpipe flame cuprite fuses and colors the mantle of the
If moistened with hydrochloric acid before heating the
flame
green
flame becomes a brilliant azure blue. On charcoal the mineral first
fuses and then is reduced to a globule of metallic copper. It dissolves in
strong hydrochloric acid, forming a solution which, when cooled and
diluted with cold water, yields a white precipitate of cuprous chloride
(Cu2 Cl2 ).
Cupnte may easily be distinguished from other minerals possessing

a red streak by the reaction for copper such as the production of a
metal globule on charcoal, and the formation of cuprous chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid solutions by the addition of water. Moreover, the mineral is softer than hematite and harder than reaglar, cin-
nabar and
proitsttte.
Cuprite suffers alteration very readily. It may be reduced to native

copper, in which case the copper pseudomorpbs the cuprite, or, on exposure to the air it may be changed into the carbonate, malachite,
pseudomorphs of which after cupnte are common.
Syntheses
Crystals of cupnte have frequently been observed on
copper utensils and coins that had been buried for long periods of time.
Crystals have also been obtained by long-continued action of NHs upon
a mixture of solutions of the sulphates of iron and copper, and by

heating
a solution of copper sulphate and ammonia with iron wire in a dosed tube
Occurrence^ Origin and Localities
Cuprite often occurs as well
defined crystals embedded in certain sedimentary rocks in the
upper,
oxidized portions of copper veins, and in masses
the midst of other
copper ores,
from which
it
was produced by oxidation
processes*
It
is
OXIDES
149
found as crystals in Thuringia, in Tuscany, on the island of

Elba, in
at Chessy, France, and near
Cornwall, Eng
in
Chile.
Coquimbo,
,
In
Peru, and in Bolivia it exists in great masses

In the United States it occurs at Cornwall, Lebanon Co Penn.
also found associated with the native copper on Keweenaw
Chile,
is
It
Point,
Mich , at the copper mines in St. Genevieve Co , Mo ; at Bisbee and

at other places in Arizona
The fibrous vanety known as chalcoinchite
is beautifully developed at Morenci in the same State.
Uses
Cuprite
is
mined with other copper compounds as an ore of
copper.
Melaconite, or Tenorite (CuO)

Melaconite, or tenonte, is less common than cuprite. It usually
occurs in massive forms or in earthy masses
Its
Crystals are rare
composition is 79 8 per cent Cu and 20 2 per cent 0.
In crystallization melacomte is tnchnic with a monochnic habit.

Its axial ratio is a : b c=i 4902 : i : 1 3604 and
=99 32'. The
:
angles
a and 7
are both
90, but the
optical properties of the crystals
proclaim their tnchnic symmetry.

The mineral possesses an easy cleavage parallel to oP(ooi). Its fracture is conchoidal and uneven, its hardness 3 to 4 and density about 6.
When it occurs in thin scales its color is yellowish brown or iron gray.
When massive or pulverulent it is dull black. Its streak is black, changing to green
It
is
when
rubbed.
a nonconductor of
The
Its refractive index for red light is 2 63.
electricity.
chemical reactions of melaconite are precisely like those of cu-
pnte, with the exception that the mineral is infusible.

Melaconite is distinguished from the black minerals that contain no
It is distinguished from covelhte
copper by its reaction for this metal
and other dark-colored sulphides containing copper by
its failure
to give
the sulphur reaction.

Syntheses
Crystals of melaconite have been found in the flues of
furnaces in which copper compounds and moist NaCl are being treated.
They have
also
been obtained by the decomposition of
CuCk by water
vapor
Occurrence, Localities and Origin.
The mineral
usually occurs associ-
ated with other ores of copper, from which it has been formed, in part
at least, by decomposition. It is mined with these as jmt ore. Thin
found on the lava of Vesuvius, where it must have been fonned

by sublimation. Masses occur at the copper mines of Ducktowu, Temi.
scales are
150
Zincite
(ZnO)
It is
Zincite is the only oxide of the zinc group of elements known
massive forms associated
It usually occurs
found in
crystals
rarely
with other zinc compounds.

Pure zmcite is a compound containing 80 3 per cent Zn and 19 7 per
is frequently admixed with mancent 0,
Since, however, the mineral
some manganese and a little
also
contains
ganese compounds it often
A
iron.
J
specimen from Sterling Hill,
28
per cent ZnO, 6 50 per cent MnO
gave 98
and 44 per cent Fe20g

Natural crystals of zmcite are very rare
From
study of
that the mineral
known
and
hexagonal
hemimorphic
artificial crystals it is
is
(dihexagonal pyramidal class).

forms observed are ooP(ioTo),
Zincite Crystal
Fro. 64
with
oop,
p, roll
0001
iolo
(p)
and
(m).
The
principal
ooP2(ii2o),
oP(oooi), P(ioTi), P2(ii22) and various other

Their habit
pyramids of the ist and 2d orders
1S
hemimorphic with P(iori) and oP(oooi) at

opp OSite ends of a short columnar crystal
oP,
(Fig. 64)
Its fracture
cleavage of încite is perfect parallel to oP(oooi)
conchoidal, its hardness 4-4 5 and density about 5 8
Although color-
The
is
less varieties are
known, the mineral
is
nearly always deep red or orange-
The streak
yellow, due most probably to the manganese present in it
Its indices of refraction are
of the red varieties is orange- yellow.
about
When
The
mineral
is
a conductor of
electricity.
heated in the closed tube the
blackens, but
it
resumes
its original
bead
common
variety of zmcite
on cooling
With the borax
Heated on charcoal it coats the
color
it gives the manganese reaction

coal with a white film, which, when moistened with cobalt solution
heated again with the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe, turns green
mineral dissolves in acids
When
and
The
exposed to the atmosphere zmcite undergoes slow decomposi-
tion to zinc carbonate
Syntheses
Zinc oxide crystals are frequent products of the roasting

They have also been produced by the action of
of zinc ores in ovens
zinc chloride vapor upon lime

chloride at a red heat.
of
water upon zinc
The mineral occurs only in a few places

found with other zinc and manganese minerals near
Ogdensburg,
Occurrence and Locafofoes

It is
and by the action
OXIDES
and
151
at Franklin Furnace,
Sussex Co ,
layers in marble, that are bent into troughs
veins that were
filled
The
the form of great

lajers are probably
from below by emanations from a great

underground
reservoir of igneous rock
Uses
Most
of the zmcite produced in the United States
the manufacture of zinc oxide
The
ore,
which
is
used in
consists of a mixture of
franklimte (see p 199), and willemite (see p

306), is crushed
into its component parts by mechanical
processes The
The zinc oxide
separated zmcite is then mixed with coal and roasted
zincite,
and separated
is volatilized and is caught m tubes

composed of bagging. The willemite
and franklimte are smelted to metallic zinc and the residues are used m
the manufacture of spiegeleisen

Production
Formerly this mineral, together TMth the silicate found
associated with it in New Jersey, constituted the most important source
of zinc in this country
At present most of the metal is obtained from
the
Of
380,000 tons of zinc in spelter and zinc compounds
sphalerite
produced in the United States during 1912 about 69,760 tons were
made from zmcite and the ores associated with it. This had an esti-
mated value
of $9,626,991.
THE SESQUIOXIDES
The sesquioxides (R20s) include a few compounds of the nonmetals
that are comparatively rare and a group of metallic compounds that
includes two minerals of great economic importance. One of these,
hematite (FeaOa),
is
the most valuable of the iron ores
ARSENOLITE CLAUDETITE GROUP
The only group of the nonmetallic sesquioxides that need be referred

to in this place comprises those of arsenic and antimony. This is an
isodimoiphous group including four minerals.
Monochmc
Isometric
Arsenohte
Senarmoutote
As20s
Sb20s
Claudetite
Valenttmte
All the minerals of the group are comparatively rare. The isometric
forms occur in well developed octahedrons and in crusts covering other
minerals
They are also found in earthy masses. It is probable that at
high temperatures the isometric forms pass over into the monodinic
modifications, as some of the latter have been abserved to consist of
are distinctly
aggregates of tiny octahedrons. Crystals of daudetite
152
monoclinic, but they are so thinned as to possess an orthorhombic

Valentmite crystals, on the contrary, appear to be plainly
habit
orthorhombic, but their apparent orthorhombic symmetry may be

due to submicroscopic twinning of the same character as that in
claudetite,
but which in the
latter mineral is macroscopic
All four minerals occur as weathered products of compounds containThey give the usual blowpipe reactions for As or Sb
ing As or Sb
In the closed tube they melt and sublime

Its specific gravity is 3,7
Arsenolite (As2Os) is colorless or white
It usually occurs in octarefractive index for sodium light = i 755
combinations of 0(in) and ooO(no), but these when
hedrons, or
The mineral is
viewed in polarized light are often seen to be amsotropic
and
found also in aggregates of hair-like crystals with a hardness of i

soluble in hot water, yielding a solution with a sweetish taste
Senarmonite (SbgOs)
n=2 087
tropic,
is
Its density is
It
5 2
and
is
Its octahedral crystals are also often aniso-
for yellow light
its
gray or white
hardness=2
It is soluble in hot
When
slightly soluble in water
heated
it
HC1 but
is
only very
turns yellow, but becomes
white again upon cooling

Claudetite (As2Os)
is
monochmc
prismatic, with a
c=
4040
Its white crystals are usually tabular parallel

3445 and /3=86 03'
to oo P ao (oio) and are twinned, with oo P 56 (100) the twinning plane
Their cleavage is parallel to oo P o> (oio) and their density is 4 15
:
H= 2.5
The
mineral
is
Valentinite (Sb2Os)
an
is
electrical
nonconductor
apparently orthorhombic bipyramidal (pos-
monoclimc prismatic) with a : b : c= 3914 i

Its crystals
3367
are tabular or columnar in habit and are very complex
The mineral is
sibly
found also in radial groups of acicular crystals and

granular and
dense masses
Its color is white, pink, gray or brown, and streak
white
It is
Its density
is
5 77
a nonconductor of
and hardness
2 5-3.
It
is
insoluble in
HC1
electricity
CORUNDUM GROUP
t
The
and iron constitute an isomorphous

rhombohedral
division of the hexagonal sysgroup
tem (ditngonal scalenohedral class) Both the aluminium and iron
compounds, corundum and hematite^ are of great economic importance
sesquioxides of aluminium
crystallizing in the
OXIDES
153
Hematite (Fe20a)
Hematite
one of the most important

minerals, if not the most
from
the economic standpoint, smce it is the most valimportant one,
uable of all the iron ores
It is known by its dark color and its red
It
occurs
in
powder
black, glistening crystals, in yellow, brown or red
earthy masses, in granular and micaceous aggregates and in botiyoidal
and stalactitic forms
is
Chemically, the mineral is Fe2 0a corresponding to 30 per cent

and
70 per cent Fe. In addition to these constituents, hematite often contains
some magnesium and some
titanium. By increase in the latter

into
a
mineral
which
has not been distinguished from
passes
ilmenite (see p 462)
element
The
FIG* 65
it
habit of hematite crystals
is
nearly always rhombohedraL
Hematite Crystals with R, loTi (r), |P 2 2243

1 1 20 (0) and oR, oooi (c)
,
Their axial ratio
is
c=i
1.3658,
(*),
JR 1014 (), oop 2l
and the predominant forms are
R(ioTi), iR(iol4), ^2(2243), the prisms oo P(ioTo) and ooP2(ii2o)

and often the basal plane (Fig. 65) In addition, about no other forms
have been
The
identified
crystals are often tabular,
and sometimes
are grouped into aggregates resembling rosettes. In many cases the

A parting is often observed parallel to
terminal faces are rounded
the basal plane, due to the occunence of the mineral in aggregates in
which each crystal is tabular.

Hematite has no well defined cleavage
Its fracture is
conchoidd or
earthy. Its crystals are black, glistening and opaque, except in very
These are red and transparent or translucent. Earthy
small splinters
varieties are red.
The
streak of
all varieties is
brownish red or cherry-
red.
The hardness of the crystallised hematite is 5.5-6.5 aad its density
about 5.2. It is a good conductor of electricity. Its refractive indices
are: 60=3.22,
6=2.94
The mineral
is
for yellow light.
infusible before the blowpipe.
In the reducing flame
on charcoal it becomes magnetic, and when heated with soda it is reduced

It is soluble IB strong hydrochloric acid.
to a magnetic metallic powder
154
The
crystalline
and earthy aggregates
names have been given are

Specular, when the aggregate
of hematite to
consists of grains
metallic luster, like the luster of the crystals
tabular the aggregate
Columnar
is
or fibrous,
which
distinct
with a glistening,
When the
grains are thin
said to be micaceous
when
in fibrous masses
The
brownish red and the luster dull
The
color
botryoidal, stalactic
is
usually
and various
Red hematite is a compact red variety in

imitative forms belong here
is
not
structure
which the fibrous
very pronounced
Red ocher is a red earthy hematite mixed with more or less clay and
other impurities
Clay ironstone is a hard brownish or reddish variety with a dull luster

It is usually a mixture of hematite with sand or clay
Oolitic ore is a red variety composed of compacted spherical or nearly
spherical grams that have a concentric structure
Fossil ore differs
present in
it
from
oolitic ere
mainly in the fact that there are
small shells and fragments of shells that are
now composed
entirely of hematite
Martite is a pseudomorph of hematite after magnetite.
Hematite is distinguished from all other minerals by its red
and
its
magnetism
Crystals of hematite are obtained
Syntheses
on
powder
after roasting
ferric chloride at red heat,
by the action
of steam
hydroxide with water

in a closed tube, and by cooling a
by heating
ferric
containing a trace of NH*F to 250

solution of Fe20s in molten borax or halite
Hematite is found in beds with rocks of

It occurs also as a deposit on the bottoms of marshy
all ages
nearly
ponds, and
small grams
the rocks around volcanic vents
The
is often deposited on the sides of clefts in rocks near
crystallized variety
volcanoes and on the sides of certain veins
It is produced by sublimaby sedimentation and by metasomatic processes

Localities
Handsome crystals occur on the island of Elba, near
Limoges in France, m and on the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, at many
places in Switzerland, Sweden, etc and at many in the United States
Beds of great economic importance occur m the Gogebic, Menommee
and Marquette districts in Michigan; m the Mesabe and Vermilion
districts in Minnesota, m the Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain districts
in Missouri, and in the southern Appalachians, especially m Alabama
Uses. In addition to its use as an ore the fibrous variety of hematite
is sometimes cut into balls and cubes to be worn as
jewelry. The earthy
tion,
varieties are
ground and employed in the manufacture of a dark red
OXIDES
155
paint such as is used on freight cars, and the ponder of some of the massive forms is used as a polishing ponder
Prodtiction.Most of the iron ore produced

hematite, and
The statistics
Superior region
QUANTITY
Hematite
.....
Minnesota
34j43i,oo
.....
Michigan
Alabama
New York
United States is
comes from the Lake
for 191 2 follow
LONG TONS) OF IRON ORE MINED

ING STATES DURING 1912
(IN
in the
far the greater proportion of it
by
IN THE SEVERAL LEAD-
Other Iron Ores

.
11,191,000
.
Total
34,431,000
11,191,000
3,814,000
749,ooo
4,563,000
106,327
1,110,000
1,216,327
Wisconsin
860,000
Tennessee.
246,000
171,000
417,000
51,345,782
3,804,365
55,150,147
Total in
The
total production in 1912
860,000
was valued at about $104,000,000
Corundum
Corundum is the hardest mineral known, with the exception of diamond In consequence of its great hardness an impure variety is used
as an abrading agent under the name of emery. It is also one of the
most valuable of the gem minerals It occurs as crystals and in granular
masses
The mineral is nearly always a practically pure oxide of aluminium of

the composition AkOs, in which there are 52 9 per cent Al and 47 i per
cent O
The impure varieties usually contain some iron, mainly as an
admixture in the form of magnetite
The axial ratio of corundum crystals is i : i 36 The forms are

usually simple pyramids, among which |P2(2243) and |P2(44S3)
The basal
are the most common (Fig. 66), and the prism oo P2(ii2o)
is also common (Fig 67).
Many crystals consist of a series of
steep prisms and the basal plane, with a habit that may be described as
The crystals are often rough with rounded
barrel-shaped (Fig 68)
plane
edges
The
prismatic and pyramidal faces are usually striated hori-
zontally, and the basal plane by lines radiating from the center
All corundum crystals are characterized by a parting parallel to the
basal plane, and often by a cleavage parallel to the rhoinbohedron, due

to the presence of lamellae twinned parallel to R(ioli). The fracture
o the mineral
is
conchoidal or uneven.
Its density is
about 4 and
its
156
It
possesses a vitreous to adamantine luster
Its color varies
is uncolored
streak
or
translucent
Its
transparent
from white, through gray to vanous shades of red, yellow, or blue
hardness 9
The mineral
is
The blue
mineral
varieties are pleochroic in blue

is
yellow light are
Three
and greenish blue shades
a nonconductor of electricity.
w=i
varieties of
7690,
=i
Its refractive
The
indices for
7598.
corundum are recognized
in the arts:
Sapphire,
corundum and emery

Sapphire is the generic name for the finely colored, transparent or
translucent varieties that are used as gems, watch jewels, meter bearings,
etc.
The sapphires
are divided
FIG 68
FIG 67
FIG 66
FIG 66
Corundum
Crystal with |P2, 4483
Fee. 67
Corundum
Crystal with R, loYi
FIG. 68
Corundum
Crystal
2243
a blue
jewelers into sapphires, possessing
by the
Form
(n)
a, v
and
color, rubies, possessing
(r),
and
oPs, 1120
(u)
(a),
and oR, oooi
c as in previous figures
2R, 0221
Also
(c)
P2
($)
a red shade, Oriental topazes, Oriental
emeralds and Oriental amethysts having respectively yellow, green and

purple
tints.
Corundum is the name given to dull colored

and used as polishing and cutting materials
varieties that are
ground
Emery is an impure granular corundum, or a mixture of corundum

with magnetite (FeaO^) and other dark colored minerals
Emery, like
corundum, is used as an abrasive. It is less valuable than corundum
powder because it contains a large proportion of comparatively soft
material
Powdered corundum when heated for a long time with a few drops of
cobalt nitrate solution assumes a blue color
The mineral gives no
definite reaction with the
beads
It
is
infusible
and
insoluble.
It is
OXIDES
most
(p
Syntheses
many
its hardness
The mineral alters to
and platy aluminous silicates
Corundum crystals have been produced
easily recognized
196) and to
157
by
spinel
fibrous
artificially in
different ways, but only recently has the manufacture of the
gem
variety been accomplished on a commercial scale

Amorphous Al2 Cs
dissolves in melted sodium sulphide and crystallizes from the
glowing
mass at a red heat
By melting Al2 0s in a mass of some fluoride and.
potassium carbonate containing a
little
chromium, and using~comparaand blue rubies were obtained
tively large quantities of material, violet
by Fremy and Verneuil Rubies are also produced by

and a little CÔs for several minutes at a temperature
an electric oven
of
melting AfaOs
of 2250
in
In recent years reconstructed rubies have become a recognized article

These are crystalline drops of ruby material made by
commerce
melting tiny splinters and crystals of the mineral in an
electric arc
Alundum is an artificial corundum made by subjecting the aluminium

hydroxide, bauxite, to an intense heat (5ooo-6ooo)
an
electric
furnace.
Corundum usually occupies veins in crysembedded in basic intrusive rocks and in granular

talline rocks or is
limestone
The
rounded crystals
sapphire varieties are also often found as partially

brook beds
The varieties found in
in the sands of
igneous rocks are primary crystallizations from the magmas producing

the rocks. The varieties in limestones are the result of metamorphic
processes
Localities
Upper Burma
Sapphires are obtained mainly from the limestone of

They are known also to occur in Afghanistan, in Kash-
mir and in Ceylon

They are occasionally found in the diamond-bearing
Wales and in the bed of the Missouri River, near
of
New
South
gravels
In
Montana
the United States sapphire is mined near the
Helena,
in
River
Fergus Co and in Rock Creek in Granite Co., Mont.,
Judith
,
where
and is
occurs in a dike of the dark igneous rock known as monduquite,

washed from the placers of three streams in the same State. The
it
only southern mines that have produced gem material are at Franklin
these not any great quantity of stones of
,
and Culsagee, N. C and from
gem quality have been taken

The largest sapphire crystal
ever found was taken, however, from
From one of
is blue, but opaque.
these mines, also, came the finest specimen cf green sapphire (Oriental
emerald) ever found
Corundum in commercial quantities occurs on the coast of Malabar,
one of them
It weighs 312 Ib
158
Siam, near Canton, China, and in southeastern Ontario, Canada.

obtained from several of the Grecian Islands, more particularly
Emery is
Naxos, and from Asia Minor
It is
mined
in the
United States at Chester,
Mass, and at Peekskill, N Y Crystallized corundum occurs near

at Greenwood, Maine, at Warwick and Amity, N Y
Litdxfield, Conn
m Patrick Co Va at Corundum Hill and at
at Mineral Hill, Penn
,
N C
and at \ anous points in Georgia, at

In all the localities within the
all of which places it has been mined
on
the peripheries of masses of
United States the corundum occurs
Laurel Creek,
Macon
Co.,
pendotite (ohvine rocks)

Uses
Corundum, emery and alundum, after crushing and washing,
the manufacture of cutting wheels.
are used as abrasives and
The amount
Production.
of sapphire
Most
produced in the United States

was used for mechanical
1912 was valued at $195,505

purposes, but 384,000 carats were used as gem material
Most of the corundum used in the United States is imported from
Canada, where it occurs in Hakburton, Renfrew and neighboring counof it
through the coarse-grained crysas syenite, nephelme syenite and anorthosite
ties in Ontario, as crystals scattered
talline rocks
Most
of $6,652
known
emery is also imported Only 992 tons with a value

The imports of corundum and emery
were mined in 1912
of the
were valued at $501,725, but the importation of these substances
is
gradually diminishing because of the rapid increase in the amounts

In 1912 the production
of alundum and carborundum manufactured
of
alundum reached
13,300,000 Ib valued at $796,000,
THE DIOXIDES
THE KONMETALLIC DIOXIDES
There are but few dioxides of the nonmetals that occur as minerals,
and only one of these, quartz, is abundant
SILICA
GROUP
Silica (SiOa) occurs in nature in four or five important modifications as follows.
a Qmrtz,
j8
tngonal-trapezohedral class, below 575.
and below 870

pseudohexagonal habit. Hex-
Quartz, hexagonal-trapezohedral class, above 575
Tridymite,
rhombic bipyramidal,
agonal above 117.

Cristobdite, tetragonal system, pseudocubic habit
140.
Isometric above
OXIDES
159
Chalcedony is regarded by many mineralogists as a form of quartz,

its index of refraction for red
light is n=i 537, which is noticeably
lower than that of either ray in quartz, which is
i 5390, e=i
5480
Its hardness also is a little less than that of
for the same color
quartz.
but
Some
mineralogists believe that
all
of these properties
may be
explained
on the assumption that the mineral is a mass of fine quartz fibers,

perhaps
mixed with other substances, but those \vho have
investigated it by
high temperature methods are inclined to regard it as a distinct mineral
Quartz (Si0 2 )
Quartz vies with

minerals
calcite for the
It is very abundant,
commanding position among the

and appears under a great variety of
FIG 69
FIG
70.
FEG 69
Quartz Crystal Exhibiting Rhombohedral Symmetry

oili (s) and
R, loTb (m)
R, loir
FIG 70
Ideal (A) and Distorted (B) Quartz Crystals Bounded
by same Forms
m Fig
forms
Often
it
(r),
R,
as
69
At other times
occurs in distinct crystals
as grains without distinct crystal forms, and again
it
it
appears
constitutes great
massive deposits
Pure quartz
consists of
46 7 per cent
Si
and
Mass-
53.3 per cent (X
ive varieties often contain, in addition, some opal (Si(OH)4), and traces
of iron, calcite (CaCOs), clay, and other impurities
The crystallization of quartz is in the trapezohedral tetartohedral

division of the hexagonal system (trigonaUrapezohedral class), at temperatures below 575.
metry
When
formed above
this
temperature
its
sym-
The former is known as
is
hexagonal trapezohedral (hemihedral).

a. quartz, and the latter as jS quartz.
They readily pass one into the
other at the stated temperature. The axial ratio is i : i.i. The prin-
_
cipal forms observed are
+R(ioii),
-R(om),
2P2
oo
R(ioio),
(1121),
160
(Fig 74)
Although these
hedrons
Etch Figures on
FIG 71
ferences
in
72
Group
series of steep
rhombohedrons and trapezo-
may all be tetartohedral
Two
Symmetry
(After Penfidd
FIG
and a
since
he geometrical
Quartz Crystals of the Same Form, Illustrating DifB Left-Hand Crystal

Right-Hand Crystal
of Quartz Crystals with Distorted
Mineral Company
Rhombohedral Faces
(Foote
forms of the first four are not distinguishable from the corresponding
hemihedral ones, the crystals possess a rhombohedral symmetry (Fig.
69).
The
=
angle ioTiA"iioi 85
46'
OXIDES
161
-R
+R
and the
faces are equslly de\
eloped so that they
to
to
the hexagonal pyramid P (Fig
belong
appear
Their true
yoA)
Often the
character, ho\\ever,
produced on the
is
clearly
+R
brought out by etching, when figures are

that are differently situated with
and the
-R
respect to the edges of the faces (Fig 71) On the other hand,
faces are very much enlarged at the
crystals some of the
the others (Fig 72)

The crystals are
of
FIG 74
Tapenng Quartz
r, z,
FIG 74
Often they are so dis-
commonly pnsmatic
FIG 73
FIG 73
\ Combination
Crystal with Rhombohedral Symmetry
B Cross-section near Top.
m and Two Steep Rhombohedrons
Quartz Crystals Containing ooR, iolo (m), R, loll
and
on many
expense of
/,
sin
-/, sT6"i (*)
),
on A, and
r,
1121
(r),
),
R, oiTi
r,
(s),
510*1 (*)
onB
torted that
it is
difficult
to detect the position of the c axis (Fig
The stnations on oo R(ioTb) are, however, always parallel to

708)
When these are sharply marked the
the edges between R and ooR
axis is easily recognized
Many crystals
of the c axis
This tapering is due to
ends
the
taper sharply toward
rhombohedrons
oscillatory combination of the prism ooR with
position of
the vertical
(Fig- 73)-
The habits of the crystals vary with the crystallization of the quartz.
On
crystals of the
and
phase the
+R and R faces are equally developed
trigonal trapezohedrons are absent.
The
crystals are hexagonal in
162
Crystals of the a phase usually exhibit marked differences in

the size and character of the rhombohedral planes, and trigonal trape-
habit
zohedrons
in habit
The
may be
present on
them
Such
crystals are usually trigonal
and prismatic
small
2
(1121) faces on
all
types of crystals (Fig
74) are
and +R. By
always striated parallel to the edge between this plane
R This is a
the
from
can always be distinguished
their aid the
from
cut
since
matter of some practical importance
quartz crystals
plates
possess the power of rotating a ray of polarized light. The plates cut
+R
C
FIG 75
is
known
D
One
fall
a combination of
Supplementary Twins
and B
in
of
Quartz
Fig 74 twinned about
*>
P2(ii2o)
This
is
as the Brazil law
a combination of two crystals like B twinned about c as the twinning axis

with reference to the others, thus causing the r and s faces to
E is a twin like D, showing portions of planes belonging
Swiss law
together
is
is
revolved 60
It contains also the
to each individual
form
s.
from some
crystals turn the ray to the right; those cut from others turn
to the left
Crystals that produce plates of the first kind are known
as right-handed crystals, those that produce plates of the second kind as
it
left-handed crystals. Since this property of quartz plates is employed

in the construction of optical instruments for use
the detection of
sugars and certain other substances in solution it is important to be

able to distinguish those crystals that will yield right-handed plates from
those that will yield left-handed ones
when the
Observation has shown that
_
(1121) faces are in the upper right-hand corner of the oo
+R
the crystal is right-handed

When
plane immediately beneath
these faces are in the upper left-hand corner of this oo
plane the crystal
OXIDES
In either case, when
left-handed
is
p2
-2
between
(1121)
and the
oo
163
(5i5i)
is
present
it
occurs
R face beneath +R
Interpenetration t\\ms of quartz are so common that few crystals

can be observed that do not exhibit some evidence of
thinning (Fig 75).
The twinning plane is oo R, so that the c axes in the twinned individuals
are parallel and, indeed, often coincident

The
faces and the oo
faces practically coincide in the twinned parts so that the
crystals
The twinning
resemble untwinned ones
is
exhibited
R on bright areas of +R faces and by breaks in

on
striations
oo
by
dull areas of
the continuity of the
Other twinning laws have also been observed in quartz, but their
discussion as well as the more complete discussion of the mineral's
In the most common of
crystallization must be left for larger treatises
these other laws the individuals are thinned about
See Fig
P2(ii22).
The
76
fracture of quartz
ness is 7
and density
65
is
conchoidal
Its hard-
Its luster is \itreous, or
sometimes greasy Pure specimens are transparent

or colorless, but most varieties are colored by the
addition of pigments or impurities
When the
coloring matter is opaque it may be present in
sufficient quantity to render the mineral also
opaque ^
FlG
76
Quart!
j ofr
some xwmned about
and
p 2 (n22)
pale shade in colored varieties. The mineral is pyroelectric and circularly polarizing as described above
on.
The
It
is
streak
an
IT-
is colorless in
pure
varieties,
electric insulator at
ordinary temperatures
Its refractive
indices for yellow light are: o>= i 5443, = i 5534

Quartz resists most of the chemical agents except the alkalies. It
dissolves in fused sodium carbonate and in solutions of the caustic
HF and
to a very slight degree in water,

When
especially in water containing small quantities of certain salts
at
into
the
heated to 575 the a variety passes
/3 variety,
870 both
alkalies
It
is
also soluble in
varieties pass into tndymite, and at 1470 the tndymite passes over into
Gradual fusion occurs just below 1470.
cristobahte.
The varieties of quartz have received many different names depend-
are put. They

ing largely upon their color and the uses to which they
and
into
convenience
crystalline varicrystallized
may be grouped for
eties
The
are:
principal crystallized varieties
164
Rock
crystal,
distinct crystals
the colorless, transparent variety, that often forms

This is the variety that is used in optical instruments
Lake George diamonds, rhmestones and Brazilian peb-
It includes the
bles
Amethyst, the violet-colored transparent variety.

Rose quartz, the rose-colored transparent variety.
Citrine or false topa~, a yellow and pellucid kind
quartz or Cairngorm stone, a smoky yellow or smoky brown
variety that is often transparent or translucent, but sometimes almost
Smoky
opaque.
The last four varieties
are used as gems, the Cairngorm stone being a
popular stone for
mourning jewelry
M^lky quartz is the white, translucent or opaque variety such as so
"
commonly forms the gangue m mineral veins and the material of quartz
Sag&mte
is
Aventurine
rock crystal including acicular crystals of rutile

is rock crystal spangled with scales of some micaceous
mineral
The puncipal
crystalline varieties are
Chalcedony a very finely fibrous, transparent or translucent waxyIts color is

looking quartz that forms mamillary or botryoidal masses
other
blue
or
some
delicate
shade
The
is always
water
that
white, gray,
,
present in
it is
believed to be held between the minute fibers,
be combined with the
Carnehan
is
the
and not to
silica (see also
name given
p 159)
to a clear red or
brown chalcedony
Chrysoprase is an apple-green chalcedony

Prase is a dull leek-green variety that is translucent
Plasma
differs
from prase in having a brighter green color and in
being translucent
Heliotrope, or lloodstone,
is
a plasma dotted with red spots of jasper.

gems or as ornamental
All of the colored chalcedonies are used as
stones
Agate is a chalcedony, or a mixture of quartz and chalcedony vaneThe commonest agates have the colors arranged in
gated in color
"
"
fortification agate
in which the
bands, but there are others, like
,
colors are irregularly distributed, and still others in which the variation
"
"
in color is due to visible inclusions, as in
The different
moss-agates
bands in banded agates often
differ in porosity.
This property is taken
The agate is
advantage of to intensify the contrast in their colors
soaked in oil, or in some other substance, and is then treated with chemicals that act upon the material absorbed by it
Those bands which
OXIDES
165
have absorbed the greater quantity of this material become darker

color than those that have absorbed less
On) %
is
in
a very evenly banded agate in which there is a marked conCameos are onyxes in one band of which figures are
trast in colors
cut,
band to form a background

is
an
Sardonyx
onyx in which some of the bands consist of carnelian.
is usually red and white.
Flint, jasper, hornstone and touchstone are very fine grained crystalline
leaving another
It
aggregates of gray, red or nearly black mixture of opal, chalcedony and

quartz
They are more properly rocks than minerals Chert is an im-
pure flint
Sandstone
is a rock composed of sand

grains, most of tthich are
cemented
calcite
or
some
other
substance. When the
quartz,
by clay,
cement is quartz the rock is a quartzite Oilstones, honestones and some
whetstones are cryptocrystalhne aggregates of quartz, very dense and

homogeneous, except for tiny rhombohedral cavities that are thought to
have resulted from the solution of crystals of calcite

ally believed to be beds of metamorphosed chert
They
are gener-
Syntheses
Crystallized quartz has been made in a number of ways,
both from superheated aqueous solutions and from molten magmas
Crystals have been produced by the action of water containing ammonium fluoride upon powdered glass and upon amorphous Si02, and
by heating water in a dosed glass tube to high temperatures The
separation of crystals from molten magmas is facilitated by the addition
of small quantities of a fluoride or of tungsten compounds.
Quartz occurs as an essential constituent of
many crystalline rocks such as granite, gneiss, etc., and as the almost sole
component of certain sandstones It constitutes the greater portion of
most sands and the material of many veins. It also occurs as pseudomorphs after shells and other organic bodies embedded in rocks, having
replaced the original substance of which these bodies were composed.
It is also one of the decomposition products of many silicates. It may
thus be primary or secondary in origin. It may result from igneous or

aqueous processes, or it may be a sublimation product.
its distribution that only a
referred to in this place.
be
can
very few of its most interesting localities
from
come
The finest specimens of rock crystals
Dauphine, France;
Localities
Quartz
is
so widely spread in
and in the United

Carrara, in Tuscany, the Piedmont district, in Italy,
N.
Little
Y.; the Hot Springs,
States from Middleville, and
Falls,
Alexander
in
Co., N. C. Smoky quartz
Ark v and from several places
is
found in good
at Pans,
crystals in Scotland,
Me.;
in Alexander
166
Co
C and in the Pike's Peak region of Colorado The handsomest
amethysts come from Ceylon, Persia, Brazil, Nova Scotia and the
Rose quartz occurs in large quantity
country around Lake Superior
at Hebron, Pans, Albany and Georgetown, Me
Fine agates and carnehans are brought from Arabia, India and Brazil.
,
are abundant in the gravels of Agate Bay and of other bays and
on
coves
the north shore of Lake Superior
Chalcedony is abundant in the rocks of Iceland and the Faroe Islands,
in those on the northwest side of Lake Supenor, and in the gravels of
They
the Columbia, the Mississippi and other western rivers

The other valuable varieties of the mineral occur largely in the Far
East
Agatized, or sihcified, wood of great beauty exists in enormous quanIt is also found in
tity in an old petrified forest near Cornzo, Ariz
the Yellowstone Park, near Florissant, Colo , and in other places in the
This wood has had all of its organic matter replaced molecule for molecule by quartz in such a manner that its original structure
Far West.
has been perfectly preserved

Rock crystal is used more or
Uses
Smoky
less extensively
m the construc-
and
in the manufacture of cheap jewelry

quartz, amethyst, onyx, carnehan and heliotrope stones are
tion of optical instruments
used as gems, and agate, prase, chrysoprase and rose quartz as ornamental stones
Milky quartz, ground to coarse powder, is employed in the manufacture of sandpaper. Its most extensive use, however, is in the manufacture of glass and pottery
Earthenware, porcelain and some other
varieties of potter's ware are vitrified mixtures of clay and ground
"
quartz, technically known as "flint

Ordinary glass is a silicate of
calcium or lead and the alkalies, sodium or potash
It is made by
melting together soda, potash, lime or lead oxide and ground quartz or
A pure quartz glass
quartz sand, and coloring with some metallic salt
is now being made for chemical uses by
melting pure quartz sand
In the
Quartz is sometimes used as a flux in smelting operations
form of sandstone,
it is
employed
it is used as a
building stone,
in various building operations
quartzites (very hard

for lining furnaces
The
and in the form of sand

Bncks cut from dense
and compact sandstones) are often employed
uses of honestones, oilstones, and whetstones are indicated
by
their names.
Production
Many
varieties of quartz are
Slates to serve various uses*
Vein quartz
produced in the United
is
crushed and employed
OXIDES
in the manufacture of
paper and abrasives
wood
It
is
filler,
167
paints, pottery, scouring soaps, sand-
also used in
making ferro-silicon, chemical

ware, pottery, sand-lime brick, quartz glass, etc
The total quantity
produced for these purposes in 1912 was 97,874 tons, valued at
$191,685
The
largest quantity of quartz produced
is
in the
form of sand, of
which 38,600,000 tons were marketed in 1912 at a valuation of

$15,300,ooo
Sandstone, valued at $6,900,000, was quamed for building and
paving purposes
Oilstones, grindstones, millstones, etc., which are
made from special varieties of sandstone, were produced to the value of
$1,220,000
Gem
quartz obtained in 1912 was valued at about $22,000. This

comprised petrified wood, chrysoprase, agate, amethyst, rock crystal,
quartz, rose quartz, and gold quartz (white quartz containing
particles of gold).
smoky
THE METALLIC DIOXIDES

The
metallic dioxides include the oxides of
tin, titanium, manganese

Of these the manganese dioxide may be dimorphous, and the
titanium dioxide is-tnmorphous. A dioxide of zirconium is also* known,
baddeleytfe, but it is extremely rare. The mineral zircon (ZrSiO4) is
often regarded as being isomorphous with cassttente (Sn02) and rutile
and lead
(Ti02) because of the similarity in the crystallization of the three minThe three, therefore, are placed in the same group, in which
erals
must be regarded as salts of metallic acids, thus: Ti02 =TiTiO4,

SnO2=SnSn04, zircon =ZrSi04 Other authorities regard zircon as an
isomorphous mixture of Ti02 and Si02. In this book zircon is placed
with the silicates and the other minerals are considered as oxides.
The two manganese dioxides are poliantfe and pyrolusite. The former
It is possible, however, that
is tetragonal and the latter orthorhombic
the crystals of pyrolusite are pseudomorphs and that the substance is a
case
all
mixture of poliamte and some hydroxide, as
about
it
nearly always contains
per cent HgO.

The three titanium oxides are ridde, which is tetragonal; brookitc,
which is orthorhombic, and anatase or octakednte, which is tetragonal.
2
Although
rutile
and anatase
crystallize in the
same system,
their axial
ratios are different, as are also their crystal habits and their physical
few of these differences are indicated below:
properties.
Rutde
Anatase
a:c=i:
.6439;
-1:1.7771;
Sp. Gr. =4-283;
Sp. Gr. =3.9
= 2.6158;
$= 2.9029.
^=2.5618; ^=2.4886.
168
Of the
made
tliree
modifications of titanium dioxide, anatase
may
be
Brookite requires a higher

is producible at both
high
at a comparatively low temperature
temperature for its production, but rutilfc

and low temperatures Under the conditions of nature both brookite
and anatase pass readily into rutile

Of the seven dioxides discussed, four
are
members
of a single
group
RUTILE GROUP
The
group consists of four minerals apparently completely

:
isomorphous, though no mixed crystals of any two have been discovered
rutile
All crystallize in the tetragonal system (ditetragonal bipyramidal

with the same forms and with closely corresponding axial ratios
names of the members of the group and their axial ratios follow
Cassitente (Sn02)
Ruttle
(Ti02 )
Pohamte (Mn02)
Plattnente (PbOa)
Cassiterite
brown
=i
=i
=i
=i
The
6726
6439
'
6647
'
6764
(Sn0 2 )
Cassiterite, or tinstone, is the only
rolled pebbles of a dark
class),
worked ore
of tin
It occurs as
color in the beds of streams, as fibrous
aggregates, and as ghstemng black crystals associated with other minerals in veins
The
analyses of cassitente indicate it to be essentially an oxide of

a stanyl stannale ((SnOJSnOa), with the composition,
tin, or, possibly,
Sn=78.6 per cent; 0=2i 4 per cent. The mineral nearly always consome iron oxide and often oxides of tantalum, of zinc or of arsenic
The presence of iron and tantalum is so general that most crystals of
tains
be regarded as isomorphous mixtures of (SnO)(SnOs)

Fe(SnOs) and Fe(TaOs)2- Thus, a crystal from the Etta Mine in the
Black Hills, S. D, gave Sn02=9436; FeO-i62, Ta2 5 =242 and
cassitente
may
8102=100, indicating a mixture of 5 pts of Fe(TaOs)2, 18 pts. of

Fe(SnOs) and 303 5 pts of (SnO)(SnOs).
The crystals of cassitente have an axial ratio of i ,6726. They are
usually short prisms in habit
They often consist of the simple combination P(in) and POO(IOI) (Fig 77), or of these forms, together
with sPf (321) and various prisms (Fig 78). Twins are common, the
:
1
An isomorphous mixture of the rutile and cassitente molecules has recently
been described from Greifenstem, Austria, but its existence has not yet been con-
firmed
twinning plane being
P oo
OXIDES
169
When
the individuals twinned have
(101)
small prismatic faces the resulting combination is often called a visor

twin (Fig 79), because of its supposed resemblance to the vitor of a
helmet
By
repetition of the twinning very complex groupings are
The angle in
produced
A * ^*
58
19'
FIG 77
Cassitente Crystal with P,
FIG. 77.
FIG
Cassitente Crystal with
78.
The
s,
cleavage of cassitente
P(III)
Its fracture
some dark shade
By
FIG 78
of
is
and
FIG 79
and
its
(s)
no (m),
and P
101
fc)
o P2, 210 (A),

3pJ,
321
(=).
and of the crystals black

brown or black Its luster is very
gray or brown. The purest specimens
reflected light,
transmitted light, the mineral
brilliant,
P,
imperfect parallel to oo P oo (100) and

The color of the massive mineral is
is
uneven
brown by
streak is white,
Cassitente Twinned about
is
(101),
o=ooPoo,ioo A=*VisorTwin.
Their
are nearly transparent, though the ordinary varieties are opaque
The mineral is a nonconhardness is about 6 5 and density about 7
ductor of electricity
Its refractive indices for yellow light are: w
= 1 9965,
6=2.0931.
Three varieties of cassitente are recognized, distinguished by physical

The ordinary variety known as tinskme is crystallised
characteristics
170
or massive.
structure
Wood
tin is a botryoidal or
and composed
remform variety, concentric
of radiating fibers
The
in
third variety is stream

the beds of streams
This consists of water-worn pebbles found

that flow over cassitente-bearmg rocks
tin
It may be reduced
only slightly acted upon by acids
even
when mixed
with
to a metallic globule of tin only
difficulty,
on
heated
charcoal.
with sodium carbonate and
With
intensely
borax it yields slight reactions for iron, manganese or other impurities
Cassitente
is
When
placed in dilute hydrochloric acid with pieces of granulated zinc,

fragments of cassiterite become covered with a dull gray coating of
metallic tin which can be burnished by rubbing with a doth or the hand
When rubbed by
the hand the odor of tin in contact with flesh
is
easily
detected.
The mineral
resemble
is
most
easily distinguished
from other compounds that
in appearance by its high density

treated with reagents or before the blowpipe
it
Syntheses
and
its
inertness
when
Crystals of cassiterite have been obtained by passing

of tin chloride or tin fluoride through red-hot porcelain
steam and vapor

tubes,
and by the
action of tin chloride \apor
upon lime
Occurrence and Origin. Tinstone is found as a primary mineral in

coarse granite veins with topaz, tourmaline, fluorite, apatite and a great
number of other minerals It also occurs impregnating rocks, sometimes
replacing the minerals of which they originally consisted. In these
In many places it
cases it is the product of pneumatolytic processes.
constitutes a large proportion of the gravel in the beds of streams
Localities
and Production
The
crystallized mineral occurs at
many
places in Bohemia and in Saxony, at Limoges in France and sparingly

in a few places in the United States, especially near El Paso, Texas,
in Cherokee Co., N. C , in Lincoln Co , S C and near Hill City, S
Massive tinstone and stream tin occur in laige enough quantities to be

mined in Cornwall, England, on the Malay Peninsula and on the islands
lying off its extremity; in Tasmania; in New South Wales, Victoria
and Queensland, Australia; in the gold regions of Bolivia, at Durango

in Mexico, and at various points in Alaska, at some of which there,
are 400 Ib. of cassiterite in a cubic yard of gravel.
The
principal tin ore-producing regions of the world are the Straits,
district, including
the
Malay Peninsula and the
islands of the
Malay
Archipelago; Australia; Cornwall, England, the Dutch East Indies, and

Bolivia* Of the total output of 122,752 tons of tin
produced
1911,
61,712 tons were made from the Straits ore, 25,312 tons from the ore
produced in Bolivia and 16,800 tons from Banka ore. Of the total
OXIDES
171
quantity of tin produced about 78 per cent is said to come from stream
tin and 22 per cent from ore obtained from veins. The
quantity
obtained from ore mined in the United States in
included 61 tons
igu
from Alaskan stream
and two tons from the tinstone mined in the

Franklin Mountains near El Paso, Texas
Mines have been opened in
San Bernardino Co California, and in the Black Hills, South
Dakota,
but they have not proved successful
The mines at El Paso,
are
tin
Texas,
not yet fully developed, although they promise to be

profitable in the
near future
The crystals are scattered through quartz veins and
through a pink granite near the contacts with the veins
The average
This is concentrated to a 60 per
per cent
cent ore before being smelted
The production during 1912 was 130
tons of stream tin from Buck Creek, Alaska
This was valued at
composition of the ore
is 2
In the following year 3 tons of cassitente êre shipped from

S
C The imports of tin into the United States during 1911
Gaffney,
were 53,527 tons valued at more than $43,300,000
$124,800.
Enaction
The
tin is extracted
from the concentrated ore by the
Alternate layers of the ore and charcoal

simple process of reduction
are heated together in a furnace, when the metal results
This collects
in the
bottom of the furnace and is ladled or run out
refined
The crude metal is
by remeltmg m special refining furnaces
Uses of the Metal
The metal
tin is
employed principally
for coating
other metals, either to prevent rusting or to pre\ent the action upon

them of chemical reagents Tin plate is thin sheet iron covered with
tin
Copper
for culinary purposes
is also
often co\ ered with this metal
It is used also extensively in forming alloys with copper, antimony,

bismuth and lead Among the most important of these alloys are
bronze, bell metal, babbitt metal, gun metal, britanma, pewter and soft
solder
Its alloy, or amalgam, with mercury is used in coating mirrors.
Tin oside is an imthe arts
Several of its compounds also find uses
The chlorides are used extenportant constituent of certain enamels
"
bronze
sively in dyeing calicoes, and the bisulphide constitutes
"
"
for
bronzing plaster,
powder or mosaic gold," a powder employed
wood and metals

Rutile (Ti02)
Rutile is one of the oxides of the comparatively rare element titanium.

dark brown opaque cleavable masses and in brilIt occurs commonly
liant black crystals
and 60 per cent TL Nearly all

40 per cent
some
addition
in
contain
iron, occasionally as much
specimens, however,
Pure
rutile consists of
172
as 9 per cent or 10 per cent, which

and FeTiOs in solid solution
Rutile
is
is
probably due to the admixture
of
Its axial ratio
is
cassiterite
perfectly isomorphous with
planes observed on its crystals are practically

6439
Twins aie common,
the same as those observed on cassiterite (Fig 80)
i
The pnncipal
with
P oo
(Fig 81
(101) the twinning plane
This twinning
or
repeated, producing elbow-shaped groups (Fig 82),
FIG
o P,
Rutile Crystals with
So.
>P3> 3io (0,
no (m),
p3
oo
p oo
100
FIG 81
tition
The
is
Rutile Eightling
Rutile
oo
3?
often
yoi
(e),
P, 111(5),
FIG 82
Twinned about P
Twinned about P
wheel-shaped aggregates (Fig 83)
twinning plane
P oo
is
further repe-
313 (0 an d 3PJ, 321 00
FIG 81
FIG 82
(a),
by
(301")
crystals are prismatic
(Fig 84)
oo (101)
oo
(101)
Elbow Twin
In another
The
angle
and even sometimes
common law
in A iTx
56
acicular in habit.
the
52^'
Their
prismatic planes are vertically striated
The
cleavage of rutile
so parallel to oo
The
mineral
brown by
Many
P oo
is
is
quite distinct parallel to oo
P(no) and
less
(100)
reddish brown, yellowish brown, black or bluish

and sometimes deep red by transmitted light,
leflected light
specimens are opaque but some are translucent to transparent.
OXIDES
The
173
latter are often pleochroic in tints

varying
The
blood-red
6 to 6 5 and
its
streak
is
density about
ordinary temperatures
o>= 2 6030, =2 8894.
Rutile
infusible
is
pale
and microcosmic
and
Its
brown
42
It is
refractive
insoluble.
between yellow and
The hardness
an
electric
indices
of the mineral
is
nonconductor at
for yellow light are:
Its reactions with beads of
borax
salt are usually
obscured by the iron present

When
this metal is present only in small quantities the microcosmic salt bead
is colorless while hot, but violet when cold, if it has been heated for some
time in the reducing flame of the blowpipe
The most
fusing
characteristic chemical reaction of rutile
FIG 83.
FIG 83
FIG 84
Rutile Cyclic Sixling Twinned about
Rutile Twinned about 3?
an excess
of hydrochloric acid
heating for some
Upon
This
color.
Some
may be
much
obtained upon
is
Elbow Twin
(301)
o
ioi
(101)
Forms
P2, 210
(A),
(e)
and adding to the

little
solution small scraps of

a violet
time, the solution assumes
a universal test for the metal titanium
of the dark red
and reddish brown massive
confounded with some
harder.
in
FIG 84
and P
tin
is
with sodium carbonate on charcoal, dissolving the fused mass
it
varieties of rutile
varieties of garnet, which, however, are
Its density, its infusibihty
and the reaction
for titanium
serve to characterize the mineral perfectly

Pseudomorphs of rutile after hematite and after brookite and anatase have been described
Syntheses.
By the
It often changes into ilmenite
reaction between
and sphene.
TiCU and water vapcr in a
red-
hot porcelain tube, crystals of rutile are formed. Twins are produced
by submitting precipitated titanic acid in a mass of molten sodium tungstate to a temperature of 1000 for several weeks.
Rutile is often found as crystals embedded
the quartz or feldspar of granite and other igneous
in limestone and
174
slates, and as grams in the rock known

rocks, as long acicular crystals
It occurs also as fine hair-like needles penetrating quartz,
as nelsomte
"
fleches d'amour," and as grains in the
forming the ornamental stone
When
sand
primary it is probably always a
regions
gold-bearing
either
of
crystallizing from a molten magma
magmatic processes,
product
or being the result of pneumatolysis.
Handsome
Localities
Norway,
land
Mass
in Tyrol,
and
crystals of the mineral occur at Arendal, in

Gothard and in the Binnenthal, Switzer-
at St
In the United States large crystals have been obtained at Barre,

at Sudbury, Chester Co Penn ; at Stony Point, Alexander Co
,
at Graves
Nelson Co
Mt
in Georgia,
at
Magnet Cove,
in Arkansas,
and
Va. In the latter place it occurs in large quantity as

The rock condisseminated
through a coarse granite rock
crystals
It constitutes the
taining about 10 per cent of rutile is mined as an ore
in
second type
principal source of the mineral in the United States
of occurrence in the same locality is a dike-like rock, nelsomte, composed
of ilmemte
and
apatite, in
which the ilmemte
is
in places
almost
completely replaced by rutile

Uses
The mineral is not of great economic importance It is used
in small quantity to impart a yellow color to porcelain and to give an
It is also used in the manufacture of the
ivory tint to artificial teeth.
alloy ferro-titamum which is added to steel to increase its strength
Recently the use of titamferous electrodes in arc lights, and the use of
titanium for filaments in incandescent lamps ha\e been proposed Some
of the salts of titanium are used as dyes
of the ferro-titamum
made
titamferous magnetite
Production
The only rutile
came from Roseland, Nelson
and others
the United States
mined
in the
is
as
mordants
Most
manufactured from
United States during 1913
amounted to 305 tons of

Co., Virginia.
concentrates containing about 82 per cent TiOs
At the same time there
were separated about 250 tons of ilmemte (see p 462)
It
Polianite (MnCÎ is usually in groups of tiny parallel crystals and

as crusts of crystals enveloping crystals of manganite (MnO OH). Their
'
axial ratio is i
The color of the mineral is iron-gray. Its streak
6647
black, its hardness 6-6 5 and density 4 99. It dissolves in HC1 evolvIt is distinguished from pyrolusite by its greater hardness
ing chlorine
is
and its lack of water The mineral is extremely rare, being found in
measurable crystals only at Platten in Bohemia
It occurs in pseudoafter
at
a
number
of
other
morphs
manganite
points
Europe and at a
few points elsewhere, but in most cases it has not been
dearly distin-
OXIDES
175
The
guished from pyrolusite
rarity of its crystals is regarded by some

mineralogists as being due to the fact that in most of its occurrences
poliamte
is colloidal (a gel)
(PbO 2 )
Plattnerite
is
usually massive, but
crystals near Mullan in Idaho
Their axial ratio
it
occurs in prismatic
:
6764
They are
is i
usually bounded by oo P oo (100), 3? oo (301), P oo (101), oP (ooi) and

The mineral is found also in crusts Its color is
often IP (33 2)
iron-black and its streak chestnut-brown
It is brittle and is easily fusible before the blowits density 86
It yields a lead
pipe, giving off oxygen and coloring the flame blue
It is difficultly soluble in HNOs, but easily soluble in HC1 with
bead
Plattnente is found at Leadhills and at Wanlock"

"
and
at
the As You Like Mine near Mullan, Idaho.
head, Scotland,
evolution of chlorine.
Pyrolusite
often the result of the alteration of the hydroxide, manPyrolusite
or
of
pohamte. The few measurable crystals that have been
gamte,
is
studied seem to indicate that their form
is
pseudomorphic after the
The change by which manganite may pass over into pyrohydroxide

lusite is represented by the reaction 2MnO(OH)-f-0=2Mn02+H2O.
may be, however, only a slightly hydrated form of poliamte.

An analysis of a specimen from Negaunee, Mich., gave
Pyroiusite
MnO
CaO
BaO
79 46
17 48
18
38
SiOa
18
Limomte
.31
HgO
Total
99 93
94
Pyrolusite, as usually found, is in granular or columnar masses, or in

It is a soft, black mineral with a hardness of
masses of radiating fibers
Its luster is metallic and its
only 2 or 2 5 and a density of about 4.8
streak black
It is a fairly
good conductor of
electricity.
reactions of this mineral are practically the same as those of

pohanite and manganite (see p 191), except that only a small quantity
The
is obtained from it by heating.

Upon strong heating it yields
oxygen, according to the equation 3Mn02=Mn3+3Q2The manganese minerals are easily distinguished from other minerals
by the violet color they give to the borax bead and by the green prxjduct
of water
obtained
when they
are fused with sodium carbonate.
distinguished from manganite

amte by its softness
by
its
physical properties,
Pyrolusite is
and from
176
worked at Elgersberg, near Ilmenau in

at Flatten in Bohemia,
Thuringia, at Vorder Ehrensdorf in Moravia,
m
the Valley of Virginia
and
at Batesville, Ark
at CartersviUe, Ga
Localities
-Pyrolusite
is
manganiferous
lusite is
tities of
silver ore containing considerable quantities
of pyro-
mined in the Leadville district, Colorado, and large quanmanganiferous iron ores are obtained in the Lake Superior
region
Uses
which
it is
Pyrolusite, together with the other

mixed, is the source of nearly all the
manganese ores with

manganese compounds
Some of the ores, moreover, are argentiferous

employed in the arts
From these silver and zinc are extracted The
zinc
contain
others
and
most important use of the mineral is in the iron industry. In this indusis obtained from mantry, however, much of the manganese employed
and
The
iron
ores
ferro-manganese are
alloys spiegeleisen
gamferous
an
iron
of
used
in
the
casting car
production
employed very largely
wheels.
It is extremely hard
The manganese minerals
and tough
also used in glass factories to neutralize the green color
are
imparted to glass
by the ferruginous impurities m the sands from which the glass is made
They are also used m giving black, brown and violet colors to pottery
and some of their salts are valuable mordants Pyrolusite, finally, is the
principal
compound by the
aid of which chlorine and oxygen are pro-
duced.
Production
of
manganese
Carolina and
also
The United
States in 1912 produced about 1,664 tons

valued at $15,723, and all came from Virginia, South
California
In previous years the ores had been mined
ores,
m Arkansas, Tennessee and Utah
Moreover, there were imported
into the country 300,661 tons, valued at $1,769,000

Nearly all of this
was used in the manufacture of spiegeleisen The domestic product was
used in the chemical industries largely in the manufacture of manganese

Of the manganiferous iron ores about 818,000 tons were produced
brick
ui 1912
tion
These were
utilized
was used as a flux.
gated about 48,600 tons,

ores.
Nearly
all
of this
iron, though a large porof manganiferous silver ores aggre-
mainly as ores of
The product
all of which was used as a flux for silver-lead

came from Colorado In addition there were
imported iron-manganese alloys valued at $3,935,000.
Anatase and BrooMte
As has already been stated, the compound Ti02 is trimorphous, one

form being orthorhombic and the two others tetragonal
Of the latter,
one has already been described as rutile
The other is anatase, or octahednte.
The orthorhombic form
is
known
as brookite
Anatase and
OXIDES
177
rutile are
separated because of the difference in their axial ratios and in

the habits of their crystals
Both are ditetragonal bipyramidal, but
a : c for rutile is i : 6439 and for anatase i i
Brookite is
7771
orthorhombic bipyramidal with a : b c- 8416 : i : .9444.
.
Both anatase and brookite have the same

which
is
empirical composition,
similar to that of rutile
Crystals of anatase are usually sharp pyramidal with the form P(in)
predominating (Fig 85), blunt pyramidal with |P(ii3) or $P(ii7)
Twins are
predominating (Fig 86), or tabular parallel to oP(ooi)
common in some localities, with P oo (101) the twinning plane. The
in A iTi
angle
82
aBS
The mineral is
91'
colorless
and transparent,
or dark blue, yellow,
brown
FIG 86
Anatase Crystal with P in (p)
Anatase Crystal with fP, 113 (s), P, in (p), IP, 117
FIG 85
FIG 86
oo
P oo
100 (a) and
or nearly black and almost opaque

yellow.
P GO
101
fr);
o (*),
(t)
Its streak is colorless to light
Its cleavage is perfect parallel to
P and oP and
its
fracture
between 5 and 6 and its density is 3.9. This

increases to 4 25 upon heating to a red heat, possibly due to its partial
The mineral is insoluble in acids except
transformation into rutile
conchoidal
Its hardness
is
hot concentrated EkSO-i.
It is
a nonconductor of electricity.
Its
w=
2 5618, e= 2 4886
indices of refraction for yellow light are
Brooktte crystals are usually tabular parallel to oo P 60 (too)
and
Nearly all crystals are

elongated in the direction of the c axis
striated in the vertical zone
Although many forms have been identiIn some cases this is
fied on them, by far the most common is P2(i22)
the only pyramidal form present, as in the type known as arkanstie
Twins are rare, with oo 2(210) the twinning plane. The
(Fig. 87)
angle
in AiTi
==:
64
17'.
178
Its color
opaque, translucent or transparent
red, to black (arkansite)
Its clea\age is imperfect parallel to
brownish yellow
may be
Brookite
vanes from yellowish brown, through brownish

Its streak is
oo
Poo
(101),
and
its
5-6 and density about

rutile
fracture
4,
uneven or conchoidal
Upon
heating
its
Its hardness
is
density increases to that of
Its refractive indices for yellow light are
a= 2
5832,
#= 2
5856,
about 1560, and is insoluble in acids

7=2 7414
chemical
The
properties of both brookite and anatase are similar
rutile
of
to those
They are distinguished from rutile by their physical
It fuses at
properties and their crystallization

Both brookite and anatase alter to rutile
Upon
Syntheses
FIG
heating TiFi with water vapor at a temperature
Brookite Crystals with coP, no (w), JP, 112 (z) and PsT, 122
combination m and e is characteristic for \rkanbitc
(e)
The
below that of vaporizing cadmium, crystals of anatase are produced.

If the temperature is raised above the point of vaporization of cadmium
and kept below that
of zinc, crystals of brookite result
Brookite and anatase occur as crystals on the walls of

clefts in crystalline silicate rocks and in weathered phases of volcanic
Occurrence
rocks. They are mainly pneumatolytic products, the production of the

one or the other depending upon the temperature at which the TiCfe was
deposited
Localities
Fine brookite crystals are found at St
Gothard,
in
Switzerland, at Pregrattan, in the Tyrol, near Tremadoc, in Wales,

at Miask, in Russia, and at Magnet Cove, Arkansas
Anatase crystals are

occur at
many
less
common than
those of brookite but they
points in Switzerland, especially in the Binnenthal,
near Bourg d'Oisans, France, at many points in the Urals,

Russia, in
the diamond fields of Brazil, and at the brookite occurrences
Arkansas,
CHAPTER VIE
*
THE HYDROXIDES
THE
hydroxides, as has already been explained,
The group
replaced.
salts containing
A few of the
Diaspore, for
/0-H
Al<
be looked upon
includes several minerals of economic importance,
among which is the fine gem mineral

water when heated in a glass tube, but
do
may
m which only a portion of the hydrogen has been
as derivatives of water,
All the hydroxides yield
opal
they do not yield
it
as readily as
water of crystallization
hydroxides
is
instance,
may
act as acids forming salts with metals
an hydroxide
of
which appears to be able to form
aluminium A10-OH, or
salts, at least,
the chemical
composition of some of the members of an important group of minerals,

the spinels, may be explained by regarding them as salts of this acid
(seep 195)
Opal (Si0 2 +Aq)
The
true position of opal in the classification of minerals
doubtful
From
made
the analyses
it
is
somewhat
appears to be a combination of
amorphous silica and water, or, perhaps, a mixture of silica in some form
and a hydroxide of silicon The percentage of water present is variable.
In some specimens
colloid, in
in
an earthy
When
ever,
it is
as low as 3 per cent, while in others
which the water

It occurs only
of SiCfe.
and
it is
The mineral
as 13 per cent
is,
is
not known in crystals.
in part at least, mechanically held in
play of color in
gel
condition.
and the
gem
opal
The red and yellow varieties con-
green, prasopd,
is
some nickd compound
due to the interference of
The
light rays reflected
sides of thin layers of opal material with different densities
from that of the

is
Usually, howpure the mineral is colorless and transparent

colored some shade of yellow, red, green or blue, when it is
tain iron oxides
of opal
as high
m massive form, in stalactitic or globular masses
translucent or sometimes even opaque.
from the
it is
It is probably
mam mass of the mineral they traverse. The hardness
5 5-6 $
yellow light,
and
n= 1.4401,
its
density about
It is
2.1
Its refractive index for
a nonconductor of
179
electricity.
180
The principal varieties of opal are

Precwus
opal,
a transparent variety exhibiting a delicate play of
colors,
Fire opal, a precious opal in which the colors are quite brilliant
shades of red and yellow,
a bluish white translucent opal with reddish reflections,

Common opal, a translucent variety without any distinct play
Girasol,
of
colors,
Cachalong, an opaque bluish white, porcelain-like variety,
a transparent, colorless variety, usually

globular or
botryoidal masses, and
Siliceous sinter, white, translucent to opaque pulverulent accumulations and hard crusts, deposited from the waters of geysers and other
Hyalite,
hot springs.
Tnpolite and infusorial earth are pulverulent forms of silica in which
Tripoli is a light porous siliceous
opal is an important constituent
the leaching of calcareous material
from
resulted
have
to
rock, supposed
from a
Infusorial earth represents the remains of
siliceous limestone
certain aquatic forms of microscopic plants known as diatoms

Flint and Chert are mixtures of opal, chalcedony and quartz
All vaneties of opal are infusible and all become opaque when heated
boiled with caustic alkalies some varieties dissolve easily, while
When
others dissolve very slowly.
Syntheses
Coatings of material like opal have been noted in glass

had not been opened for
flasks containing hydrofluosilicic acid that
several years
solution of
Opal has also been obtained by the slow cooling of a
silicic
Occurrence
It also
stones
occurs
as deposits around hot springs

is embedded in certain lime-
forms veins in volcanic rocks and
and
slates,
siliceous spicules
tion
acid in water.
The mineral
where
and
It also results
it is
probably the result of the solution of the

low forms of Me and subsequent deposi-
shells of
from the solution of the
calcite
from limestones
containing finely divided silica

It is not an uncommon alteration product of silicates
It seems to
have been deposited from both cold and hot water
Localities.
Precious opal is found near Kashan, in Hungary, at
Zimapan, Quaretaro, in Mexico, in Honduras, in Queensland and
New South Wales, Australia, and in the Faroe Islands Common opal is
abundant at most of these localities and is found also in Moravia,
Bohemia, Iceland, Scotland and the Hebrides

quantity at several places
m New
York,
New
Hyalite occurs in small

Jersey,
North Carolina,
HYDROXIDES
Georgia and Florida, and
Calaveras Co California
common
opal, at Cornwall, Perm.,
and
in
Common opal and vaneties exhibiting a little
fire
181
have recently been explored
in
Humboldt and Lander Counties,
Nevada Siliceous sinter is deposited at the Steamboat Springs in

Nevada and geysente (a globular form of the sinter) at the mouths of the
geysers in the Yellowstone National Park
The
precious and fire opals are popular and handsome gems

wood, i e , wood that has been changed into opal in such a
Uses
Opahzed
manner as to retain its woody structure, is often cut and polished for use
as an ornamental stone
Infusorial earth, a white earthy deposit of
microscopic shells consisting largely of opal material, possesses manv
It is employed in the manufacture of soluble glass,
uses
polishing
"
powders, cements, etc and as the body," which, saturated with nitroglycerine, composes dynamite, Tripoli, a mixture of quartz and opal,
,
used as a wood
is
manufacture of
filler,
in
making
stones.
paint, as
an abrasive and
in the
The
principal sources of commercially

valuable opal material in the United States are the opalized forest in
Apache
kirk,
filter
Co., Ariz
Md
the infusorial earth beds at Pope's Creek and DunNapa Co Cal at Virginia City, Nev
various places in
and at Drakesville, N. J., and the tnpoh beds in the neighborhood

and the adjoining portion of Illinois
Stella, Mo
of
Production
The total
during 1912 was valued
quantity of infusonal earth and tnpoh mined

The aggregate value of precious
at $125,446.
opal obtained in 1912 was $10,925.

Arizona.
Brucite
TluTcame from
California
and
(Mg(OH) 2)
Brucite is the hydroxide of magnesium. It is a white, soft mineral

usually occurring in crystals or in foliated masses
Analyses of the mineral correspond very closely to the formula
Mg(OH) 2 which requires 41 38 per cent Mg, 27 62 per cent and 31.00
per cent EkO, though they usually show the presence of small quantities
of iron
and manganese
MgO
FÔ3
67.64
82
specimen from Reading, Perm., yielded:
MnO
63
H2O
3
92
Total
I0
OI
The crystallization of brucite is hexagonal (ditrigonal scalenohedral),

c=i 1.5208 The crystals are tabular in habit in consequence of
:
the broad development of the basal plane oP(oooi). The other forms
The angle
present are R(ioli), -^(0441) and -fRCoiTj) (Fig. 88)
roll A 7ioi = 97
38'.
182
to oP(ooi), and folia

cleavage of brucite is very perfect parallel
Its hardness
mineral is sectiie
The
flexible
are
off
be
split
may
to
bluish and
Its color is white, inclining
is 2 5 and its density 2 4
Brucite is transparent to
oP
on
luster
its
and
pearly
greenish tints,
It is pyroelectnc and a nontranslucent
The
that
Its refractive indices
for red light are
==
* 579
559
tube
In the closed
brucite, like other hyThe mineral is infusiwater
droxides, yields
When
ble
FIG
88
with
Brucite Crystal
heating, it
oR, ocoi (<0, R,
After
intensely heated, it glows
When moistened
reacts alkaline
mfo cobalt mtrate solution and heated,

Pmk
micas
by
turns
m many respects gypsum, talc, diaspore and some
It is distinguished
talc
it
the characterlstlc reaction for magnesium

pure mineral is soluble in acids
The
Brucite resembles
from
from diaspore and mica by
its solubility in
acids
Gypsum
test for sulphur will sufficiently characterize
its
hardness and
a sulphate, hence the
is
it
Crystals have been made by precipitating a solution of
Synthesis
chloride with
magnesium
an
alcoholic solution of potash, dissolving the
KOH
and allowing to cool

precipitate by heating with an excess of
Brucite is usually associated with other
magnesium minerals It is often found in veins cutting the rock known
as serpentine, where it is probably a weathering product, and is sometimes found in masses in limestone, especially near its contact with
igneous rocks
It occurs crystallized in one of the Shetland Islands, at
Localities
at Woods Mine, Texas,
the Tilly Foster Iron Mine, Brewster,
Perm , and at Fritz Island, near Reading, in the same State
N Y
Gibbsite (A1(OH) 3 )
Gibbsite, or hydrargillite, is utilized to some extent as an ore of aluIt occurs as crystals, in granular masses, in stalactites and in
minium
fibrous, radiating aggregates
Its theoretical
34.59 per cent
H2
composition demands 6541 per cent AkOs and

Usually, however, the mineral is mixed with bauxite
(AlsO(OH)4) and in addition contains also small quantities of

magnesium, silicon and often calcium
Crystals are
29!'.
monodmic with a
Their habit
is
tabular,
1=1.709
918 and
iron,
=85
Besides the basal plane, oP(ooi), the
HYDROXIDES
two most prominent forms are
plates have hexagonal outlines
to the base
Twinning
is
so
Poo ( I00 )
183
ancj aop( IIO
Thus the
They ha\e a perfect cleavage parallel

common, \\ith oP(ooi) the twinning plane
The mineral has
a glass} luster except on the basal plane where its

It is transparent or translucent, Tvhite, pink,
green or
luster is pearly
It is
and
Its streak is light, its hardness is 2-3
gray
a nonconductor of
= 15347, 7=15577
specific gravity 2
electricity.
35
a =8
Its refractue indices are
When
heated before the blowpipe the mineral exfoliates, becomes

white, glows strongly but does not fuse
Upon cooling the heated mass
is hard enough to scratch glass
The mineral dissolves slowly but comhot HC1 and in strong HaSOi, and gives a blue color when
pletely
moistened with Co(NOs)2 solution and heated.

Gibbsite resembles most closely bauxite, from which
its
structure
It differs
it
is
distin-
from umelhte
guished principally by
(p. 287),
which it also sometimes resembles, in the absence of phosphorus.
Syntheses
Crystals of gibbsite have been made b\ heating on a
water bath a saturated solution of Al(OH)s in dilute ammonia until

of the
ammonia
evaporates, and
hjdroxide from a
warm
all
also
by gradually precipitating the

alkaline solution by means of a slow stream
ofCO2
The
Occurrence
mineral rarely occurs in pure form
It is
veins and in cavities in various schistose and igneous rocks.
found in
It is prob-
ably a weathering product of aluminous silicates.

Localities
Gibbsite has been reported as existing in small quantities
at various points
Europe, near Bombay, India, and at several places
in South America
mond, Mass
at
and Africa. In the United States it occurs at RichUnion Vale, Dutchess Co N Y., and mixed with
,
bauxite at several of the occurrences of this mineral (see page 186).

Uses. It is mined with bauxite as a source of aluminium.
Limonite (Fe4 O 3 (OH) b)

is an earthy or massrve reddish brown mineral whose
It is an
and
crystallization are but imperfectly known
composition
"
"
hematite
brown
the
trade
in
ore
called
iron
important
Limomte
The analyses of limomte range between wide limits, largely because

of the great quantities of impurities mixed with it. The formula demands 59 8 per cent Fe, 25 7 per cent and 14.5 per cent water, but the
percentages of these constituents found in different specimens only
approximately correspond to these figures Many mineralogists regard
184
Fte 89
Limonite Stalactites in Silverbow Mine, Butte, Mont
Era 90
Botiyoidal
Lunomte
(After
WH
Weed )
HYDROXIDES
limomte as
colloidal goethite
(FeO
OH
>
185
with one molecule or more of
The
upon temperature
principal impurities are clay,
sand, phosphates, silica, manganese compounds and organic matter
The great variety of these is thought to be due to the lact that the
EfeO, depending
hmonite, like other
gels, possesses the po\\er of
absorbing compounds
from their solution, so that the mineral is in reaht> a mixture of colloidal iron h\ dro\ide and \ anous compounds which differ in different
occurrences
The
mineral occurs in stalactites (Fig 8g\ in botiyoidd forms tFig

in
90),
concretionary and clay-like masses and often as pseudomorphs
after other minerals and after the roots, lea\es and stems of trees
Limomte
specimens
varnished
is
is
brown on a
fresh fracture, though the surface of mc.ny
co\ ered \uth a black coating that is so lustrous as to appear

Its streak is yellowish brown
Its hardness is a little o\ er
its density about 3.7.

The mineral is opaque and its luster is dull,
or
almost
metallic
according to the ph\sical conditions of the specsilky
imen. Its index of refraction is about 25
It is a nonconductor of
and
electricity
The
varieties recognized are.
fibrous forms,
ocherous, the
compact,
brown or
the stdactitic
and other
yellow ecrthy, impure variety,
bog iron^ the porous variety found in marshes, pseudomorphing leaves,

etc , and brown clay ironstone, the compact, massive or nodular
form.
In its chemical properties limomte resembles goer tie, from ^hich it

can be distinguished only with great difficulty except when the latter is
From uncrystalhzed varieties of goethite it can usually be
in crystals
distinguished only by quantitative analysis, although in pure specimens
the streaks are different
Occurrence and Origin. Limonite is the usual result of the decomConsequently, it is often found
position of other iron-bearing minerals
in pseudomorphs. In almost all cases 'ahere large beds of the ore occur
the material has been deposited from ferriferous water nch in organic
"
One of the commonest types of occurrence is gossan."
substances
In the production of this type of ore, those portions of veins carrying
ferruginous minerals are oxidized under the influence of oxygen-bearing
waters, forming a layer composed largely of limonite which covers the
upper portion of the veins and hides the original vein matter Gossan
ores denved from chalcopynte and pynte are common in all regions in
which these minerals occur Another type of limonitic ore comprises
In such
those found in clays derived from limestones by weathering
deposits the ore occurs as nodules and in pockets in the day.
Ores of
186
this type are
tains
in the valleys within the Appalachian Mounswamps and lakes into which ferruginous
common
iron ores occur in
Bog
may come from pynte or iron silicates

When carried down it
lakes or swamps
The
solutions drain
iron
drainage basins of the

dized by the air and sinks to the bottom
Localities
mineral occurs abundantly and in many different

most important American occurrences are extensive
The
The
localities
in the
is oxi-
beds at Salisbury and Kent, Conn , at many points in New Jersey,

Pennsylvania, Michigan, Tennessee, Alabama, Ohio, Virginia and
Georgia
Uses
its
Although containing less iron than hematite, on account of

in the furnace, brown
cheapness, and the ease with which it works
hematite
is
an important ore
The earthy
of this metal
used as cheap paints
The
Production
yield of the United States
mines for 1912 was a

largest yields were
little
over 1,600,000 tons
Alabama
\arieties are
"
brown hematite "

Of this amount the
749,242 tons
398,833 tons
171,130 tons
Virginia
Tennessee
The
quantity of ocher produced in the United States during the same

Most of it
year amounted to about 15,269 tons, valued at $149,289
came from Georgia In addition, 8,020 tons were imported. This
had a value
of $148,300
Bauxite (A12 O(OH) 4)

Bauxite, or beauxite, like
hmomte,
is
probably a colloid
At any
unknown
in crystals
Until recently it possessed but little
It is now, however, of considerable, importance as it is the prinvalue
cipal source of the aluminium on the market
rate
it is
The mineral
is
mula Al20(OH)4
apparently an hydroxide of aluminium with the forwhich 26 i per cent is water and
2H20
or Al2 0s
73 9 per cent alumina (Al2 0s), but
and diaspore
it
may
be a colloidal mixture of the
190) molecules, or of various hydroxides,

since its analyses vary within wide limits
sample of very pure
gibbsite
(p
material from Georgia gave on analysis
A12 O3
62 46
Fe2
Si02
Ti02
81
4 72
23
H2 O
31 o^
HYDROXIDES
1ST
Bauxite occurs in concretionan grains (Fig 91*, m earthy,

clay-like
forms and massu e, usually in pockets or lenses in cia\
resulting from the
It is \\hite when
weathering of limestones or of s\emte
pure, but as
usually found
is
yellow, gra>
red or brown in color,
opaque and has a colorless or very

and its hardness anywhere between
Before the blowpipe bauxite
FEG. 91
is
light streak.
i
and 3
infusible
Pisohtic Bauxite, from near
Its
is
translucent to
densitx is
Its luster is dull.
In the closed'tube
Rock Run, Cherokee Co
it
55
It is
yields
Ala.
water at a high temperature. Its powder when intensely heated with a

few drops of cobalt nitrate solution turns blue. The mineral is with
difficulty soluble in hydrochloric acid.
Bauxite in
some cases may be a deposit from

hot alkaline waters, but in Arkansas it is a residual êathenng product
of the igneous rock, syenite. It occurs in beds associated with corundum,
minerals.
clay, gibbsite and other aluminium
Large deposits of the ore occur at Baux, near Aries,
at Antrim, IreFrance, near Lake Wochem, in Carniola, in Nassau;
between
Jacksonville, Fla., and Cartersland, in a stretch of country
Localities.
188
ville,
Ga
in Saline
and Pulaski Counties, Ark
m Wilkinson Co
Ga
and near Chattanooga, Tenn

is mined by pick and shovel, crushed and
some cases, dried and broken into fine particles
The fine dust is separated from the coarser material, and the latter,
This changes the
which comprises most of the ore, is heated to 400
is
iron compounds to magnetic oxide which
separated electro-magThe concentrate contains about 86 per cent of AfaOb This
neticaJly
is then purified and dissolved in a molten flux, in some cases cryolite,
and is subjected to electrolysis The quantity of aluminium made in the
United States during 1912 was over 65,600,000 Ib valued at about
$17,000,000. The value of the aluminium salts produced was about
The
Preparation
washed
ore
It is then, in
$3,000,000.
Bauxite (or more properly the mixture of bauxite and gibbsite) is practically the only commercial ore of aluminium which, on
account of its lightness and its freedom from tarnish on exposure, has
Uses
become a very popular metal

ployed in castings
of ornaments
employed
and
where
light
for use in various directions
weight
is
desired
and
in the
of plates for interior metallic decorations
in the steel industry, and, in the
mission of electricity
The mineral
is
form of
It
is
em-
manufacture
It
is
also
wire, for the trans-
also used in the
manufacture of
making alundum (artificial corundum), and bauxite

brick for lining furnaces, and in the manufacture of paints and alloys.
Production
The bauxite mined in the United States during 1912
amounted to about 159,865 tons valued at $768,932, the greater portion
aluminium
salts, in
coming from Arkansas
This
is
about two-thirds the value of the pro-
duction of the entire world
Psilomelane
Psilomelane
of
manganese
is
probably a mixture of colloidal oxides and hydroxides
in various proportions
In most specimens there
is
notable percentage of BaO or 20 present, and

others small quantities
of lithium and thallium. The barium and potassium components are
thought to have been absorbed from their solutions

The substance occurs in globular, botryoidal, stalactitic, and massive
forms exhibiting, in many instances, an obscure fibrous structure
Its
and its streak brownish black and

and specific gravity 4.2
Psilomelane is infusible before the blowpipe, m some cases coloring
the flame green (Ba) and in others violet (K). With fluxes it reacts for
color is black or brownish black
glistening.
Its hardness is 5 5-6
HYDROXIDES
manganese. In the closed tube
with evolution of chlorine
it
189
yields water.
It is soluble in
HC1
from most other manganese oxides and hydroxides

hardness.
by
greater
Occurrence
Psilomelane occurs in veins associated with pyrolusite
and other manganese compounds, as nodules in clay beds, and as
coatings
It is distinguished
its
on many mangamferous minerals
In
all
cases
it is
probably a product
of weathering
It is found in large quantity at
Locahties
Elgersburg in Thuringia;
at Ilfeld, Harz, and at various places in Saxony. In the United States
it occurs with pyrolusite and other ores of
manganese at Brandon, Vt ;
in the James River Valley, and the Blue Ridge region of Virginia; in
northeastern Tennessee; at Cartersville, Georgia, at Batesville, Arkansas, and in a stretch of country about forty miles southeast of San
Francisco, California.
ore of manganese
At many
of these points
it
has been mined as an
Wad
Wad
is
soft, earthy,
black or dark brown aggregate of manganese
compounds closely related to psilomelane

It occurs in globular, botryoidal, stalactitic,
flaky
and porous
m some cases, are so light that they float on water.
It
masses, which,
also occurs in fairly compact layers and coats the surfaces of cracks,
often forming branching stains, known as dendntes
Wad contains more water than psilomelane, of which it appears

often to be a decomposition product. More frequently it results from
It is particularly
the weathering of manganiferous iron carbonate
abundant in the oxidized portions of veins containing manganese
bonates and
car-
silicates
Wad is easily distinguished from all other soft black minerals, except
pyrolusite^
by the reaction for manganese, and from all other manganese

From pyrolusite it is
its softness
compounds, except pyrolusite, by

distinguished
by
its
content of water.
It occurs in
Localities
most
of the localities at
which other man-
ganese compounds are found.
DIASPORE GROUP
diaspore group comprises the hydroxides of aluminium, iron
and manganese, possessing the general formula R'"O(OH). They are
the hydrogens in BfeO is replaced
regarded as hydroxides in which one of
/7/
O
thus:
H, diaspore These
H, water, A10
0,
by the group
The
190
three
acids
compounds from a chemical viewpoint, may be looked upon as the

whose salts comprise the spinel group of minerals, which includes
among others the three important ore minerals magnetite, chromite and
Of the three members of the diaspore group the manganese
frankhnite
and iron compounds are valuable ores All are orthorhombic, in the
rhombic bipyramidal
class.
Diaspore (AIO(OH))
Diaspore is found in colorless or light colored crystals, in foliated
masses and in stalactitic forms
Its
composition
Fro 92
is
theoretically 85 per cent
Diaspore Crystals
210
PS5,
(A),
on
(e),
oo
P So oio
,
?2, 212
(fi)
(s),
oo
,
Pj
AbOs and
130
ooPl, 120
(s)
GO
,
HgO, though analyses show it to contain, in addition,

and silicon A specimen from Pennsylvania yielded.
A12
8095
H2
Fe2 0s
14 84
3 12
53
(m),
150 (),
usually,
Si02
i
no
P,
P<j,
(/),
15 per cent
some
iron
Total
100 44
Other specimens approach the theoretical composition very closely

In crystallization the mineral is orthorhombic (rhombic bipyramidal
b . c= 9372 . i : 6039
The crystals are usually prisclass), with a
The principal
matic, though often tabular parallel to oo P 56 (oio)
planes observed on them are oo Poo (oio), a series of prisms as
Pa (210), oP3(i3o), the dome PQ&(OII) and several

The planes of the prismatic zone are often verstriated
The angle no A i Io-86 if
ooP(no),
pyramids
tically
The
oo
(Fig. 92)
cleavage of diaspore is very distinct parallel to the brachypmacoid. Its fracture is conchoidal and the mineral is very brittle,
Its hardness is about 6 5 and density 3 4
The luster of the mineral is
on
the
where
it is pearly.
Its color
vitreous, except
cleavage surface,
HYDROXIDES
varies widely, though the tint
is
always
191
light
and the streak
colorless
The predominant shades are bluish white, grayish white, yellowish or

The mineral is transparent or translucent It is a
greenish white
nonconductor of
Its refractive indices for

yellow light are
electricity
=1
722, 7
a=
1702, j8=i
750
In the closed tube diaspore decrepitates and gives off water at a high
It is infusible and insoluble in acids.
When moistened
temperature
with a solution of cobalt nitrate and heated it turns blue, as do all other
colorless
aluminium compounds
In appearance, diaspore closely resembles Irucite (Mg(OH)s), from

which it may be distinguished by its greater hardness and its aluminium
reaction with cobalt nitrate
Synthesis
Crystal plates of diaspore have been made by heating at
a temperature of less than 500, an excess of amorphous AfeQs in sodium
At a higher temperature corundum
hydroxide, enclosed in a steel tube
resulted.
Occurrence
Diaspore occurs as crystals implanted on corundum
and other minerals, and on the walls of rocks in which corundum is
It is probably in most cases a decomposition product of other
found
aluminium compounds
In Ekaterinburg, Russia,
Localities
At Schemnitz, Hungary,
it
is
occurs in veins
it
associated with emery.

found also in the
It is
Canton of Tessin, in Switzerland, at various places in Asia Minor, and

on the emery-bearing islands of the Grecian Archipelago. In the
it is associated with corundum, at Newlin, Chester Co
with emery at Chester, Mass at the Culsagee corundum mine,
near Franklin,
C and at other corundum mines in the same State.
United States
Penn
Manganite (MnO(OH))
Manganite usually occurs
crystals and in stalactites.
The formula MnO(OH)
in
groups of black columnar or prismatic
Mn
requires 27 3 per cent 0, 62 4 per cent

and 10 3 per cent water.
7 per cent
MnO
and 10 3 per cent water, or 89
In addition to these constituents, the mineral commonly contains also
some
iron,
An
magnesium, calcium and often traces of other metals.
analysis of a specimen from Langban, in Sweden, yielded:
Mn2O3
88 51
The
8441
Fe2
23
MgO
i
51
CaO
H2O
Total
62
9 80
100 67
orthorhombic crystals of the mineral have

:
,5448
The
crystals are nearly
all
an axial ratio a
columnar with a
series
192
of pnsms,
oo
among which are
Pîo) and
P(uo), and the two
oo
lateral
P a (100)
terminated by oP(ooi) or by
pinacoids oo P 06 (oio) and 8
Cruthe domes P 06 (on), P 06 (101), and pyramids (Figs 93 and 94)
ciform and contact twins, with the twinning plane P oo (on), are not
uncommon
(Fig
The
bundles
Cleavage
The
fracture
and
Mangamte
Crystal
with
ooP,
no(w), oP,ooi (c)

and P 55 ioi ()
,
its
prismatic surfaces are

crystals are often in
less perfectly
is
and the
iTo=8o 20'
angle no
well defined parallel to oo
and
is brilliant,
FIG 93
is
The
95)
vertically striated
developed parallel to
The
uneven
almost metallic
streak reddish
P 06
(oio)
ooP(no)
luster of the mineral

Its color is iron-black
brown or nearly black
It
usually opaque but in very thin splinters it is

sometimes brown by transmitted light. Its hardis
ness is 4 and density about 4

Mangamte yields water
in the closed tube
and
3.
The mineral
colors the
is
borax bead
amethyst m the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe.
In the reducing flame,

upon long-continued heating, this color disappears The mineral dissolves in hydrochloric acid with the evolution of chlorine.
It is dis-
FIG 94
Group
of Prismatic
Mangamte
Crystals from Lfeld, Hare.
tinguished from other manganese minerals
by
its
hardness and crystal-
lization.
By
loss of
water mangamte passes readily into pyrolusite (MnCfe).
It also readily alters into other
Synthesis.
Upon
and
damn
chloride
manganese compounds
heating for six months a mixture of manganese

caarbonate fine crystals like those of
mangamte
HYDROXIDES
have been obtained
Their composition, howe\er, was that of haus-
manmte, indicating that

to
193
mangamte was produced,
\\hile
hausmanmte during the
it
was changed
process.
ManOccurrence, Localities and Origin

in old volcanic rocks,
It is found at Ilfeld
gamte occurs in veins

and also in limestone
in the Harz, at Ilmenau in Thurmgia, and

at Langban in Sweden, in handsome cns-
tals
occurs at the
it
Jackson and the Lucie iron mines, Xegaunee,

Mich , and in Douglas Co Colo
It is _
FIG 05
Manoamte Crvstal
,
'
A
also abundant at ârlous places m New
Tvvmned abjut P ^ QII ^
Brunswick and Nova Scotia
In all cases
The torms are =c P notmj,
,
it is
a residual product of the weathering of
=cP3,i2o./;andP3 31315)
manganese compounds.
Mangamte is used in the production of manganese compounds.
Uses
As mined
usually mixed with pyrolusite, this being the

portant portion of the mixture
it is
most im-
Goethite (FeO(OH))
This mineral, though occasional!}- found
blackish
brown
usually occurs in radiated globular and botryoidal masses

of specimens from Maryland,
and from
Fe2 0s
Maryland
86 32
Lostwithiel
89 55
Mn2 Q3
Lostwithiel, in Cornwall, gave-
H 2O
SiCb
10 So
16
crystals,
Analyses
10 07
Total
88
too oo
28
100 06
89.9 per cent Fe2Qs and 10 i per cent

o
and 10 i per cent HaO
cent
Fe,
27
per cent
62.9 per
The formula FeO(OH) demands
H2O or
Like diaspore and mangamte, goethite is orthorhornbic, its axial

Its crystals are prismatic or
: b : c=
9185 : i : .6068
The forms observed
acicular with the prisms plainly striated vertically
ratio being a
are commonly oo P 06 (oio), QO PS(2io\ oo P(no), P 06 (on) and P(rii).

The angle no A 1*10=85 8'.
The deavage of goethite is perfect parallel to oo P 06 (oio) and its
hardness is 5 and density about 4.4. Its color is

or blackish brown and its luster almost
reddish
usually yellowish,
In thin splinters it is often translucent with a blood-red color
metallic
fracture
uneven
Its
and a refractive index of about

is an electric nonconductor.
2 5
Its streak
is
brownish yellow.
It
194
The chemical
reactions of the mineral are about the
water when heated
same as those
of
in the closed
tube
hematite, except that it yields
By this reaction it is easily distinguished from the fibrous varieties of
hematite, as it is also by its streak
Needles of goethite are produced by heating freshly
at 100
precipitated iron hydroxide for a long time
is
Goethite
usually associated with other
Synthesis
ores of iron, especially in the upper portion of veins, -where
by
It is
weathering.
Clifton,
it is produced
found near Siegen in Nassau, near Bristol and
England, and in
at Lostwithiel
large, fine crystals
and other
places in Cornwall
In the United States it occurs in small quantity at the Jackson and

at Salisbury, Conn
the Lucie hematite mines in Negaunee, Mich
at Easton, Penn and at many other places
,
Uses
Goethite is used as an ore of iron, but in the trade
with limomte as brown hematite
it is
classed
CHAPTER DC
THE
ALU3IIXATES, FERRITES, CHROMITES \XD
MAXG \XITES
MOST
of these compounds are salts of the comparative!} uncommon

HA1O2, HFeOo and HCrCb, \\hich may be regarded as metaacids
derived from the corresponding normal acids by the abstraction of water,
thus. HsAlOs H2O=HAlOo
There are onh a few minerals belongOne, magnetite, is an ore of
ing to the group but they are important
iron, another, chronute, is the principal ore of chromium and two others
are utilized as gems
Most of them are included in the mineral group
acids
known
as the spmels
(Compare p 189
That there is a manganese acid corresponding to the metaacids of AI,
Fe and Cr is indicated by the fact that in some of the spinels manganese
replaces some of the fernc iron, as, for example, in frankhmte. This
suggests that this mineral is an isomorphous mixture of a metafernte
and a salt of the corresponding manganese acid (HMnCb) This may
be regarded as derived from the hydroxide, MnfOH)s, by abstraction
of H2 O, thus- H3 Mn03-H2CMHMnO.>. But there are other manNormal manganous acid is MnfOH)^, or H4Mn(>4 If
ganous acids
from this one molecule of water be abstracted, there remains H2ÎnOs,
The manganous salt of the normal acid,
the metamanganous acid
the
as
occurs
hausmannite, and the corresponding
mineral,
Mn2MnQi,
)
MnMnOs,
salt of the metaacid,
as the mineral, braunite.
SPINEL GROUP
The spinels are a group of isomorphous compounds that may be

regarded as salts of the acids AIO(OH), MnO(OH), CrO(OH) and
FeO(OH), in which the hydrogen is replaced by Mg, Fe and Cr.
Al
CX
as
be
AfeQ*
may
regarded
magnetite,
Thus, spinel, Mg-
yMg,
Cr O-Ov
||
Ov
Fe
Fe3 O4 as
,
>Fe;
II
clromite, FeCx&O*, as
frankhmte, as
(Fe
||
)>Fe,
and
Cr-O-CK
Fe-O-(X
(Fe Mn)-O-<X
y>(Zn-Mn
Mn)-0-CK
195
Fe).
Chemical compounds of
196
numerous, but only a few occur as minerals

The most important are the three important ores mentioned above,
spinel is of some value as a gem btone
this general
type are
fairly
The
spinels
crystallize
the holohedral divi-
in
sion of the isometric system (hexoctahedral class),

in well defined crystals that are usually combinations of
0(ui) and ooO(no), with the
some
ooQoo
etc
FIG 96
Spinel
of
addition on
(100), 303(311), 202(211), 50^(531),

Contact twins are so common with
the
twinning plane, that this type of twinning
Twin
referred to as the spinel twinning (Fig
The complete list
of the
known
Ceylomte (pleonaste)
96).
spinels is as follows.
Mg((Al Fe)02 ) 2
(Mg Fe)((Al Fe-Cr)02) 2
Fe(A102 ) 2
Zn(A102 ) 2
(Zn Fe Mn)((Al Fe)0 2 ) 2
(Zn Fe Mg) ((Al Fe)O2 ) 2
Fe(Fe02 ) 2
CJdorspinel
Picotite
Hercynite
Gahmte
Dysluite
Krwttomte
Magnetite
Jacobsite
Mg(Fe0 2 ) 2
(Fe ZnMn)((Fe Mn)O2 ) 2
(Mn Mg)((Fe Mn)0 2 ) 2
Chromite
(Fe
Magnesiofernte
Frankhmte
Spinel
Ordinary spinel
is
often
Mg(A102 ) 2
(Mg Fe)(A102 ) 2
Spinel
tains 28 3 per cent
is
Mg)(Cr Fe)02 ) 2
(Mg(AlO 2) 2 )
the magnesian alummate, which,

and 71 7 per cent
when
pure, con-
MgO
AfeOa
Usually, however, there are present
admixtures of the other isomorphs so that
analyses often indicate Fe, Al and Cr
The
mineral
usually
occurs
in
isolated
The forms
simple crystals, rarely in groups
observed on them are 0(m), ooO(no) and
303(311), and rarely
oo
oo (100)
(Fig 97)
FlG
spinel is colorless or
of pink or red, brown or blue, and
is usually transparent or
translucent, though
The pure magnesium
some shade
opaque
varieties are not rare
97
Spinel
Crystal
an
J^'Q
^r)"
3I1
Its streak is
white
3'
It possesses
a glassy
ALUMINATES, FERRITES, ETC

luster,
ness
is
color
197
and a conchoidal fracture, but no distinct cleavage Its hard8 and its density 3 5-3 6
\ary with the
n for yellow light is i 7150 for red spinel and i 7201 for the blue
variety.
The mineral
is easily
Spinel
tallization
by
its
is infusible
before the blowpipe and
is
unattacked by
It yields the test for magnesia with cobalt solution
acids
and hardness
by its cnsfrom pale-colored garnet

infusibility, and its failure to
It is distinguished
blowpipe reactions, especially
its
respond to the test for Si02
The
best
known
varieties are:
Precious spinel, which is the pure magnesian aluminate. It is transparent and colorless or some light shade of red, blue or green. The
Its
bright red variety is known as ruby spinel and is used as a gem
color is believed to be
due to the presence of chromium oxide
easily distinguished from genuine ruby by the

refracting and not pleochroic.
The
best ruby spinels
come from Ceylon, where they occur
sand associated with zircon, sapphire, garnet,
Common
spinel differs
fact that it is not
It is
doubly
loose in
etc.
from precious spinel

and alumina.
that
it is
translucent.
It usually contains traces of iron
Both these
and crystalline
varieties of spinel occur in
metamorphosed limestones
schists.
The spinels have been made by heating a mixture of

Syntheses
AkOs and MgO with boracic acid until fusion ensues, and by heating
Mg(OH)2 with AlCls in the presence of water vapor
Origin
Spinel has been described as an alteration product of corunIt is also a primary component of igneous rocks and
garnet
dum and
a product of metamorphism in rocks nch in magnesium
Uses
Only the transparent ruby spinels have found a
are employed as gems
Ceylonite, or pleonaste,
has been replaced by Fe,
is
,
is
use.
These
a spinel in which a portion of the Mg

an isomorphous mixture of the magne-
((Mg Fe)(AlO2)2) It is usually black

or green and translucent, and has a brownish or dark greenish streak
and a density =3 5-3 6
sian
and
iron aluminates, thus
The analysis of a sample

Co Mont., gave,
separated from an igneous rock in Madison
A12O3
62 09
FeO
MgO
17 56
15 61
CraOs
2 62
Fe^ MnO
2 10
tr
CaO
16
SiOa
55
Total
100 69
198
Ceylomte occurs in igneous rocks m the Lake Laach region,

Germany, and m the Piedmont district, Italy and elsewhere, m metamorphosed limestones at Warwick and Amity, N Y m the limestone
blocks enclosed in the lava of Vesuvius, and m dolomite metamorphosed by contact action at Monzoni, Tyrol
,
Picotite, or
chrome
a \anety intermediate between spinel
is
spinel,
Its composition may be represented by the

proper and chromite
It occurs only
small crystals in
formula (Mg Fe)((Al Fe Cr)O2)2
basic igneous rocks
and
in a few crystalline schists
Density =4
Magnetite (Fe(FeO 2 ) 2 )
Magnetite, the ferrous fernte, the empirical formula of which
FesO-i, is a heavy, black, magnetic mineral which is utilized as one
the ores of iron
is
of
The pure mineral consists of 72 4 per cent Fe and 27 6 per cent

Most specimens, however, contain also some Mg and many contain small
quantities of
beth Mine,
Mn or Ti
Mt
Fe2 O3
FeO
65 26
30 20
Hope,
A selected sample of magnetite from the

New Jersey,
Si02
Ti02
38
A12
09
Eliza-
analyzed as follows
55
MgO
CaO
10
68
Other
73
Total
99 99
Magnetite occurs in crystals that are usually octahedrons or dodecaTwins

hedrons, or combinations of the two , Other forms are rare
The mineral occurs also as sand
are common
in granular and structureless masses
When
the dodecahedron is present, its faces are fre-
and
quently
striated
parallel
ooO(no) and 0(ui)

is
to
the
edge between
(Fig 98)
Magnetite is black and opaque and its streak FIG 98

It has an uneven or a conchoidal fracCrystal,
Magnetite
black
ture,
but no
distinct
cleavage
Its hardness
is
S.SânddeM1ty49-5* It is strongly attracted

by a magnet and in many instances it exhibics
(llo)
and
with
wo
(l3CI )
f*
and in
polar magnetism
The mineral is infusible before the blowpipe Its powder dissolves
slowly in HC1, and the solution reacts for ferrous and ferric iron
is easily recognized by its
color, magnetism, and hardness
mineral weathers to lunomte and hematite and occasionally to
Magnetite
The
the carbonate, sidente,
ALUMINATES, FERRITES, ETC.
199
Crystals have been made by cooling iron-bearing silicate

treating heated ferric hydroxide \\ith HC1, and by fusing
iron oxide and borax with a reducing flame
Syntheses.
solutions,
Occurrence end
Ongm. The mineral occurs as a constituent of

igneous rocks and crystalline schists, and in lenses embedded in
rocks of many kinds
It also constitutes veins cutting these rocks
and as irregular masses produced b\ the deh\ dration and deoxidation
many
of hematite
and limomte under the
influence of metamorphic processes.

grains among the decomposition products of
iron-bearing silicates, such as olmne and hornblende.
The larger masses are either segregations from igneous magmas or
It occurs also
as
little
deposits from hot solutions and gases emanating from them.

Localities
The localities at \\hich magnetite has been found are so
numerous that only those of the greatest economic importance may be
mentioned here. In Norway and Sweden great segregated deposits are

\\orked as the principal sources of iron in these countries. In the
United States large lenses occur in the limestones and siliceous crysAdirondacks, New York, and in the schists and
rocks
the
of
Great bodies are mined
granitic
Highlands in New Jersey
also at Cornwall, and smaller bodies at Cranberry, and in the Far
talline schists in the
West
The magnetite
Extraction
is
separated from the rock with which
it
by crushing and exposing to the action of an electro-magnet.

The total amount of the mineral mined m the United
Production
States during 1912 was 2,179,500 tons, of which 1,110,345 tons came
from New York, 476,153 tons from Pennsylvania, and 364,673 tons
from New Jersey.
occurs
FrankEnite ((Fe-Zn Ua)((Fe-Hn)O2) 2 )

Franklinite resembles magnetite in
its
general appearance.
It is
an
ore of manganese and zinc
from magnetite m containing Mn in place of some of the

mineral and Mn and Zn in place of some of its ferrous
iron.
Since it is an isomorphous mixture of the iron, zinc and manganese
salts of the iron and manganese acids of the general formula R"'0(OH),
The franklinite from Mine
its composition varies within wide limits
It differs
ferric iron in this
N. J , contains from 39 per cent to 47 per cent

cent Zn
19 per cent Mn and 6 per cent to 18 per
Hill,
Franklin Furnace,
Fe203
66 58
J.,
Fe, 10 per cent to
specimen from
contained,
MnO
ZnO
9 96
so 77
MgO
34
CaO
SiOa
HsO
Total
-43
-7 2
-7 1
99-5*
200
Its crystals are usually octahedrons,
sometimes modified by the do-
The mineral occurs also

decahedron and occasionally by other forms
in rounded grams, in granular and in structureless masses
Its fracture
It is black and lustrous and has a dark brown streak
and cleavage are the same as
It is only
for magnetite
very
slightly
It has a hardness of 6 and a density of 5 15

magnetic
The mineral is infusible before the blowpipe When heated
charcoal
it
becomes magnetic
When fused with Na2COa
in the
on
oxidizing
of manganese
Its
gives the bluish green bead characteristic
on
charcoal
and
heated
with
fine powder mixed
Na2COa
yields the white
flame
it
coating of zinc oxide which turns green when moistened with Co(N03)2
solution and again heated
Franklinite is distinguished from most minerals by its color and crys-
and from magnetite and clromite by its brown streak and

Mn and Zn It is also characterized by its associaby
tion with red zmcite and green or pink willemite (p 306)
Crystals of franklmite have been made by heating a
Synthesis
mixture of FeCla, ZnCb and CaO (lime)
tallization
its
reactions for
Franklimte occurs at only a few places
most noted localities are Franklin Furnace and
Sterling Hill, N
Its
J where
,
associated in a white crystalline limestone with zmcite, willemite

and other zinc and manganese compounds The deposit is supposed
it is
have been produced by the replacement of the limestone through the

magmatic waters and vapors.
Uses. The mineral is utilized as an ore of manganese and zinc
The ore as mined is crushed and separated into parts, one of which
to
action of
consists largely of franklmite

This is roasted with coal, when the zinc
driven off as zinc oxide
The residue is smelted in a furnace producing
is
spiegeleisen,
which
is
an alloy of iron and manganese used in the man-
ufacture of certain grades of steel

The quantity of this residuum produced in 1912
Production
was
104,670 tons, valued at $314,010
Chromite (Fe(CrO2)2)
Chromite, or chrome-iron, is the principal ore of chromium. It
resembles magnetite and frankhnite in appearance
It occurs in isolated crystals, in granular aggregates,
a ferrous
and
in structureless masses.
metachromous acid, of the theoretChemically,

ical composition Cr20a=68 per cent and
FeO=32 per cent, but it usually
contains also small quantities of AlÔa, CaO and MgO
An analysis of
it is
salt of
201
a specimen from Chorro Creek, California, after

making corrections for
the presence of some serpentine, yielded
Cr2
A12
Fe2
12 32
56 96
3 81
FeO
MgO
MnO
Total
12 73
14 02
16
100 oo
Its crystals are usually simple octahedrons,
but they are not as
common
as those of the other spinels

Its color is brownish black and its streak brown
or uneven fracture and no distinct clea\age
It
It
has a conchoidal
is
usually nonmagnetic, but some specimens sho\\ slight magnetism because of the admixture of the isomorphous magnetite molecule
Its hardness is 5 5
and
density 4 5 to 4 8
its
The mineral
is infusible
reaction with the beads
before the blowpipe

It gives the chromium
is
fused
with
niter and the fusion
powder
If its
treated with water, a yellow solution of KoCrO4 results

NagCOs on charcoal it yields a magnetic residue.
When
fused
with
Chromite
tite
by
is easily
distinguished from all other minerals but ptcoand its reaction for chromium. It is distin-
its crystallization
guished from picotite
by
its inferior
hardness and
its
higher specific
gravity.
Crystals have been
Synthesis
made by
uents with boric acid and after fusion

fusing the proper constitdistilling off the boric acid.
Chromite occurs principally in olivine rocks
The mineral is found not

their alteration product serpentine
in
the
rock
as
embedded
mass, but also as nodules in it
only
crystals
and as veins traversing it It is probably in all cases a segregation from
and in
the
magma
in the
producing the rock
In a few places the mineral occurs
form of sand on beaches
It is widely spread through serpentine rocks at many

in Brussa, Asia Minor; at Banat and elsewhere in
notably
places,
in Rhodesia, in the northern portion of New
at
Solnkive,
Norway;
Caledonia, at various points in Macedonia, in the Urals, Russia; in
Localities
Beluchistan and Mysore, India

In the United States the mineral
of serpentine
Tehama
is
known
at several points in a belt

and at
east side of the Appalachian Mountains,
Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada and the Coast

has been mined at Bare Hills, Maryland, in Siskiyou,
and Shasta Counties, Colorado, in Converse County, Wyoming;
many points
Ranges
on the
in the
It
and in Chester and Delaware Counties, Pennsylvania, and

some was washed from chrome sand at Baltimore, Maryland.
in 1914,
202
The mineral
Metallurgy
centrated, or,
Or the ore
is
mined by the usual methods and conthen fused with
and the
produced by reduction of
is
It is
soluble chromates are produced.

reduced with carbon yielding an alloy with iron
The
certain oxidizing chemicals
metal
is
in large fragments, is crushed
if
its
oxide
by
metallic
aluminium or by
electrolysis of its salts
the sole source of the metal chromium, which is

the manufacture of special grades
the chrome-iron alloy employed
in tanning and as pigments
used
The
Chromium salts are
of steel
Chromite
jjses
is
crude ore, mixed with coal-tar, kaolin, bauxite, or some other ingredient,
is molded into bricks and burned, after which the bricks are used as
These bricks stand rapid changes of

attacked
are
not
and
by molten metals
temperature
annual
The
Production
production of chromite in the world is
which
Rhodesia produces about J, New
of
about
now
100,000 tons,
The producCaledonia about | and Russia and Turkey about \ each
tion of the United States in 1912 was 201 tons, valued at $2,753. All
came from California. The imports in the same year were 53,929 tons,
linings in metallurgical furnaces.
worth $499,818.
Chiysoberyl
Chrysoberyl is a beryllium alummate, the composition of which is
It may be written Be02(A10)2.
Alanalogous to that of the spinels
though theoretically it should contain 19 8 per cent BeO and 80 2 per
cent
AkOa, analyses
magnesium
of nearly all specimens
show the presence
also of
iron and
The
mineral
differs
from
system (bipyramidal class)

principal forms observed
oo
oo
(oio),
P 06
(on),
are often twins (Fig
oo
spinel in crystallizing in the

Its axial ratio is .4707 : i
on
crystals
are
P(in),
P2(i2o) and 2P?(i2i) (Fig 99)
100), trillings or sixlmgs, with
orthorhombic
:
5823
ooP
The crystals
3? 06
twinning plane, forming pseudohexagonal groupings (Fig
The
06(100),
(031) the
101)
Sim-
ple crystals are usually tabular parallel to oo P So (100), which is striated

vertically
Consequently, in twins this face exhibits stnations arranged
The angle no A iTo=5o 21'.

The deavage of chrysoberyl is distinct parallel
feather-like.
indistinct parallel to
uneven or conchoidal.
by
reflected light.
distinctly red
by
It
to Poo (on), and

oo
56
and
P
Its fracture is
(oio)
(100)
Its color is some shade of light
green or yellow
is transparent or translucent and in some cases is
oo
P 06
transmitted light.
It is strongly pleochroic
m orange,

green and red
The mineral
tints.
density of about 3 6
is brittle,
203
has a hardness of 8 5 and a

a=i 7470, j5=i 7484,
Its refractive indices are
Four distinct varieties are recognized

Ordinary, pale green, translucent
Gem, yellow and transparent
Alexandrite, emerald-green in color, but red
Used as a gem
transparent, usually in twins
by transmitted
light,
a greenish variety exhibiting a play of colors

(chatoyancy
Before the blowpipe the mineral is infusible
It yields the Al reaction with Co(NOs)2, but otherwise is only slightly affected
the flame
Cat's-eye,
by
It is insoluble in acids
Chrysoberyl
is
characterized
FIG 99
FIG 99
Chrysoberyl Crystal with oo

2&2 121 (), P,
FIG 100
ness
P GO
in
FIG 101
100 (a),
(o)
and P
oo
oo
P 55
,
on
Chrysoberjl Thinned about 3?
So
oio
(b),
oo
most
P7, 120
(s),
(i).
(031)
Chrysobeiyl Pseudohexagonal Sixlmg Twinned about 3?
1 01
It
and great hard-
its crystallization
FIG ioo
FIG
by
5 (031)
closely resembles the beryllium silicate, beryt, in appear-
distinguished from this by its crystallization.

Crystals have been made by fusing BeO and AkOs
with boric acid and then distilling off the boric acid
ance, but
is easily
Synthesis.
and
Chrysoberyl
is
found principally in granites
and as grains in the sands produced by the erosion

In its original position the mineral is a separation
crystalline schists
of these rocks
from the
magma
Localities.
that produced the rocks.

known localities are in Minas Geraes, Brazil,
Its best
near Ekaterinburg, Ural; in the Mourne Mts,, Ireland, at Haddam,

Conn , at Greenfield, N. Y.; at Orange Summit, N. Hamp.; and at
Norway and Stoneham, Me. The alexandrite comes from Ceylon, where
it
occurs as pebbles, and from the Urals.
204
(MnMnOs)
Braunite
occurs massive and in crystals.
The
latter
ci
are tetragonal (ditetragonal bipyramidal class), 'with a

9922,
They are usually simple bipyramids P(in) Because of the nearly
The angle
equal value of a and c all crystals are isometric in habit
Twins are common, with POO(IOI) the
iiiAii"i 70 7'
twinning
Cleavage is perfect parallel to P(III)

color and in streak
The mineral is brownish black to steel-gray
and
is
6-6
Its hardness
Its luster is submetallic
It is
5
density 47
With fluxes it gives the usual reactions
infusible before the blowpipe
plane
HC1
yielding chlorine
It occurs in veins with manganese and other ores in Piedmont, Italy,
and at Pajsberg and various other places
Sweden, where its origin
for
It is soluble in
manganese
is
secondary
Hausmannite
i
1573 and
They
(MngMnO^
its crystals are,
crystallizes like
braumte, but a
therefore, distinctly tetragonal
<:=
habit
P(ni) or combinations of P(m) and fP(ii3),

more complicated crystals are known
The angle
i'
Twins and fourlmgs (Fig 102) are common, with
are usually simply
though much
niAi7i=6o
(A) Simple Crystal, P, in (p) and oP, ooi

Fivelmg Twinned about P oo (101)
FIG
102
P oo
The cleavage is imperfect parallel to

(101) the twinning plane
The mineral also occurs in granular masses.
Hausmannite.
(c)
(B)
oP(ooi)
Hausmannite
is
brownish black
and density 4
Its
8.
streak
is
chestnut
Its reactions are the
brown
same as
those of braumte
Hausmannite occurs as crystals at Ilmenau, Thurmgia, Ilfdd,

Harz, and as granular masses in dolomite at Nordmark and several
other points in Sweden
Like braumte it is probably a decomposition
product of other manganese minerals
CHAPTER X
THE NITRATES AND BORATES
THE OTTBATES
THE
nitrates are salts of nitric acid
Only two are of importance
to us, saltpeter (KNOa) and chile saltpeter (NaNOs)

Both are colorwater and both proless, or white, crystalline bodies, both are soluble
duce a cooling taste when applied to the tongue The potassium com-
pound is distinguished from the sodium compound by the flame test

Both minerals when heated in the closed tube with KHSOi yield red
vapors of nitrogen peroxide (NCfe)
Soda Niter (NaNO3 )

Soda
niter, or chile saltpeter, is usually
surfaces or
36 5 per cent
massi\ e forms
m incrustations on
It consists of 63 5 per cent
mineral
N2Os and
Na20
Its crystals are in the ditrigonal scalenohedral class of the hexagonal

system with an axial ratio of a : c=i : 8297. They are usually rhom-
some cases modified by oR(oooi). Apparently

completely isomorphous with calcite (CaCOs)
Its cleavage is perfect parallel to the rhombohedron. Its hardness
bohedrous R(ioTi)
the mineral
is
under
is
2, its
density about 2.27
and
its
melting point about 312.
Its luster is vitreous, color white, or brown, gray or yellow.

eral is transparent
Its refractive indices for yellow light are:
The minw = 1.5854,
=13369
Soda
yellow.
fies.
It
niter deflagrates
When
when heated on
exposed to the air
it
charcoal
and colors the flame

and finally lique-
attracts moisture
is completely soluble in three times its own weight of water.

The principal occurrences of the mineral
are in the district of Tarapaca, northern Chile, where, mixed

with the lodate and other salts of sodium and potassium, under the
name caliche, it comprises beds several feet thick on the surface of rainless
pampas, and in Bolivia at Arane under the same conditions. It is

and other soluble minerals. Smaller
associated with gypsum, salt
205
206
deposits are found in

Cal , and in southern
Humboldt Co
New
Nevada,
San Bernardino Co
Mexico
The material is thought to result from the action of microorganisms

upon organic matter decomposing in the presence of abundant air
Soda niter is used in the production of nitric acid, and in the
Uses
About 480,000 tons are
manufacture of fertilizers and gunpowder
imported into the United States annually at a cost of $15,430,000
Most
of
it
comes from Chile
Since soda niter usually contains sodium lodate as an impurity, the

mineral is an important source of iodine.
Niter
(KNO 3 )
It generNiter, or saltpeter, resembles soda niter in appearance

silky tufts and in groups of acicular crystals
ally occurs in crusts, in

Its crystals
habit
is
are orthorhombic with a
hexagonal
c=
Their
7011
5910 i
The principal forms observed on them are oo P(i 10),
b
P 00(100^, oo P 06(010), oP(ooi), P(in), and a

domes In many respects the mineral is apparently
oo
series of brachyisomorphous with
At 126 it
aragonite which is the orthorhombic dimorph of calcite
Its cleavage is perfect
passes over into an hexagonal (trigonal) form
Its fracture is uneven, its hardness 2 and denparallel to Poo (on)
Its medium refractive index for yellow light, /3=i 5056
Niter deflagrates more violently than soda niter and detonates with
It colors the blowpipe
combustible substances
It fuses at aboat 335
sity 2 i
It
flaine violet
is
soluble in water
by
Co
The mineral forms abundantly

Ceylon and
soils in
Spain, Egypt, Persia,

a ferment, and on the bottoms of caves
,
Ky
India, where
it is
in
dry
produced
m the limestones of Madison
of Tennessee, of the valley of Virginia
and
of the Mississippi
Valley
Production
Most of the niter used in the arts is manufactured, but

some is obtained from the deposits m Ceylon and m India The
amount imported in 1912 aggregated 6,976,000 Ib valued at $226,851
,
THE BORAXES
The
borates are salts of bone acid,
HsBOs, metaboric acid, HBQz,

EUBoOn, and various poly-
tetrabonc acid, EfeBiOr, hexabonc acid,
which boron is present in still larger proportion The

obtained from the orthoacid by heating at 100, at which
boric acids in
metaacid
is
NITRATES AND BORATES
207
temperature the former loses one molecule of water, thus.
H2O=HBO2, and
the tetraacid
H3BO3
by heating the âme compound to 160"
at which temperature 5 molecules of \\ater are lost from 4 molecules ot

the acid, thus 4H3 B03-5H2
Hexabonc acid may be
2 B407
regarded as the orthoacid less i| molecules of water, thus.
O=H
Only three of the borates are important enough to be discussed

These are borax, a sodium tetraborate (NaoBÔr ioH<zO), colemanite, a hexaborate (CasBoOn slfeO) and boracite, a magnesium
chloro-polyborate (Mg 5 (MgCl) 2 Bi6Q3o)- Borax and colemamte are
here
commercial substances that are produced in large quantities

All borates and many other compounds containing boron when
pulverized and moistened with HoSO4 impart an intense yellow-green
If boron compounds are dissolved in hydrochloric
turn turmeric paper reddish brown after drying
the
will
solution
acid,
The color changes to black when the stain is treated with
at 100
color to the flame
ammonia.
(H"a2B4O 7
Borax
roH2 O)
Borax occurs as crystals and as a crystalline cement between sand

grains around salt lakes, as an incrustation on the surfaces of marshes
and on the sands in desert regions, and dissolved
in the water of certain
lakes
in
deserts.
It
occurs also as bedded deposits mterlayered with

sedimentary rocks
The composition
of borax is 16 2 per cent
per cent B 2 Qs and 47 2 per cent H^.

Crystals are monoclmic (prismatic class), with
Na20, 36 6
a
c=i 0995
-5^ 2 9
and
0=73
25'
are prismatic in habit and in general form

resemble very closely crystals of pyroxene.
They
The
co
planes occurring
principal
P 55
(100),
-2P(22i)
parallel
to
oo
on them
P(no), oP(ooi), -P(in)
(Fig. 103).
Their cleavage
ooP 60(100), and
are
and
FlG I03
with
Borax Crystal
P,
no
(m),
P5o,iQo (<*),<?&,
IO
(6) '
IZI (a)
^
"*
I
f)
I !
2p 221
'
'
Jj
is perfect
their fracture concfaoidal.
The
angle
noAiTo=93.
white, grayish or bluish color and a white streak.
or earthy; is translucent or opaque; has
resinous
It is brittle, vitreous,
a
of
of
a hardness
1.69-1.72, and a sweetish alkaline taste.
density
2-2.5,
The mineral has a
On exposure to the air the mineral loses water and tends to become white
208
and opaque, whatever
its color in
refractive index for yellow light,
the fresh condition
0= i
Its
medium
4686
Before the blowpipe borax puffs up and fuses to a transparent

Fused with fluonte and potassium bisulphate it colors
globule
It is soluble in water, yielding a weakly alkaline
the flame green
solution
Occurrence
The
principal
salt lakes in
method of occurrence of the mineral is

and regions, and as incrustations on the
as a deposit from
The
surfaces of alkaline marshes overlying buried borax deposits
to dryness of ancient
original beds were deposited by the evaporation
deposits
incrustations were produced by the solution of these

ground water, and the nse of the solutions to the surface by
and the
salt lakes,
by
capillarity.
Borax occurs in the water of salt lakes in Tibet, of

in Lake County, and of Borax Lake in San Bernardino
small
lakes
several
in
California, and in the mud and marshes around their borders
County
Localities.
Death Valley in the same State, and in

Other large deposits
various marshes in Esmeralda County, Nevada
are found in Chile and Peru
It occurs also in the sands of
Borax is used as an antiseptic, in medicine, in the arts for

brass
and welding metals, and in the manufacture of cosmetics
soldering
Bone acid obtained from borax and colemamte is employed in the
Uses
manufacture of colored
antiseptic
glazes, in
making enamels and
Some
and a preservative
glass, as
an
of the borates are used as pig-
ments.
Borax was formerly obtained in the United States,

Oregon and Nevada, by the evaporation of
by washing the crystals from the mud on their
bottoms and by the leaching of the mineral from marsh soil
At present, however, nearly all the borax of commerce is manufactured from
Production
especially in California,
the water of borax lakes,
colemanite.
Colemanite (Ca2B 6 On
sH2 O)
Colemamte occurs in crystals and in granular and compact masses

It is the source of all the borax now manufactured in the United States.
The formula
ascribed to the mineral corresponds to 27 2

per cent
21 9 per cent
As usually found,
2 0.
CaO, 50.9 per cent 6203 and

however,
it
contains a httle
MgO
and
Valley, California, yielded:
6203=5070; 0*0=27.31,
MgO=
10,
SiCfe.
crystal
from Death
209
The
mineral crystallizes in the monoclmic system

(prismatic class),
short, prismatic crystals (Fig 104), with the axial constants a:b:c
= 7769 . i : 5416 and

forms
Their cleavage
perfect parallel
no A 110=72
to
0=69
is
The
43',
crystals are usualh rich in
perfect parallel to ocOScloio),
Their fracture
oP(ooi)
is
uneven
and
The
less
angle
4'
Colemanite
is colorless,
It
milky white, yellowish white or gray
transparent or translucent, has a vitreous or adamantine luster, a
hardness of 4 to 4 5 and a specific
is
gravity of 2 4
Its index of refrac-
tion for yellow light, 18=1.5920
Before the blowpipe it decrepitates,
and
same time
exfoliates,
fuses, at the
partially
coloring
the flame yellowish green.
It is
soluble in hot HC1, but from the
\1/
upon cooling a voluminous mass of boric acid separates
solution
FIG 104
as a white gelatinous precipitate
Colemanite Crystals with =cP

(v), =*P5c, 100 (a),
oro (b); oP, ooi fc), -P, in
no(m), 3? 5, 301
It is easily distinguished from
*P
other white translucent minerals,

except those containing boron,
(), 2P* 02M), P3b,ouOO,

pa,
210 U), aPoo, 201 (A), 2P, 221 (u) and
by the flame
P,
It is distin-
test
guished from borax by its

bility in water and from
In
00
insoluboracite
by
its
inferior
hardness and crystal-
lization
Syntheses
been prepared
saturated solution of
Colemanite has
(NaCaBsOe 8H20) with a
by
NaCl
treating
at 70.
ulexite
The mineral occurs as indefinite layers

with shale and limestones that are associated with basalt
interstratified
layers and nodules of colemanite

Gypsum is often
some places is in excess. The coleassociated with the borate and
The rocks contain
manite
is
believed to be the result of the action of emanations from
the basalt upon the limestone.

Colemanite occurs in Death Valley, California, near
Localities
Daggett, San Bernardino County, and near Lang Station, Los Angeles
County, and at other points in the same State, and in western Nevada,
A snow-white, chalky variety (priceite) has been
near Death Valley
found hi Curry County, Oregon, and a compact nodular variety (pandermite) at the Sea of
Preparation
Marmora, and
Colemanite
is
at various points in Asia Minor.

at the present time the principal source
210
material as mined contains from 5 per cent to 35

This is crushed and roasted
per cent of anhydrous boric acid (6203)
The crude
of borax
powder vhich is separated from

and then is bagged and
pieces of rock and other impurities by screening,
into borax and boracic
shipped to the refineries where it is manufactured
The colemamte breaks
into a white
acid
the mineral in 1912

principal mines producing
of
section
were situated in the Death Valley
Inyo County, near Lang
The
Production
Station in Los Angeles County, California, and in Ventura County in

The total production during the year was 42,315
the same State
The imports of crude ore,
tons of crude ore, valued at $1,127,813
and boric acid during the same year were valued at $i 1,200
The production of the United States m boron acid compounds is
refined borax
about half that of the entire world, with Chile producing nearly
all
the rest
Boracite
(Mg5 (MgCl) 2Bi 6 O3o)
is interesting as a mineral, the form and internal structure

do not correspond, that is, do not possess the same symmetry
crystals have the well marked hextetrahedral symmetry of the iso-
Boracite
of which
Its
metric system, but their internal structure, as revealed by their optical

This is due to the fact that the substance
properties is orthorhombic
Above 265 it is isometric and below that temperature

assume
Crystals formed at temperatures above 265
the isometnc shapes. As the temperature falls the substance changes
is
dimorphous
orthorhombic
to
its
orthorhombic form, and there results a pseudomorph of ortho-
rhombic boracite after

It is
acid as follows.
in
its
isometric dimorph
salt of the acid
SHsBOs
two molecules
which may be regarded as related to boric

9H20=H6BsOi5. Ten atoms of hydrogen
of the acid are replaced
a(MgCl). The resulting combination is

cent Cl and 625 per cent BgCîoi
and
in
The forms
up
9)
The mineral
water, so that
usually found on the crystals are
ooOoo(icx>),--(iIi)
tetrahedrons
8(0-Cl=i
some specimens yield water on

the dosed tube (stassfurti e and parasite).
alters slowly, taking
analysis
by Mgs and the other two by

31 4 per cent MgO, 7 9 per
(Fig.
105).
-(in),
ooO(no),
Usually the positive and negative
may be distinguished by
their luster, the faces of the

posiof the negative form dull.
The
crystals are isolated, or embedded, and rarely in groups
They are
tive
form being
brilliant
and those
211
strongly pyroelectnc with the analogue pole in the negative tetrahedrons.
The mineral
Boracite
is also
Its streak is
parallel to
its
yellow, or green
is indistinct
cleavage
0(m) and
The mineral
is
density 3
brittle
its
fracture
is
conchoidal
Its hardness
Its refractive index
=i
667
Boracite fuses
light,
found massive
transparent or translucent and is gra\

white
Its luster is vitreous
Its
is
easily before
the
is
and
for yellow
blowpipe
with intumescence to a white pearly mass, at

the same time colonng the flame green
With
copper oxides it colors the flame azure-blue
When moistened with Co(NOs)2 it gives the
Some massive
pink reaction for magnesium
forms yield water in the closed tube, in consequence of weathering
The
mineral
is
soluble
FIG
105
Cr>stal
/iz;,
-\
,
,
Boracite
with
=cO=c,
O,
(0)
no
and
id),
~
f
ll
inHCl
Boracite is distinguished from other boron salts by its crystallization,
lack of cleavage and its much greater hardness
The massive varieties which resemble fine-grained white marble can be distinguished
its
from this by the flame
coloration, hardness
and reaction with HC1
Crystals have been formed by heating borax, MgCfe

water at 275, and by fusing borax with a mixture of NaCl
Syntheses.
and a little
and MgCk
Boracite occurs in beds with anhydrite, gypsum and

as
saltj
crystals in metamorphosed limestones
It is found as crystals in gypsum and anhydrite at
Localities
Occurrence.
and
Luneburg, Hanover, and Segeberg, Holstein,
in carnallite at Stassfurt,
Prussia, and in radiating nodules (stassfurtite) and in massive layers

It is rare in the
associated with salt beds at the last-named locality
United States
Boraute is utilized in Europe as a source of
Uses and Prodwhon
boron compounds. Turkey produces annually about 12,000 tons,
CHAPTER XI
THE CARBONATES
carbonates constitute an important, though not a very large,
though one of them, calcite, is among the most com-
THE
group
of minerals,
mon of all
minerals
They are all
salts of carbonic acid
(EkCOs)
Those
the hydrogen has been replaced by metal are normal salts,

those in which the replacement has been by a metal and a hydroxyl
group are basic salts Both groups are represented by common minerals
in
which
all
The normal
salts include
both anhydrous
salts
and
salts
combined
Illustrations of the three classes of carwith water of crystallization

bonates are- CaCOs, calcite, normal salt, Na2COs loEfeO, soda,
All carbonates
hydrous salt and (Cu OH^COs, malachite, basic salt
The basic salts yield water at a high temperature only, the hydrous ones at a low temperature
The carbonates are all transparent or translucent, and all are poor
conductors of electricity, Most of them are practically nonconductors
effervesce in hot acids
ANHYDROUS CARBONATES
NORMAL CARBONATES
The anhydrous normal carbonates comprise the most important
Most of them are included in a
carbonates that occur as minerals

single large
group whose members are dimorphous, crystallizing in the
ditrigonal scalenohedral class of the hexagonal system and in the holohedral division (rhombic bipyramidal class) of the orthorhombic sys-
The calcium carbonate
tem.
known
exists in three
forms but only two are
to occur as minerals
CALCITE-ARAGONITE GROUP
The
relation of the dimorphs of this group to one another has
been
much study, especially with reference to the two forms of

CaCQs- The orthorhombic form, aragonrie, passes into the hexagonal
subjected to
upon heating to about 400.
form,
calcite,
970,
calcite is the stable
form
At
all
temperatures below
Moreover, while calcite crystallizes

from a dilute Solution of.CaCQa in water containing 002 at a low tem212
CARBONATES
213
perature, aragomte separates at a temperature approaching that of

boiling water the more freely, the less C02 in the solution
Arag-
omte crystals will also separate from a solution of calcium carbonate,

if, at the same time, it contains a gram of an orthorhombic carbonate,
or a small quantity of a soluble sulphate
Some of the other carbonates, for
into
instance, strontiamte (the orthorhombic SrCCfe), pass over

like that of calcite at 700, but
again change
an hexagonal form
to the orthorhombic form

is
upon cooling For convenience the group

divided for discussion into the calcite division and the
aragomte
division
CALCITE DIVISION
The
calcite division of carbonates includes nine or
compounds and a number of well defined

compounds are common minerals Afl
more
\aneties of these
distinct
Six of the
crystallize in the ditngonal

scalenohedral class of the hexagonal system and are thus isomorphous
Their most common crystals have a rhombohedral habit. The names of
the six
common members
with their axial
Calcite
CaCOs
Magnesite
MgCOs
Siderite
FeCOs
Khodochrosite
MnCOs
Smit\somte
ZnCOs
ratios are:
c=i
=1
=i
=i
=i
8543
8095
8191
.8259
8062
is usually also included in the group the mineral dolomite, which

a calcium magnesium carbonate in which CaCOs and MgCOs are
MgCOs CaCOs, or
present in the molecular proportions, thus
There
is
MgCa(COs)2
Its crystals are similar to those of calcite
and its physical
of calate and magnesite

properties are intermediate between those
Its symmetry, however, as revealed by etching is tetartohedral (rhom-
bohedral class).
The close relationship existing between the members of the group

the data in
(including dolomite) will be appreciated upon comparing
the following table
Ref Indices
214
Calcite
(CaCO 3 )
one of the most beautifully crystallized minerals known

They are
Its crystals are very common, and sometimes very large
are
and
sometimes
nearly
always
colored,
colorless, though
Calcite
is
usually
Besides occurring in crystals the mineral is often found

in pulverulent masses,
in
massive,
granular aggregates, in stalactites,
transparent
FIG 106
FIG 108
FIG 109
FEG. 107
FIG. 106.
Calcite Crystal with
FIG, 107
FIG 108
Calcite Ciystals with
FIG 109
|R, oiTa
m,
Calcite with
R,
r, v,
(p)
R, joTo (m)
Prismatic
and R, loli
4R, 4041 (M) and
soluble in water containing

domorphing other minerals.
is
and
m and e
2131
in radial groupings, in fibrous masses
calate
(e)
Calcite Crystal with
(r)
8
,
Nail-head Spar
Type
3251
Dog-tooth Spar
(y)
and in a variety of other forms

COa,
it
As
has often been found pseu-
Theoretically, calcite contains 56 per cent CaO and 44 per cent COg,
but practically the mineral contains also small quantities of
Mg, Fe,
Mn, Zn and Pb, metals whose carbonates are isomorphous with

CaCO&
Hie forms that have been observed on calcite crystals are
arranged
CARBONATES
in such a
lows
manner
215
as to produce three distinct types of habit, as fol-
the rhombohedral type, bounded

R(ioTi),
JR(oiT2) and often blunt scale(i)
by
the
flat
rhombohedrons,
nohedrons, like R (2i3i) and |R (3i45)

in which the rhombohedrons predominate
3
(Fig 106), (2) the pnsmatic type, with

the pnsm oo P(io7o) predominating, and
R(oil2) as the principal termination
(Fig 107), and (3) dog-tooth spar, containing the same scalenohedrons as on the first
type mentioned above with other steeper

ones and small steep rhombohedral planes
Nail-head spar con(Fig 108, 109, no)
tains
the
with the
flat
pnsm
rhombohedron
oo
FIG
no
Pnsmatic Crystals
Terminated by
of Calcite
|R(oil2)
Scalenohedrons and
P(ioTo) (Fig 106).
bohedrons
Some
of the crystals are very complicated, belonging to no one of the distinct
land,
Rhom
from Cumber-
England
types descnbed above, but forming barrel-shaped or almost round

bodies
Over 300 well established forms have been identified on them.
Twins are common
The
principal laws are: (i) twinning plane

common to the twinned parts (Fig
oP(oooi), with the vertical axis

111), (2) twinning plane
fR(oiT2), with the two vertical axes inclined
FIG 112
FIG in.
FIG
FIG 112
at
Calcite
an angle
in
Calate, R* (2131) Twinned about
Twin and Polysynthetic Trilling of
of about 52^
(Fig. 112)
and
(3)
oP
(oooi)
R (ion) about
(0112)-
twinning plane R(ioTi),
with the vertical axes inclined 89 14' (Fig. 113),

Twins of the second dass can easily be produced
artificially on cleavon the obtuse rhombohedral

the mass (Fig. 114).
edge with sufficient force to move a portion of
calcite
the
does not destroy its
of
a
of
of
The change
portion
position
age rhombs by pressing a
dull knife edge
216
Repeated twinning of this kind is frequently

transparency in the least
seen in marble (Fig 115), ^vhere it gives nse to parallel lamellae
that crystals when
The cleavage of calcite is so perfect parallel to
FIG 113
FIG 113
FIG 114
Calcite with m, v
Artificial
Twin
FIG. 114
and
e,
of Calcite, with
Twinned about R (loTi)
JR
(oils) the Twinning Plane.
by a hammer blow usually break into perfect little rhomboPure calcite

colorless and transparent, but most specimens are white or some pale
shattered
hedrons
is
shade
of
red,
green,
or black
gray,
even brown
blue, yellow, or
when very impure,
and are translucent or opaque
The mineral
is
very strongly
doubly refracting, (see p 213)

It is a very poor conductor of
electricity.
The
principal vaneties of
the mineral to which distinct
names have been given

Iceland
spar,
the
are:
trans-
parent variety used in the

manufacture of optical instru-
ments
Thin Section of Marble Viewed by
Polarized Light. The dark bars are poly-
FIG 115
synthetic twinning lamellae

diameters.
Satin spar, a
fine, fibrous
variety with a satiny luster

Limestone,
Magnified 5
granular agas rock
occurnng
masses.
Marble, a crystalline limestone, showing

faces of the individual crystals.
when broken
the cleavage
Ltike&apkic stone a very fine and even-grained limestone
CARBOXATES
Stalactites, cylinders or
caves
They
are formed
cones of calcite that hang from the roofs of

by the evaporation of dripping T\ater
Stalagmites, corresponding cones

stalactites
Mexican
onyx,
217
banded
on the
crystalline
floors of caves
calcite,
often
beneath the
transparent.
Usually portions of stalactites

Travertine, a deposit of white or yellow porous calcite produced
in springs or rivers, often around organic material like the blades
or roots of grass.
Chalk, a fine-grained,
pulverulent mass of
calcite
occurring in
large beds
In the closed tube calcite often decrepitates
Before the blowpipe it
is infusible
It colors the flame reddish yellow and after heating reacts
alkaline toward moistened litmus paper
The mineral dissolves with
CO2 in cold hydrochloric acid Its dissociation tempera-
evolution of
l
898, though it begins to lose C0> at a much lower temperature

reaction with HC1, together \vith the alkalinity of the mineral
after heating, its softness and its easy cleavage, distinguish calcite from
ture
is
The
all
other minerals
In massive forms
it
has been thought that it could

its ponder with a httle
be distinguished from aragomte by heating
solution
Aragomte was thought to become violet-colored
few minutes while calcite remained unchanged, but recent work
Co(NOs)2
in a
proves that this test cannot be relied upon

Calcite crystals are obtained b\
Syntheses
allowing a solution
in dilute carbonic acid to evaporate slowly in contact with the
to 100
If evaporated at from 80
air at ordinary temperatures
of
CaCOs
ordinary temperatures, or in the presence of a httle sulphate, the ortho-
rhombic aragonite will form, Calcite is also formed by heating aragonite to 400-470
Occurrence and Origin. The mineral is widely distributed in beds,
in veins and as loose deposits on the bottoms of springs, lakes and nvers.
Its principal methods of origin are precipitation from solutions, the
weathering of calcareous minerals, and secretion by organisms.
Calcite is the most important of all pseudomorphmg agencies. It
forms pseudomorphs after many different minerals and the hard parts
of animals
Localities.
The most noted
localities of .crystallized calcite are:
Andreasberg in the Harz; Freiberg, Schneeberg and other places in

Saxony; Kapnik, in Hungary, Traversella, in Piedmont, Alston Moor
1
The
dissociation temperature of
pressure of the released
a carbonate
CO* equals one atmosphere
is
that temperature at which the
218
and Egremont,
weenaw
and the mines

N Y KeWisconsin and
in Cumberland, Matlock, in Derbyshire,
Guanajuato, Mexico,
of Cornwall, England,
Point,
Mich
the
zinc
of
regions
Lockport,
Illinois,
Missouri, Nova Scotia, etc

Iceland spar is obtained in the Eskefjord and the Breitifjord in
Travertine is deposited from the waters of the Mammoth
Iceland
Hot
Springs, Yellowstone National
Park
It occurs also
River Arno, near Tivoli, Rome

Calcite has many important uses
Uses.
spar,
on account of
its
along the
In the form of Iceland
strong double refraction,
it is
employed in optical
Calcite rocks are

instruments for the production of polarized light
are
used as building and ornamental stones
employed also as
They
fluxes in smelting operations, as one of the ingredients in glass-making
and in the manufacture of lime, cement, whiting, and in certain printing
Limestone
operations.
The
Production
1912 was
is also
used as a
calcite rock
valued at about $44,500,000
concrete, $5,634,000,
in road
fertilizer
marketed
in the
It
United States during

In
was used as follows
and railroad making, $12,000,000, as a
as building and monumental stone, $12,800000,

flux, $10,000,000,
in sugar factories, $335,000, as riprap, $1,183,000, for paving, $279,000,
and for other uses, $2,400,000 Moreover, the value of the Portland
cement manufactured during the year amounted to $67,017,000, the
quantity of lime made to $13,970,000, the value of the hydrated
lime to $1,830,000, and of sand-lime brick to $1,170,884
The quantity
of limestone required for these manufactures is not known, but it was
very great.
Magnesite
(MgCO 3 )
Magnesite usually occurs in fine-grained white masses

Crystals
Pure magnesite consists of 52 4 per cent CCb and 47 6 per
cent MgO. It usually, however, contains some iron carbonate
are rare
Magnesite
is
Its cleavage
completely isomorphous with calcite
Its hardness is about 4 and the density 3
perfect parallel to R(ioTi).
The mineral is transparent or opaque.

to brown, but always has a white streak
It varies in color
Its dissociation
o
is
445
is
i.
from white
temperature
Magnesite behaves
like calcite before the
blowpipe
It effervesces
in hot hydrochloric acid
with Co(NQs)2
by
It is
by the
and readily yields the reaction for magnesia

most easily distinguished from the latter mineral
fact that it does not color the

blowpipe flame with
the yellowish red tint of calcium and does not effervesce in cold HCL
its density,
CARBONATES
Magnesite crystals
Synthesis
in a solution of
XajCOa
at 160
in
may
210
be obtained by heating
MgSO
a closed tube

Magnesite usualh occurs in \ ems and masses
associated with serpentine and other magnesium rocks irom which it
has been formed by decomposition

It is often accompanied by brucite
It has recently been
talc, dolomite and other magnesium compounds
described as occurring also in a distinct bed near Mohave, CaL, interstratified with cla> s and shales
It is thought that in this case it ma}
have been precipitated

Localities
and at
ities
fron* solutions of
The mineral
Bolton, Mass
magnesium
Magnesite
is
by Xa^COs
,
Tulare Co., Cal and near Texas, Penn

Greece and Hungary
Uses.
salts
found abundantly
many foreign localBare Hills, near Baltimore, Md and in
is
employed very
The
largest deposits are in
largely in the
manufacture of
magnesite bricks used for lining converters in steel works, in the lining
of kilns, etc ,
the manufacture of paper from wood pulp, and in mak-
From it are also manufactured epsom

marble, tile, etc
medicinal
salts, magnesia (the
preparation) and other magnesium comthe
carbon
and
dioxide
used in making soda water
pounds,
ing
artificial
All of the magnesite mined in the United States comes

Production
from California, where the yield was 10,512 tons in 1912, valued at
$105,120.
Most
of the magnesite used in the United States
is
imported
from Hungary and Greece In 1912, 14,707 tons of crude material

entered the country and 125,000 tons of the calcined product, the total
value of which âs $1,370,000
Siderite
(FeCO 3 )
is an important iron ore, though not as much used as formerly

found crystallized and massive, in botryoidal and globular forms
and
earthy masses
In composition the mineral is FeCOa, which is equivalent to 62 i
Siderite
It is
FeO (48 2 per cent Fe) and 37 9 per cent COj- Manganese,
and magnesium are also often present in it.
Crystals are more common than those of magnesite. They frequently contain the basal plane and the steep rhombohedrons 8R(o8Si)
and
|R(oiT2) are common The faces
sRfesi). R(ioli) and
of the rhombohedron are frequently curved. Compare (Fig 125.)
per cent
calcite
cleavage of Siderite is like that of the other minerals of this

group. Its hardness is 3 5-4 and density 3 85. In color the mineral
is sometimes white, but more frequently it is some shade of yellow or
The
brown
Its streak
is
white
Most specimens are
translucent.
220
In the closed tube

netic
siderite decrepitates,
It is only slcroly affected
by
blackens and becomes mag-
cold acids but
it
effervesces briskly
in hot ones
Siderite is distinguished
from the other carbonates by
its
reaction
for iron
The mineral changes on exposure
into limonite
and sometimes into
hematite or even into magnetite

Crystals of sidente may be obtained
Synthesis
tion of FeSCU with an excess of CaCOs at 200
by heating a
solu-
The mineral is often found accompanying

also as nodules in certain clays and in
It
occurs
in
veins
metallic ores
the coal measures.
solutions
it appears to be a direct deposit from

others is an
a result of metasomatism and
In some cases
In others
it is
ordinary weathering product
The crystallized variety is found at Freiberg, in Saxony,

Localities
at Harzgerode, in the Harz, at Alston Moor, and in Cornwall, EngCleavage masses
land, and along the Alps, in Styna and Cannthia
are present in the cryolite from Greenland
Columbia Co , and at Rossie,
Workable beds of the ore are present
in the coal regions of Pennsylvania and
in St. Lawrence Co ,
,
N Y
The
Ohio, and in clay beds along the Patapsco River, in Maryland
The
massive or nodular ore from clay banks is known as ironsto? e
impure bedded sidente interstratified with the coal shales is known
as black-band ore
Production.
Only 10,346 tons of sidente were produced in the United
States during 1912, all of it coming from the bedded deposits in Ohio
This was valued at $20,000
Rhodochrosite
(MnCO 3 )
This mineral sometimes occurs in distinct crystals of a rose-red

but it is usually found in cleavable masses, in a compact form,
or as a granular aggregate
Sometimes it is
incrustations
It is
color,
not of commercial importance in North America

Pure manganese carbonate containing 61 7 per cent
MnO and 38 3
The mineral is usually impure through the addiper cent CQs is rare
tion of the carbonates of iron, calcium,
magnesium or zinc
The most prominent forms on
crystals of rhodochrosite are R(ioYi),

|R(oil2), ooP2(ii2o), oR(oooi) and various scalenohedrons
The mineral is brittle Its
hardness is about 4 and its density about 3.55
Its luster is vitreous,
and
its
color red, brown, or yellowish gray.
Its streak is white
When
CARBONATES
heated
ature
The
CCb
begins to lose
it
is
632
mineral
at about 320":
221
but
its
dissociation temper-
but T\hen heated before the blowpipe
is infusible,
it
When treated in the borax bead it

decrepitates and changes color
gives the violet color of manganese, and \\hen fused with soda on charcoal
it
yields
a bluish green manganate
It dissoh es in
hot hydro-
chloric acid
There are but

ance
From
minerals resembling pure rhodochrosite

appearexcept the silicate, rhodonite ip 3801, it is
fe\v
all of these,
manganese It is distinguished from

hardness,
by
cleavage and its effervescence with acids
The impure varieties are very like some forms of siderite, from which,
distinguished
by
rhodonite
its
reaction for
its
its
of course, the
manganese test will distinguish it.

Small rhombohedrons of rhodochrosite have been proSynthesis
duced by heating a solution of MnSQ* with an excess of CaCCfe at 200
in
a closed tube
with ores of
silver, lead,
Rhodochrosite occurs in veins associated
copper and other manganese ores and in bedded
the result of hydrothermal or contact metamorphism,

deposits
and of weathering of other manganese-bearing minerals
It
is
Localities.
The mineral
is
found at Schemmtz, in Hungary,
at
Nagyag, in Transylvania, at Glendree, County Clare, Ireland, where it

forms a bed beneath a bog, at Washington, Conn , in a pulverulent
form, at Franklin,
and at Rico, Colo
N
,
John Reed Mine, Ahconte, Lake Co

Mont at Austin, Xev., and on
The Colorado and Montana specimens
at the
at Butte City,
Placentia Bay, Newfoundland
are well crystallized

The mineral
Uses
sionally
it is
is mined with other ores of manganese.

employed as a gem stone.
Occa-
fZnCO3 )
Smithsonite
Smithsomte, or "dry-bone ore,"
is
rarely well
crystallized.
It
appears as druses, botryoidal and stalactitic masses, as granular aggregates and as a fnable earth.
SmithIn ZnCOs there are 64 8 per cent ZnO and 35 2 per cent CCte
somte usually contains iron and manganese carbonates, often small
and sometimes traces
quantities of calcium and magnesium carbonates
A specimen from Marion, Arkansas, gave:
of cadmium
ZnO
64 12
CdO FeO
.63
.14
CaO
.38
CuO
tr.
CCfe
34-68
CdS
Sift>
25
06
Total
100 26
222
The mineral is closely isomorphous with calcite, R(ioTi), iR(oiT2),

3
4R(404i), ooR2(ii2o), oR(oooi) and R (2i3i) being present on many
The R faces are rough or curved
crystals
Its cleavage is parallel to R(ioli).
about 4
its
4.
The
color white, gray, green or
sionally transparent
its
Its hardness is 5
and
its
luster of the mineral is vitreous, its streak is
When
brown
density
white and
It is usually translucent, occa-
heated to 300
for
one hour
it
loses all of
C02
heated in the closed tube CC>2 is driven off, leaving ZnO as a

The mineral
yellow residue while hot, changing to white on cooling
be
a
small
moistened
If
with
is infusible before the blowpipe
fragment
cobalt nitrate solution and heated in the oxidizing flame it becomes
When
When heated on charcoal a dense white vapor is

a yellow coating on the coal, which, when it
This
forms
produced.
be moistened with cobalt nitrate and reheated
this
turns
white
If
cools,
green on cooling
The above
it is colored green.
reactions for zinc, together with the effervescence of the
mineral in hot hydrochloric acid distinguish smithsomte from
all
other
compounds.
Smithsomte forms pseudomorphs after sphalerite and calcite and is
pseudomorphed by quartz, hmomte, calamine and goethite
Synthesis
Microscopic crystals of smithsomte may be produced by
a zinc sulphate solution with potassium bicarbonate and

to stand for some time.
the
mixture
allowing
Occurrence.
Smithsomte occurs in beds and veins in limestones,
precipitating
where
it is
associated with galena
mine
(p 396)
veins of zinc ores and
and sphalente and usually with
cala-
common
in the upper, oxidized zone of

as a residual deposit covering the surface of weath-
It is especially
ered limestone containing zinc minerals

The mineral is found at Nerchinsk, Siberia, Bleiberg,
Localities
in Cannthia; Altenberg, Aachen, Province of Santander, Spain, at
Alston Moor and other places in England, at Donegal, in Ireland, at
Lancaster,
ties,
Penn
at
Dubuque, Iowa,
Arkansas; and in the lead
in
Lawrence and Marion CounWisconsin and Missouri (see
districts of
galena and sphalerite).

The Wisconsin and Missouri
localities are the most important ones

North America. Here the ore occurs in botryoidal, in stalactitic
and in earthy, compact, cavernous masses of a dull yellow color incrusted
with druses of smithsonite crystals, of calamine and of other minerals,
"
"
This is the variety known as dry bone
principally of lead
Uses
The mineral was formerly an important ore of zinc, being
in
CARBONATES
mined alone for smelting It is
calamine and other zinc ores, and
223
mined only in connection with

up together. A translucent green or greenish blue variety occurring at Laurium, Greece,
and at Kelly, New Mexico, is sometimes employed for ornamental purposes. About $650 worth of the material from New Mexico was utilized
as
no\v
all
are worked
material in 1912
gem
ARACOX1TE DIVISION
This division of the carbonates includes the orthorhombic (rhombic
bipyramidal) dimorphs of the members of the calcite group which,
together, form a well characterized isodimorphous group. The carbon-
found well crystallized in both dmsions, but the other

to one only
They actually occur in both divi-
ate of calcium
is
carbonates are
common
but they are found as .common members of one and only as

isomorphous mixtures with other more common forms in the other
Thus, barium carbonate is a common orthorhombic mineral under the
sions,
name of uithente It occurs also with CaCOs in mixed crystals under

the name bancalcite, or neotype, \*hich is hexagonal. (See also p. 212
and p 213
The common members
of the aragonite division are:
Aragomte
CaCOs Sp
Stronfaamte
SrCOs
Witkente
BaCOa
PbCOs
Cerussite
Gr. = 2 936 a
=3
=4
325
ac 6
574
706
c=
6228
7204
==
6090
7266
5949
6102
=
=
7232
Aragonite (CaCOs)
Aragomte occurs
Sometimes
a great variety of forms.
it
is in
distinct crystals, but more frequently it is in oolitic globular and reniform masses, in divergent bundles of fibers or of needle-like forms, in
stalactites
and
in crusts.
In composition aragonite
is like calcite.
It often contains small
quantities of the carbonates of strontium, lead or zinc.

Crystals*are often acicular with steep domes predominating.
Some
oop(uo), ooP 00(010), fP 00(032),

Poo (on), 4?(44i), 9P(9Qi) and ooP2(i2o) (Fig. 116). Twinning is
of the simplest crystals consist of
common.
The twinning plane
is
often ooP(iio).
By
repetition this
gives nse to pseudohexagonal forms, resembling an hexagonal prism and

the basal plane (see Figs 117 and 118), The angle no i "10=63 48'.
The
cleavage of aragonite
indistinct parallel to oo P(no).
2 93
Its luster is vitreous
is distinct parallel
and
Its hardness is 3.5-4

its color white,
p 06 (oio) and
and density about
to oo
often tiiigcd with gray,
224
Its streak is white
green or some other light shade

a=SI jôo,
7=1
6857
and the mineral
is
Its indices of refraction for yellow light are
At 400
it
passes over into calcite
OtherBefore the blowpipe aragomte whitens and falls to pieces

wise its reactions are like those of caktte, from which it can be distin-
'"
ui
\
FIG 117
FIG 116
FIG 116
Aragomte Crystal with o P,

Aragomtc Twin and
FIG 117
no
(m),
Trilling
oo
P So oio
,
(6)
Twinned about
and
co
P So on
,
P (no)
A
FIG
1 18
Trilling
of
Aragomte Twinned about
<*>P
(no)
(B) Resulting pseudohexagonal group, resembling an

basal plane
guished by
its crystallization, its
(A)
Cross-section
hexagonal prism and
lack of rhombohedral cleavage
and
its
density
Solutions of CaCOs in dilute HaCOs form crystals of
Synthesis
In general,
aragomte when evaporated at a temperature of about 90
hot solutions of the carbonate deposit aragomte, while cold solutions
deposit calcite
If
the solution contains some sulphate or traces of
strontium or lead carbonates, mixed crystals consisting principally of

the aragomte molecule are formed at ordinary temperature,
Aragomte occurs in beds, usually with
gypsurn.
It
is
also deposited
from hot waters and from coid waters
CARBONATES
225
The pearly layer of oyster

containing a sulphate (as from sea water)
shells and the body of the shells of some other mollusca are
composed
of calcium carbonate crystallizing like aragomte
Aragomte is often
changed by paramorphism into calcite, pseudomorphs of which after
the former mineral are quite common

Localities
The mineral is found at Aragon, Spain, at Bilm, in
in
Bohemia,
Sicily, at Alston Moor, England, and at a number of
other places in Europe
It occurs in groupings of interlacing slender
columns
the iron mines of Styria Stalactites are abundant

(fios /em),
at Leadhills, Lanarkshire, Scotland, and a silky fibrous variety known as
satmspar, at Dayton, England
In the United States crystallized aragomte occurs at Mine-la-Motte,

and in the lands of the Creek Nation, Oklahoma Flos fern has
been reported from the Organ Mts New Mexico, and fibrous masses
from Hoboken, N J Lockport, Edenville and other towns in New York
and from Warsaw, 111
Mo
Strontianite
(SrCO 3 )
In general appearance and in its manner of occurrence strontianite

Its crystals are often acicular in habit though
resembles aragomte
twins
common
The angle no A iTo=62 41'
are
repeated
The composition of pure strontianite is SrO=7o i, C02=2g 9, but

the mineral usually contains an admixture of the barium and calcium
carbonates
is brittle, its hardness is 3 5-4 and its density 3 7
Before the blowpipe strontianite swells and colors the flame with a
The solution imIt dissolves in hydrochloric acid
crimson tinge
Strontianite
parts a crimson color to the blowpipe flame

phuric acid it yields a precipitate of SrSO*
yellow light are
a= i
5199,
7=1
668
When
treated with sul-
Its dissociation
temperature
is
"SS
Aragomte, witherite (BaCOs) and strontianite are so similar in appearance and in general properties that they can be distinguished from
one another best by
their chemical characteristics
They
are
all sol-
uble in hydrochloric acid and these solutions impart distinctive colors

to the blowpipe flame (see p 477)
Crystals of strontianite are obtained by precipitating
Syntheses
a hot solution of a strontium salt by ammonium carbonate, and by coolin a molten mixture of NaCl and KC1
ing a solution of SrCOs
Occurrence,
Strontianite occurs in veins in limestone
and as an
226
alteration product of the sulphate (celestite) where this is exposed to the

It is probably in all cases a deposit from water
weather
Strontiamte
Localities
is
common
the most
of all strontian
It frequently occurs as the filling of metallic veins
pounds
It
comforms
near Munstei, Westdeveloped crystals at the Wilhelmme Mine

as gianular masses
and
Y it occurs as crystals
At Schohane,
phalia
in nests in limestone
It is found also at other places in New York, in
Mifflm Co Penn and on Mt Bannell near Austin, Texas.
finely
Uses
hydroxide
nitrate
Strontium compounds are

is
employed to some extent

"
the manufacture of
red
All the strontium
medicine
used
little
"
fire
salts
the
The
arts
and the
refining beet sugar
Othei compounds aie used

in the United States arc
used
imported
Witherite
(BaC0 3 )
Withente differs very little in appearance or in manner of occurrence

from aragomte
Its crystals are nearly always m repeated twins that
have the habit of hexagonal pyramids (Fig.
The
119)
angle
noAiTo62
46',
When pure the mineral contains

cent BaO and 22 3 per cent C02
It
is
bonate,
FIG 119
wuhcriic Twinned
about COP (no), thus Im.tating Hexagonal Combina-
is
much
its
3 to 4
ture
heavier than the calcium car-
density being
Its
s ==I740
llght
77 7 pei
refractive
i ls
43
Its hardness
mdc\
foi
(hbboaation
yellow
tenii
mu-
Jg
It dissolves readily in dilute hydrochloric

acid with effervescence, and from thib solution, even when dilute, sulphuric acid precipitates a heavy white precipitate of BaSO-t, winch,
when heated
the blowpipe flame, imparts to it a yellowish green
color
Witherite
is
distinguished from the other carbonates
and the
by
its crys-
imparts to the blowpipe flame.

Syntheses
Crystals are produced by precipitating a hot solution of
a barium salt with ammonium carbonate, and by cooling a molten
tallization,
xnagma composed
Locahfoes
States,
but
it
color
of
it
NaCl and BaCO?
Witherite
is
not a very
common
mineral in the United
occurs in large quantity associated with lead minerals in
veins at Alston Moor, in Cumberland
and near Hexham,
in
Northum-
Some of the crystals found in these places measure

berland, England
as much as six inches in length
CARBONATES
known
Its best
United States is Lexington, Kentucky,

associated with the sulphate, bante
used to some extent as a source of banum compounds
where the mineral

Uses
The
It
is
227
locality in the
is
importations of the mineral during 1912 aggregate $25,715

Cerussite
(PbC0 3 )
Cerussite generally occurs in crystals and in granular, earthy

fibrous masses of a white coloi
The pure lead carbonate contains C02=i6 5 and

the mineral usually contains in addition some ZnCOa
FIG
FIG 120
P,
FIG 121
20
oP, ooi
(p),
oo
( r ),
P^, 130
PbO=835j but
FIG 122
cop
no
(w),
2 Poo,
021
(i),
Cerussite Crystal with
in
ooPoo
100
Pw,on
ooPoo, oio (6),

JPoo, 012 (x) and
(0),
(fc),
(c)
FIG 121
Cerussite
FIG 122
Cerussite
Tnlhng Twinned about

Tnllmg Twinned about
*>
P(no)
Its simple crystals are tabular combinations of oo P(i 10) , oo

oo
Poo
(100)
twinned
in
and
and various brachydomes (Fig
such a
way
120),
P 08
(oio)
and these are often
as to produce six rayed stars (Fig 121), or other

122)
Groups of interpenetrating crystals
symmetrical forms (Fig

are also
The
common
The
angle
color of the mineral
is
iioAiio=62
46'.
usually white, but
its
surface is frequently
Its luster
discolored by dark decomposition products
is
Its
its
hardness
and
or vitreous
density =6.5
3-3 5
is
adamantine
Its refractive
2 0763,
indices for yellow light are a = i 8037,
0780
with effervescence
nitric
acid
is
dissolved
mineral
The
by
Before the blowpipe

potassium hydroxide
oxide
On charcoal
to
lead
and changes
globule,
and
7=2
it
it
and by
decrepitates, turns yellow

is reduced to a metallic
yields a white and yellow coating
228
Cerussite
is
not easily confused with other minerals
It
is
well char-
high specific gravity, its reaction for lead, and is distinguished from the sulphate (anglesite) by effervescence with hot acids
Syntheses
Crystals have been obtained by heating lead formate with
acterized
by
its
water in a closed tube, and by treatment of a lead salt by a solution of

carbonate at a temperature of iso-i8o
ammonium
The mineral occurs at all localities at which

other lead compounds are found, since it is often produced from thes*
FIG 123
Radiate Groups
of Cerussite
(After
latter
by the
on Galena from Park City Distrid, Utah.
BoHlwell)
action of the atmosphere
therefore, usually found
and atmospheric water
It is,
m the upper portions of veins

m
Locates Cerussite crystals of great beauty are found

many of
the lead-producing districts of Europe and also at Phoemxville, Penn
near Union Bridge,
Maryland, at Austin's Mines, Wythe Co., Vir;
ginia,
and occasionally
In the West
mines
it
m Utah
Uses,
It is
in the lead
mines of Wisconsin and Missouri,
occurs at Leadville, Colo

(Fig 123),
and
at the Flagstaff
and other
at several different mines in Arizona.
mined with other lead compounds as an ore of the metal
CARBONATES
229
Dolomite (MgCa(CO 3 ) 2 )
Dolomite is apparently isomorphous with calcite but the etch
figures on rhombohedral -faces prove it to belong m the trigonal
rhombohedral
and in
It occurs as crystals
class
all
the forms charac-
except the fibrous

all
calcite
contains more or less magnesium carbonate, but
Nearly
most of the mixtures are isomorphous with calcite and magnesite
teristic of calcite
When
the ratio between the two carbonates reaches 5435 per cent
CaCOs 45 65 per cent MgCOs, which is equal to the ratio between
the molecular weights of the two substances, or in other words when the
in the compound in the ratio of one molecule
two carbonates are present
to one molecule, the mineral
position of dolomite
is
The
called dolomite
(MgCa(COs)2)
is
30 4 per cent
com-
calculated
CaO, 217 per cent
MgO and 47 8 per cent CCte

The
crystals of dolomite are usually rhombohedral combinations of
the rhombohedron R(ioli) with the scalenohedron
R3 (2i3i)
(Fig 124), and its tetartohedral forms,

and often the prism oop2(ii2o) and the basal
Its axial ratio is a:c**i
Twins
8322
plane
are not rare, with oR(oooi) and R(ioTi) the
m
The
planes are often curved,
twinning planes
with
surfaces
concave
The
(Fig 125)
frequently
=
loli
A7ioi
angle
73
.
rro.
The
to
of
cleavage
The mineral
is
i.
ni
perfect
parallel
-j.
dolomite
brittle
is
Its
hardness
FIG 124
is
Its luster is vitreous or

and density 2 915
color
its
and
red, green, gray or
white,
pearly
brown Its streak is always white and the mineral
40^ T
oooi
3 5-4
transparent
=i
Its
refractive indices
The important
5026
^
Dolomite
,
crystal with
is
4R
y^ and Op'
(c)
translucent or
for yellow light are
w= 16817,
varieties recognized are
Pearlspar, with curved faces having a pearly luster

Granular or saccharoidd, including many marbles
and magne'San
limestones
Dolomifoc limestone, including much hydraulic limestone
Many dolomites are intermixed with the carbonates of iron, manganese, cobalt or zinc and these are known as ferriferous dolomite, etc
Dolomite behaves
tube
It,
like calcite before the
however, dissolves only slowly,
acid, except
when very
finely
effervescence in hot acid
if
blowpipe and in the closed

at
all,
m cold hydrochloric
powdered, though dissolving readily with
230
reaction toward cold acid and
The
tinguish dolomite from calcite

the flame reaction
It
is
greater hardness easily dis-
It is distinguished
from magnetite by
Dolomite, like the calcium carbonate, occurs

rock

crystallized
its
m veins, and as granular masses forming gicat beds of
a precipitate from solutions and a metasomatic alteration product
of calcite
Its crystals are present at
Localities
Bex, in Switzerland, Traversella, in
Roxbury,
FIG 125.
in
Vermont, Hoboken,
Group
many
places,
among them
Piedmont, Guanajuato,
in
Mexico,
J., Niagara Palls, the Quarantine
of Dolomite Crystals from Jophn,
Mo
Flat
Rhombohedrons with
Curved Faces
C. It
Joplin, Mo , and Stony Pouil,
as
beds
limestone
of
dolomitic
very widely spread
Dolomite is used for many of the purposes served by calcite,
Uses
Station,
and Putnam, N.
is also
much
indeed,
of the material used as marble, limestone, etc
contains a
It is not, however, used as a

large percentage of magnesium carbonate
the manufacture of Portland cement, nor as a source of lime
flux or
Ankerite (Ca(Mg Fe) (003)2)
is
a ferruginous dolomite.
It
is
an
isomorphous mixture of the carbonates of calcium, magnesium and iron,

in which the FeCOa replaces a part of the MgCOs in dolomite
It is
usually in rhombohedral crystals, with the angle xoTi A 1101-73 48'
Its color is white, gray or red and its streak is white
Its hardness
=3
5-4,
and
its
density
granular masses,
=2
98
Ankente
is
It also occurs
m coarse and fine-grained
infusible before the blowpipe.
In the
CARBONATES
closed tube
netic
it
231
darkens and when heated on charcoal
has been found at Antwerp and other places
It
it
becomes mag-
It occurs in veins, especially those

containing iron
minerals
m northern New York.
CALCIUM-BARIUM CARBONATES
Carbonates of the general composition CaBa(COs)2 occur (i) as a
mixed crystals isomorphous with caicite under the name hart-
series of
(2) as
calctte,
a series of mixed crystals isomorphous with aragomte
known
as alstomte or bromhte, and (3) a typical double salt, barytocalctte,

which is monoclmic
Both alstomte and barytocaicite occur in veins
of lead ores and of bante
Barytocaicite,
b . c~ 7717
i
CaBa(COs)2
is
6255 and
monoclmic (prismatic class), with

It forms crystals bounded
52'
=73
by oo P 66 (100), ccP(no), oP(ooi), and a series of clmopyramids, of

which 2P2 (12!) and sP$ (i 5!) are common It also occurs massive Its
The mineral is white, gray,
perfect cleavage is parallel to ooP(no)
Its streak is white, hardness =4 and sp gr =
greenish or yellowish
It
3 665
is
Before the blowpipe frag-
on thin edges, and assume a pale green color, due to the

The mineral is soluble in HC1 Its
presence of a little manganese
principal occurrence is Alston Moor, Cumberland, England.
ments
fuse
BASIC CARBONATES
The
all or a portion of the hydroThere

the
hydroxides of metals
replaced by
gen of carbonic acid
are only three minerals belonging to the group that need be referred to
here
Two are copper compounds One is the bright green malachite
basic carbonates are salts in which

is
and the other the blue azunte
The composition
of the
former
may be
CuOHv
represented by the formula
;>C03,
and that
of the latter
by
CuOH/
CuOHv
Cu==(COs)2.
Both are used
to
some extent as ores of the metal,
CuOH/
though their value for this purpose is not great at the present time
They may easily be distinguished from all other minerals by their
distinctive colors,
and by
by the
fact that they yield water in the closed tube
their effervescence with acids
The
third mineral (hydrozincite)
is a white substance that occurs as earthy or fibrous incrustations on other

zinc compounds. Its composition corresponds to 2ZnCOs sZn(OH)2
232
= 2-2
Its hardness
and
its specific
copper compounds are described
is
gravity
about 3
Only the two
m detail
Malachite ((CuOH) 2 CO 3 )
Malachite usually occurs in fibrous, radiate, stalactitic, granular
or earthy, green masses, or as small drusy crystals covering other copper
compounds The mineral contains, when pure, 19 9 per cent CO2,
CuO and
71 9 per cent
per cent
KbO
Well defined crystals are usually very small monoclmic prisms (monoclmic prismatic class), with an a\ial ratio 8809 i
4012 and
#=6i
50'
Their predominant forms
are
ooPo>(oio),
ooPoo(ioo),
arc
Contact twins
oP(ooi)
P 60(100) the twinning

angle no A iTo= 75 40'
oo
Crystal
no
ioo
(a),
cot
(c)
its
with
?,
and
oP,
Twinned
The
126)
massive
ooPw, and
(w),
common,
plane (Fig
and
with
The puie mineral is bright green in color and has

It possesses a vitieous luster,
a light green stieak
fibrous marc* and dull
but this becomes silky
126 -Malachite
FIG
ooP(no),
specimens
Crystals are translucent
massive pieces aic opaque.
Translucent
pieces are pleochroic
in yellowish
green and dark
Thc clcavage 1S perfcct paid ud to

Thc haidness of malachite is 3 5-4, and
green tmts
oP(ooi)
Its refractive index, /3, for yellow light ==i 88
density about 3 9
Malachite turns black and fuses befoic the blowpipe and tinges the
With NaaCOs on charcoal
flame green
difficultly soluble
taining
C02
It is
it yields a
copper globule. It is
water conpure water, but is easily dissolved
soluble with effervescence in HCl and its solution
becomes deep blue on the addition of an excess of ammonia.

heated in a closed glass tube, it gives an abundance of water.
with water
it
turns black
and
loses its
When
Boiled
COa
Malachite, on account of its characteristic color, may be easily distinguished from all other minerals but some varieties of turquoise and
a few copper compounds, such as atacamite (p 144)

It
tinguished from all of these by its effervescence with acids
Synthesis.
may be
dis-
Malachite crystals have been obtained with the form of

ammonium
by heating a solution of copper carbonate
natural crystals
carbonate
and Origin
Malachite is a frequent decomposition
of
other
copper minerals, being formed rapidly in moist places.
product
Occurrence
CARBONATES
233
It occurs
abundantly in the upper oxidized portions of veins of copper

it is associated with azurite,
where
ore,
cuprite, copper, kmomte and the
of
iron and copper, often pseudomorphmg the
sulphides
copper minerals
The green stain noticed on exposed copper trimmings of buildings is
composed
in part of this substance
The mineral occurs in all copper mines At Chessy,

forms handsome pseudomorphs after cuprite
In the United
has been found in good specimens at Cornwall, Lebanon Co
Localities
it
France,
States it
Penn
and at
,
at Mineral Point, Wisconsin, at the
the
district,
Humming
Copper Queen Mine, Bisbee,

Bird Mine, Morenci, Arizona, and in the Tintic
Utah.
Uses
In addition to
its
use as an ore of copper the radial and mass-
ive forms of malachite are employed as ornamental stones for inside

decoration
The massive forms are also sawn into slabs and polished
for use as table tops
Production
and are turned
As malachite
is
into vases, etc
mined with other copper compounds,
the quantity utilized as an ore of the metal
is
not
known
The amount
produced in the United States during 1912 for ornamental purposes was
valued at $1,085
This, however, included also a mixture of malachite
and
azurite.
Azurite
Azurite
is
also as veins
(Cu(CuOH)2(CO 3 ) 3 )
more often found in crystals" than is malachite. It occurs

and incrustations and in massive, radiated, and earthy
Azurite Crystals with oP, oot (c),

-Pco, 101 (<r), ooPoo, 100 (a),
(), -2P, 221 (A), jPa, 243 (d) and P , on (/)
P, YII (*), oo P,
FIG 127
&
no
forms associated with malachite and other copper compounds.

most frequent associate is malachite, into which it readily alters
Its
In composition azurite is 25 6 per cent CCh, 69 2 per cent CuO, and

It changes rapidly to malachite, and sometimes is
5 2 per cent EfeO
reduced to copper
or wedge-shaped
crystals are tabular, prismatic,
an
axial ratio a . b :
with
forms (monochmc prismatic dass),
The
7611, and P~Bj
36',
They
monochmc
c= 8501 :
are usually highly modified, 58 or
234
more
The predominant
POO(IOI), ooP(no), -2P(22i) and oopoo(ioo).
different planes having
ones are oP(ooi),
been identified on them
1*0=80 40'
127 ) The angle no
mineral is dark blue, vitreous, and translucent or transparent,
Its streak is light
and is pleochroic in shades of blue It is brittle
(Fig
The
and density 3 8 Its cleavage is distinct parallel

Poo (on)
The blowpipe and chemical reactions for azunte are the same as
those for malachite
By them the mineral is easily distinguished from
the few other blue minerals known
blue, its hardness 3 5-4
to
Crystals have been formed on calcile
Synthesis
ments of
this mineral to lie in a solution of
by
allowing frag-
for a year or
more
The mineral
occurs in the oxidized zone of copper veins.

the change of other coppei compounds
an intermediate product
Occurrence
It is
CuNOj
to malachite
Localities
Azunte occurs
beautiful crystals at Cressy, France,

at Mineral Point,
near Redruth, in Cornwall, at Phoenix ville, Pcnn

at the Copper Queen Mine, Bisbce, Aiu
Wis
,
at the
Mine, Tintic district, Utah, at Hughes's Mine, California,

other copper mines in this country and abroad
Mammoth
and at many
Morenci, Ariz Mr Kunz describes specimens consisting of

spherical masses composed of alternating layers of malachite and
azunte, which, when cut across, yield surfaces banded by alternations of
From
bright
and dark blue
Uses
Azurite
is
colors
mined with other copper minerals as an ore of copan ornamental stone (see mal-
It is also used to a slight extent as
per
achite).
HYDROUS CARBONATES
The hydrous carbonates are salts containing water of crystallizaThey are carbonates of sodium or of this metal with calcium or
magnesium Some of them occur in abundance in the waters of salt or
bitter lakes, but very few are known to occur m any large quantity in
tion
solid
form
Among
the commonest are:
Soda or natron
Trona
Na2COa xoBfeO
monochmc
HNas (C0s)2
monoclmic
monoclimc
orthorhombic
aEfeO
Gayliissite
NagCa(C03)2 sEfeO
Hydromagnestie
MgÔH^COaVsBfeO
These minerals occur
either
mud or upon other minerals,
m the muds of lakes or as crusts upon the
CARBONATES
Natron occurs only
in solution
235
mud on
and in the dry
the borders
of lakes
Trona, or urao, (HNa3 (C0 3 )2 2H2 0) is found as crystals in the

mud of Borax Lake, California, as a massive bed in Churchill Co.,
Nevada, and as thin coatings on rocks in other
Its
places.
matic
class),
with the
monochnic (pns-
is
crystallization
axial
ratio,
8426
^
V
7
*
\
->
29494 and 18=76 31' Its crystals are usually
bounded by oP(ooi), ooP 66(100), -P(m) and FIG 128 Trona Ciystal with oP, ooi (c),
+P(Tn) (Fig 128) Fibrous and massive forms
p * I0
) and
are common
The mineral has a
It
paraUel to oo P 60 (100)
and has a colorless streak
2 5-3,
taste
is
(fl
>
perfect cleavage
+P
gray or yellowish
It has a vitreous luster,
'
(o)
a hardness of
and a density of 2 14 It is soluble in water and has an alkaline

It exhibits the usual reactions for Na and for carbonates
Gaylussite (Na2Ca(COs)2
5H2 0)
also occurs
as crystals in the
muds of certain lakes, especially Soda Lake, near Ragtown, Nevada,

and Menda Lake, Venezuela, and in clays under swamps in Railroad
Valley,
in
Nevada
Its
(prismatic class) with a
and
oo
0=78
oo
crystals
b
are monochnic
c=i 4897
are usually
They
27'
P(no), P
4442
bounded by
(on), and ^P(Ti2) (Fig 129), or by
these planes and oP(ooi)
and
oo
P 66
(100).
They
are either prismatic because of the predominance

of
Pob(oii) and oP(ooi), or are octahedral
habit because of the nearly equal development of
P ob (on) and
FIG
29
-Gaylussite
Crystal with oop,
no
]i el
ucent
it
decrepitates
is
very
P(iio).
Their cleavage
is
perfect
ooP(no)
I ts
(r).
It
tube
oo
^ ^^
para
(m), Poo ,011
(e)and JP,Ti2
to
^^ ^
hardness
brittle
is
When
and becomes opaque
2-3
Uowish and trans ^
and density 199
heated
It loses its
the
closed
water at 100
melts easily to a white enamel and colors the flame yellow

It is partially soluble in water, leaving a white powdery residue of CaCOs
and is entirely soluble in acids with effervescence The mineral occurs
In the flame
it
in such large quantity in the clays underlying swamps in Railroad Valley,

Nevada, that its use has been suggested as a source of NagCOs-
CHAPTER
XII
THE SULPHATES
THE
known
large number are

sulphates are salts of sulphuric acid
to occur in nature but many of them are dissolved in the waters
of salt lakes
These
Of the remaining ones only a few are very common
may be divided into an anhydrous normal group, a basic group and
a hydrated group
In addition, there are several minerals that are
sulphates mixed with chlorides or carbonates
All the sulphates that are soluble in water give the test for sulphuric
When heated with soda on charcoal they are reduced to sulphides
acid
The mass when
placed on a silver
com and moistened with a drop
water or of hydrochloric acid partly dissolves and stains the
silver
of
dark
brown or black
The
sulphates
nonconductors of
when pure
are
all
white and transparent, and are
all
electricity
ANHYDROUS SULPHATES
NORMAL SULPHATES
The anhydrous normal sulphates ha\c the general formula R/2S04
R"S04 The most common ones are sulphates of the alkaline earths
and lead
They belong in a single group which is orthorhombic The
few less common ones are sulphates of the alkalies or of the alkalies
or
and
alkaline earths
Only two of the
latter are described*
Glauberite (Na 2 Ca(SO 4 )2)
Glaubente
may be
regarded as a double salt of the composition
NaaS04 CaSO/t, which requires 511 per cent Na2S04 and 48.9 per cent
CaS04 The mineral contains 22 3 per cent Na20, 20 i per cent CaO
and 57 6 per cent SOs
It nearly always occurs in monochmc crystals (prismatic class),
with an axial ratio i 2209 i i 0270 and #=67 49'. The most frequent combination is oP(ooi),
P(ni), ooP(no), ooP 06(100),
The
3P3(3iT) and +P(u7), with oP(ooi) prominent (Fig 130)
The angle noAiTo =96 58'.
cleavage is perfect parallel to oP(ooi)
.
236
SULPHATES
237
Glaubente is yellow, gray or brick-red

color, is transparent or
translucent and has a white streak, a vitreous luster and a conchoidal
Its hardness is 2 5-3 and its specific
fracture
gravity about
soluble
28
is
It is partly
brittle
water, imparting to the solution a
The
slight saltiness
mens
It is
red color of
many
speci-
due to the presence of inclusions
Before the blowpipe the mineral decrepiwhitens and fuses easily to a white
tates,
enamel, at the same time coloring the flame FIG 130

It
yellow
is
soluble
HC1 and
Glaubente Crys-
talwithoP.ooi (), <*p,
a large
in
In a small quantity of
quantity of water
water it is partially dissolved with loss of
no
(m),
and
P,
oo
P oo
in
100
(a)
(s)
transparency and the production of a deposit of

It sometimes alters to calcite
Occurrence
Glaubente
associated with rock salt
is
posits from bodies of
at Villa Rubia,
salt
and other de-
water
It
is
found
m Spam, and elsewhere

m the Rio Verde Valley,
Europe, and
Arizona and at Borax Lake, California
in
FIG
(o),
ooi
lake
They
Thenarditc
131
with
oo
P,
IPS,
no
(w),
106
(0
Crystal
P,
nT
Thenardite (Na2S04) occurs as ortho-
and oP,
rhombic crystals in the vicinity of salt

lakes, and m beds associated with other
(c)
deposits
are
Its
ha\e an
crystals
axial
ratio
5976:
2524
commonly prismatic but those
from California are tabular and are bounded
by ooP(uo), oP(ooi),
and ooPw(ioo) (Fig
and
Its
salty taste
specific
white or reddish
Its hardness is 2-3

2
gravity
mediate refractive index

readily soluble in water.
Twins are
131)
common (Fig 132)

The mineral is colorless,
and has a
P 60(106),
P(iiT),
is
68
i
Its
470
inter-
It
is
It occurs in exten-
sive deposits in the Rio Verde

zona, and as crystals at Borax Lake, California and on the shores of salt lakes in
Valley, Ari-
Central Asia and South America.
FIG
132
Thenardite
Twinned about P 06 (on)

Forms same as m Fig. 131
and oo P oo 100 (a)
,
238
BARITE GROUP
The bante group includes the sulphates of the alkaline earths and
They are all light colored minerals with a nonmetallic luster
all
crystallize in the orthorhombic system (bipyramidal class),
They
and all have a hardness of about 4 The minerals comprising this group,
lead
with their axial
ratios, are
Anhydnte CaSO* a
Bante
BaS04
Celestite
SrS(>4
Angleute
PbSQi
c= 8932
=8152
=
=
'
7790
7852
0008
3136
2800
2894
Anhydrite (CaSO 4 )
The natural compound, anhyis dimorphous

In addition to this, there is another
orthorhombic bipyramidal
which passes over into anhydrite when shaken for a long time with boiling
Calcium sulphate
drite, is
water
It
moistened
is
it
produced by dehydrating gypsum at about 100

combines with water and passes back to gypsum
When
It is
It is unstable under the conditions prevailing at

probably tnclmic
the earth's suiface and is, therefore, not found as a mineral
Anhydrite occurs usually

often in crystals
tabular
habit
When
m fibrous,
granular or massive forms, not

commonly prismatic or
crystals occur they are
In composition the mineral
is
58 8 per cent SOa and 41
per cent
CaO
Its crystals are usually
oo
P 60(100),
and Poo (on)

the macroaxis
oo
bounded by the three pinacoids oP(ooi),

2P2(i2i), 3P3(i3i), POO(IOI)
p 06(010) and P(ni),
The prismatic types are

The angle noAiTo=83
usually elongated parallel to

41'
Anhydrite fuses quite easily before the blowpipe and colors the flame
reddish yellow
It is very slightly soluble in water but is completely
dissolved in strong sulphuric acid
It cleaves parallel to the three pmacoids yielding rectangular fragments. Its hardness is 3-3 5 and denIts luster is vitreous
massive pieces and its color
sity about 2 93
white, often with a distinct tinge of blue, gray or red.
ments
it is
translucent, but in large masses
it is
opaque
In small
frag-
Its refractive
indices for yellow light are

i 5693, 7=1
6130
It is distinguished from the other sulphates by its specific gravity
and the color it imparts to the blowpipe flame
SULPHATES
239
Its crystals have been produced

Synthesis
solution of gypsum in HfoSCX
by slowly evaporating a
Occurrence
Anhydrite occurs as crystals implanted on the minerals

beds of granular masses associated with gypsum, and as
the two having
crystalline masses in layers associated with rock salt
been deposited by the evaporation of salt waters
of ore veins,
cis
The mineral
Localities
Germany,
Andreasberg,
m Harz,
Europe
Croix Rivers
found at the
salt
mines of Stassfurt,
Bex, in Switzerland,
Bleiberg,
N Y
At Lockport,
crystals lining geodes
St
is
Hail, in Tyrol,
m Carmthia, and at many other places

,
and at Nashville, Tenn
m limestone, and at the mouths of

Nova
in
in the ore veins of
Scotia
it
it
the
occurs as
Avon and
forms large beds associated with
gypsum
Finely granular forms of the mineral are used for ornamental
Uses
The massive variety

purposes, and as a medium for the use of sculptors
is occasionally employed as a land plaster to enrich cultivated soils
Barite
(BaSO 4 )
Bante, or heavy spar, usually occurs crystallized, though it

often found massive and in granular, fibrous and lamellar forms
a common mineral associated with sulphide ores as a gangue
The
is
also
It is
is sometimes pure but it is usually intermixed with the

calcium
and strontium sulphates The pure mineral conisomorphous
As usually mined it
tains 34 3 pei cent SOs and 65 7 per cent BaO
contains SiOa, CaO, MgO, AlgOa, FegOa and in some instances PbS2
mineral
(galena)
The simple crystals are usually tabular or prismatic in habit. The

tabular forms are commonly bounded by oP(ooi), ooP(no) and the
domes,
P 66
|P ob (102), 2P 06 (021), and P 06 (on), and sometimes

Poo (100) (Fig. 133), The prismatic forms are usually
(101),
P(ni) and
oo
the direction of
elongated
the a axis, and are bounded
by the same planes
as the
tabular crystals (Fig 134) FlG I33 Bante Crystals with oop, J10 (m),
iPoo, 102 (d), PoS,oii (0) and oP, ooi (c)
Complex crystals are also
abundant They are often
beautifully
supplied with planes, the total
species being about 100

The cleavage of bante
It is brittle
Its
The
number known on the
noAiio^T 80
22?'
is
hardness
angle
is
about 3 and
its
and
oo
P(no)
The
density about 4 5
240
mineral
It
is
white, often with a tinge of yellow, biown, blue, 01 red

Its refi active
or opaque and its streak is white
is
transparent
a= i
indices for yellow light die
7= i
6491
Before the blowpipe bante decrepitates and fuses, at the same time
coloring the flame yel6369,
lowish green
The
fused
mass reacts alkaline

lltmus paper
Jt 1S
The mineral
FIG 134 -Bante Crystals with m, d, o and c as m
distinguished
Also coPoo, zoo (a), P,
60 and
Fig 133
P2, 122
(y)
to
m"
barite
is
from the
high specihc gravity and
the color
it
imparts to the blowpipe flame
Crystals have been made by heating precipitated barium

HC1 in a closed tube at 150, and by cooling a fusion
dilute
with
sulphate
of the sulphate in the chlorides of the alkalies or alkaline earths
Syntheses
Bante is a common vein-stone It conOccurrence and Origin

of
many ore veins, particularly those of copper,
gangue
lead and silver. It is found also as a replacement of limestone, which,
stitutes the
when
it weathers, leaves the barite in the form of fragments and noduleb

a residual clay, and as a deposit in hot spnngs. In all cases it is
believed to be a deposit from solutions
in
Barite occurs abundantly in England, Scotland, and on

Localities
the continent of Europe
Crystals are found at Cheshire, Conn ; at
Co
at the Phoenix Mine in Cxbarrus
St
Lawrence
DeKalb,
,
Co,,
N C
enough
pieces large
Lake
N Y
and near Fort Wallace,

to
Ontario, at Sacketts Harbor,
veins at
many
lachians and
New Mexico
warrant polishing
different places,
N Y
more
is
Massive barite
found on the bank of
It constitutes the filling of
particularly in the southern
Appa-
m the Lake Superior region,
Preparation
Much
of the mineral that enters the trade in the
The rough
washed, hand picked, crushed, ground and treated with
sulphuric acid. The acid dissolves most of the impurities and leaves
the powdered mineral white
United States
material
is
obtained from the deposits in residual clay
is
The white
ground and the powder

employed in the manufacture of paper, oilcloth, enameled ware, and m the manufacture of
barium salts, the most important of which is the hydroxide, which is
Uses
is
varieties of the mineral are
used in making paints
employed
m refining sugar.
The
mineral
is
also
SULPHATES
The
241
colored massive varieties, more especially stalactitic and fibrous

sawn into slabs, polished and used as ornamental stones
forms, are
The quantity of bante mined in the United States

over 37,000 tons, valued at $153,000
was
The principal
during 1912
Production
producing states are Missouri, Tennessee and Virginia. The imports

in the same year were about 26,000 tons of crude material, valued at
$52,467 and 3,679 tons of manufactured material, valued at $26,848
Besides, there were imported $70,300 worth of artificial barium sul-
phate and about $280,000 worth of other barium
salts, exclusive of
witherite.
Celestite (SrSO*)
Celestite occurs in tabular prismatic crystals, in fibrous
times in globular masses

bluish tinge, to which
The
it
Though usually
owes its name
theoretical composition of
white,
the mineral
is
it
and some-
often possesses a
43 6 per cent 80s

quantities of the
and 56 4 per cent SrO, but it often contains small

isomorphous Ca and Ba compounds
Many
FIG. 135
celestite crystals are
Celestite Crystals with

oo
oo
oio
(&),
very similar in habit to those of bante.
oo p,
no
P oo on
,
iPoo, 102 (<Q, J Poo, 104

and oP, ooi (c)
(w),
(0)
(r),
Tabular forms are perhaps more common (Figs. 135), Occasionally,

pyramidal crystals are bounded by PiJ(i44), oP^(ioo), Poo (on)
and oP(ooi) These often have rounded edges and curved faces and
thus come to have a lenticular shape. The angle no A iTo= 75 50'
cleavage of the mineral is perfect parallel to oP(ooi) and almost
oo P(IIO)
Its hardness is about 3 and its specific
perfect parallel to
gravity 3 95. Its luster and streak are like those of barite. Its color
The
often pale blue and sometimes light red, but pure specimens are
= i 6220,
white or colorless. Its refractive indices for yellow light are:
is
7=1
6237
Before the blowpipe celestite reacts like barite except that it tinges
This crimson color may be obtained more disthe flame crimson
a
little
powder of the mineral on charcoal in the reductinctly by fusing
242
the resulting mass in a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, then adding some alcohol and igniting the mixture
Crystals of celestite are produced in ways analogous
Syntheses
mg flame and dissolving
to those in which bante crystals are formed

Celestite occurs in beds with rock salt
Occurrence and Ongin
and
gypsum, as at Bex, Switzerland, associated with sulphur, as at Girgenti, Italy, and in crystals and grams scattered through limestone,
Va or
as at Strontian Island, Lake Erie, and in Mineral Co
It is also sometimes found
as crystals lining geodes in the same rock
In some instances it was deposited by
as a gangue in mineral veins
,
hot waters, in others by cold waters, and in others it was concentrated

by the leaching of strontium-bearing limestones by atmospheric water
Production and Uses
Although the mineral occurs in large quan-
of places in the United States and Canada it is not

small quantity of the strontium oxide is annually imported
mined
Strontium salts, prepared from celestite in part, aie used in the manutity at a
number
facture of fireworks and medicines
and
refining sugar.
Anglesite (PbSOt)
Anglesite occurs principally as crystals associated with galena and
other ores of lead, but is found also massne, and in granular, stalactitic
and nodular forms
The
theoietical composition of the mineral
PbO and
26 4
demands
73 6 per cent
S03
Its orthorhombic crystals are usually prismatic or
Tabular habits are
less
common than
in
isomctnc in habit
bante and
The
celestite
iPoo (102), and

(on) and various small pyramids, with oP(ooi),
principal forms occurring are ooPcfc (100),
other macrodomes, P oo
addition, on the tabular crystals (Figs
no A iTo=76
<*>P(iio),
ij6, 137,
138),
The
angle
i6J'
The cleavage of anglesite is distinct parallel to oP(ooi) and oo P(i 10)

is conchoidal
The mineral is white, gray or colorless and
Its fracture
transparent,
and
is
often tarnished with a gray coating.

It has an
luster, is bnttle and has a colorless streak
adamantine or residuous
Its hardness is 2 5-3 and sp gr 6 3-6 4.

Impure varieties
some cases
tinged with yellow, green or blue shades and
= i 8771, 7
opaque Its refractive indices for yellow light are
may
may
i
be
be
8937.
Before the blowpipe anglesite decrepitates

It fuses
the flame of
a candle
On charcoal it effervesces when heated with the reducing
flame and yields a button of metallic lead
In the oxidizing flame
it
SULPHATES
The
gives the lead sublimate
243
m HN03
mineral dissolves
with
dif-
ficulty
The
mineral
characterized
is
by
its
high specific gravity
FIG 136
FIG
136
FIG 137
w P, no
Ynglesilc Crystal with
JP, 112
FIG
137
cio
with
Crystal
\nglcsitc
(bj,
reaction for lead.
and the
oo
on
/;/,
(o),
ooPw,
(m),
and Pi, 122
(/)
P,
100
(a),
and y as in Fig 136

102 (d)
(s) and JP oo
in
It is distinguished
oP, ooi
(c),
(y)
Also
oopoo,
from
(.erussrte
by the reaction
for
sulphur and the lack of effervescence with HC1

Syntheses
Crystals of anglesite have been made by methods analogous to those used in the preparation of bante crystals
The mineral occurs as an

Occurrence
mainly in the upper portions of veins of
lead ores
Under the influence of solutions of carbonates
it
alteration product of galena,
changes to cerus-
site
Localities
shire
It
is
found in Derby-
and Cumberland,
in
England,
near Siegen, in Prussia,

Australia and
In the
in the Sierra Mojada,
Mexico
FIG
m,
138
y, c
137
Anglesite Crystal
and d as
Also iP
63
in Figs
,
with
136 and
104 (Q and P?,
144 (x)
United States crystals occur at Phoenixville,
Penn
in the lead districts of
the Mississippi Valley, and at
various points in the Rocky Mountains

Use*. It is mined with other lead compounds as an ore of this metal
BASIC SULPHATES
Although several basic sulphates are known as minerals, only two
are of importance
One, brochantite, is a copper compound found, with
other copper minerals, in the oxidized portions of ore veins, and the
other, alumte,
is
a double salt of aluminium and potassium.
This min-
244
one of a series of compounds forming an isomorphous group, with

the general formula (R'"(OH) 2 ) 6 R'2(S04 )4 or (R'''(OH) 2 )oR''(SOi)i,
2 and R"=Pb
2 , Na 2 or
in which R'"=A1 or Fe, R' 2
eral is
=K
Alumte ((A1(OH) 2 ) 6K2 (S0 4 )4)

Alunite, or aiumstone, is a comparatively rare mineral, but, because
of its possible utilization as a source of potash, it is of considerable inIt has long been used abroad as a source of potash alum
terest
mineral, when pure, contains 38 6 per cent 863, 37 o per cent

and 13 o per cent EkO, which corresponds to
Al 2 0s, ii 4 per cent 2
the formula given above, or if written in the form of a double salt
The
The chemical composition

3(A1(OH) 2 ) 2 S04 K 2 S04
from
Marysville, Utah, is as follows
specimen
Al 2 0j Fe2
S03
37 18
38 34
P20f,
tr
58
K2
Na2
xo 46
H2 0+ H2 012 90
33
09
of a crystalline
Si0 2
Total
22
too 10
Alunite occurs in hexagonal crystals (ditrigonal scalenohedral class),

The natural crystals are nearly always
i
i 252
with an axial ratio of
modified by other rhombohedrons

simple rhombohedrons, R(ioTi), or
and the basal plane Because the angle between the rhombohcdral
The
faces is about 90 (90 50') the habit of the crystals is cubical
,
mineral also occurs massive, with fibrous, granular or porcelain-like

structure
Alunite
is
It is
white, pink, gray or red, and has a white streak
and has a vitreous or nearly pearly luster.
Its cleavage is distinct parallel to oP(oooi),
and
it
has an uneven, con-
Its hardness ib 3 5-4 and its density =

or earthy fracture
26-275. Its indices of refraction for yellow light are: sas iS92,
choidal
<o=i 572
Before the blowpipe the mineral decrepitates, but is infusible
In
it yields water and at a
high temperature sulphurous and
the closed tube
Heated on charcoal with Co(NOs) 2 it gives the blue

sulphuric oxides
color characteristic of Al2 0a
It also gives the sulphur reaction
It is
insoluble in water but is soluble in
When ignited it gives off
2 S04
water and three-quarters of
S04, the other quarter remaining

is treated with
water, the potassium sulphate dissolves and insoluble Al 2 0s is left. It is
upon this
latter reaction that the economic utilization of the mineral
depends,
all its
in
&2S04
The
When
mineral
its
the igmted residue
is
characterized
by
its
color
with the reactions for AljHgO and sulphuric acid
and hardness together
SULPHATES
245
made by heating an excess of aluminium sulphate with alum and water at 230
The mineral occurs m seams or veins in
Occurrence anl Ongm
Crystals have been
Synthesis
have been formed
It is thought to
acid lavas
in
some instances by
the action of sulphurous vapors upon the rock forming the vein walls,
in other instances by direct precipitation from ascending
magmatic
waters,
and
the action of descending BfeSC^

principal known occurrences of alumte
in others
The
Localities
by
New
at Bulla Delah,
Tolfa, Italy,
South Wales,
are at
on Milo, Grecian
Archipelago, and at Mt Dore, France

In the United States it is found with quartz and kaolin in the
Rosita Hills, and the Rico Mts,, Colo in the ore veins at Silverton
,
and Cripple Creek, Colo
as a soft white kaolin-like material in the
Nev
Nev and Tres
ore veins at Goldfield,
as a crystalline constituent in the rocks
Cerntos, Cal and in the form of a great

vein of comparatively pure material at Marysville, Utah
In Australia alumte is calcined and then heated with dilute
Uses
at Goldfield,
sulphuric acid.
solution is drawn
The mixture
calcined mineral,
is evaporated and the aluminium salt separated

by
In the United States it is now (1916) being utilized
is then allowed to settle and the clear

and cooled Alum crystallizes The mother liquor
which contains aluminium sulphate, after further treatment with the
crystallization
off
as a source of potash and aluminium
Brochantite ((CuOH)2S04 2Cu(OH)2) occurs in groups of small

Its crystalprismatic crystals, in fibrous masses and in drusy crusts
lization is orthorhombic with a
1
10 A
no =75
mineral
green.
is
It
28'
Cleavage
emerald-green
is
is
i ;
-.7739
perfect parallel to
to blackish green
and
transparent or translucent, and
its
4871 and the angle
oopas
its
(oio).
streak
is
The
light
luster is vitreous,
Its hardness is
except on cleavage planes where it is slightly pearly
tube
it
In
the
closed
decomposes, yielding
3 5-4 and density 3 85
water and, at a high temperature, sulphuric acid. It gives the usual
Brochantite occurs in the

reactions for copper and sulphuric acid
upper portions of copper veins at many places, in some of which it was
formed by the interaction between silicates and solutions of copper

salts.
In the United States it has been foi}nd at the Monarch Mine,
Chaffee Co Colorado, at the Mammoth Mine, Tmtic District, Utah,
,
and in the Clifton-Morenci Mines,
Arizona,
246
HYDROUS SULPHATES
The hydrous sulphates comprise a numbei of sulphates combined
with water
Among them are the normal salts miralnhte or glauber
(Na2S04 loEfeO), gypsum (CaSQi 2H/)), the epwmilc and inclan//
tertte groups
(R S04 7H 2 0), chakanttnte (CuS04 sEbO), md the
alum group (R'A1(S0 4 )2 i2H2 0), kiesente (MgSOi H2 O), polyhalite
Several
(K2MgCa2(S(X)4 H20), and a number of basic compounds
salt
of
them are
into
of considerable
economic importance,
They
are separated
a normal group and a basic group,
HYDRATED NORMAL SULPHATES

The hydrated normal sulphates occur in crystals, and most of them
are found also in beds mterstratified with other compounds that arc
known
to
water of
have been precipitated by the evaporation of sea water or the

and bitter lakes All are soluble in water
salt
Mirabdite, or glauber salt, (Na2SOt loHaO) is a white, transmonoclmic crystals or as

parent to opaque substance occurring
Its hardness is i 5-2 and specific gravity i 48
efflorescent crusts
It
is
soluble in water
and has a cooling
taste
When
exposed to the air
it
and crumbles to a powder Mirabihte occurs at the hot

at
Bohemia and is obtained from the water of many
Karlsbad,
springs
of the bitter lakes m California and Nevada
Its crystals are deposited
from a pure solution of Na2S04
If the solution contains NaCl, how-
loses water
ever, thenardite
(Na2S04) deposits
Kieserite (MgS(>4 H20) occurs commonly

granular to compact,
massive beds mterstratified with halite and other soluble salts at Stassfurt,
Germany, and at other places where ocean water has been evapIt is believed to have resulted from the partial desiccation of
orated.
be deposited from a solution

Kiesente is white, gray, or yellowIt forms sharp bipyraimdal
ish, and is transparent or translucent
monoclmic crystals
Its hardness is 3 and its density 2 57*
In the
epsomite (MgS04 ?H20), though
of
it
may
MgSO* m the presence of MgCfe.
presence of water it passes over into epsomite and dissolves, yielding a

solution with a bitter taste. Large quantities are utilized in the fertilizer
industry
When
exposed to the air
it
becomes covered with aa opaque
crust*
SULPHATES
247
Gypsum (CaSO 4 2H2 0)

Gypsum is the most important of all the hydrous sulphates It
occurs in massive beds a'vociated with limestone,
crystals, in finely
granular aggregates and in fibrous masses, under a great variety of
conditions
Theoretically,
consists of 46 6 per cent 80s, 32 5 per cent CaO and

it contains also notable
quantities of other
it
20 9 per cent EfeO, but usually
components, especially Fe203, AbOa and 8162

Clay
purity in the massive varieties
The analyses of two commercial gypsums follow
H2
CaSCXt
Dillon, Kans
Alabaster, Mich
The
i
78 40
19 96
20 96
78 51
crystals are
Si0 2 A1 2
12
05
08
monoclmic (prismatic
4132 and j8=8i
02'
56
with a
class),
oo
P OD
FIG
140
Crystals with
wP, no (), ooPoo,
Gypsum Twinned about
and pyramid +P(ixI) are
and
oo
55
(100)
b as in Fig
oio
99 71
^=.6895
P,
(ft),
oo
P(iio),
also nearly always present (Fig 139).
(100)
twin has the form of Fig 140

twinning plane (Fig. 141)
by +P(iiT), -P(iii), |P
is
(/)
and
Form
Twin
Swallow-tail
+P
P 56
in
139
the
faces are curved, producing a lens-shaped body
very common, giving rise to two types of twinned crystals
of these oo
ii
FIG 140
common
99 96
The prism
(oio)
FIG 139
Gypsum
Total
57
im-
are usually developed with a tabular
They
habit due to the predominance of
FIG 139
common
CaC03 MgC03
35
is
Often
Twinning is
In the most
the twinning plane and the resulting

In the second type -P 66 (101) is the
Forms
oo (103),
of this type are frequently
bounded
When
the side
and
OP65
(100)
248
known arrowhead twins result (Fig

The angle noAiTo=68 30'
The mineral possesses a good cleavage parallel to oo P $>
faces are curved the well
+P(Tn) and
oo P 66
parallel to
yielding thin inelastic fohae, another parallel to

perfect one
It
is
white,
colorless
141)
(oio)
less
(100)
and transpar-
ent when
blue
or
hardness
The
pure, gray, icd, yellow,

black when impure
Its
is
5-2 and sp. gr
=2
32
pearly on
oo P ob (oio) and on other surfaces
Massive varieties are often
vitreous
FIG
141
Gypsum Twinned
luster of
dull
The
low
light are,
about ^*~J
crystals
is
refractive indices for yel-
a= 1.5205, 0= 1.5226,
S 29
In the closed tube the mineral
-P5(ioi) Forms <*>POO, 100

-P, in (/), P, nl () and gives off watei and falls into a white
(a),
Arrow head Twm
It colors the
J P 55 Io3 (e)
powder (see p 238)
flame yellowish red and yields the sulphur test on a silver coin. It is soluble m about 450 pts of water and
When heated to between 222 F and 400 F
is readily soluble in HC1
it loses water and disintegrates into powder, which, when ground,
"
"
becomes plaster of Pans
This, when moistened with water, again
combines with it and forms gypsum
The crystallization of the mass
"
set."
into an aggregate of interlocking crystals constitutes the
from
minis
colorless
other
cleavable,
distinguished
easily
Gypsum
erals by its softness and the reactions for S and EfeO.
,
The
varieties of gypsum generally recognued are.

Syenite, the transparent crystallized variety,
Safanspar, a finely fibrous variety,
Alabaster, a fine-grained granular variety, and

Rock-gypsum, a massive, structureless, often impure
and colored
variety.
Gypsiie
is
gypsum mixed with earth
Syntheses
Crystals of gypsum separate from aqueous solutions of
CaSO* at ordinary temperatures, and also from solutions saturated
with
Nad and MgCk
Some
of these are twinned.
Gypsum forms immense beds interstratiwith limestone, clay and salt deposits where it has been precipitated
by the evaporation of salt lakes Its crystals occur around volcanic
vents, where they are produced by the action of sulphuric acid on calOccurrence and Origin
fied
SULPHATES
careous rocks.
They are
limestone, wherever
249
found isolated in clay and sand, and in
also
has been acted upon by the sulphuric acid

resulting from the weathering of pynte
Gypsum also occurs in veins
and
is
found in
this rock
New
Mexico
in the
form of
hills of
wind-blown sand
the salt beds at Bex, Switzerland,

Crystals are found
in the sulphur mines at Girgenti, Sicily, and at Montmar-tre, France
In the United States they occur at Lockport,
in Trumbull Co ,
Localities
N Y
Ohio, and in
Wayne Co
Utah, in limestone, and on the St Mary's
River, Maryland, in clay

Extensive beds occur in Iowa, Michigan, New York, Virginia, Tennessee, Oklahoma and smaller deposits in many other states, and wind-
blown sands in Otero Co

Crude gypsum
Uses
New
Mexico
used in the manufacture of plaster, as a

retarder in Portland cement, and as a fertilizer under the name of land
The calcined mineral is used as plaster of Pans and in the
plaster
is
manufacture of various wall

cements
and
finishing plasters,
Small quantities are used in glass
certain kinds of
factories,
and as a white-
wash, a deodorizer, to weight phosphatic fertilizer, as an adulterant in

candy and other foods, and as a medium for sculpture
Production
The quantity
gypsum mined
of
in the
United States
during 1912 aggregated 2,500,757 tons, valued at $6,563,908 in the form

Of this amount, 441,600 tons of crude material,
in which it was sold
valued at $623,500 were sold ground, and 1,731,674 tons, valued at $5,The output of New York was valued at $1,241,940,409, were calcined
at
and of Ohio at $812,400
of
Iowa
that
$845,600
500,
After the United States the next largest producer is France with a
product in 1910 of 1,760,900 tons, valued at $2,942,600 and Canada with
525,246 tons, valued at $934,446
EPSOMITE AND VITRIOL GROUPS

These groups comprise minerals with the general formula RSO-i 7HkO,
which R=Mg, Zn, Fe, Ni, Co, Mn and Cu Isomorphous mixtures indicate that the compounds are diomorphous, and that the
in
group
into
is,
two
therefore,
an isodimorphous group. The group is separable

which one, the epsomite group, crystallizes in the
divisions, of
bisphenoidal class of the orthorhombic system with axial ratios approx'

The other division, the vUriol9 or mdanterite,
imating i : i ,565
group
crystallizes in the prismatic class of the
axial ratios approximating 1 18
'
'
monochmc system with
53 and
Only the magnesium compound among the pure

tallize in
both systems.
ft
approximating 75
salts is
known
to crys-
Crystals separated from a saturated solution
250
are orthorhombic, while those separated from a supersaturated solution
occur in isomorphous mixtures in both

All members of the group are soluble in water and all occur as
are monoclimc
Other
salts
systems
secondary products formed by decomposition of other minerals.
(MgSO 4 7H 2 0)
Epsomite
Epsomite, or Epsom salt, usually occurs in botryoidai masses and

fibrous crusts coating various rocks over which dilute magnesium sulphate solutions trickle, and mingled with earth
in the soils of caves
The
solutions result from
k e act 10 n upon magnesian rocks of sulphuric

c,cid derived from oxidumg sulphides
Cryst
tals are rare
The composition corresponding to MgSOr

yHkO demands 32,5 SOa, 163 MgO and 51 2
H2
The mineral forms white or colorless bi142-EpsomitcCryscrystals, with an
sphenoidalj orthorhombic
.
OQ P
1 10 (m)
tal with
-,,
i
axial ratio a b c= 9901
Their
S79
p
and -r, in (s)
The angle no A 1^0=89
habit is tetragonal
Ho
26'
'
The commonest forms
occurring on syn-
P
thetic crystals are combinations of
(Fig
142)
ooP(iio), and -T(III) or -~J(ni)
Natural crystals contain,
addition oo P 56 (oio) and
POO(IOI)
The
gravity
0=i
luster of epsomite is vitreous, its hardness 2
170
4554 and
Its refractive indices for yellow
7= i
0-2
light are
and specific
a 143 25,
48
The mineral is soluble m water, yielding a solution with a bitter taste

With a solution of barium chloride it yields a white precipitate of BaSOt
its
Epsomite is distinguished from other

and the reactions for S and Mg
colorless, soluble
minerals by
taste
Crystals are produced by evaporation of solutions of

From those containing borax,
containing certain other salts
The production ot
crystals of the type indicated above are separated
right or left crystals may be provoked by inoculation of the solution with
Synthesis
MgSO*
a particle of a crystal of the desired type

Locakties
mineral waters,
Epsomite occurs
Seidlitz, Bohemia, on the walls of mines and caves,
of bitter lakes,
and as
crystals
as, for instance, at
among
the deposits
m the soil covering the 'floors of caves
SULPHATES
251
Melantente,
01 copperas (FeSO 4
7H2 0), is usually
fibrous,
or
stalactitic
pulverulent masses associated with pynte or other sul-
phides containing iron, from which it was produced by weathering

It is commonly some shade of
Its streak is colorless
processes
green
Its
crystals,
which are monochmc (prismatic

2 and a
density of i 9
class),
mineral has a hardness of
are rare
The
It is soluble in water,
forming a solution which has a sweetish astringent
taste.
ALUM GROUP
The alum group includes a large number of isomorphous compounds
with the general formula R'A1(S04)2 laHsO
The group crystallizes
in the isometric system (dyakisdodecahedral class), but all of its mem-
bers are so readily soluble

water that they are rarely found in nature
are kalmite (KA1 (864)2 I2H20) and soda alum
The commonest alums

(NaAl(S04) 2
DOUBLE SULPHATES WITH CARBONATES OR CHLORIDES

A number of compounds of sulphates with chlorides and carbonates
are known, but of these only one is of any great economic importance
others afford interesting crystals
The commercial compound is
Two
kaimte, which is a hydrated combination of MgS04 and KC1, with

the formula M&S04 KC1 3H2
The other two best known members
of the
(2Na2
group are
leadhillile
C03 QNa 2 S04
(PbSO4 Pb(PbOH)2(COs)2 and hanksite
KCI)
Kainite
(MgSO4 KCI 3H2 0)
Kaimte is found only in beds associated with halite and other deposits
It is rarely crystallized
from saline waters
Crystals are monoclmic
5863 and =85 6'. They
(prismatic class), with a b c=i 2186 : i
possess a pyramidal habit with oP(ooi) and dbP(ni)(iiT) predom.
inating
The
mineral usually forms granular masses which are white, yellow,

It is transparent, has a hardness of 2 and sp gr 2.13,
gray or red
and is easily soluble in water Its refractive indices for sodium light are-
01=14948 and 7*1.5203
When
heated in a glass tube
it
yields water
other soluble minerals
and HC1 It is distinand by the fact
by
guished from
that it yields the test for sulphur, and colors the flame blue when
powder is mixed with CuO and heated before the blowpipe
this reaction,
its
252
Crystals have been produced by evaporating a solution

containing a great excess of
Synthesis
MgCb
K2S04 and MgSOi
of
Kaimte occurs in the salt beds of Stassfurt, Germany,

Kalusz in Gahcia, and in the deposits of salt lakes and lagoons
occurs as crusts on some of the lavas of Vesuvius
Occurrence
and
of
It also
The mineral
Uses.
is utilized
as a source of potassium
m the manu-
facture of potassium salts and fertilizers

Large quantities are imported
In
States
United
into
the
1912 the imports aggregated
annually
485,132 tons, valued at $2,399,761
Hanksite (2Na2CO3 pNa2SOi KC1) occurs almost exclusively
in
hexagonal prisms that are prismatic or tabular,

or in double pyramids suggesting quartz crys-
Their axial ratio
tals
is i
The com-
006
bounded by oP(oooi),
ooP(ioTo), P(ioTi) (Fig. 143) and 2P(202i),
or |p(4o4s)
Their cleavage is imperfect
monest crystals are
FIG
Hanksite Cryswith OOP, joio (w),

P, ion (0) and oP, oooi
143
tal
^M ^
yellow
gravity
w=i
=256
4807 and
It
=i
soluble
is
4614
Thc mmeml
o p (oool)
Its
hardness
water.
It occurs at
-2 and
Its refractive
fe
wh te
j
its
Qr
specific
indices are
Borax Lake and Death Valley,
California, in the deposits of salt lakes
LeadhUlite
(PbSO 4 Pb(PbOH) 2 (CO,<02)
crystals
tals are
occurs
principally
the oxidized zones of lead and silver veins
Their axial ratio
is
7515
class),
11:2
The
and have an hexagonal
2261.
j9=8932'.
The
as
cryshabit.
principal
forms observed on them are oP(ooi), oo'P(no), ooP<w (too), P(m)

and P6o (102) In the most common twins ooP(no) is the twin-
The mineral is white or yellow, green or gray, and it is

Its streak is colorless
It is sectile, has a
hardness of 2 5 and a specific gravity of 6.35
ning plane
mtumesces, turns yellow, and fuses easily (i 5)

Upon cooling it again
becomes white
It effervesces
HNOs and leaves a white precipitate
and water It is found at Leadhills,

and Mattock, England, associated with other ores of lead;
at a lead mine near Iglesias, Sardinia, and at several silver-lead mines
of
PbS04
Scotland,
in Arizona.
It reacts for sulphur
CHAPTER
XIII
THE CHROMATES, TUNGSTATES AND MOLYBDATES
THE CHROMATES
The only chromate
normal chromic
of importance,
HkCrO*
acid,
among
minerals,
is
the lead salt of
There are several other chromates
known, but they are basic salts and are rare All are lead compounds
The normal salt, PbCrO*, is known as crocoite Chromic acid is un-
known, as it spontaneously breaks down into CrOa and water when set
free from its salts
Its best known compound is potassium chromate,
Crocoite
Crocoite
is
chromate with
well characterized
(prismatic
9603
and
003=31
It is a lead
per cent.
monoclmic
with
class)
9159 and 0=77
hyacinth-red color
its
by
PbO=68 9 per cent
Its crystallization is
(PbCr0 4 )
33'-
which are usually im-
Its crystals,
planted on the walls of cracks in

rocks,
parallel
prismatic or columnar
Their preto ooP(no)
are
dominant
forms are ooP(no),

P(iu), and various domes (Fig
Their*
144).
parallel
1
to
A no=86
10
cleavage
ooP(uo)
19'
is
distinct
The angle
The mineral
FIG
also occurs in granular masses
Crocoite
and
is
is
orange-yellow
tile
bright hyacinth-red,
Its streak is
translucent
The
mineral
is sec-
144
Crocoite Crystals with
>P,
cop}, 120 (/), -P, in 0),

3 Po5, 301 (*), PS5, Tor (), oP,
001 (C), P>,OII (*), 2? CO, 021 (?)
no
(m),
and iPSb,oi2
(w)
Its fracture is conchoidal, its
hardness 2.5-3 and density about 6

is about 2 42,
In the closed tube
it
red color when heated
index
and blackens, but it reassumes its

charcoal it deflagrates and fuses easily,
decrepitates,
On
Its intermediate refractive
253
254
yielding metallic lead
and a lead coating
gives the green bead of
The mineral
With minocosmic
salt
it
chromium
lecogmzed by
is easily
its color
and the
test for chro-
mium
Crystals, like those of crocoite, have been obtained by
Synthesis
heating on the water bath a solution of lead nitrate in nitric acid and
adding a dilute solution of potassium bichromate

Crocoite occurs under conditions which suggest that
Occurrence
is
it
a product of pneumatolysis
Locahhes
Hungary,
Co
found in the Urals, at Rezbanya and Moldawa,

the Vulture Mining district, Mancopa
Tasmania, and
It is
Arizona,
THE TUNGSTATES AND MOLYBDATES

The tungstates are salts of tungstic acid, EfoWC^
They are the
principal sources of the metal tungsten which is beginning to have imThe molybdates are salts of molybdic acid, liaMoOt
portant uses
The two most prominent
ramite (Fe
Mn)W04, and
tungstates arc ideditc, CaWQi, and wolfthe most prominent molybdate is wulfenite,
PbMoO*
All tungsten compounds give a blue bead with salt of phosphorus in
the reducing flame
When fused with NagCOa, dissolved in water
and hydrochlonc acid, and treated with metallic zinc (see pp 482, and
492 for details of
test),
they also yield a blue solution which rapidly
changes to brown
The molybdates
give with the salt of phosphorus bead in the oxidisa yellow-green color while hot, changing to colorless when cold.
In the reducing flame the color is clear green.
ing flc,me
SCHEELITE GROUP
The
group comprises a
series of tungstates and

molybdates
The minerals arc tetragonal and hcmihcdral and
are all well crystallized
The more important members of the group
are scheehte and wulfemte
CuprotungMe is a copper tungstate (CuW04)
and stolzite a lead tungstate
of Ca,
scheelite
Cu and Pb
Scheelite
The formula of scheelite demands 80 6 per cent WO.?, and 194 per
cent CaO, but the mineral usually contains a little molybdenum in
It nearly always contains also a little Fe.
place of some of the tungsten
CHROMATES, TUNGSTATES AND MOLYBDATES

tals
255
Scheehte crystallizes in the tetragonal bipyraimdal class

Its crysare usually pyramidal, though often tabular
habit
Their axial
On
the pyramidal types the

predominant planes
are pyramids of the first, second (Fig 145), and third orders and on the
tabular types, in addition, the basal plane
One of the most familiar
ratio is
5268
combinations is
P(m),P co
Other forms frequently found on

(105)
The
angle
(101),
no A In = 79
(313)
and
|
are
its crystals
^lj(i 3 i)
|P oo
and P
common, both
(102)
is
Twinning
SSi'
(Fig 145),
contact and penetration twins having oo p oo (100) as the

twinning
The mineral aJbO occurs
remform and granular masses
plane
Scheehte is white, yellow, brown, greenish or reddish, with a white
FIG 145
FIG 145
FIG 146
SdiceliLc
FIG 146
CryoUl with P,
Scheehte Crybtal with
1>
and
in
\pj t
oo
101
e as in Fig 145
(e)
and oP, ooi
Also
I ,
(c),
313 (h) and
and vitreous luster It has a distinct cleavage parallel to P(ooi),

and an uneven fracture It is brittle, has a hardness of 4 3-5 and a
It is soluble in
density of about 6, and is transparent or translucent
HC1 and HNOs with the production of a yellow powder, tungsten tri= i 9345,
oxide, which is soluble m ammonia
streak
w= i
9185 for red light

Before the blowpipe
the
mineral
fuses
to
semitransparent
With borax it forms a transparent glass which becomes opaque

on cooling
With salt of phosphorus it yields the characteristic beads
glass
for tungsten, but specimens containing iron
must be heated with
tin
on
charcoal before the blue color can be developed
Scheehte
is
distinguished from limestone, which
closely resemble,
by
its
higher specific
its
massive forms
gravity and the absence of
effer-
256
vescence with
HC1
From
softness and
from bante by greater hardness and higher specific gravity
Crystals of scheehte have been made by adding a soluSyntheses
tion of sodium tungstate to a hot acid solution of CaCk, and by fusing
They have
the two compounds

ite
it is
quartz
also
by
distinguished
its
been produced by fusing wolfram-
with CaCl2
Scheehte is found
gold-quartz veins
acid
veins
and in
igneous rocks, where it is associated with
cutting
cassiterite, topaz, fluorite, molybdenite, wolframite and many other
metallic compounds,
limestone intruded
and as a contact metamorphic product
by
granite
It is
probably
all
in altered
cases a deposit
from hot solutions

Localities
It occurs at Zinnwald,
Bohemia, Altenbeig, Saxony,

Cumberland, England, Pitkaranta, Finland, in New
in
Zealand, and in the United States at Monroe and Trumbull, Conn
Carrock
Fells,
Kern Co California, the Mammoth Mining Disin

Lake
County, Colorado, near Gage, New Mexico,
trict, Nevada,
where it occurs with pynte and galena in a vein cutting limestone,
and in the placer gravels at Nome, Alaska
the
Atoha
District,
Uses of Tungsten
the manufacture
Tungsten is used puncipally
It is
and targets for Ronlgen rays
of tool steel, electric furnaces
employed also as filaments m electric-light bulbs, in the manufacture

sodium tungstate which is used for fireproofing cloth, as a mordant
in dyeing, and for a number of other minor purposes
of
Production
Scheehte has been mined in small quantity
Idaho,
Alaska, California, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico, Us a source of
tungsten, but most of this element has heretofore been produced from
other compounds, mainly wolframite
scheehte concentrates were produced
and the Old Hat
In 1913 a few hundred tons of
the Atoha district, California,
near Tucson, Ariz. At present (rgi6)

being produced in large quantity near Bishop, Inyo Co., Cal.
district,
it is
(PbWO4) is completely isomorphous with wulfenite. Its

which are pyramidal or short columnar, arc mainly combinations of oP(no), P(in), 2P(22i) and oP(ooi)
Their axial ratio is
Stolzite
crystals,
5606
mineral
The
is
has a white streak
gray, brown, green or red.

Its
hardness
is
It
75-3 and
is
its
w =2 2685,
and melts to a
Its refractive indices for yellow light #re-
Before the blowpipe it decrepitates

The bead with microcosmic
line globule.
salt
in
translucent and
sp. gr
=2
7.87-8.23.
182
lustrous crystal-
the reducing flame

is
blue
when
cold,
is
it
257
The mineral
colorless
decomposed by HNOs leaving a yellow residue ol WOs Crystals

have been made by fusing sodium tungstate and lead chloride
Its principal localities are the tm-bearing veins at
Zmnwald, Bohemia, the copper veins in Coquimbo, Chile, and Southampton, Mass
where it is associated with other lead compounds
is
Wulfenite
Wulfemte
is
(PbMoO 4 )
the only molybdate of importance that occurs as a

demands 39 3 MoOs and 60 7 PbO Calcium
Its formula
mineral
of the Pb and tungsten a part of the Mo.

hemihedral and hemimorphic (tetragonal pyramidal
Its crystals are more frequently tabular than those of scheelite,
sometimes replaces a part
Wulfemte
class)
is
and they are usually very
The
mineral, however, occurs also
which, in
tals
thin
some
m pyramidal
cases, exhibit distinct
and prismatic
hemunorphism Their
Fro 147
FIG 147
FIG
FIG 148
Wulfemte Crystal with

P,
ratio is
tals are
'
c=i
choidal
5777
oP(ooi), P(ni),
147 and 148).
The
<*>
Wulfenite Crystal with oP, ooi
148
in
(M)
mineral
100
(c),
(a)
and
^P
JPoo, 102 (),
o 12
is
is brittle
(0)
P,
101
(e),
(s)
The most common forms found on

r oo pal
1
cleavage, parallel to P,
The
and JP, 113
(320), fP(ii3)
The angle in /\1n = So
gravity about 6 8
crysaxial
its
crys-
and POO(IOI) (Fig
22'.
very smooth, and the fracture is conIts hardness is about 3 and specific
Its luster is resinous or adamantine,
and
its
color
Its
orange-yellow, olive-green, gray, brown, bright red or colorless
For red light, o>= 2 402, e= 2 304
streak is white and it is transparent
With
Before the blowpipe wulfenite decrepitates and fuses readily
With soda on
phosphorus it gives the molybdenum beads
is evapmineral
the
charcoal it yields a lead globule. When
powdered
with
this
On
formed
is
orated with HC1 molybdic oxide
moistening
salt of
water and adding metallic zinc an intense blue color is produced.

Wulfenite is distinguished from tanadmtte (p 271), by crystallizaand the test for tungsten.
tion, by the test for chlorine (vanadimte)
258
Wulfemte crystals have been produced by melting

Synthesis
together sodium molybdate and lead chloride
The mineral occurs in the oxidized zone
some of the principal lead occurrences in Europe,
United States near Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, in the Organ
Mountains, New Mexico, at the mines in Yuma County, Arizona, at
of veins of lead ores at
and
in the
the
Mammoth
Mine,
m Pmai County in the same State, and

m the Rocky Mountain states
at
many
other of the lead mines
Wulfenite is an important source of molybdenum, but,

Uses
because of the few uses to which this metal is put, the amount of wulfenite
mined annually
very small
is
WOLFRAMITE GROUP
Wolframite ((Fe
Wolframite
is
MnJWO*)
name given the isomorphous mixtme of the mantungstates that occur neaily puu* in some vanctics
the
ganese and iron

of the mineials hubnente and fcrbente
The mixture of the uon and manganese molecules
than either alone, consequcntl} wolframite

the group.
The
alike that they
the
is
is more common
commonest member of
properties of all three mmcials, ho\ve\cr, arc so nearly
must be distinguished by chemical analysis
The name wolframite
usually applied to mixtures of the tungstates
is
which the proportion of Fe to Mn \uries between 4 : i and 2 3, or

between g 5 per cent and 189 per cent of FeO and 14 pci cent and
in
Mn02.
4 7 per cent of
has recently been suggested that the name ferbente be limited

to mixtures containing not more than 20 per cent of the hubnente molecule and the name hubnerite to those containing not more than 20 per
It
This would leave the name wolframite

more than 20 per cent of both FcW04 and
cent of the ferbente molecule

for mixtures containing
MnW04
Analyses of specimens of hubnente
(IV) follow
(I),
wolframite (II and III)
and ferbente
II
III
Ellsworth,
Nye Co
Nev
Sierra Cordoba, Argentine
Cabarrus Co
IV, Kwnbosan, Japan

All
members
of
W0 3
FeO
7488
7486
7579
56
2387
.14
1345
1980
".2
75 47
24 33
the group crystallize
(prismatic class) with axial ratios as follows
MnO CaO
5.35
Other
16
Total
122
9961
10055
.32
tr
101.26
tr
tr
99.80
the monoclinic system

a
Ferbente
c= 8229
The
8463
8300
8678
=8315
8651
Wolframite
Ilubmtite
crystals are pusmatic or cubic in habit
ooP(uo), ooPooJioo), and two

oo
P .56
frcimite
+2P oo
and
iioAiio
79
Twins are
the
P 2 (2io), P oo
(oio), oo
- 2?2(i2i)
angle
0=89
0=89
0=89
and
(on),
= 78
foi
-]P 66 (To2),
38'
38'
and are bounded by
- JP 66
(102),
oP(ooi),
-P(in),
The
51', for
wol
29'
P 66
(100)
oo
38'
of the
following
hubnente 79
common, with
fairly
more
(102) (Fig 149)
for ferbente
23',
01
259
twinning
plane
Cleavage is perfect
oo P 03 (oio)
to
The minerals also
parallel
occur
lamellar and granular masses
Hubnente
brownish red to black and

is black and trans-
is
translucent, wolframite
lucent only on
,
and/
black
thin
and ferbente
streak
yellow to
in hubnente and brown or
opaque.
brownish black
The
is
..
brown
yellowish
* '
edges,
in
is
ferbente, with the streak
-Wolframite Crys-
^'49
tal with
oopj,
5-5
5,
is
buttle, has
specific gravity of
the blowpipe
it
a hardness ot
is
oopoo
JPoo, 102 (/),

2Fa,iai
+ip55 i* (y) and
P> IIX
72-75, and a submetallic
fuses to a globule which
no m),
100(0),
~~
Wolframite
(/)
P, 011 (/),
W>
of wolframite between
oop,
2 io
>
luster
magnetic
Before
Fused with
soda and niter on platinum it gives the bluish green manganate. The
phosphorus bead is reddish yellow when hot and a paler tint
salt of
when
cold.
the mineral
In the reducing flame the bead becomes dark red

If
treated first on charcoal with tin its bead assumes a
is
The mineral dissolves in aqua regia with

green color on cooling.
When treated with
the production of the yellow tungsten trioxide
concentrated HgSOi and zinc it yields the blue tungsten reaction
Crystals of wolfiamite are easily distinguished from crystallized
colnmbiie (p 293), samarskite (p. 295), and uraninite (p 297), by difMassive wolframite is distinguished from
ferences in crystallization
massive forms of the other three minerals by its more perfect cleavage
and by the reactions with the beads Uranmite, moreover, contains

Wolframite is distinguished from black tourmahne (p. 434) by
lead
the differences
m specific gravity,
Wolframite usually occurs in veins with tin

veins
with various sulphides, and in pegmatite.
ores, and in quartz
Its origin is
probably pneumatolytic.
260
Localities
Wolframite
found
m all
tm-producmg districts, espein Germany, at Nerat

Oruro, in Bolivia, and at
Cornwall, England,
is
Zmnwald, Schneeberg and
cially at
Freiberg,
chinsk, in Siberia,
various points in New South Wales, Australia
In the United States it occurs at Monroe,
Motte, Missouri,
Conn
near Lead, South Dakota, where
it
near
Mine La
impregnates a
sandy dolomite, and at Hill City in the same State in quartz veins,
sometimes containing cassitente, in Boulder Co
Colorado, in veins
,
granite (ferbente), neai Butte, Montana, in quaitz veins carrying silver ores (hubnente), and the quartz-cassitcnte veins near Nome
and on Bonanza Creek,
in Alaska,
and
in quarts veins at various
points in Washington, Idaho, California, Nevada,

At some of these localities the mineral
Arizona
New
is
Mexico and
more properly
hubnente
One or another of the three has been mined in Colorado, Nevada,

South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Calif oinu, Aiizona, and New
Some of the
Mexico, but the total production has never been laige
ore shipped has been obtained from placers along streams that dram
regions containing the mineral m veins, but most of it has been obtained
from vein rock which
is crushed and concentrated

These three minerals constitute the principal source of tungsten used in the arts
The uses of the metal are referred to under
Uses
scheehte
Production
WOs
The
total production of concentrates containing
60
was 1,325 tons, valued

at $640,500. Of this, 953 tons were ferberite from Boulder Co.,
A little hubnente was produced in the Arivica region, m
Colorado
per cent
in the United States during 1913
southeast California, at Dragoon, Arizona, at Round Mountain, Nevada,

In addition, there were imported
and on Paterson Creek, Idaho.
$86,000 worth of tungsten-beaimg ores and $143,800 worth of tungsten metal and ferro-tungsten. The world's production of tungsten ore
in 1912
was
9,115 tons.
CHAPTER XIV
THE PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES
THE
phosphates are
salts of
phosphoric acid,
HsPO^
the arsenates
of the corresponding arsenic acid,
the
corresponding vanadic acid,
the
HsAsO^ and the vanadates of

HaVC^ The phosphates are by far
most important as minerals They are easily distinguished by yielding

phosphme, HsP, upon igniting with metallic magnesium and moistening
the resulting
The
2PHs)
are detected
The
Mg3 P2
gas
is
by the
with
H2
recognized
or
by
its
HC1 (Mg3 P2+6HCl=3MgCl2 +

The arsenates
disagreeable odor
test for arsenic
arsenates, phosphates
and vanadates form groups of isomor-
phous compounds, the most important of which is the apatite group

Those occurring as minerals are divisible into several subgroups, of
which the following six contain common minerals, viz (i) anhydrous
(a) normal salts, (V) basic salts and (c) acid salts, and (2) hydrous
(a)
normal
salts, (b)
basic salts and
(c)
acid salts
A number of the phosphates and arsenates are of value commercially

either because of the phosphorus they contain, because they are sources
of valuable metallic salts, because they serve to indicate the presence
of other valuable
compounds, or because they possess an ornamental
character
Nearly ail the phosphates are transparent or translucent and

nonconductors of electricity or are very poor conductors,
all
are
ANHYDROUS PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND

VANADATES
NORMAL PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES
The
minerals belonging in this class of compounds are not as numerThe class

salts, but some of them are of great value
ous as the basic
includes phosphates of yttrium, the alkalies, beryllium, cerium, magnesium, iron and manganese and a group of isomorphous phosphates,
arsenates and vanadates -the apatite group in which a haloid radicle
of the acids
Apatite, the prinreplaces one of the hydrogen atoms
is an important source of phosphoric acid
the
of
member
group,
cipal
261
262
Triphylite
of
in
(Li(Mn Fe)PO 4 )
Littuophilite
to the isomorphous mixture

Triphylite is the name usually applied
LiFeP04 and LiMnP04, m \vhich the manganese molecule is present
The mixture containing a large excess of the
small quantity only
manganese molecule is called lithiophihte

The pure tnphyhte molecule contains FeO=45 5 P er cent, LigO
= 9 5 per cent and P2Ch=45 per cent The pure lithiophilite molecule
and 45 3 per cent
consists of 45 i per cent MnO, 9 6 per cent Li2
P2
with an axial
not well
and
ratio approximating 4348
5265
ooFoo
bounded
are
(oio),
by
usually rough prisms
They
developed
The minerals usually
oP(ooi), ooP(no), ooP2(i2o) and 2Po6 (021)
occur massive, or in irregular, rounded crystals, with two very dis-
Both substances are orthorhombic (bipyramidal

"
class),
Crystals are rare
tinct cleavages
Both minerals are transparent to translucent, both have a white

Thou baldness is
streak, and both are vitreous to resinous in lustci
is
about 4 5-5 and sp gr about 3 5
Triphylite
greenish gray to blue,
and lithiophilite pink, yellow or brown The refi active indices for
light brown lithiophihte are a=i 676, j3=i 679, 7=1 687, those for
blue triphyhte are a trifle higher
When heated in closed tubes both compounds are apt to turn dark
They fuse at a low temperature (i 5) and color the flame crimson In
the case of tnphyhte the crimson streak
Lithiophilite gives the reactions for
tions for all these metals
Fe,
Mn
is
bordered by the green of iron.
Mn
Most specimens give reacBoth minerals are soluble
and Li
inHCl
The two
minerals are distinguished from other
reactions for phosphorus

tions for Fe and
compounds by
their
and lithium, and from each other by the reac-
Mn
They usually occur as primary constituents of coarse

granite veins
They are associated with beryl, tourmaline and other
pneumatolytic minerals and with secondary phosphates, which are
presumably weathering products of the pnmary phosphates
Locahties
Both minerals occur at a number of points associated
Occurrence
with other lithium compounds, especially spodumene (p 378)

In this
country tnphylite has been found at Peru, Maine, Grafton, Ne\\
Hampshire, and Norwich, Massachusetts, lithiophihte at Branchville,
Connecticut, and at Norway, Maine
Neither of the minerals possesses a commercial value at
present.
PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES
Beryllonite
Beryllomte
and
places
is
263
(NaBeP0 4 )
a comparatively rare mineral

occurring at only a few
or in crystalline grams
al\\ tiys in crystals
Its composition
is
BeO and
24 4 per cent NaÔ, 19 7 per cent
55 9
per cent P2Cb

Its crystals are
orthorhombic (bipyramidal
class),
with an axial
540
They are short pyramidal or tabular in habit,
often exhibiting a pseudohexagonal symmetry. Most crystals are
highly modified with oP(ooi), oo P 60 (100), oo P 66 (oio), P 66 (101)
and 2P?(i2i), the principal forms
Twins are common, with oo P(no)
ratio
5724
the twinning plane

The crystal faces are frequently strongly etched
is
mineral
white
to pale yellow
The
It has a vitreous luster,
on
the
where
luster is sometimes pearly
It possesses
oP(ooi),
except
four cleavages, of which the most perfect is parallel to oP(ooi). That
Its
parallel to oo P 60 (100) is distinct, but the others are indistinct
is 5 5-6 and its density 2 845
Its fracture is conchoidal
contain numerous inclusions of water and liquid C02
often
Crystals
Its refractive indices for yellow light
arranged in lines parallel to L
hardness
a=i
5520, jS=i 5579, 7=1 5608

Beiyllomte decrepitates and fuses in the blowpipe flame to a cloudy
It is
glass, at the same time imparting to the flame a yellow color
are
slowly soluble in HC1, and gives the phosphorus reaction with mag-
nesium
It is distinguished from most other colorless transparent minerals
the
reaction for phosphorus, from other colorless phosphates by its
by
crystallization and the sodium flame test
The

nite
the United States
is
best
known occurrence
Stoneham, Maine, where
it is
of beryllo-
found in the
debris of a pegmatite dike associated with apatite (p 266), beryl (p. 359),
and other common constituents of pegmatites It originally existed
implanted on the walls of cavities in the pegmatite and was apparently
the result of pneumatolytic processes

Use. The mineral is used to some extent as a gem stone,
Monazite ((Ce Di La)PO 4 )

Monazite
is
the principal source of certain rare earths that are used

Although it occurs as small grams and
m manufacturing gas mantles

crystals m certain granites
it is
the sands of streams.
found
m commercial quantities
only
264
The mineral is a phosphate of the metals cerium, lanthanum, praseodidymium and neodidymium in most cases combined with the silicate of
Its composition may be represented by the formula
thorium
*((Cc
which the proportion
in
La Di)P04 )+^(ThSi04 ),
of the second constituent varies
an amount yielding 20 per cent ThC>2

quantity it is not to be regarded as an
solution of cerium
from a trace to
not constant in
essential portion pf the
com-
monazite we have to do with a solid
It is probable that in
pound
Since this is
and thorium phosphates, thorium
silicate
and oxides
of the rare metals
20'
76
c=
'
i
9255 and 0=
the
with
pinacoids oo P 56 (100),
Crystals are usually prismatic
Monazite
monochnic with a
is
9693
POO(IOI) and
ooP(no), the two domes
and
+P(nT)
They are
+P66(ioY) and the pyramids -P(in)
often flattened parallel to the orthopmacoid
ooPob(oio), the prism
(Fig
The
150)
angle
10 A
iTo= 86
34'
Their cleavage is perfect parallel to oP

The color of the mineral is gray, yellow, red-
brown or green It is usually transparIt

and sometimes opaque
is brittle, has a white streak, and a resmous
luster
Its hardness is 5-5 5 and its sp gr
dish,
ent or translucent
Monazite Ciys- 4
7-5 3, varying with the proportion of thorium
POO, ioo (a),
nt
The refra ctive indices for yellow
FIG. 150
tal
with
00 P.
oo
00
?2,
P S, oxo
(*),
110
(0Z),
oo
(,),
-Poo,
ioi (w),
iol
and P,
(x)
difficultly
The
+Pco,
nI
()
in
soluble
hSht are
pipe
it
a=I
mineral
7938,
is
7-
845 2.
infusible
Before the blow-
turns gray, and when moistened with

it colors the flame bluish green
It is
H2S04
HC1 and HNOs
Most specimens
are strongly
radioactive
Crystals of monazite have not been prepared, but cryscerium phosphate similar to those of monazite have been made
by heating to redness a mixture of cerium phosphate and cerium chloride
Synthesis
tals of
Occurrence and Ongvn

tain granites
and
Monazite occurs as the constituent of
granitic schists in small crystals scattered
among
cer-
the
other components
In this form it is a separation from the granitic
When
the
magma
granites are broken down to sand by weathering
the monazite
is
freed
and because
of its specific gravity it concentrates
in stream channels
Localities
Although the mineral
is fairly
widespread in the rocks,
it is
265
concentrated into commercial deposits at only a few places.
The
most important of these are in southeastern Brazil, in Norway, and in a

belt 20 to 30 miles wide and 150 miles long extending along the east side
of the Appalachian Mountains from North Carolina into South Carolina
The
mineral has also been reported from

Near Centerville it may be
many
points in ten counquantity to be
m sufficient
Idaho
ties in
of commercial importance
Preparation
which
it is
Monazitg
is
separated from the valueless sand in

residues thus resulting are further
found, by washing, and the
by a magnetic process The commercial concentrates

in
this
way usually contain from 3 to 9 per cent ThCfe, and
produced
their price varies accordingly
concentrated
Production and Uses
Monazite
is
the chief source of thorium oxide
used in the manufacture of incandescent gas mantles
Formerly
it
was
produced in large quantity in the Carohnas, the production

1909
valued at $65,032, and in 1905 to
amounting to 542,000 Ib
1,352,418 Ib , valued at $163,908. All of this was manufactured into
,
the nitrate of thorium in this country and the amount made was
sufficient to meet the domestic demand.
Consequently, large quan-
not
In 1910-11 mining of the mineral

of the nitrate were imported
the Carohnas ceased and all the monazite needed has been imported
tities
The imports of thorium nitrate for 1912 were 117,485 Ib

valued at $225,386 and of monazite, an amount valued at $47,334
since then
Xenotime (YPO 4 )
Xenotime, though essentially an yttrium phosphate, usually contains
erbium and in some cases cerium.
It occurs in tetragonal crystals
and
rolled grains
6177 an d
ratio is i
in A ill
Its
ê
axid
angle
=*
Its crystals
55 30'
are octahedral or prismatic and
are bounded by oo P(iio),P(m),

and in some cases by oo P oo (100)
and 2P oo (201) (Fig 151) Their
cleavage
n/
\
ooP(no)
is
perfect parallel
pink, gray or yellow
72
FIG 151 -Xenotime Crystals with OOP
is
Its streak is
It is opaque and brittle

4-5 and specific gravity
w=i
to
The mineraliv
brown,
onT
W" P
v
II3C
^ ^P
00
no
a pale shade of the same color.

its hardness
Its luster is vitreous or resinous,
45
Its indices of refraction are:
e=i8i,
266
Xenotime
is infusible,
and with
insoluble in acids
It
molten microcosmic salt
cleavage and inferior hardness
in
is
difficulty soluble
distinguished from zircon
by
its
of sulphates
variety of xenotime containing a small percentage
known as hussakite
is
occurs in pegmatite veins, in granites and in the sands

It is found in pegmatite veins at Hittero, Moss, and other
The mineral
of streams
Norway, at Ytterby, Sweden, in the granites of Mmas Geraes,

and many places
Brazil, and m the gold washings at Clarksville, Georgia,
Alexander
in
in North Carolina, and in pegmatite veins
County in the
same State
places in
APATITE GROUP
apatite group consists of a number of phosphates, arsenates and
vanadates in which fluorine or chlorine takes the place of the hydroxyl
The
in basic
compounds
Thus, fluorapatite
is
Ca4(CaF)(P04)s and
chlor-
The group contains a number of important

apatite Ca^CaGXPOOs
of
is
which
minerals,
apatite
by far the most valuable These minerals
are isomorphous, all crystallizing in the hemihedral division of the hex-
The names, composiagonal system (hexagonal bipyramidal class)

tions and axial ratios of the most important are as follows
c=i 7346
c**i: 7346+
Fluorapatite
Ca4(CaF)(PC>4)3
Chlorapatite
Ca^CaClXPCWs
Pb4(PbCl)(P04)3
a.c=i
PyromorpTtite
Pb4 (PbCl)(As04 )3
Mimetite
Vanadmite
Pb4(PbCl)(V04)s
e-i
7293
:
a:c-i:
7315
7122
Apatite (Ca4(Ca(F C1))(PO 4 )3)
Although fluorapatite and chlorapatite are
distinct
compounds with
slightly different properties, nevertheless, because of the difficulty of
discriminating between them without analyses, the name apatite is

commonly applied to both This is justified because of the fact that the
two compounds are completely isomorphous, and the mineral as it
The ideal molecules comprising
usually occurs is a iruxture, of both
the two varieties of apatite have the following compositions
Fluorapatite
Chlorapatite
CaO=5S5, F=3 8, P2 5 =42 3

CaO=53 8, Cl=6 8, P20s==4i o
Apatite is found in well defined crystals, sometimes very large

These have a holohedral habit, but etch figures on their basal
planes
267
reveal the grade of symmetry of pyramidal hemihednsm

The mineral occurs also massive, in granular and fibrous aggregates and less
commonly in globular forms and as crusts

The crystals are usually columnar or
tabular, with the hexagonal

prism or pyramid well developed
Although in some cases highly
modified, most crystals contain only the oo P(iolo), P(ioTi) and oP(oooi)
planes prominent, though P(iol2) and 2P2(ii2i) are not uncommon as

small faces (Figs 152 and 153)
Their cleavage is indistinct, and their
fracture often conchoidal
Apatite
may
possess almost any color
In a few cases the mineral
is
and transparent, but in most cases it is translucent or opaque and white, green, bluish, brown or red
Its streak is
colorless or amethystine
FIG 153
FIG 152.
FIG
152
FIG 153
Apatite Crystals with cop, ioYo (w), P, loTi

iol2 (r) and oop2, 1120 (a)
Apatite Crystal with m,
1341 (), 3?J, 1231 GU), 2P2,
%, r
and
nil
c as in Fig
(5),
P2, 1122
(r),
oP, oooi
(c),
JP,
and 2?, 2021 (y), 4P|,

and oo?}, 1230 (A)
152
(B)
Its hardness is 4 5-5 and sp

its luster vitreous to resinous
The
indices of fluorapatite for
refractive
and
between
3 39
3 09
gr
and
of
are
6>=i
chlorapatite, co=i 6667
6335, =1.6316
yellow light
are
distinctly
Nearly all fluoresce in
phosphorescent
Many specimens
are
all
thermo-electric
and
tints,
yellowish green
white and
The
Apatite fuses with difficulty, tinging the flame reddish yellow
the
and
fluorine
at
When
at
melts
variety
1530
1650
chlorapatite
moistened with H2S04 all varieties color the flame pale bluish green,
due to the phosphoric acid
Specimens containing chlorine give the
brilliant blue color to the flame
when
fused in a bead of microcosmic
has been saturated with copper oxide

Specimens containing
fluorine etch glass when fused with this salt in an open glass tube
The mineral also yields phosphme when ignited with magnesium, and
salt that
it
dissolves in
HC1 and HNOs
268
it closely resembles
Apatite is much softer than beryl (p 359)> which
It is distinguished from calcite by lack of effervescence
in appearance
with acids and from other compounds by the phosphorus reaction
The
vaneties of the mineral recognized by distinct
names are
masses
apatite^ crystals or granular
Manganapatite, in which manganese partly replaces the
nary apatite^ This is dark bluish green
Ordinary
Fibrous, conci etionary apatite
Known
Ca
of ordi-
also as phosphorite
The earthy variety

Osteohte
Phosphate rock. A mixture of apatite, phosphorite, several hydrous
carbonates and phosphates of calcium, and fragments of bone and
teeth
It is
more properly a rock with a brecciated and concretionary
The composition
structure
following analysis of
CaO
50 08
P2
38 84
C0 2
65
of typical deposits
is
represented
by the
hard rock phosphate from South Carolina
Fe2
96
Al2 0s
3 07
MgO Insol
30
49
Undet
2 46
H2
2
Moist
96
07
a mixture of various phosphates, both hydrous and anand a number of other compounds It is rather a rock
than a mineral, as it has no definite composition
Syntheses
Crystals of fluorapatite have been made by fusing
Guano
is
hydrous, calcite
sodium phosphate with CaF2 and by heating calcium phosphate with a

mixture of KF and KC1
The crystallized apatite was formed by direct separation

Origin
from igneous rock magmas and by pneumatolytic action upon limestone
The phosphorite variety and the phosphate in phosphate rock were
probably produced by the solution of calcium phosphate and its later
deposition from solution the original phosphate having been furnished
in many cases by the shells of mollusca, and by the action of phosphoric
acid
produced by the decay of organisms upon limestone
In
many
cases phosphorite accumulated as a residual deposit in consequence of

the solution of the calcite and dolomite from phosphatic limestone,
leaving the less soluble phosphate as a mantle on the surface.

Occurrence
The mineral occurs in microscopic crystals as a comof
ponent
many rocks, as large crystals in metamorphosed limestones,
as a component of many coarse-grained veins, especially those

composed
of coarse granite and those in which cassiterite, magnetite,
tourmaline,
and other pneumatolytic minerals are found At a number of places
aggregates of apatite and magnetite or ilmemte occur in such large
of being called rocks
An impure apatite in
forms
and
fibrous
also
occurs
in
thin
beds covering large
concretionary
masses as to be worthy
269
It is often mixed with other phosphates, with the bones and

teeth of animals and with other impurities
This is the well known
phosphate rock or phosphonte
areas.
Localities
to mention
its
Crystallized apatite is so widely spread that it is useless

It is mined at Kragero and near Bamle,
occurrences
Norway, at various points in Ottawa County in Quebec, and in

Frontenac, Lanark and Leeds Counties in Ontario, and at Mineville,
New York Rock phosphate is found in extensive beds on the west
in
side of the peninsula of Florida, in South Carolina, North Carolina,

Alabama, Tennessee, Wyoming, Idaho, Utah and Arkansas A mixture
of apatite and ilmemte (nelsomte), occurs as dikes in Nelson and
Roanoke Counties, Virginia

Uses
The principal use
of apatite
manufacture of
The
fertilizers
and phosphate rock
rock (or crushed apatite)
is
in the
is
treated
with H2S04 to make an acid phosphate which is soluble in water

Ammonia or potash, or both, are added to the mass and the compound is
sold as a superphosphate. The purest varieties are treated with H2S04
in sufficient quantity to entirely decompose them, CaSO* and HsPO*
The latter is drawn off and mixed with additional highbeing formed
rock
and
the
mixture is known as concentrated phosphate Supergrade
phosphates are manufactured in large quantities in the United States
and the concentrated phosphates
in
Europe
Unfortunately, for the
latter use the best grades of apatite or rock phosphate are required,
and
consequently the best grades of rock produced in the United States are
exported and thus lost to American farmers
Production
The
during 1912 was as
world's production of apatite
and phosphate rock
follows*
United States
Tunis
3,020,905 tons, valued at $11,675,774

7,500,000
2,050,200 tons, valued at
Christmas Island
159459
tons, valued at
2,024,036
France
1,169,400
Algeria
313*151 tons, valued at

207,111 tons, valued at
Belgium
Other countries
203,1 10 tons, valued at

316,703
For the United States production of 1912 the

Florida
Tennessee
South Carolina
Other States
759455
280,000
statistics are:
2,407,000 tons, valued at $9,461,000

423,300 tons, valued at 1,640,500

524,700
49 200
270
The
was 3,020,905
total production
tons, valued at $11,675,77400,
Parwhich 1,206,520 tons, valued at $8,996,45600 were exported

and other phostially offsetting this, there were imported guano, apatite
phates to the value of about $2,000 ooo,
of
Pyromorphite (Pb 4 (PbCl)(PO 4 )3)

In composition pyromorphite is PbO, 82 2 per cent, PoOi, 15 7 per
cent and Cl, 2 6 per cent, but there are usually present also CaO and
The mineral is completely isomorphous \\ith apatite Its crystals

are smaller and simpler than those of apatite, but they have the same
'
This increases to i : 7354
Their axial ratio is a c=i
habit
7293
in varieties containing calcium
Crystals are often rounded into barrel-shaped forms, and frequently

are mere skeletons
Tapering groups of slender crystals in parallel
common
growths are also
and
faces,
Their cleavage
in globular, granular
is
Pyromorphite
and
is
white
6=2 0494
When
mate
to the &o
The mineral
has a hardness of 3 5-4
It is brittle,
Its luster is resinous
Some
and color usually green,
varieties are gray or milk-white
Its refractive indices foi yellow light are:
The mineral
P(no)
also occurs
fibrous masses
translucent
and a density of about 7

yellow, brown or orange
streak
is parallel
their fracture is feebly conchoidal.
Its
o>=2 0614,
distinctly thermo-electric.
is
the closed tube pyromorphite gives a white subliof lead chloride

It fuses easily, coloring the flame bluish green
When
heated
heated on charcoal
cooling
and
yields
it
melts to a globule, which crystallizes on

is yellow (PbO) near the
assay and
a coating which
white (PbCk), at a greater distance from it. When fused with Na2COs
on charcoal a globule of lead results The mineral also gives the Cl and
The mineral
reactions
action
when
is
soluble in
recognized by
heated on charcoal
Pyromorphite
Synthesis.
is
its
HNOa
form, high specific gravity and its
by
fusing sodium phosphate
with PbCk.
The mineral occurs principally

veins with other lead
in
the zone of weathering
It also exists in pseudomorphs
ores, especially
after galena.
Occurrence
Localities
It is found in all lead-producing regions,
especially in
the upper portions of veins
It occurs
particularly good specimens
at Pribram, Bohemia, at Ems,
Nassau, in Cornwall, Devon, Derby-
271
shire and Cumberland, England, at Phoemwille, Pennsylvania, and

at various other points in the Appalachian region
Vies
Pyromorphite alone possesses no commercial value, but it
is
mined with other compounds of
lead as an ore of this metal
Munetite (Pb4 (PbCl)(AsO 4 )3)

Mimetite, or mimetesite, resembles pyromorphite in
its crystals and

and
of
its
Its
general appearance,
many
properties
color, however, is
and
its
It
occurs
in
lighter
density slightly greater
crystals, m filain
and
masses
and
crusts
Its
axial ratio Is
ments,
concretionary
i
its
and
refractive
indices
for
are
w=2 1443, e
7315
yellow light
=2
1286
The formula
for mimetite demands 74 9 per cent PbO, 23 2 per cent

AS205 and 2 4 Cl Usually a portion of the lead is replaced by CaO and
a portion of the As by P
Mimetite fuses more easily than pyromorphite
It differs from this
mineral in yielding arsenical fumes when heated on charcoal
More-
over,
when heated
in a closed tube with a fragment of charcoal
it
coats
the walls of the tube with metallic arsenic

veins, usually coating
them
It occurs with other lead minerals in
either as crusts or as a series of small crys-
tals
It is found at Phoenix ville, Pennsylvania,
Cornwall, England,
at Johanngeorgenstadt, in Germany, at Nerchinsk, Siberia, at LangIt is, however, not
ban, in Sweden, and at a number of other places
as common as the corresponding phosphorus compound
Uses
It is
mined with other compounds as an ore of
lead.
Vanadiaite (Pb4 (PbCl)(VO 4 ))3
Vanadmite
erals
is
the most widely distributed of
on other minerals, or on the walls

sources of vanadium
Its
all
the
vanadium min-
It usually occurs in small bright red prismatic crystals
theoretical
205=19 4 per
composition
cent and
Cl=2
of crevices in rocks
is
as follows
5 per cent, but
It
is
implanted
one of the
PbO =78 7 per cent,

phosphorus and arsenic
When arsenic and vanadium are present

nearly equal quantities the mineral is known as endhckite.
Its crystals are hexagonal prisms and pyramids bounded by
ooP(ioTo), oP(oooi), ooP2(u5o\ P(ioTi) and other forms, with an
are often also present
axial ratio i
.7122 (Fig
154).
Often the crystals have hollow faces
272
(Fig
I S5)
Frequently they are grouped into pyramids like those of

The mineral occurs also
globules and crusts
pyromorphite
has a hardness of about 3 and a specific gravity

Its luster is adamantine or
of about 7
resinous and its color ruby red, brownish yellow or reddish brown
The mineral is translucent
Its streak is white or light yellow
Vanadmite
is brittle,
Its
or opaque
refractive
indices
for
yellow
light
are
^=2354,
=2
299
It fuses easily on charIn the closed tube vanadimte decrepitates
on
is
reduced
coal to a black lustrous mass which
being further heated
A
white
a
lead
sublimate of PbCk
in the reducing flame to
globule of
The
also coats the charcoal
mineral, moreover,
FIG 155
FIG 154
Vanadimte Crystal with
FIG. 154
gives the flame test
FIG 155
for chlorine with copper
<x>p,
loTo (m), oP, oooi
P, icTi (#),
(c),
and
Skeleton Crystal of Vanadimte
After complete oxidation of the lead
by heat-
ing in the oxidizing flame on charcoal the residue gives an emerald-green

bead in the reducing flame with microcosmic salt and this turns to a
light yellow
chloric acid.
will turn
the oxidizing flame
If to the solution
The
brown
The
little
mineral
is
soluble
hydrogen peroxide
is
hydro-
added
addition of metallic tin to this will cause
it
it
to
turn blue, green and lavender in succession, in consequence of the reduction of the vanadium compounds
Vanadimte
color,
is easily
distinguished from most other minerals by its

from other compounds of the same color by
It is distinguished
and by the reactions for vanadium

Vanadmlte occurs principally in regions of volcanic
its crystallization
Occurrence
rocks
It is probably a result of pneumatolytic processes
Localities
Crystals are found at Zimapan, Mexico,
Wanlockhead,
273
England, Undenas, Sweden, in the Sierra de Cordoba, Argentine, and

the mining districts of Arizona and New Mexico
Vanadmite is an important source of vanadium, which
Uses
in
is
employed m the manufacture of certain grades of steel and bronze

Its compounds are, moreover, used as pigments and mordants
Most
of the vanadium compounds produced in this country are obtained from
other vanadium minerals, among them patromte a mixture, of which
the principal component is a sulphide (VS.*) and carnotite (p 290),
but vanadmite has been used abroad and also to a small extent in the
United States
WAGNERITE GROUP
This group,
in chemical composition, is analogous to the

apatite
number of phosphates and arsenates containing a

The group is monochmc (prismatic class), with an
axial ratio which is approximately 19.1
None
15, with 18=71 50'
of its members are important
The two most common ones are wagIt includes a
group
fluoride radical
nente
(Mg(MgF)PO4 ), and
Wagnerite occurs
tnphte (Fe
in massive forms
P 55
imperfect cleavages parallel to oo
have an
axial ratio of i 9145
Its hardness
It
is
is
5 5
and density
569,
=i
570,
and
(100)
((Fe
is
Mn)F)P04
in large
and
5059 \vith
3 09
vitreous, translucent
a=i
indices are
The mineral
often very complex
green
Mn)
bnttle
rough crystals, with
oo
P(no)
=71 53'
Its crystals
They
Its fracture is
Its color is yellow, gray,
and has a white streak
7 = 1 582
It fuses to
are
uneven
pink or
Its refractive
a greenish gray
and gives the usual reactions for fluorine and phosphoric acid It
is soluble in HC1 and HNOa, and heated with HgSOi it yields hydroIt occurs in good crystals near Werfen, Austria, and in
fluoric acid
glass
coarse crystals near Bamle, Norway.
Triplite
is
an isomorphous mixture of Fe(FeF)PO4 and Mn(MnF)P04

but is found in a few places in rough crystals
It usually occurs massive,
The mineral
is
dark brown or nearly black,
and has a yellowish
cleavages perpendicular to
ture
resinous.
is
translucent to opaque,
brown streak It possesses two unequal

one another and a weakly conchoidal fracIts luster is
and specific gravity about 3 9
gra}' or
Its intermediate refractive index
is i
660
Before the blowpipe tnplite fuses easily (i 5) to a black magnetic

It is soluble in HC1 and
It reacts for Mn, Fe, F, and PaOs
globule
evolves hydrofluoric acid with
H2S04
It is
found in coarse granite
274
veins at Limoges, France,
and
Branchville, Connecticut
Helsingfors, Finland,
In
Stoneham, Maine,
occurrences
all of its
it
appears to
be pneumatolytic
BASIC PHOSPHATES AND ARSENATES
The
than
basic phosphates are those in which there is more metal present

the three hydrogen atoms in the normal acid,
sufficient to replace
This is due to the replacement of one or more of the hydrogen

atoms by a group of atoms consisting of a metal and hydroxyl (OH)
HsP04
All yield water
when heated in the
closed tube
principal basic phosphates are amblygonite, a source of lithium

compounds, dufremte and lazidite, neither of which is of economic im-
The
portance, and hbethemte, a copper compound which occurs in comparais mined with
tively small quantities with other copper ores, and
them
Ohvenite
is
a basic copper arsenate corresponding to the phosphate
hbethemte
Amblygonite (Li(Al(F
OH))PO 4 )
Amblygomte is an isomorphous mixture of the two compounds

It is an important source of lithium
(AlF)LiP04 and (AlOH)LiPO-i
The composition of the fluorine molecule is Al20s=344 per

Li02=io i per cent and P20s=47 9 per cent, making a total of
cent,
105 3
per cent from which deducting 5 3 per cent (0= sF), leaves 100
Nearly
and a part of the Li
always a portion of the F is replaced by
OH
by Na The pure Na(A10H)P04 is known as fremontite, and the pure

Li(A10H)PO4 as montebrmte
The analysis of a specimen from Pala, California, gave:
Pa0 6
4883
AlsOs
PesOs
MnO
MgO
LiaO
NaaO
HO
3370
12
09
31
988
14
595
0-P
229*10131-96
Total
100 45
The
mineral forms large, ill-defined triclmic crystals (Fig 156), and

compact masses with a columnar cleavage
Crystals are very rare, and
are poorly developed
Their axial ratio is .7334 : i : 7633.
The
cleavage pieces often show polysynthetic twinning lamellae parallel to
The
fracture
3 03,
cleavage of the mineral

is
uneven
Its color is
is perfect parallel to oP(ooi)

Its
has a hardness of 6 and a density of
white, gray, or a very light tint of blue, pink or
It is brittle,
'
yellow
Its luster is vitreous, except
on oP where
it
is
pearly.
Its
275
is white and it is translucent

a=i 579, /3=i 593, 7=1 597
are
light
In the closed tube at high temperature it yields water which reacts
It fuses easily to an
acid and corrodes glass
streak
It colors the flame red

opaque white enamel
with a slight fringe of green
When moistened
with H2S04
When
finely
it
tinges
powdered
the flame bluish

dissolves
it
green
readily
in
H2 SO4 and with difficulty in HC1

Amblygomte resembles
other
minerals,
and some forms
From spodumene
phorus
reaction
others
especially
in
appearance
spodumene
(p
many
378),
of bante, feldspar, dolomite, etc
FIG 156
distinguished by the phosthe acid water, from the
it is
and
easy fusibility
by
Occurrence
Amblygomte
Amblygoiute
Crystal with
100
oo
its
]P,
no
ooPoo,
oP, ooi
(a),
no
(A/),
(c),
oP',
w'P's, 120
ioi (K)
/P/J5,
and 2'P oo , 02 1 (e)
found in granite
and in pegmatite veins associated with other
lithium compounds, tourmaline, cassitente and
is
(m)
(=),
In all cases it also is probably

other minerals of pneumatolytic origin
a result of pneumatolytic action associated with the last phases of granite
intrusions
Localities
in
Norway,
The mineral occurs near Pemg,
in
Saxony, at Arendal,
and Peru, Maine,

and near Keystone, in
at Montebras, France, at Hebron, Paris
at Branchville, Conn at Pala,

the Black Hills, South Dakota
,
Uses and Production
California,
The mineral
in the United States.
is
the pnncipal source of lithium
It is used in the
manufacture of
LiCOa, which is employed as a medicine, in making mineral waters, in
photography and in pyrotechnics
South Dakota and in California to the extent
It has been mined
compounds
of a couple of thousand tons, valued perhaps at $20,000.
Dufrenite QfeaCOHJsPO*)
Dufreiute, or kraunte, is a basic iron phosphate containing 62 per
It may be
cent FegOs, 27 5 per cent P20s and 10 5 per cent water
atom of HsP04 has been
regarded as a normal phosphate in which one
replaced by the Fe(OH)2 group and two by the group Fe(OH), thus
It forms small orthorhombic crystals with a cubic habit that are rare
Their axial ratio is .3734 i .4262. It usually occurs massive, in
276
The same substance is

nodules, or in fibrous radiating aggregates
the name ddvauute
under
belie\ ed to occur also in the colloidal condition
alters
from leek-green to dark green, which
color of dufremte varies
The
on exposure
and brown
and is strongly
to yellow
has a light green streak

3 5-4 and
it
translucent to opaque,
is
Its hardness is
pleochroic
about 3 3
water and whitens
specific gravity
In the closed tube
It
It fuses easily, color-
yields
and yielding a magnetic globule

ing the flame bluish green
uble in
HC1 and in
It is recognized
dilute
by
It is sol-
H2 S04
its
color
and the presence
in
it
of water, phos-
phorus and iron

The mineral has been observed at several
New Jersey, and in Rockbridge County,
points in Europe, at Allentown,
be
It is thought to
produced by the weathering of other ferVirginia
ruginous phosphates
LazuHte ((Mg Fe)(AlOH) 2 (PO 4 ) 2 )
an isomorphous mixture of the two comThere is also frepounds Mg(A10H) 2 (P04)2 and Fe(AlOH) 2 (POi) 2
Lazulite
is
essentially
quently present
When
it
little
calcium
of
the two
the
proportion
molecules present is as 2
i the com=
becomes
FeO
position
77, MgO
= 85, A12 3 = 32 6, P2 5 = 4S 4 and
.
H2 0= S 8
The
idal
mineral occurs
that
crystals
m blue pyram-
are
monoclimc
(prismatic class), with the axial ratio
9750
6483 and
The predominant forms

FIG
157
Lazulite Crystals
nl
with
-P, in
(p)
H-P,
ioi
the same combination
(/)
is
twinned about
oo
(e)
and P
oo (100)
(ooi) the composition face
with
65
oP
P(lli) and
P 56
0=89
are
14'
+P(nT),
(ioi)(Flg 157-4)
xhe angle in A if i = 79 40' Twins

are not common
Those most frequently found are twinned about c
as the twinning axis (Fig 1576)
also massive and in granular aggregates

It
cleavage of lazuhte is not distinct
brittle, has a vitreous luster, is translucent or opaque, has an azure
It is
found
The
is
and a white streak
Its hardness is 5 or 6 and its specific gravity

Translucent crystals are strongly pleochroic in deep blue
and greenish blue tints the former when viewed along the vertical
color
about
3 i

axis
Their indices of refraction for yellow
light are
a= i
277
603, /?= i 632,
7 =i 639
In the closed tube lazuhte swells, whitens and yields water
When
heated in the blowpipe flame it whitens, falls to pieces and colors the
The white powder moistened with Co(NOs)2 and
flame bluish green
reheated regains its blue color. When moistened with HgSC^ and
heated in the blowpipe flame it imparts to it a green blue color
It is
infusible and is unacted upon by acids
Lazulite, when massive, closely resembles in appearance massive
forms of some varieties of sodahte, hauymte and lazunte (p 333)
The
latter, however, are soluble in HC1.
Moreover, none of them contains
phosphorus
The mineral
occurs in quartz veins in sandstones and

a
It is sometimes, howusually product of metamorphism
in
with
found
in
which case it may be
ever,
serpentine rocks,
corundum,
Occurrence
slates
and
is
original
Good crystals occur at Kneglach, in Styna, at Horrsand in the United States at Crowder's Mountain,
North Carolina, and on Graves Mountain m Georgia,
Localities
joberg, in Sweden,
OLIVENITE GROUP
The
ohvenite group includes a number of basic copper, lead and
compounds of the general formula R"o(OH)R'"04

= Cu, Zn, Pb and R'"=As, P, V The group is
zinc
which
R"
orthorhombic (bipyramidal class), with axial ratios

i
The most important
70
members of the group are the two copper min-
approximating 95
erals,
Cu(CuOH) As04 and
ohvemte,
libethemte,
Cu(CuOH)P04
Ohvenite occurs
m fibrous,
globular, lamellar,
granular and earthy masses and in prismatic and
bounded by oo P(uo), oo P 60 (100),

oo P 06 (oio), P & (on) and P 56 (101) (Fig
158)
Their axial ratio is 9396 i
6726 and the angle
acicular crystals
A 1 10= 86
Their cleavage is poor.

The mineral is some shade of green, brown,
yellow or grayish white and its streak is olive-green
1
10
26'.
to
Ohvenite
158
Crystal with oo Poo,
zoo
(a),
oo p,
no
Poo ,010 (6),

on (e) and
(m), oo
P oo
P 55
101 ()
greenish varieties. It is transparent to opaque, is brittle, has a

hardness=3, and a specific gravity =4.3. Its refractive indices for
278
about
light are
ydlow
vaneties are sometimes
Its luster is usually vitreous
i 83.
Fibrous
known
as wood-copper
Ohvemte fuses easily (2) to a mass that appears crystalline on cooling
It is soluble in acids
It gives the usual reactions for EkO, Cu, and As
and
in
ammonia
compounds in some copper ores
It occurs in the Tmtic district,
secondary in all cases
many copper veins in Europe and in South America
It is associated with other copper

Its
ongin is
Utah, and in
Libethenite occurs in compact or globular masses and in small

Their axial ratio is 9605
crystals that resemble those of ohvemte
:
7019 and
no A 110=87
The mineral
bnttle
is
40'
Its fracture
is
indistinctly conchoidal
Its
It is translucent
dark ohve-green and its streak a lighter shade
color
Its hardness =4 and sp gr
or transparent and has a resinous luster
is
=37.
Its intermediate refractive index for yellow light is i
When
heated in the closed tube
743
and blackens It is
Cu and P, and is solfrom ohvemte by the
yields water
It yields the usual reaction for
easily fusible (2)
uble
it
m acids and in ammonia
It is distinguished
reaction for phosphorus
It occurs at many of the localities for ohvemte, where, like this mineral, it is
a decomposition product of other copper compounds.
Eerderite
(CaBe(OH'F)P04 )
Herdente is an isomorphous mixture of the two phosphates, CaBeFP04

and CaBe(OH)P04. The latter molecule occurs in nature as hydro-
The theoretical compokerdente, the former occurs only in mixtures

sition of the fluorine (I) and bydroxyl (II) molecules and of
transparent
crystals
from Stoneham
BeO
CuO
(III),
P2
and Pans
(IV),
Maine, are given below
H2
.
Ins.
.
5 59
100
ioo
3 70
44
The
a
mineral
is
found only in crystals, which are monoclmic, with

Their habit is hexagonal,
.4274 and =89
$4*.
$=.6301
pyramidal or short prismatic, elongated in the direction of a
:
99 67
ioo 51

Herdente
is
colorless or light yellow, transparent or translucent
a= i

Its density
279
is
about
612, y= i 621
diminishing, as the amount of hydroxyl in-
3,
592, /3=
creases, to 2 952 in the pure hydroherderite
Before the blowpipe herderite first phosphoresces with an orangeyellow light, then fuses to a white enamel, colors the flame red and yields
fluorine
In the closed glass tube most specimens yield an acid water,
which, when strongly heated, evolves

The mineral also reacts for phosphorus
slowly soluble in HC1
fluorine that etches the glass
with magnesium
nbbon
It is
Herderite occurs
Occurrence^ Origin and Uses
pegmatite dikes
at Stoneham, Hebron, and other places in Maine, and at the tin mines of
Ehrenfriedersdorf, Saxony, in all of these places it is apparently of
The
pneumatolytic origin
extent as a
gem
material from
Maine
is
used to a small
stone
ACID PHOSPHATES
which all of the hydrogen atoms of the

Acid phosphates are those
have not been replaced by metals or by basic radicals TheoretThere are 12 or 15
ically, they contain replaceable hydrogen atoms
acids
minerals that are thought to belong to this class, but the composition
Most of them appear to be hydrated
of many of them is very obscure
The only important mineral

gem stone, turquoise. This,
that may belong to the class is the popular

according to the best analyses, contains its
components in the proportions indicated by the formula CuO, 3Al2 Os,
2P 2 Os, 9H20, which may be interpreted as (CuOH)(Al(OH) 2 ) 6H 5 (P04)4,

which is 4(HsP(>4), in which 6 hydrogen atoms are replaced by 6Al(OH)s
groups and one by the group CuOH.
Turquoise ((CuOH)(Al(OH) 2 )6H 5 (P0 4 )4)
Turquoise
is
apparently a definite compound of the formula indicated

P20s, 36 84 per cent Al2 0a, 9 57
Analysis of a crystallized variety
above, which requires 34 12 per cent

per cent CuO and 19 47 per cent H20
from Lynch, Campbell Co
P2
34 13
3
5
Virginia, gave
Fe2
2I
CuO
9
H2
Total
20 I2
99 96
specimens, however, have not as simple a composition as this

are probably isomorphous mixtures of unidentified phosphates.
Most
They
A12
36
280
as usually found is apparently an amorphous or cryptranslucent or opaque material with a wa\y lustei and a
The mineral
tocrystalline,
Material recently found at

tnclmic crystals with an
minute
Lynch, Virginia, however, occurs in
i
axial ratio 7910
6051, \Mtha=87o2 /3=86 2q', and 7= 72 19'
Their habit is pyramidal with ooP 60(100), oop 06(010), oo 'P(iTo),
color
sky-blue, green or greenish gray
ooP'(no) and POO (oil)
The
fracture of turquoise is conchoidal.
It
has a hardness of 5-6
It is brittle, and has cleavand a specific gravity between 261 and 2 89

refractive
indices of the Virdetermined
The
ages in two directions.
7=
1.65
ginia crystals are: a=i.6i,
In the closed tube the mineral decrepitates, yields water
and turns
assumes a glassy appearance when

black or brown
flame green. When moistened
the
colors
and
the
heated before
blowpipe
is
flame
heated
the
and
with HC1
tinged with the azure blue of
again
It is infusible,
The mineral
copper chloride
but
it
reacts for copper
and phosphoric acid
Some specimens dissolve

HC1, but the crystallized material from Virit is strongly ignited
It partly dissolves
after
until
insoluble
is
ginia
in KOH, with the production of a brown residue of a copper compound
Occurrence
Turquoise occurs in thin veins cutting through certain

and other rocks in contact with them,
volcanic rocks
decomposed
and in grains disseminated through them, in stalactites, globular
It is probably an alteration product of other commasses and crusts
pounds
Localities
Turquoise is found in narrow veins and irregular masses
in the brecciated portions of acid volcanic rocks and the surrounding clay
slates, near Nish&pur, in Persia, in the Megara Valley, Sinai, and near
Samarkand, in Turkestan
In
all
quality and until recently nearly
Within
late years
tains, near
all
these places the mineral is of gem

the gem turquoise came from them
gem turquoise has been discovered
Santa Fe,
New
Mexico, where
it
in the Cenllo
Moun-
has been mined in consid-
The locality is the site of an ancient mine which was

erable quantity
It is also found and mined in the Burro
worked by the Mexicans
Mountains, Grant County, in the same State, near Millers, and at other
points in Nevada and near Mineral Park, Mohave County, Arizona,
where also the ancient Mexicans once had mines
At La Jara, Conejos
County, Colorado, old mines have likewise been opened up and are now
yielding
Uses
of the
gem material
The only use
American mineral
the Oriental stone
of turquoise is as a
is
gem
pale or green, some of
favorite
method
stone
it is
Though much
of as fine color as
of using the stone is in its
281
Small pieces of the rock with its included turquoise are

polished and sold under the name of turquoise matrix
The total value of the turquoise and turquoise matrix
Production
matrix
This weighed
produced in the United States during 1911 was $44,751
In several previous years the production reached
about 4,363 pounds
about $150,000, but in 1912 it was valued at only $10,140
HYDROUS PHOSPHATES AND ARSENATES

HYDRATED NORMAL PHOSPHATES AND ARSENATES
Of the hydrous salts of orthophosphonc and orthoarsemc acids there
two which are of some importance because they are fairly common,
a third which is utilized in jewelry, and a fourth that is important as an
indicator of the presence of an ore of cobalt. The first two are wwanite
and scorodtte, a phosphate and an arsenate of iron, the third is vanszite,
an aluminium phosphate, and the fourth is erytknte, an arsenate of
are
A dimorph of vanscite, known as lucmite, is rare All give

cobalt
water in the closed tube and yield phosphine when fused with magnesium and moistened with water
VIVIANITE GROUP
The only important group of the hydrated orthophosphates and

orthoarsenates is that of which viviamte and erythnte are members.
The
is R"3 (R'"04 ) 2 8H 2
in which R"
Zn and Mg, and R'"=P or As Although some members
general formula of the group
=Fe, Co
Ni,
have not been found
made
All are
ft
in measurable crystals, crystals of all
monochmc
The group
about 74
Bobênte,
Hornes^te,
is
Vtwamte, Fe3 (P04 )2 8H2

Fe3 (As04)2 8H2
vivianite, erythnte
is little
as follows
Mg3 (P04 ) 2 8H2

Mg3 (As04 )2 8H2
Symplestte,
Only
8H2
Nm(As04 ) 2 8H2
Cabrente, (Ni Mg) 3 (As04 ) 2 8H2 O
Kottigite, Zn 3 (As04 ) 2 8H2
ErytMte, Co 3 (As04 ) 2
Annabcrgde,
and annabergite are described
Vivianite (Fe 3 (P0 4 ) 2
Vivianite
tinct crystals
an
have been
doubt of their isomorphism.

axial
of about 75
with
ratios
i : 70 and
prismatic
in the laboratory, so that there
8H2 O)
It occurs not only in disa common phosphate of iron

but also as bluish green stains on other minerals, and as
is
invisible constituent of certain iron ores, thereby diminishing their
value.
282
Its formula indicates the presence of 43 per cent
P20s and 28
7 per cent
Viviamte
FeO, 28 3 per cent
BkO
crystals are
Their axial ratio is 7498 . i

prismatic habit
The principal forms observed on them are oo
class),
7015,
usually with a
and
56 (100),
oo
=75 34'
P ob (oio),
The angle
oP3(3io), P&O(IOI), P(III) and oP(ooi)
58' The mineral also occurs in stellate groups, in glob-
ooP(no),
uoAi"io=7i
ular, fibrous
and earthy masses and as
Its cleavage
thin splinters
is
and
crusts coating other
oo
perfect parallel to
The
sectile.
fresh,
pure mineral
parent, but specimens usually seen are more or
is
compounds
It is flexible in
(oio)
colorless
less oxidized
and transand have
Its streak is
It has a vitreous to pearly luster
a blue or green color
or
on
brown
white or bluish, changing to indigo-blue
exposure to the air
in
tints
Its hardness
blue
and
is
Its pleochroism
pale yellow
strong
is i
5-2 and density about
are
a=i
5818, jS-i 6012,
2 6.
7-1
yellow light
6360
In the closed tube viviamte whitens, exfoliates and yields water at a

It fuses easily (2), tingemg the flame bluish green
low temperature
The fused mass forms a grayish black
Its fusion temperature is 1114.
It gives the reaction for iron,
magnetic globule.
The
by
mineral
is easily
recognized by
and
its softness,
is
soluble in
HC1
easy fusibility and
yielding the test for phosphorus.
Synthesis
Crystals have been made by heating iron phosphate with
a great excess of sodium phosphate for eight days
Occurrence and Origin. Vivianite occurs in veins of copper, tin and
gold ores; disseminated through peat, clay, and limomtc, coating the
walls of clefts in feldspars
and
and other minerals of certain igneous

and partly fossilized bones
partially filling cavities in fossils
rocks,
It is
usually the result of the decomposition of other minerals

Localities,
Crystals are found at several points
Cornwall, England, at the gold mines at Verespatak, in Transylvania, at Allentown,
Monmouth County, New Jersey, and
at many other places

The earthy
variety occurs at Allentown, Mullica Hill and other points in New Jersey, in Stafford County, Virginia, and in swamp deposits at many places
It is
abundant
in
limomte at Vaudreuil, in Quebec, and in bog iron ores
elsewhere.
Erythrite (Co 3 (As0 4 ) 2
8H2 0)
Erythnte, or cobalt bloom, isinot a common mineral, but, because

and the fact that it is the usual alteration product of cobalt
of its beauty
ores, it deserves to
be described

In composition erythnte
and 24
and calcium
i
The
per cent
mineral
H20
is
283
37 5 per cent CoO, 38 4 per cent As 2
is
It usually, ho\\e\er, contains
isomorphous with vivianite
some
Its crystals are
climc and prismatic or acicular and their axial ratio

The pnsms are stnated vertically
and jS=74 5 1
is
5,
iron, nickel
7037
mono-
7356
'
in all the forms in
bounded by
which vivianite
ooP 03(010),
is
ooP(no),
Erythrite occurs
Its crystals are usually
found
oop 66(100), +Po6(Toi) and
The
It is
cleavage of erythnte is perfect parallel to oo P ob (oio)
transparent or translucent, has a gray, crimson or peach-red color,
Its hardness varies between i
and a white or pink streak
5 and 2 5
and
its
vitreous
density is 295
on other faces
Its
It
luster
is
is
flexible
pearly on oo
and
sectile.
Poo
Its
(oio)
and
refractive
i 6263, 0= i 6614,
indices for yellow light are a
i 6986
In the closed tube ery thrite turns blue and yields water at a low tem-
7=
At a high temperature it yields As20<j, which condenses in

perature
the cold portion of the tube as a dark sublimate
It fises at 2, and
flame
blue
the
charcoal
On
it
pale
fuses, yields arsenic fumes and
tinges
a gray globule which colors the borax bead a deep blue
The mineral
is soluble in HC1, giving rise to a pink solution, which, upon evaporation
to drynesSj gives a blue stain
It is easily recognized by its color and the cobalt reaction. It is
readily distinguished from pink tounna\ne (p 434), by its hardness
and easy fusibility

Synthesis
by
carefully mixing to-
gether warm solutions of CoSO-i and HNa2As04 7HsO

Occurrence
Erythnte occurs in the upper portions of veins containing cobalt minerals, being formed by their weathering
Localities
and as
Station,
Tt occurs as scales
crystals at
and
Modum, Norway.
Nevada, at several points
crystals at Schneeberg, Saxony,

It is found, also, at Lovelock's
m California and in large quantities
at Cobalt, Ontario.
Annabergite (Ni3(As0 4 )2-8H2 0)

It
Annabergite, or nickel bloom, is isomorphous with erythnte
as
certain
occurs massive, disseminated
rocks,
tiny grains through
crusts and stains m globular and earthy masses, and in fibrous crystals,
the axial ratios of which are not known.
The mineral is apple-green in color, and is translucent or opaque.
284
Its streak
is
and sp
=3
gr
its
light green
hardness,
5-2 5
Before the blowpipe it melts to a gray globule and gives the arsenic
In the
In the closed glass tube it blackens and yields water
mineral
dissolves
The
beads it gives the usual reactions for Ni
easily
odor
in acids
Crystals have been produced by the method employed

Synthesis
in the synthesis of erythnte, using NiSO-i, instead of CoSC>4
It is found as a common alteration product of nickelOccurrence
bearing minerals, in the oxidized portions of veins

Its best known occurrences are
Localities
Allemont,
Annaberg and Schneeberg, Saxony,

Colorado and Nevada.
Variscite
Vanscite
gem
Cobalt, Ontario,
(A1P0 4
Dauphme,
and mines
in
2H2 0)
a bright green mineral that has recently come into use as

It is apparently an aluminium phosphate with a
is
material.
theoretical composition as follows

449 per cent P20r>, 32 3 per cent
228
cent
and
HÔ
AloOa
specimen of crystallized material from
per
Lucm,
P2
Utah, gave the following analysis
A12
44 73
Fe2
V2
Cr03
06
32 40
18
H2
Total
22 68
32
100 37
Recent investigations indicate that the compound A1P04 2H2 is

Both forms are orthorhombic but one, vanscite, has the
dimorphous
properties described under this heading
The
other, lucinite,
is
associ-
ated with vanscite, near Lucm, Utah. It, however, occurs in crystals
that are octahedral in habit, rather than tabular, and that have an
axial ratio of
8729
In other respects lucimte
9788
is
very
much
like variscite
An amorphous variety of the same substance is also known It

occurs as a white, pale brown or pale blue earthy mass with a sp gr of
It differs from the crystalline varieties in being completely
2.135
soluble in
The
co
P 66
warm
concentrated
H2 S04
crystals of vanscite are orthorhombic

(oio), oo
Their axial ratio
P(no) and
is
P 56
8944
P oo
.1:1
(012),
0919
and
in a
Nearly
and are bounded by

few cases
all
oo
P 60
(too)
crystals are tabular
Twins are common, with |P 60 (102) the

(oio)
Crystals are comparatively rare, the mineral occurring usually in fibrous or finely granular masses and as incrustations
parallel
to
oo
twinning plane
285
Vanscite vanes in color from a pale to a bright green

It is weakly
pleochroic, has a vitreous luster, a hardness of about 4 and a density of
Its refractive indices for yellow light are a=i
2 54
546, /3=i 556,
r =i 578
Before the blowpipe the mineral is infusible
It, however, whitens
and colors the flame deep bluish green It )ields water in the closed
tube, and with the loss of its water, it changes color from green to
The same change in color takes place gradually at temperlavender
When heated with Co(N03)2, it turns blue
atures between iio-i6o
and when fused with magnesium ribbon it gives the test for phosphorus
It
forms a yellowish green glass with borax or microcosmic
mineral
is
salt.
The
insoluble in acids before heating
Vanscite resembles m some respects certain varieties of turquoise

It is distinguished from turquoise by the absence
and wwuellite (p 287)
of copper and from wavellite by its insolubility in acids
The mineral occurs as a cement in a brecciated, cherty
Occurrence
limestone and a brecciated rhyolite, as nodules m the cherty portions
of the breccias and also as veins traversing these rocks
It is also
found as nests in weathered pegmatites The crystals occur as coarsely
granular, loosely coherent masses in more compact granular masses
Vanscite occurs at Messbadi, Sa\ony, in Montgomery
County, Arkansas, near Lucm, Utah, and at a number of other places
in Tooele and Washington Counties in this State, in Esmeralda County,
Localities
Nevada, and
Montgomery County, Arkansas The colloidal vanety
occurs as concretions in slates at Brandberg, near Leoben, Austria
The mixture of vanscite and rock is cut, and employed as
Uses
"
"
and
utahlite
under the names
sets in necklaces, belt pins, etc
"
amatrice," but because of the softness of the vanscite it cannot be
,
used with success for
the purposes for which turquoise matrix
all
is
used
The production of the material in the United States

Production
In the previous year
during 1911 was 540 Ib valued at $5,750
5,377 Ib were reported as having been sold for $26,125, I n I 9 I2
the amount marketed was valued at $8,150.
,
>
Skorodite
It occurs in globular
Skorodite is more common than viviamte
and earthy masses, as incrustations, and in crystals of a green or brown
color
The
globular forms are colloidal
Its formula indicates
Fe203=346
per cent,
Asa03=49 8 P er
cent
286
and HoO= 15 6 per cent An incrustation on the deposits of the Joseph's

Coat Spring, Yellowstone National Park, consisted of
As2 O 5
Fe2 O3
46 48
33 2 9
H2 O
I5
SiO 2
SO3
4 35
84
Total
100 46
Its crystallization is orthorhombic (bipyramidal class), with
8658
9541. The crystals, which are commonly bounded by

oo P 60(100), oo P 06(010), ooPa(i2o),
ooP(uo),
P(III) and -2-P(ii2), are either prismatic or octaThe angle niAiTi

habit (Fig 159)
hedral
= 65
Their cleavage
20'
is
imperfect, parallel to
It
has a vitreous
ooP(no)
The mineral
is brittle
luster,
a leek-green or liver-brown color and a white

streak.
It is translucent and has an uneven fracture
FIG
Skorodite
159
Crysta wit
oo
100 (a)
and P
(d)
On
bluish.
oo
co
P 2,
20
(p) '
The
Its
3 5-4 and density about 3 3

somewhat softer than the
are
phases
hardness
colloidal
is
cry sta}}me phases
In "the closed tube skorodite turns yellow and

It fuses easily, coloring the flame
yields water
charcoal
it
yields white arsenical
fumes and gives a black
It is soluble in HC1, forming a brown solution

porous, magnetic button
It is distinguished from wviamte by the arsenic test, and from dufren%te
by
its
streak
and reaction
in the closed tube
Skorodite crystals have been made by heating metallic

Synthesis
iron with concentrated arsenic acid solution at I4o ~i$o
Occurrence.
Skorodite is frequently associated with arsenopynte,
in the oxidized portions of veins containing iron minerals
It is found
also in a few places as incrustations deposited by hot springs,
Localities
Loelling,
trict,
It
occurs
fine
crystals
Cannthia, near Edenville,
at
New
Nerchinsk, Siberia; at
in the Tmtic dis-
York,
Utah, and as an incrustation on the siliceous sinter of the geysers
in Yellowstone Park.
HYDRATED BASIC PHOSPHATES AND ARSENATES

The hydrated basic phosphates and arsenates are rather more numerous than the hydrated normal compounds, but most of them are rare
One, waveltite, however, is a handsome mineral that is fairly common.
Another, pharmacosiderite, an iron arsenate, is known to occur at a
number
of places
The uramte group
also belongs here
Its
members
287
are comparatively rare, but, because of the presence of uranium in

them,
they are of considerable interest
Wavellite ((A1(OH F) 3 )(PO4) 2 5
H O)
2
Wavellite rarely occurs in crystals

It is usually in acicular
aggreThe few
gates that are either globular or radiating (Fig 160)
crystals
that have been seen are orthorhombic (bipyramidal class), with an

axial ratio of
5573
4057
and frequently a fairly large portion

a
and
replaced by F,
portion of the Al by Fe
The mineral is vitreous in luster and white, green, yellow, brown or
Its composition varies widely,
OH
of the
is
black in color
Its streak is white
FIG
and
fusible
1 60
insoluble
It is brittle
and
translucent,
m-
Radiate Wavellite on a Rock Surface
m acids
and
Its hardness is 3 5
its
density 2.41.
Its intermediate refractive index for yellow light is i 526.
a dosed glass tube, wavelhte yields water, the last traces

Heated
which react acid and often etch the glass In the blowpipe flame the
mineral swells up and breaks into tiny infusible fragments, at the same
time tingeing the flame green. The mineral is soluble in HC1 and
of
When heated with HaS04 many specimens yield hydrofluoric

When heated on charcoal and moistened with Co(NOs)2 and
H2SO4.
acid
reheated, the mineral turns blue.
Wavellite
and
its
is
distinguished
from
turquoise,
by its action in the blowpipe

manner of occurrence
resembles,
Occurrence
flame,
which
by
it
sometimes
its inferior
hardness
Wavellite occurs as radiating bundles on the walls of
288
cracks in various rocks and as globular masses

It
spaces between the fragments of breccias
the result of weathering
It
Localities
filling
is
ore veins and the
probably
cases
all
found at a great number of places, especially at
is
Zbirow, in Bohemia, at Mmas Geraes, Brazil, at Magnet Cove, Arkansas, and in the slate quarries in York County, Penn.
Pharmacosidente ((FeOH) 3 (AsO4 )2
5H 2 O)
a hydrated ferric arsenate, the composition of

small isometric
It usually occurs
which is not firmly established
are
combinations
that
of
commonly
crystals (hextetrahedral class),
Pharmacosiderite
is
ooQoo(ioo) and
masses
(in)
It
is
also
Its cleavage is parallel to
oo
sometimes found in granular

o (100)
Its streak is a pale

The mineral
green, dark brown or yellow.
has
an
adamantine
luster
color
It
and is translucent.
the
same
of
shade
is
Its hardness
= 25
and sp gr
=3
It is sectile
and pyroelectnc
Its
=i
refractive
mde\,
676
Pharmacosiderite reacts like skorodite before the blowpipe and with
reagents
The mineral occurs
m the oxidized portions of 01 c \ ems, in Cornwall,
England, at Schneeberg, Saxony, near
SchemmU, Hungai}
and
in the
Tintic district, Utah.
URANITE GROUP
The uramtes are a group of phosphates, arsenates and vanadates
the form of the radical uranyl (UOs) which is
containing uranium
bivalent
The members of the group are either tetragonal, or ortho-
rhombic with a tetragonal habit They all contain eight molecules of

water of crystallization
Only three members of the group are of
sufficient interest to be discussed here
These are the hydrated copper and calcium uranyl phosphates, torbermte and aittumte and
the
potassium uranyl vanadate, carnotite
The
entire
group so far as
its
members have been
identified is as
follows.
Awlumte
Uranospwite
Torb&rmte
Zeunente
Uranocirate
Camohte
Ca(U02 )2(P04 )2 8H2

Ca(U02 }2(As04) 2 SBfcO
Cu(U02 )2(P04) 2 8H2
Cu(U02 ) 2 (As04) 2 8H2
Ba(U02)2(P04) 2
(Ca
8H2
Orthorhombic
Orthorhombic
Tetragonal
Tetragonal
Orthorhombic

The uramtes
element which
is
289
are of interest because of their content of uranium,

genetically related to radium
an
(CaCUCbMPO^ 8H2 O)
Autunite
Autunite occurs in thin tabular crystals with a distinctly tetragonal

and in foliated and micaceous masses
habit,
The
is
percentage composition corresponding to the above formula

per cent CaO, 62.7 per cent UOs, 15 5 per cent PsOs and 15 7 per
cent
H2O
Its crystals are orthorhombic (bipjrraimdal class), with

ratio,
p875
an
axial
28517, thus possessing interfacial angles that closely
Its crystals are bounded by oP(ooi),

several
less prominent planes
and
Their cleav(101),
(on),
is
and
the
lamellae
are
brittle
The
luster is
age
very perfect
cleavage
the
on
base
vitreous
on
other
and
surfaces.
pearly
The mineral is lemon-yellow or sulphur-yellow in color, and its streak
is yellow
It is transparent to translucent.
approach those
Pa
of torbermte.
P 06
its specific
gravity about 3
2.
Its refractive indices for yellow light are.
= i 553,0=1 S7S>7=i577
The mineral
reacts like torbermte before the blowpipe
except that it shows none of the tests for copper.

color, streak and specific gravity
Occurrence
Autunite occurs
and with
It is recognized
acids,
by
its
pegmatite veins and on the walls
of cracks in rocks near igneous intrusions, especially in association with

other uranium compounds, of which it is a decomposition product.
Localities.
It has
been found at Johanngeorgenstadt, Germany,

Conn , in the mica mines of Mitchell
at Middletown and Branchville,
County, North Carolina, and coating cracks

Torbernite
in gneiss at Baltimore,
Md
(CuCUOs^CPO^ -8H2 0)
Torbermte occurs in small square tables, that may be very thin or

moderately thick, and in foliated and micaceous masses.
The pure mineral contains 612 per cent UOs, 8 4 per cent Cu,
15 i per cent P20s and 15.3 per cent H2<D, but frequently a part of the P
is
replaced
by As
Its crystals are tetragonal (ditetragonal bipyramidal class), with

c= i . 2 9361 They are extremely simple, their predominating
forms being oP(ooi) and POD (101). Less prominent are ooPoo (100),
Their cleavage is perfect parallel to oP
sPoo(2oi) and ooP(no)
The
cleavage lamellae
but they are
brittle
may be
almost as thin as those of the micas
290
The
mineral
is
bright green in emerald, grass or apple shades, has a
lighter green streak, is translucent or transparent, and has a hardness

Its luster is pearly on the
of 2 25 and a specific gravity of about 3 5
basal plane but nearly vitreous on other burfaces

chroic in green and blue.
It is strongly pleo-
Torbermte gives reactions for Cu and P and yields water in the

The bead reactions for uranium are masked by those of
closed tube
copper
The
The
mineral
mineral
properties
Occurrence.
is
is
soluble in
HN03
easily recognized
Torbermte
is
by
its
color
and other physical
occasionally found as a coating on the

England, at Schee-
It occurs in Cornwall,
walls of crevices in rocks
berg, Saxony, at Joachimsthal, Bohemia, and at most places where other

uranium minerals exist It is probably in all cases a weathering product.
Carnotite ((Ca
KsXTTC^MVO^ xHaO)
Carnotite, like the other uramtes described, is extremely complex

in composition
It may be an impure potassium uranyl vanadate, or a
mixture of several vanadates in which the potassium uranyl compound
is the most prominent
The formula given above indicates its composition as well as any simple formula that has been proposed
specimen from La Sal Creek, Colorado, shows the mineral to be essen-
'
tially as follows
UOs
54 oo
18 05
CaO
i
86
BaO
i
86
K2
at 105
H2
3 16
5 4^
above 105
21
though there are present in the specimen analyzed, or in other specimens

from the same locality, also As2 3 P2O 5 Si02 Ti02 C02 S03 Mo03
Cr2 3 Fe2 3 A12 3 PbO, CuO, SrO, MgO, Li2 and Na2 0, and there
are reported in them also small quantities of radium
Radiographs
,
taken with the aid of carnotite have been published, which are almost
as clear as those taken with pitchblende
The complete analysis of a
specimen from the Copper Prince Claim, Montrose Co Colo , gave:
,
291
The
mineral has been found only in tiny crystalline grams, so that its
It is bright yellow in
physical properties are not well known
color, and
is completely soluble in HNOs
If to the nitric acid solution
hydro-
gen peroxide be added a brown color will appear

is filtered, made alkaline by ammonia and
through
Or
if
the solution
passed H2S, a
the mineral be moistened by a
drop of
it is
If
garnet color will develop
concentrated HC1, a rich brown color
will result
The addition of a drop
or two of water will change the color to light green or make it
disappear
Occurrence
Carnotite occurs as a yellow crystalline powder, some
of which seems to consist of minute crystals with an hexagonal habit,

in the interstices between the grains in sandstones and
conglomerates, as nodules or lumps in these rocks, and as coatings on the walls
of cracks in pebbles in the conglomerates and on pieces of silicified

wood embedded in the sandstones. It is limited to very shallow
depths and
is
apparently a deposit from ground water.
Its principal known occurrences are in Montrose, San

Dolores Counties in southwestern Colorado, especially
Mesa
and
Miguel,
Localities
in Paradox Valley, and in adjoining portions of New Mexico and Utah,

and in Rio Blanco and Routt Counties in the northwestern portion of
Colorado. At all these places there are large quantities of the impregnated rock but it contains on the average only about i 5 per cent to
2
The mineral has
per cent of UsOg.
Mauch Chunk,
Pisgah,
Australia
The mineral
Uses.
and
also been described
Pennsylvania, and from Radium
from
Hill,
Mt
South
one of the main sources of radium and uranium
is
one of the principal sources of vanadium. Although it contains a

notable quantity of uranium, carnotite has little value except as an ore
of radium and vanadium, because of the few uses to which uranium is
is
This metal is used to some extent in making steel alloys and in the
Its compounds are used in
manufacture of iridescent glazes and glass
put.
certain chemical determinations, as medicines, in photography, as porcelain paint, and as a dye in calico printing. The uses of vanadium have
been referred to on p 273
The
upon its content of radium,

valued at about $40,000 per gram
The importance of radium as a therapeutic agent
or $1,500,000 per oz
has not been established, but that its use is wonderfully helpful in many
principal value of carnotite depends
which in the form of the chloride
diseases
tite will
is
beyond question Without doubt in the near future carnobecome the principal source of radium in the world Practically
is
the only other source
is
the pitchblende (p 297), of Gilpin, Colorado,
Cornwall, England and Joachimsthal, Austria.
292
Carnotite has been mined in San Miguel and Montrose

Counties, Colorado, and at several points in eastern Utah, but mainly
At present it is being utilized as a source
for the vanadium it contains
Production
From Colorado
of
radium
of
$302,000, were shipped
8,400 tons of vanadium ore, with a value
in 1911
and from
Some
70 tons, valued at $3,500
New Mexico and Utah about
of this, however,
was vanadmite
Most of it was exported and used as a source of vanadium However,

the uranium content of the carnotite mined was about i r tons of the
metal
During 1912 ore containing 26 tons of uranium o\ide and 6 7
43 grams
grams of radium was produced This would have yielded
The present price of standard
of radium bromide, valued at $52,800
carnotite carrying at least 2 per cent UgOg and 5 per cent VÔs, is at the
rate of $i 25 per Ib for the former
and
thirty cents for the latter
In
1914 the selling price of 4,294 tons of carnotite ore containing 87 tons
At the present time nothing is paid for the
of UsOg was $103 per ton
radium content of the
One ton
of ore containing
The imports
radium
though
ore,
of
most valuable component
this is its
per cent of
UaOg
carries 2
uranium compounds during
566 milligrams of
were valued
191*2
at $14,357-
HYDRATED ACID PHOSPHATES AND ARSENATES
number
constitute
minerals.
of hydrated acid phosphates
and arsenates are known to
an isomorphous group, but only a few of them occur as

Brushite is an acid calcium phosphate and pfwrmacofate is
the corresponding arsenate

Neither
(prismatic class)
Both
is
crystallize in the
monoclimc system
common
*
Pharmacohte (HCaAs0 4 2H20) occurs principally in silky fibers, in

botryoidal and stalactic masses and rarely in crystals with an axial
'
ratio .6236
allel
to
oo
3548 and 18=83
Its streak is white
except on
flexible
oo
P&
13'.
The mineral
ob (oio)
is
Their cleavage is perfect parwhite or gray, tinged with red
It is translucent or
(oio)
where
opaque
it is slightly
and density
pearly
2 7
Thin laminae are
7=1 5937
Before the blowpipe pharmacohte swells up and melts to a white
enamel. The mineral gives the usual reactions for As, EfeO and Ca
It
in
occurs
the
zone
of
weathered
arsenical
ores
of
usually
Fe, Ag and Co,
for yellow light are. 01=1.5825, ]8=i 5891,
at Andreasberg, Harz; Joachimsthal, Bohemia,
and elsewhere.
CHAPTER XV
THE COLUMBATES, TANTALATES \ND URANATES
THE rare metah, columbium and tantalum, exist in a few silicates,
but their principal occurrences are as columbates and tantalates which
are salts of columbium and tantalum acids, analogous to the various
acids of sulphur
The commonest compounds are salts of the metaacids EfeQteOo and H2Ta20e, the relations of which, to the normal acids,
by the equation 2HsCb04 2H20=H2Cb206 Other imare derivatives of the pyroacids

minerals
portant
corresponding to
or
The
best
known
ortho
EkO
salt is ferguson2HsCb04
HiCtaOr,
are indicated
tte,
YCb04
but
it is
rare
when partially decomposed

and boiled with HC1 and metallic tin The tantalates when
fused with KHSO* and treated with dilute HC1 give a yellow solution
and a heavy white precipitate, which, on treatment with metallic zinc
or tin, assumes a deep blue color
When diluted with water the blue
All the columbates yield a blue solution
in EfeSQi
color of the tantalate solution disappears, whole that of the columbate
solution remains
The uranates are salts of uramc acid, HsUtX. The only mineral
known that may be a uranate is urarnn/Ue and the composition of this
9
is
doubtful.
Columbite (CFe-Mn)Nb 2 O 6) and Tantalite ((Fe-Mn)Ta2O 6)

These two minerals are isomorphous mixtures of iron and manganese
The name columbite is applied to the mixcolumbates and tantalates
ture that is composed mainly of the columbates, and tantalite to that
which
is principally
composed almost
manganotantal^te
a mixture
When
of tantalates
the tantalite
is
manganese molecule, it is known as

Tin and tungsten are frequently found in both min-
exclusively of the
erals
Their crystals are orthorhombic, with a : b c

8285 : i : 8898 for
the nearly pure columbium compound, and 8304 : i : .8732 for the
.
compound Both form short prismatic crystals

among the most prominent being the three
containing
o P(no), oo
various
Pjfoo) and oo P6(i6o),
prisms, notably
pinacoids,
nearly pure tantalum
many
faces,
294
The most promi(201) and |P 06 (012) (Fig 161)

nent pyramids are P(in) and P3(i33). Twins are not uncommon,
The angle noAiIo for columwith 2P66 (201) the twinning plane
and the domes 2? 56
bite=79 17'
Both minerals are usually opaque, black and lustrous, and occasionare translucent and
ally iridescent, though, in some instances, they
broun
Their streak
parallel to
oo
is
60 (100),
dark red or black
Their cleavage
is distinct
fracture uneven or conchoidal, their hardness
6 and their specific gravity

between 5 3 and 73, increasing with the proportion of the
present
both
infusible
exhibit
weak
When
ooPoo,oio (6), oop, no

730 (d), oopô
Ml (, P, in W and PI 133 M
(f),
(,),
are
radioactivity
is de-
columbite
composed by fusion with

KOH and dissolved in HC1
and BkSO-i, the solution
turns blue Qn thfi addltlon
i6i.-Columbite Crystals with
(a).
They
before the
Some specimens
blowpipe
FIG
tantalum mole-
cules
oP2, 210
|P 55, I03
USbdllC
1C
The mm-
eral 1S also partially
decom-
posed when evaporated to

dryness with EfeSCU, forming a white compound that changes to yellow
this residue is boiled with HC1 and metallic zinc a blue solution
When
results
The
Tantalite
mineral also gives reactions for iron and manganese.

decomposed upon fusion with KHSQ* in a platinum
is
This when heated with dilute HCl yields a yellow

foil.
and a heavy white powder Upon addition of metallic zinc, a
blue color results and this disappears on dilution with water
In the
spoon, or on
solution
microcosmic
salt
and manganese
bead tantalite dissolves slowly, giving reactions for iron

When treated with tin on charcoal the bead turns
green
The two
(p. 434),
minerals
may
easily
be confused with black fourmahne
tlmemte (p 462) and wolframite
From
tourmaline, they are
by crystallization, high specific gravity and luster, from

wolframite by their less perfect deavage and by the reaction with
aqua regia (see p 259), from ilmenite by the test for titanium
Occurrence, Ongm and Localities. Both minerals occur in veins of
distinguished
coarse granite and probably have a pneumatolytic origin
COLUMBATES, TANTALATES AND URANATES

Columbite
295
found
in granite \erns at Bodenmais,

Bavaria, Tamnear Limoges, France, with tantahte, near Miask,
in the Ilmen Mountains, Russia, with samarskite, and at Ivigtut,
is
mela, in Finland,
Greenland
it
found at Standish and Stone-
is
Maine, at Acworth, in New Hampshire, at Haddam, in Connecticut, at Amelia Court House, Virginia, with samarskite in the mica
mines in Mitchell County, North Carolina, m the Black Hills, South
ham,
Dakota, and at a number
of other points in
New England and
the Far
West
Tantahte
is
found at many of the
columbite and also
localities for
at several other places in Finland, near Falun, in Sweden, in
County, North Carolina, and

Uses
m Coosa
At the present time columbium and
commercial uses
Yancy
County, Alabama
Tantalum, however,
is
its
compounds have no
employed
in the
manufacture
of filaments for certain types of incandescent lamps

Since, howe\er,
about 20,000 filaments may be made from a single pound of the metal the
market
for tantalum ores
is
very limited
Samarskite and Yttrotantalite
These two minerals may be regarded as isomorphous mixtures of

salts of pyrocolumbic and pyrotantalic acids, in which the bases are
yttrium, iron, calcium and uranyl.
Samarskite, according to this view,
Y2 (Ca
Fe
is
approximately
U02)3(Nb2
7 )3
Yttrium and iron are

yttrotantalite the corresponding tantalate
the principal bases, but there are also often present erbium, cerium,
and
tungsten and tin
Analyses made by Rammelsberg and quoted by Dana give some idea

compounds:
of the complexity of the
Including SiO*,
f Including
Di2 0s and LaÔs
296
The
first of
these three minerals has been called yttrotantahte and

If the first is weathered, as seems probable
the other two samarslute
from the presence of over SL\ per cent of water, the three may constitute
members of an isomorphous series with the third representing the nearly
pure columbate (sanurskite), the first a compound in which the tantalate
molecule is in excess (yttrotantahte), and the second an intermediate
contains both the tantalum and
compound which
columbmm
molecules,
with the latter predominating
With more accurate analyses the great complexity of these compounds

becomes even more apparent
Hillebrand has given the following report
of his analysis of a samarskite
from Devil's Head Mountain, near Pike's
Peak, Colorado, which shows the futility of attempting to represent

composition by a chemical formulaBlack
Variety
Pitch-black
Variety
Ta2
fi
CbaOs
W0
SnO2
Zr02
U0
U0
Weathered
Variety
27 03
28 ii
19 34
27 77
26 16
27 56
08
5 51
2 25
95
2 29
09
2 60
4 02
4 22
3 64
3 60
54
80
49
82
3 10*
6 20
Th02
Ce2
(La,Di) 2
Er2 0s
3 19
4i
12
44
10 71
6 41
10 70
5 96
5 64
8 77
8 72
8 90
FeO
32
35
MnO
78
75
05
72
07
80
27
33
17
I3
Fe2
ZnO
PbO
CaO
9 82
39 f
77
07
61
MgO
(Na,Li) 2
H 0..
2
24
i
58
?
17
30
3 94
99 75
6 12
fO
>
its
COLUMBATES, TANTALATES AND URANATES

Both samarskite and yttrotantahte
ratio for samarskite of 5456
1330.
They, however, more
flattened grams embedded in rocks
i
oo
P 56
(100),
oo
P 66
(oio)
common
The
angle
noAiTo
and
for yttrotantahte 56
and P
and
axial
5411
in
Their crystals are prismatic in

Their most prominent forms are
65 (101)
(Fig
are
*>P2(i2o),
for samarskite
an
for yttrotantahte,
commonly occur massive and
the direction of the c or the b a\is
but fairly
are orthorhombic, with
5178,
297
162)
Less prominent
ooP(no), P(in) and

is
57
14'
50'
The
cleavage of both minerals is indistinct

Their fracture is
parallel to oo P 06 (oio)
conchoidal
Both are brittle The hardness of
samarskite is 5-6, its density about 5 7, its

luster vitreous, its color velvety black and its
streak reddish
brown
softer (5-5 5)
Its
its
Yttrotantahte
specific gravity
is
is
little
5 5~5 9,
luster submetallic to vitreous, its color black, FIG 162
brown, or yellow, and its streak gray to colorless

Samarskite is opaque and yttrotantahte
opaque or translucent
The reactions of the minerals vary with
their composition
They always yield the
fed
w^
p55
'
SamarshteCiysoop 55 100 (a),

,
OI
JW>
120
Poo,ioi(e),
3P3> 231
blue solution test for tantalum or columbium, and most specimens react
The reaction for uranium is an emerald green
Mn, Fe, Ti and
for
salt in both reducing and oxidizing flame.

are distinguished from columbite and t&ntahte by the form of
bead with microcosmic
They
their crystals.
The two minerals, like columbite and tantahte, are

Occurrence
found principally in pegmatite veins and in many of the same localities
Yttrotantahte occurs mainly at Ytterby and near Falun, in Sweden, and
samarskite, near Miask in the Ilmen Mountains, Russia, In the United
States the last-named mineral is sometimes found in large masses in the
mica pegmatites of Mitchell County, North Carolina.
Uses
Neither mineral is at present of any commercial value. They
however, extremely interesting as the source of many of the rare

elements, and, especially, as a possible source of radium and closely
are,
related substances.
Urardnite
Uramnite, or pitchblende, like the other compounds containing the

element uranium, is of doubtful composition. It contains so many
298
different
components that a correct conception of
its
character
is
almost
The mineral is particularly interesting because it

impossible to grasp
always contains a trace of radium, of which it is an important commercial source at the present time
Analyses of crystallized material (I) from Branchville, Conn,
and from Annerod
II
21
54
ThO2
64 72
6 93
6 oo
46 13
30 63
Norway gave
U02
U03
I.
(II),
the following results
PbO Fe2 O3
28
4 34
9 04
25
H2 O
Pie
22
67
Und.
14
37
74
17
4 42
CaO
Insol
Ce02, La2 03, DÔs, YgOs, Er2 C>3,

These
and
P20s
analyses are interpieted as indiMnO,
of uramc acid, U02(OH)2, or
a
salt
uranium
is
the
mineral
that
cating
\\ith small quantities also of ZrC>2,
Alkalies, SiOs
H2 U04,
part,
U^dr
thus
and Th02 the UC>2
helium in nearly
or
U3
Radium
S , in
is
which Pb replaces the
in
found in most specimens and
all
Several varieties aie recognized, the distinctions being based largely

upon chemical differences
Broggente has UOa to other bases as i : i

Cleweite and nnvemte contain 9 per cent to 10 per cent of the yttna
earths
is possibly an amorphous urammte containing a very
Its specific gravity is often as low as 6 5,
thona and much water
Pitchblende
little
due probably
Urammte
to partial alteration
crystallizes in the isometric system in octahedrons,
combinations of 0(ui),
oo
0(no), and oo
oo (100)
and
Crystals are rare,
however, the material usually occurring in crystalline masses and in

botyroidal groups
The mineral is gray, brown or black and opaque. Its streak is
brownish black, gray or olive green. Its luster is pitch-like or dull
Its
fracture
is
It is brittle, its hardness is 5 5
and
Like the other uranium minerals it is radioactive

density 9-9 7
Before the blowpipe uraninite is infusible. Some specimens color
the flame green with copper
With borax it gives a
bead in the
yellow
All specimens give

oxidizing flame, turning green in the reducing flame
reactions for lead and many for sulphur and arsenic
The mineral is
soluble in nitric
and sulphuric
acids,
with
slight evolutions of helium,
OOLUMBATES, TANTALATES AND URANATES
299
the ease of solubility increasing with the increase in the proportion of

rare earths present
Urammte
tantahte,
is
by lack
distinguished from wo'Jramite, samarsktfe, columbde and

of cleavage, greater specific gravity,
From all but samarskite

crystallization
the case of
reactions for uranium and,
tion for lead
it is
Urammte
differences in
by the
most specimens, by the
It is especially characterized
and
also distinguished
reac-
pitch-black luster
occurs in pegmatites and in
by
its
It is found
copper and other ores
the ore veins in Saxony, Bohemia, and in pegmatites near Moss, Arendal
and other points in Norway
veins associated îth
silver, lead,
B ranchville,
in
occurs in pegmatites at Middletown and

Connecticut, at the Mitchell County mica mines,
it
It is
North Carolina, and at Barnnger Hill, Llano County, Texas
also found m large quantity near Central City, Gilpin County, Colorado,
where it is associated with gold, galena, tetrahednte, chaicopynte and
other ore mineials

Production
Urammte has been mined
in small
quantity in Colo-
rado, and at Barnnger Hill, both as a source of uranium and as a

In Cornwall, England, and at Joachimsthal,
source of radium
Austria,
it is
mined as a source
of
radium
(See also
292.)
CHAPTER XVI
THE SILICATES
THE
silicates are salts of various silicon acids,
The
only a few of which
commonest
are known uncombmed
make
minerals and those that occur in largest quantity
They
up the
of
most
the
rocks
of
earth's
the
forming
igneous
crust,
greater portion
and a large portion of vein fillings In number, the silicates exceed all
with bases
silicates
include the
other mineral compounds, but because of their stability they are of very
few are used as the sources of valuable
economic importance
little
their aggregates, the sihcious rocks, are utilized as

on the whole, they are of little commercial value
but,
building stones,
Since, however, they occur in good crystals and their material is trans-
substances, and
parent in thin sections so that it can easily be studied by optical methods,

Much of the progress made in
they are of great scientific importance
has
been
accomplished through the study of these comcrystallography
pounds
Although the
salts of
the
silicic
acids are very
numerous and most
of
them
are very stable toward the ordinary reagents of the laboratory,

the acids from \\hich they are derived are only imperfectly known
The
the pure state is the compound

only one that has been prepared
This occurs as a gelatinous (colloidal) white substance which
KfeSiOa
rapidly loses water upon drying and probably breaks up into a number
of other
compounds which are
also acids, containing, however, a larger
proportion of silicon in the molecule than that in the original compound

When the tetrafluoride, or the tetrachionde, of silicon is decomposed by
addition
water, the principal product is the acid referred to above, but
to this there is probably formed also the compound HaSiO* or Si(OH)4,
is the ortho acid
Some silicates are salts of these acids. Others
are salts of the acids containing a larger proportion of silicon
In most
cases, however, these acids may be regarded as belonging to a series in
which
which the members are related to one another m the same manner as
are normal sulphuric, common sulphuric and pyrosulphuric acids.
Normal sxilphuric acid is HeSOe By abstraction of aKkO the compound
2 SO4, or ordinary sulphuric acid, results

If from two molecules of
EfcSOi, one molecule of HsO is abstracted, 1128307, or pyrosulphuric
In the same manner all of the silicic acids may be regarded
acid, is left.
300
SILICATES
as being derived from normal
straction of water, thus:
silicic
301
acid Si(OH)4 or
H4SiO4 by the ab-
Orthosilicic acid is
Metasihcic acid
H4Si04
is
-IÔor H2 SiOs,
Diorthosilicic acid is
2H4Si04
Dimetasilicic acid
21*28103- EfeO or
is
Tnmetasilicic acid
is
31128103
IfeO or
EfeO or
The compounds containing more than one silicon atom in the molecule
The salts of metasilicic acid are metaare known as polysilicates
sihcates
Many
attempts have been
made
to discover the
of the comparatively simple silicates
and
chemical structure
several proposals
have been
offered to explain the great differences often observed in the properties

of silicates with the same empirical formula, but no explanation of these
differences has thus far proved satisfactory
The
silicates
are so very
stable under laboratory conditions, and, when they are decomposed,

their decomposition products are so difficult to study, that it has been
impossible to determine their molecular volumes or to understand their

We are thus driven to ascribe many of the
substitution products
anomalies in their composition to solid solutions, to absorption phenomena, and to the isomorphous mixing of compounds, some of which do
not
exist
independently
There are many
silicates,
moreover, which cannot be assigned to any
of the simple acids mentioned above, but which probably must be

Others are posregarded as salts of very much more complex acids
sible salts of alurninosiliac acids in which aluminium functions in the
acid portions
and anorthite
Thus, albite
is
usually regarded as a trisilicate, NaAlSisOg,
as an orthosihcate, CaAl2(Si04)2
But the two substances
are completely isomorphous, and for this reason it is thought that they
must be salts of the same acid If we assume an aluminosilicic acid of
the formula HsAlSÔg, albite

thite (CaAl)AlSi20g
acid
exist
and
their
be written (NaSi) AlSi2Og, and anorminerals thus become salts of the same
may
The two
The relations that

complete isomorphism is explained
silicates might be better understood on the assump-
among many
tion that they are salts of complex silicic and of aluminosilicic acids
than on the assumption that they are salts of simpler acids, as is now the
But, since it has been impossible to isolate the acids and study
them we are not certain as to their character It is, therefore, believed
best to represent most silicates as salts of the simplest acids possible,
case
consistent with their empirical compositions as determined
by
analyses
302
As
in,the case of salts of other acids there are silicates that contain
such relations to their other components that

hydrogen and oxygen
when heated they yield water In some cases this water is driven off at
a comparatively low temperature and the residue of the compound remams unchanged A compound of this kind is usually called a hydrate
or the
compound
is
In other
said to contain water of crystallization
cases a high temperature is necessary to drive off water, and the compound breaks up into simpler ones In these instances the water is
The compound
said to be combined
is
usually basic
In the descriptions of the silicates the order in which the minerals are
discussed is that of increasing acidity, i e , increasing proportion of the
Si02 group present
the molecule
This order, however,
not
is
fol-
The members
of well defined groups of closely related

lowed ngorously
minerals are discussed together even if their acidity varies widely
Nearly
all
the silicates are transparent or translucent and
all
are elec-
trical insulators
THE ANHYDROUS ORTHOSILICATES

NORMAL ORTHOSILICATES R4SiO
OLIVINE GROUP
The members
Mg,
Fe,
of the olivine
Mn and Zn
They
R"=Mg,
(R"aSi0 4 )
group are normal
Fe,
Mn, Zn
silicates of
the metals
constitute an isomorphous series crystalliz-
ing in the holohedral division of the orthorhombic system (rhombic biThe most common member is the magnesium-iron
pyramidal class)
Fe)2Si04, ohmne, or thrysot Ic, from which the group
The members with the simplest composition are for-
compound (Mg
gets
its
name.
The
(Mg2Si04), fayahte (FeaSiO^ and tephrotte (Mn2 SiOj.)
others are isomorphous mixtures of these, with the exception of three
rare minerals, of which one, monttcelhte, is a calcium magnesium silicate,
another, tttanohwne, contains Ti in place of a part of the Si, and the
st&rite
some Zn2Si04
from molten magmas
other, roeppente, contains
by
crystallization
Most
of
them are formed
Crystals of all the members of the group are prismatic and all have
nearly the same habit
They are often flattened parallel to one of the
The axial ratios of the compinacoids, oo P 56 (oio) or oo P 55 (100)
moner members
are as follows
Forstente a
c= 4666
Ohvine
Tephroite
Fayahte
=
=
=
4658
5868
5865
4600
5939
4584
5793
The angle iioAiTo=$o

The angle no A 110=49
The angle no A 110=49
The angle iioAiTo=49
2'
57'
2 4'
ANHYDROUS ORTHOSILICATES
Crystals of olivine are usually combinations of some or
oo P 06
oo P 56 (100),
forms(oio),
oP(ooi),
ooP(no),
Po6
2Po6(o2l),
(Oil),
P(ni) and 2P2(i2i)

The crystals of fayahte
all
303
of the following
ooP2(i2o),
Poo(lOl),
163)
are usually
more tabular than those of olivine,
(Fig.
forsterite and tephroite crystals

The
have nearly the same forms
but
cleavage
of
all
P 66 (oio),
oo P oo (100)
is
distinct parallel
to oo
less
to
in olivine,
allel
distinct parallel
FIG
and par-
to oP(ooi) in fayahte
The compositions of the pure Mg,

Mn, and Fe molecules are
57
Crystals
with
Mn2 Si04
Mg2 Si04
MgO
MnO
Olivine
163
oop So, oio (b),

ooP, no (m) t
OP, 001 (c), 2P5,02l(&), 00 PI,
120 ($),P oo ioi (d) and P, in (e)
Fe2 Si04
70 25
FeO
70 6
SiO 2
42 9
29 4
29 75
All natural crystals, however, contain some of all the metals indicated
and, in addition, many specimens contain also a determmable quantity
of
CaO and
traces of other elements
Forsterite, Olivine
and Fayalite (MfeSiO* - (Mg Fe) 2 Si0 4 -Fe2 Si0 4)
The composition
of the forsterite
FeO
exceeds 24 per cent, the variety

few typical analyses are quoted below
tion of
of olivine naturally depends
and fayahte molecules present
A12
42
II
III
From masses
enclosed
in it
is
upon the proportion
When the propor-
known
hya^derite
Sp Gr
Si02
Total
42 30
3 261
41 19
100 45
IOO OO
40 39
99 81
3.294
37 17
99 39
Vesuvian lava
Concretion in basalt near Sasbach, Kaiserstuhl

Grams from glacial debris, Jan Mayen, Greenland
IV Grams from
as
coarse-grained rock, near Montreal,
Canada
304
In addition, there are often also present small quantities of Ni,
Mn,
and Ti
Forsterite, olivme and fayalite are usually yellow or green in color
and have a vitreous luster. Forsterite is sometimes white and ohvine
often brown. All three minerals become brown or black on exposure
to the air
or yellow
minerals
Their streak is colorless

All are transparent or translucent
The fracture of ohvine is conchoidal In the other two
it is
Their hardness, density and refractive indices
uneven
for yellow light are as follows
Hardness
Forsterite
Olivme.
Fayalite
Sp Gr
a.
6-7
3 21-3 33
6 5-7
3 27-3 37
65
4 00-4 14
ft
6319
6519
6862
6674
7053
8236
8642
8736
6698
Before the blowpipe most olivines and forsterites whiten but are inand 1450,
Their fusion temperatures are between 1300
fusible
Fayahte and varieties of ohvine rich

decreasing with increase in iron
All three minerals are decomin iron fuse to a black magnetic globule
posed by hydrochloric and sulphuric acids with the separation of gelatinous silica , the iron-rich vaneties are decomposed more easily than
iron
those poor
The minerals are characterized
by
their color
and
solubility
acids.
Both fayalite and ohvine alter on exposure to the air, the former
changing to an opaque mixture of Fe20s and Si02, or to the fibrous
mineral anthophylhte ((Mg-Fe)SiOs), and ohvine to a mixture of
and fibrous or scaly gray or green serpentine (BUMgaSÔo).
In other cases, under metamorphic conditions, the alteration is to a
red lamellar mineral (iddingsite) which may be a form of serpentine,
iron oxides
or to magnesite, or to the silicate, talc

this mineral
have
also
Other kinds of alteration of

been noted but those descnbed are the most
common
The members of the ohvine series have been produced
Syntheses
by fusing together the proper constituents in the presence of magnesium
and other chlorides They are, moreover, present in many furnace
slags where they have been made in the process of ore smelting.
Occurrence
Ohvine occurs as an original constituent of basic igneous
rocks and as a metamorphic product m dolomitic limestones
It is
found also in the form of rounded grains in some meteoric irons. Fayalite
occurs in acid igneous rocks, especially where affected
by pneumatolytic
and
action,
forsterite in dolomitic rocks \\hen
morphosed by the action
they have been meta-
of igneous rocks
Members
Local^tês
305
of the olivine
m the basaltic lavas
group occur
as those of the Sandwich Islands, in the limestone

many
inclusions in the lava of Mt Somma, near Naples; in vanous basic
volcanoes
of
rocks in Vermont and
New
Hampshire and at Webster,
latter place granular aggregates of almost
rock masses
Fayalite
known
pure ohvme
At the
C.
constitute great
as dunite
found in the rhyohtes of Mexico, the Yellowstone Park
is
and elsewhere, and
in coarse granite at Rockport,
Mourne Mountains,
Ireland
Mass
and in the
Forstente occurs in limestone enclosures in the lava of
Mt Somma
and at limestone contacts with igneous rocks at Bolton, Roxbury, and

Littleton, Mass and elsewhere.
Uses and Production. The only member of the group that is of any
,
economic importance is a pale yellowish green transparent ohvine, which

"
used as jewelry under the name of peridot " Gem material is found
is
at Fort Defiance and Rice, in Arizona, scattered loose in the soil

The
little grams came from a basic volcanic rock.
The amount produced in
the United States during 1912 was valued at about $8,100.
Tephroite
(Mn2 Si0 4)
Although tephroite is regarded as the manganese

always contains some of the forsterite molecule
Analyses of brown
(I),
and red
(II), varieties
silicate it
nearly
from Sterling
Hill
gave
MnO
FeO
52 3*
II 47 62
The
mineral
Its
52
7 73
23
14 03
is
gray,
ZnO
Loss
SiOs
Total
fc>
5 93
28
30 55
99 93
S4
4 77
35
3* 73
99
CaO
*
brown or
rose-colored
Its streak is nearly colorless
translucent
tals
MgO
hardness
is
about 6 and
its
and transparent or
It is rarely
density
408
found
It is fusible with difficulty (fusing temperature =1200),
uble in
HC1
with separation of gelatinous
from other like-appearing minerals by

reaction with
Syntheses
its
crys-
It is strongly
pleochroic in reddish, brownish red and greenish blue tints

mediate refractive index for yellow light = about i 80.
silica
27
Its inter-
and
is sol-
It is distinguishable
difficult
fusibility
and
its
HC1
Crystals of the mineral have been made by fusing toMn02 in the proportion of i : 2, and by long-continued
gether Si02 and
306
heating of
dioxide
MnCb and Si02 in an atmosphere of moist hydrogen or carbon
Localities
Franklin,
troostite
ganese
-Tephroite occurs at Mine Hill and Sterling Hill, near

where it is associated with franldmite, zmcite and
,
It is
found also at Pajsberg
minerals
and
and
magnetite,
in
at
Sweden with other manLangban,
in
Wermland,
Sweden
Uses
The mineral
is
of little commercial value
It
is
with other manganese minerals from the zinc ore of Franklin,

is smelted with these in the production of spiegeleisen,
WILLEMITE GROUP CVSiQO
R"=Zn,
separated
N. J
and
Mn
comprises the two minerals willemite (Z^SiO*)

Willemite
((Zn Mn)2SiC>4), of which the latter is rare
occurs in small quantity only, but troostite is an important source of
The willemite group
and
troostite
zinc at the Franklin locality in
New Jersey
Both minerals are found
in
crystals
Willemite and troostite crystallize
the rhombohedral hemihedral
division of the hexagonal system (ditrigonal scalenohedral class), with

the axial ratios
Willemite
Troostite
c= i
=i
o 6698
0.6698
Willemite and Troostite (Zn2 SiO 4 -(Zn
Mn) 2 SiO4 )
Willemite and troostite occur massive, in grains, and
m simple crys-
tals
The
= 72 96,
theoretical composition of willemite is
but nearly
81022704 and ZnO
natural crystals contain traces of other elements

When a noticeable quantity of manganese is present, the compound
is troostite
Several analyses are quoted below
all
Willemite from Stolberg, Germany

Willemite from Greenland
from Franklin, N J
Dark red troostite from Franklin, N J
White
troostite
The
Si02
ZnO
26 90
72 91
27 86
71 51
27 20
65 82
27 14
64 38
6 97
6 30
FeO
Total
35
100 16
37
23
99 74
100 22
24
99,00"
crystals of willemite exhibit the forms ooR(ioTo), oop2(ii2o),
oR(oooi),|R(3034) and -|R(oil2)(Fig

as the twinning planes, are rare
more
MnO
simple, with
The
164).
Twins, with$P2(3 3 6 10)

troostite are even
crystals of
oop2(ii2o) and R(ioli), usually the only forms
-JR(oiT2),
present, though
The
sionally found
willemite
parallel
and
ooP2(ii2o),
are also occa-
The cleavage
59'
of
oP(oooi), and of troostite distinct
distinct parallel to
is
to
angle
R3 (2i3i)
and
-^(0332)
ion A 1101 = 63
307
less
perfect
parallel
to
R(ioTi) and
cR(oooi)
Willemite
is colorless,
yellow, brown
brown
or blue
Troostite is green,
colored varieties of both minerals are
yellow,
The
or gray
Colorless willemite is transparent
translucent
Their hardness
vitreous in luster
is
Both minerals are
between
The
5 and 6 and density between 3 9 and 4 3
refractive indices of willemite for yellow light
w=i
are
e=i 7118
6931,
Both minerals glow when heated before the

blowpipe and are fused with difficulty (about
1484), and both gelatinize with HC1 Willemite gives
on
the reaction for zinc with Co(NOa)2
charcoal,
and
troostite gives, in addition,
the reaction for manganese.

Willemite crystals
Syntkeses
made by
the
action of
FIG 164
have been'
gaseous hydrofluo-
Willemite Ciys-
td with -Pa, XMO
and
(c),
upon zinc, and by the action of

silicon fluoride on zmc oxide at cherry-red temperature
Willemite occurs in comparatively small quansilicic
tity
acid
at only a few places, associated with other zinc minerals. In

it is found in colorless and black crystals at the Merritt
America
Mine near
Socorro,
New
Mexico, associated with mimetite, wulfenite,
bante and quartz
cerussite,
Troostite occurs only at Sterling Hill and Franklin Furnace,

J,
but in such large quantity that it constitutes an important proportion
It is associated with
of the zmc ore for which these localities are noted
franklmite and zincite.
magmatic
Both
willemite
and
troostite are results of
processes.
Phenacite (Be2 Si(>4)
The
theoretical composition of the compound B^SiO* is SiO4= 54 47,

BeO=45 S3 Many of the analyses of phenacite show that it ap-
proaches very closely to

example,
this.
specimen from Durango, Mexico, for
is:
SiO= 54
71,
BeO=45 32, MgO+CaO=
14-
Total- 100
17.
308
Phenacite crystallizes in the rhombohedral tetartohedral division of

It occuis
: c= i
i 0661
crystals pos-
the hexagonal system with a

sessing
many
different types of habit
tions of forms
and
and with many

combinaoop 2 (ii2o), ooP(ioTo), R(ioTi), R3 (2i3i)
the most common (Fig 165)
Interpenetration
twins are common at some localities
The
different
Perhaps
|R(oil2) are
cleavage
The
is
indistinct parallel to oo
angle loTi
Phenacite
AÎOI = 63
colorless or
is
P(ioTo)
24'
white or some
light shade of yellow or pink.
It is trans-
and has a glassy luster

and density about 3 and
parent or translucent
Its hardness
is
5,
the refractive indices for yellow light are
It'a infusible and

-' 54*, -i 6700
^-Phenacnte Crystal
acids
in
When
heated with a
insoluble
with oo p 2 1 1 20 (a), OOP,
the
before
soda
little
blowpipe it affords a
-IPs - ioTo (m) and
-j-r, 1322
^ phosphores_
cent and pyroelectric
Colorless phenacite resembles quartz and Jerdente, and the yellow
It is best distinguished from them by its crystallizavanety topaz
FIG
^ ^^j
^^ ^^^
tion
Small crystals have been made by the fusion of a mixand beryllium oxide and borax, and by melting together
beryllium nitrate, silica and ammonium nitrate
Phenacite occurs at the Emerald Mines near EkaterinLocalities.
Syntheses
ture of Si02
burg in the Urals, near Fremont, in the Vogesen,
at
Reckmgen,
in
Switzerland,
Durango, Mexico, near Pike's Peak, at Topaz Butte,
and at Mount Aratero, in Colorado, and at Greenwood,
Maine. In
in
all
probably a result of pneumatolysis

The colorless phenacite is used to a slight extent as a
cases the mineral

Uses.
is
gem
GARNET GROUP
(R"3R"'2 (Si04) 8)
R"=Ca, Mg,
Fe,
Mn
R'"=Al, Fe, Cr
The garnet group comprises a large number of isomorphous comThe members nearly all
pounds, some of which are very common
occur in distinct crystals that are combinations of isometric holohedrons
(hexoctahedral class)
Many
different
names have been given to the
garnets and analyses show that they possess very different compositions
With the exception of a few rare varieties, they can all, however, be
explained as consisting of one of the six molecules indicated below, or of
mixtures of them
The
and the names
six molecules
309
of the garnets
corresponding to them, together with their densities, are.
Caa Ala (8104)3
Grossulante or Hessomte
Mg3 Al2 (Si04)3
Pyrope
MnaAk (8104)3
4)3
3
Sp gr
=3 4-3 6
=37-38
Spessattite
==41-43
Almandite
=4
1-4.3
Andradite or Melamte
=3
8-4 i
Uvarovite
=34
The following table contains the calculated percentage composition

of the several pure garnet molecules and the records of analyses of some
typical varieties of the mineral
Ia
SiOs
A12O3
40 01
22 69
Ib
42 01
17 76
IIa
44 78
25
FcfcOs
40 92
22 45
20 75
Illb
36 34
IVa
12 63
20 51
43 34
IVb
36 15
37 61
22 70
33 83
Va
35 45
Via
VIb
8 ii
5 46
13
MnO
TiCfe
4 57
20
04
46
49
42 95
44 20
44
47
3 61
29 15
100 17
96
21 84
99 70
100 oo
12
100 31
100 oo
24
i
25
30 72
29 27
100 oo
54
31 63
99 58
29 27
5 68
100 39
100 oo
33 06
32 80
49
22 oo
Total
100 oo
100 oo
17 85
3i 49
tr
CaO
37 30
35 01
38 23
36 93
MgO
29 82
36 30
35 09
26 36
FeO
5 06
lib
Vc
40
Ilia
Vb
Cr2
100 48
36
tr,
21 56
101 89
Theoretical composition of the grossulante molecule

Green and red grossulante from the limestone at Santa Clara, Cal.
IIa Theoretical composition of the pure pyrope molecule
10.
Also, HzO
lib Pyrope from a pendotite in Elliot Co , Ky
Ia
Ib
Ilia
Theoretical composition of spessartite
Illb
Spessartite from Amelia Court House,

Theoretical composition of almandite
IVa
Va
IVb Almandite from Sahda, Colo
Va
Theoretical composition of andradite
Vb Andradite from East Rock, New Haven, Conn

Vc Schorlomite from Magnet Cove, Ark
VI Theoretical composition of uvarovite
Also,
HaO.35.
ft
VIb Uvarovite from
The
Bissersk, Urals
oo
crystals of garnet are usually simple combinations of
all
0(no)
202(211) and often 301(321) (Figs 167 and 168), although

the other holohedrons are also occasionally met with. Their cleavage
(Fig. 166);
which
is
indistinct
is
parallel to oo
0(no).
310
many garnets, especially those

are
doubly
refracting and, therefore,
rocks,
occurring in metamorphic
to isometric
belonging
crystals
This
have not the molecular structure
When examined
FIG 166
in polarized light
(Natural
Garnet Crystal.
size
Form
FIG 168.
FIG 167
FIG 167
FIG 168
Garnet Crystals with coO,
Garnet Crystal with d and n
as in Fig
231
phenomenon has been
explained
sonable explanation ascribing

cooling
ooQ (no)
it
no
167
(d)
and 202, 211

(),
Also
oo
02, 210
(<?)
and 308
due to several causes, the most reastrains produced in the

crystals
as
to
'
(s)
upon
The
monest
311
garnets vary in color according to their composition, the comcolor being reddish brovin
Their luster is Mtreous, their
streak white, hardness 6-7 5, and density 3 4-4 3

They are transparent
or translucent
Most varieties are easily fusible to a light brown or
black glass, -which in the case of the varieties rich in iron is magnetic
U\ arovite, however, is almost infusible Some garnets are unattacked
by
acids, others are partially
Garnets,
when
decomposed
in crystals, are easily distinguished
from other sim-
Massive
ilarly crystallizing substances by their color and hardness
It is
garnet may resemble tcsuuant'e, spkene, zircon or tzunnaine
distinguished from zircon
by its easier fusibility and from vesuviarnte

more
difficult
by
fusibility, from tourmaline by its higher specific
and
from
gravity,
sphene by the reaction from titanium
Under the influence of the air and moisture garnets may be partially
its
or entirely changed to epidote, muscovite, chlorite, serpentine, and occasionally to other substances
Grossularite, Essomte, Hessonite, or
Cinnamon Garnet
occurs
principally in crystalline schists and in metamorphosed limestones,

where it is associated with other calcium silicates It is found also
in quartz ve;ns
The
mineral
is
white, bnght yellow,
cinnamon-brown
or some pale shade of green or red. The lighter-colored varieties are

Those that are colored are used as gems
transparent or nearly so
Much
of the hyacvnfi of the jewelers
Its hardness
is
about 7 and
The
fusible before the blowpipe.

eties for yellow light
is,
n= i
its
is
a red grossulante (seep 317)
density 3 4-3 6
It is fairly easily
refractive index of colorless vari-
7438
crystals of grossulante occur at Phippsburg, Raymond and

Rumford, in Maine, and at many other places both in this country and
abroad
Bright yellow varieties are reported from Canyon City, Colo
Good
Pyrope
is
deep red, sometimes nearly black.
greater than 7
and
its
density 3 7
Its hardness
is
little
Its refractive index for yellow light
The pure magnesium garnet is unknown

7412 and i 7504
of iron and calcium molecules
admixtures
All pyropes contain
Many
Those
with a dark red color are used as gems
are
transparent
pyropes
is
between
They occur principally in basic igneous rocks

The principal occurrence of the gem variety
in this country is in
of Ganado, Ariz
100
miles
west
about
line,
wind-blown sand
where it is found lying loose
C
Rhodolite is a pale rose-red or purple variety from Macon Co.,
Utah, near the Arizona
It consists of
two parts pyrope and one
of almandite.
312
hyacinth or brownish red, with occasionally a tinge

purest varieties are yellow, but since there is nearly
always an admixture of one of the iron molecules, the more usual color
The mineral is usually transparent Its hardness is
is reddish brown
Spessartite
of violet
is
The
7 or a little greater,
is i
yellow light
and
density 3 77-4 27
In the blowpipe flame
8105
Its refractive index for
its
fuses fairly easily to a
it
black, nonmagnetic mass, and with borax gives an amethyst bead

is found in acid igneous rocks and in various schists
It
known occurrences in the United States are IP granite,

Haddam, Conn in pegmatite, at Amelia Court House, Va and
at
Its best
in
the lithophyse of rhyohtes, near Nathrop, in Colorado
Almandite is deep
monest of all garnets
red,
brownish red or black
It
is
one of the com-
It furnishes nearly all the material
manufactured
Transparent vaneties are also used as gems

Its density is 4 1-4 3, and
eral has a hardness of 7 and over
The min-
into abrasives
tive index, n, for yellow light, is
about
posed by HC1
Before the blowpipe
it
magnetic mass
It is found in granites
and
gneisses and
Its best
schists
known
and
8100
its refrac-
It is slightly
decom-
fuses to a dark gray or black

andesites,
and
also in various
in ore veins
occurrences in North America are at Yonkers and
at various points in the Adirondacks,

Stickeen River, in Alaska
Andradite, or meknite,
is
NY
at Avondale,
Pa and on the
,
black, brown, brownish red, green,
brown-
The purest varieties are topaz-yellow or

The former constitute the gem topawhte
light green and transparent
and the latter, demantwd The black variety, melamte, nearly always
ish yellow or topaz-yellow.
contains titanium
It occurs
alkaline igneous rocks, in serpentine,
in crystalline schists and in iron ores
The most titamferous varieties
are known as schorlomtte
The hardness of andradite is about 7 and its
n for yellow light i 8566 It is fusible

density between 3 3 and 41
before the blowpipe to a black magnetic mass
The mineral is very widely spread It occurs at Franklin,
J,
in quartz veins, and
metamorphosed limestone, near Francoma,
,
N H
at many other places

A black titamferous vanety occurs in a metamorphosed limestone in southwestern California and near Magnet Cove,
Arkansas
The vanety found at Magnet Cove is schorlormte It is a
black glassy mineral associated with brookite
and thomsomte
Common
(TiCfe),
nephdme
(p 314),
(p 455)
garnet
is
a mixture of the grossularite, almandite and
andradite molecules
and
in
some
It occurs in
313
many metamorphosed
igneous rocks
slates
Uvarovite is emerald-green
It is rare, occurring
only with chromite
in serpentine at Bissersk and Kyschtim in the Urals and in the chromite
mines at Texas, Penn , and New Idria, Cal
Its hardness is about 7
and density
3 42
Its refractive index for yellow light
is i
It is
8384
infusible before the blowpipe but dissolves in borax, producing a green
bead
Garnet crystals have been produced by fusing 9 parts of
and
i part of augite (p
The fusion results in a
374)
nephelme
in
of
mass
which
and
melamte crystals are
nephelme,
spinel
crystalline
embedded
The members of the garnet group are widely spread in
Occurrence
nature
They occur in schists, slates and other regionally metamorphosed rocks, in granite, rhyohte and other igneous rocks, and as conSyntheses
tact products in limestones

They are found also in quartz veins, in
pegmatite, and associated with other silicates in ore veins. In some
instances they separated from a cooling magma, in others they are the
products of pneumatohtic process, and in others they are the results of

contact and dynamic metamorphism
Uses and Production
The
varieties that are transparent are used
Other varieties are crushed and employed as abrasives

The
value of the gem material produced in the United States in 1912 was
as
gems
The production for abrasive purposes was 4,182 short tons, val$860
ued at $137,800 All of this was produced in the mountain regions of
New York, New Hampshire and North Carolina The rock is crushed
and the garnet separated by hand
The
crushed material
is
picking, screening, or
by
jigging
used largely in the manufacture of garnet paper
NEPHELINE GROUP
The nephelme group
of minerals includes three closely related
com-
They are all aluminopounds, of which nepheline is the most common

silicates of the alkalies
Nephelme appears to be a solution of Si02,
or of albite, in isomorphous mixtures of the orthosilicates, NaAlSiO
and KAlSiO*
in the proportion of 8 molecules of the silicates to
one of
Si02, thus
8(Na K)AlSi04+Si02 =(Na K) ((Na- K) AlSi03)2Al 6 (Si04) 7
The
other two
members
kdhopkOOe (KAlSiQ*).
of the group are eucryptite (LiAlSKX)
and
314
The members
of the
hexagonal system and

hemihedral and hemi-
crystallize in the
group
are apparently holohedral, but
nephelme
is
At temperatures above 1,248

(hexagonal pyramidal class)
the nephelme molecule crystallizes also in the trichmc system as car-
morpmc
negieite (see p. 418),
Nephelme
Although approximately a potash-soda silicate, nearly all specimens
of nephelme contain more or less CaO and nearly all contain small
To avoid the
All contain an excess of SiCte
quantities of water
solution with
necessity of assuming the existence of this SiCb
the
variable
that
been
it
has
composition of
(Na K)AlSi04,
suggested
the mineral may be explained by regarding it as a solid solution of
NaAlSisOg and CaAkSÔs (best known in their trichmc forms as

and anorthtte) in an isomorphous mixture of the two molecules,
NaAlSi04 and KAlSiO* The average of five analyses of crystals from
Monte Somma, Italy, is shown in I, and the composition of a mass of
albite
the mineral from Litchfield, Maine, in II
Si02
A12 03
CaO
33 28
I 44 08
II 43 74
34 48
When
found in
tr
19
16 oo
tr
16 62
crystals, the
with an axial ratio
KaO
H2
4 76
4 55
15
MgO Na2
57
8389
mineral
The
is
86
Total
100 03
100 25
apparently holohedral in form

always short
crystals are nearly
columnar in habit and usually consist of very

The most prominent
simple combinations
forms are ooP(ioTo),
oop2(ii2o), oP(oooi),
2P(202l), P(lo7l), |P(loT2) and
Their cleavage
toooP(ioIo) and oP(oooi)
(Fig 169)
Nephelme
FIG i6 9 --NepheUneCrys-
is glassy,
is
2P2(lI2l)
imperfect parallel
white or gray and trans-
parent, when occurnng as implanted crystals

The translucent va *y with a glassy luster
This
with oP, oooi (c), *^ a* occurs ln rocks is known as eleohte
p, iolo (), P, loir variety may be gray, pink, brown, yellowish or
(p) andoop 2 1120 (a)
The streak is
The
white
greenish
tal
oo
always
fracture of both forms
hardness, 5-6 and density, 2 6
conchoidal or uneven;
For yellow light, co= 1.5424, = i 5375.
is
315
Before the blowpipe nephelme melts to a \\hite or colorless blebby
At 1,248 it passes over into carnegieite \\hich melts at 1,526

glass
It dissolves in hydrochloric acid with the production of gelatinous
Its powder before and after roasting reacts alkaline
silica
The mineral
is
distinguished from other silicates
tion, gelatinization
with acids, and hardness
by its crystallizaThe massive varieties
are often distinguishable by their greasy luster

Nephelme alters to various hydrated compounds, especially to the
zeolites (p. 445), and to gibbsite, muscovite, cancnmte and sodahte
Nephelme has been prepared by
Syntheses
SiO2 and
Na2 C03, and by
hydroxide.
Occurrence
fusing together AfeOa,

the treatment of muscovite by potassium
The mineral
occurs principally as an original constitmany igneous rocks, both plutomc and volcanic, and also as
on
walls of cavities in them
crystals
Locates Crystals occur near Eberbach, in Baden, in the inclu-
uent of
Lake Laach, in Rhenish Prussia, in the

Monte Somma, Naples, Italy, at Capo de Bove, near
sions within volcanic rocks at
older lavas of
Rome,
in southern
Norway, and
Massive forms are found
Europe
field, Maine, Red Hill, N H
Mont and at other places
at various other points in southern
coarse-brained rocks near Litch-
Magnet Cove, Ark.,
m the Crazy Mts
Cancrinite
Cancnmte is extremely complex in composition It is nearly allied

It corresponds
to nephelme but contains a notable quantity of C0 2
Na2 COs and 3NaAlSi04,

which some of the Na is replaced by K and Ca
Specimens from
Barkevik (I) in Norway, and from Litchfield (II), in Maine, yield the
approximately to an hydrated admixture of

in
following analyses:
Si0 2
I 37 01
II.
36 29
AkOs Fe2
26 42
30 12
Cancrinite
is
CaO Na2
19
18 36
.4 27
19 56
7
tr.
K2O C02
18
7 27
6 96
EfeO
Total
3 12
99 37
100 36
98
hexagonal (dihexagonal bipyramidal class).

and those that do exist are very simple, prismatic
Crystals are rare,
forms bounded by
ooP(ioTo),
Their axial ratio
is i
4410
ooF2(ii2o), oP(oooi) and P(ioTi)
316
The mineral
white or some
It is colorless,
usually found without crystal planes
or
bluish
as
Its
such
yellow
rose,
gray
light shade,
streak is \vmte,
its luster glassy,
Its cleavage
to oo
P2
For red
is
1 1 20)
light*
is
greasy or pearly and
perfect parallel to ooP(ioTo)

Its break is uneven,
u>=i 5244? *=i 49S5
and
it is
translucent
less perfect parallel
hardness 5 and density 245
Before the blowpipe the mineral loses its color, swells and fuses to a
In the closed glass tube it loses CCb and water,
colorless blebby glass
and becomes opaque

acids with effervescence
boiled with water
After roasting it is easily attacked by

and the production of gelatinous silica
Na2COs
is
weak
When
extracted in sufficient quantity to give an
alkaline reaction
Cancrimte
is easily
distinguished
by
its
effervescence with acids
and
the production of gelatinous silica

Small colorless, hexagonal crystals with a composition
Synthesis
to
that of cancnmte, have been made by treating muscorresponding
covite with a solution of
NaOH
and NasCOs at 500

principally as an associate
The mineral occurs
of nephIn some cases it appears

elme in certain coarse-grained igneous rocks
to be an original rock constituent and in others an alteration product of
It sometimes alters to natrohte (see p 454), foiming pseunephelme
Occurrence
domorphs
Localities
Cancrimte
Barkevik and other

pegmatite dikes,
is
found in rocks at Ditro, Hungary, at

southern Norway, where it occurs
localities in
m the parish of Kuolajarvi, in Finland, and in nephelme
syenite at Litchfield
m Maine,
ZIRCON GROUP
The
orthosihcates of zirconium, zircon, and of thorium, thorite, cona group, the members of which possess forms that are almost
identical with those of rutile, cassitente and xenotime
Indeed, parallel
stitute
growths of zircon and xenotime are not uncommon.

was grouped with the two oxides.
Formerly zircon
Zircon and thorite are tetragonal (ditetragonal bipyramidal class),

with approximately the same axial ratios and the same pyramidal
angles.
The two minerals
are completely isomorphous
Zircon
ZrSiO*
Thorite
ThSi04
Zircon
is fairly
common
'
6391
in A ill = 56
37',
=6402
=56
40'.
c=
Thorite
is rare.
317
Zircon (ZrSiO 4)
Zircon, like rutile,
rare metal
a fairly
is
It is practically the
common compound
of
a comparatively
only ore of the metal zirconium.
It
is
found mainly in crystals and as gravel
Although some specimens
of zircon contain a large
number
of ele-
ments, others consist only of zirconium, silicon and oxygen in proportions that correspond to the formula ZrSiO*, which demands 67 2
per
cent ZrO and 32 8 per cent SiOg
Its axial ratio
combinations of
is
r=i
'
6301
P(uo) and
P(m),
Its crystals are usually simple

with the addition of oo P oo (100)
FIG 170
FIG.
170
Zircon Crystals with
FIG 171
P,
Zircon
and often 3P3(3ii) (Fig

cassitente, are
The
PIG 171
in
P,
no
(w),
ooPoo, 100
andsPs, 311 (x)

Twinned about P
(101)
(a),
3?, 331
(},
(p)
<
170)
Elbow
=2P
(221)
twins, like those of rutile
and
known
(Fig 171)
cleavage of zircon is very indistinct.
Its fracture is conchoidal.
and density about 4 7 The mineral varies in tint

from colorless, through yellowish brown to reddish brown Its streak
is uncolored and luster adamantine
Most varieties are opaque, but
are
varieties
The orange, brown and rednot
uncommon
transparent
dish transparent kinds constitute the gem known as hyacinth
The
Its hardness
is 7.5
refractive indices for yellow light are* o>=i 9302, 6=1,9832.

Zircon is infusible, though colored varieties often lose their color
when
strongly heated
no preceptible
In the borax and other beads the mineral gives

In fine powder it is decomposed by concen-
reactions.
trated sulphuric acid. When fused with sodium carbonate on platinum

it is likewise decomposed, and the solution formed by dissolving the
fused mixture in dilute hydrochloric acid turns turmeric paper orange.

This is a characteristic test for the zirconium salts.
318
The
mineral
reagents and
is easily
by
recognized
its
hardness,
its
resistance
toward
its crystallization
Small crystals of zircon are obtained by heating for sevhours in a steam-tight platinum crucible a mixture of gelatinous
silica and gelatinous zirconium hydroxide
Crystals have also been,
Syntheses
eral
made by
month
heating for a
their weight of lithium
a mixture of
ZnCb and SiOa with 6 times
bimolybdate
widely spread in tiny crystals as a

primary constituent in many rocks, and in large crystals in a few, notably
in limestone and a granite-like rock known as nephelme syenite
In
limestone
more
Zircon
is
a product of contact action.
it is
particularly in those of gold regions,
The
home
of the
gem
occurs also in sands,
and abundantly in a sand-
Va
stone near Ashland,

Localities
It
principal occurrences of the mineral are Ceylon, the
hyacinth,
the gold sands of Australia,
Arendal,
Hakedal and other places in Norway; Litchfield and other points in

Lewis Co and a large number of other places in New
Maine, Diana,
Penn
at Reading,
York,
Henderson and other Counties,
Carolina and Templeton, Ottawa Co

Uses.
Zircon
is
North
Quebec
the principal source of the zirconium oxide emplo)'ed
in the manufacture of gauze used in incandescent gas lights and in the

manufacture of cylinders for use in procuring a light from the oxyhydrogen jet. The mineral has been mined for these purposes in Henderson
Co
North Carolina
Transparent orange-colored zircons
are
sometimes used as gems
since they possess a high index of refraction
a great deal of "

often called
by
fire
this
"
and consequently have
These are the true hyacinth
name among the
jewelers
is
The mineral
brown
a yellowish
garnet
Production
Henderson Co.,
small quantity of zircon
but
is
usually obtained from
it
It is obtained by crushing
outcrop.
is
rarely amounts to more than a few hundred

The mineral occurs in a pegmatite and the soil overlying its
pounds.
there
little also separated
the rock and hand picking
from the sands
is
also
bemg
Usually
North Carolina and
A pegmatite dike, rich

in
the
Wichita
prospected
Mountains, Okla,, but
South Carolina that are washed for monazite.

in zircon,
in
no mining has yet been attempted.
319
Thorite (ThSiO 4)
Thorite occurs in simple crystals bounded by ooP(no) and

P(in)
The mineral is always
172), and in masses
more or less hydrated, but this is believed to be
(Fig
due to partial weathering
It is black or
orangeyellow (prangeite), has a hardness of 5 and a specific
gravity of 4 5-5 for black vaneties and 5 2-5 4 for
orange varieties
Its streak is
Hydrated specimens are
brown
or light orange
soluble in hydro chloric acid
with the production of gelatinous silica

The mineral occurs as a constituent of the igneous rock,
augite-syemte, at several points
of the Langesundfjord, Norway,
m the
FIG
Thonte
172
Crystal with oc P,
no
neighborhood
(m)
and P
BASIC ORTHOSILICATES
ANDALUSITE GROUP
Three compounds with the empirical formula AkSiOs exist as minkyamte, or disthene, andalusite and silhmanite. The first named is
erals,
with reference to chemical agents than the other two, but at

high temperatures both kyamte and andalusite are transformed into
silhmanite
Kyamte is regarded as a metasihcate (AlO^SiOa. The
other two are thought to be orthosilicates (Al(A10)SiC>4)
The latter
less stable
are orthorhombic and both possess nearly equal
prismatic
angles
markedly, however, in their optical and other physical

Kyamte is tnchnic
properties and, therefore, are different substances
For this reason and because of its different composition it is not re-
They
differ
garded as a member of the andalusite group

differs from andalusite in containing fluorine.
A fourth
mineral, topaz,
Often this element
is
present in sufficient quantity to replace all of the oxygen in the radical

In other specimens the place of some of the fluorine is taken
(A1O)
by hydroxyl (OH). The general formula that represents these variations
is
A1(A1(F OH)2)Si04
very like those of andalusite,
The
and
mineral crystallizes in forms that are

corresponding pyramids are selected
if
as groundforms their axial ratios are nearly alike.

Unfortunately,
however, different pyramids have been accepted as groundforms, and
therefore the similarity of the crystallization of the
two minerals has
Daribunte, another mineral that crystallizes

the orthorhombic system with a habit like that of topaz is often also
placed in this group, although it is a borosilicate, thus CaB2 (8104)2-
been somewhat obscured
320
4P2(24i) be taken as the groundform of andalusite, 3^(331) as

3? (331) as that of danbunte, the corresponding axial
If
that of topaz and

ratios
would be
Andalusite
c=
=
=
Topaz
Danbunte
5069
4246
5281
43*3
5445
44
These, however, are not the accepted ratios, since other and more prominent pyramids have been selected as the groundforms
Andalusite and Sillimanite (Al(AlO)SiO 4)

Andalusite and sillimamte have the same empirical chemical compoand crystallize with the same symmetry, which is orthorhombic
sition
holohedral (rhombic bipyramidal class), but they have different physical

properties and different crystal habits, and hence are regarded as dif-
The
ferent minerals
theoretical composition of
all
is
Total= 16000
8102=3702,
Nearly
both
when analyzed show the presence of small

and
Ca, but otherwise they correspond very closely
Mg,
specimens
quantities of Fe,
to the theoretical composition

Both minerals are characteristic
of metamorphosed rocks, but

andalusite occurs principally in those that have been metamorphosed by
contact with igneous mtru-
while
sives,
especially
Sillimanite
characteristic
is
of
crystalline schists and, in general,
were dy-
of rocks that
namically metamorphosed It
also occurs with ohvme as inclusions in basalt lavas
FIG 173
(m),
(6),
oP
OOP
Andalusite Crystals with oop, no

ooi (c), PS, oii
cops, TOO
(a),
00,^010
120 (), Poo, ioi
121 (*)
oo
(r),
Pa, 210
P,
in
(p)
(/),
f^
and
mamte
Silh-
more
stable at high
than andalusite
temperatures
*
is
When
found
nearer
contact rocks
the
it
is
intrusive
than andalusite
Andalusite
Its crystals are
Of 00
Poo
P 00
The accepted axial ratio of andalusite is
986*1
7024
columnar in habit and are usually simple combinations
(IOO), 00
P 00
(OIO), OP(OOI), 00 P(lio), 00 P2(2IO), 00 P2(l2o)
(ioi), Poo (on) with sometimes

The angle no A 110=89 12'
(in) and 2P2(i2i) (Fig 173).
The
mineral,
when
fresh, is greenish or reddish
321
and transparent
more
or less altered, and is

opaque, or, at most,
Its cleavage is good
translucent, and gray, pink or violet
parallel to
oo P(no) and its fracture uneven
Its hardness is 7 or a little less and
it is
Usually, however,
In some specimens pleochroism is marked, their

colors being olive-green for the ray vibrating parallel to a, oil-green for
that vibrating parallel to b and dark red for that vibrating parallel to c
its
density 3 1-3 2
For yellow
light
the indices of refraction are
01=16326, 1(3=16390,
6440
Before the blowpipe the mineral gradually changes to sillimamte and
When moistened with cobalt nitrate and roasted it becomes
infusible
7=1
is
It is insoluble in acids
blue
The mineral
is
by its nearly square cross-section, its

and
the
reaction for Al, and by its manner of
mfusibihty,
hardness,
occurrence in schists and metamorphosed slates
distinguished
its
Some specimens
contain as inclusions large quantities of a dark
gray or black material, which may be carbonaceous, arranged

such a way as to give a cross-like figure in cross-sections of crystals.
Because of the shape of the figure exhibited by these crystals, this

variety was early called chiastohte, and was valued as a sacred
charm.
Andalusite alters readily to kaolin (p 404), muscovite (p 355), and
It has not been produced artificially
sillimamte
Andalusite
Occurrence
is
in clay slates and schists

contact with igneous masses, and
found principally
that have been metamorphosed

to a less extent
gneisses
by
Its principal occurrences are in Andalusia, Spain,
Localities
Braunsdorf, Saxony,
Geraes, Brazil, and
Gefrees, in
and Litchfield, Conn

Sterling, Mass
Mass
at
the Fichtelgebirge, in Minas

the United States at Standish, Maine, Westford,
at
Chiastohte occurs at Lancaster and
Use The only use to which andalusite has been put is as a semiprecious stone, and for this purpose only the chiastolite variety is of any
value
acicular or fibrous
SiUimanite, or fibrokte, occurs principally
aggregates, on the individuals of which only the prismatic forms
ooP(no) and oP|(23o) and the macropmacoid ooPw(ioo) can be
detected
End faces are not sufficiently developed to warrant the
The relative
iioAiio*8
determination of an axial ratio

axes are 687
While most
i.
The
angle
of the fibers correspond
values of the a
and
m composition very closely to the
322
theoretical value
demanded by the formula Al(A10)Si04, many contain
small quantities of Fe20a, MgO and HkO

The mineral is yellowish gray, greenish gray, olive-green or brownish
and when pure is transparent

Most
specimens, however, are translucent, and many of the colored varieties
show a pleochroism in brown or reddish tints Its cleavage is perfect
Its needles have an uneven fracture transparallel to oo P 55 (100)
It has a glassy or greasy luster
Their streak
versely to their long directions
The
6-7 and density 3 24

varieties are
a=i
6603, j8=
is
colorless, hardness
mdices of refraction for the lighter colored

i
6612,
6818 for yellow light
toward reagents and before

the blowpipe
It is distinguished from other minerals by its habit and
manner of occurrence.
Sillimanite reacts similarly to andalusite
is,
it is
much more
resistant to weathering than is andalusite

altered to kaolin
On the other hand,
found
however, occasionally
This mineral
It
known
also in
Synthesis
rich in
is
pseudomorphs after corundum

been produced b> cooling fused
It has
silicate solutions
aluminium
Occurrence
Sillimanite is very widely spread in schistose rocks,

have been formed from sediments
those
that
It is essentially
especially
a product of dynamic metamorphism, but is formed also bv contact
metamorphism, m which case

temperature was high
Localities
it is
found near the intrusive, where the
Its principal occurrences in
North America are
in quartz
veins cutting gneisses at Chester, Conn at many points in Delaware

Co , Penn and at the Culsagee Mine, Macon Co
C At the latter
,
place
and at Media
in
Penn
masses as to constitute a schist
a fibrous variety occurs
known
such large
as fibrohte schist.
Topaz (Al(Al(F-OH) 2)Si0 4 )
Topaz is a common constituent of many ore veins and is often present

on the walls of cracks and cavities in volcanic rocks
It occurs massive
and also in distinct and handsome crystals
The
by
mineral has a varying composition, which is explained in

part
it is a mixture of the two molecules
Al(AlF2)SiO4 and
the fact that
Al(Al(OH)2)SiOi
is
8102=32
6,
The
theoretical composition of the fluorine molecule
A12 03=SS 4,
F=2o 7=108
= loo.oo. A specimen from Florissant, Colo
7,
deduct
(0 = 2F)8 7
gave.
F=i6 04=106 20-6 7s(0=F) = 99 45.
323
Crystals of topaz appear to be orthorhombic (rhombic bipyramidal

class), but the fact that they are pyroelectnc and that they frequently
phenomena that are not in accord with the symmetry of

holohedrons
orthorhombic
suggests that they may possess a lower grade
the
On
of symmetry
assumption that the mineral crystallizes with the
exhibit optical
symmetry
ties is
of orthorhombic holohedrons the axial ratio of fluorine varie-
5281
4771
the relative length of
noAiTo=55
The
oo
With the
increasing presence of
a increases and that of
43'-
crystals are usually prismatic in habit with
They
P?(i2o) predominating
are notable for the
ooP(no) and
number of forms
FIG 175.
FIG 174
FIG 174
Topaz
Crystals with oo P,
no (m),
4? oo 041 00 and
,
FIG 175
OH, however,
The angle
c diminishes
oo
oo
pT, 120
P oo oio
,
(Z),
P,
I, n and y as in Fig
174.
043 (*) and 2P 55 , 201 (d)
Topaz Crystal with m,
|P
oo
in
(u),
2P, 221 (o)
(6)
Also 2?
oo
021 (/),
that have been observed on them, especially in the prismatic zone and
the brachypyramids
The number of the latter that have
among
already been identified
is
about 45
common are shown in

and
Their
most
176
prominent forms are ooP(no),
Figs 174, 175
Poo
(on), P(ni), |P(223), 4? ^(041), oo PJ (130) and
ooP2(i2o),
Often
oP(ooi).
planes are absent from one end of the vertical axis,
but since the etch figures on the prismatic planes do not indicate hemimorphism, the absence of the lacking planes is explained as being due to
The
three types of crystals that are most
unequal growth
The
bluish.
mineral
When
The planes
is colorless,
of the prismatic zone are usually striated

honey yellow, yellowish red, rose and rarely
exposed to the sunlight the colored varieties fade, and
The more commonly accepted
axial ratio is
p(22i) 'being taken as the groundfonn*
c-
5285
.9539, the form
324
when
some honey-yellow crystals turn rose-red Its

06 (on)
perfect parallel to oP(ooi) and imperfect parallel to P
8
its
and
oo (101)
The hardness of the mineral is
density 3 5-3 6
intensely heated
cleavage
and P
is
for a variety containing
very
little
a= i
=i
6072,
6104,
OH, and 05=16294,

for
hydroxyl
The
a variety rich
indices of refraction
when
being high, the mineral
much
6176
=16308,
7=16375
exhibits
7= i
cut
a feature
brilliancy
which, together with its hardness,

gives it much of its value as a
gem.
Topaz
FIG 176
fj
d,
Also
4P 55
is
infusible
before the
blowpipe and is insoluble in acids

At a high temperature it loses its
fluorine as silicon and aluminium
Topaz Crystal with m, I, y,

and tt as m Figs 174 and 175
P, 223 (z), oP, ooi (c) and fluorides
401
(p)
The mineral
also
ex-
hibits pyroelectncal properties,
but
without regularity
different
of
fluids
inclusions
contain
containing bubbles,
Many crystals
crystals
and sometimes of two immiscible fluids the nature of which has not yet
these
are
distributed
apparently
It has been thought that the principal fluid present

or some hydrocarbon
carbon-dioxide
liquid
The mineral is distinguished from yellow quartz by its crystallization, its greater hardness and its easy cleavage
been determined
is
Topaz is frequently found coated with a micaceous

which
may be steatite
Synthesis
acid (EfeSiFe)
alteration product
401), muscovite (p
(p
Crystals have been
upon a mixture
made by
of silica
355) or kaolin (p 404)

the action of hydrofluosihcic
and alumina
the presence of
water at a temperature of about 500.

Occurrence
The
mineral occurs principally in pegmatites, espeand in acid volcanic rocks
cially those containing cassitente, in gneisses,
In
all
cases
it is
probably the result of the escape of fluorine-bearing
gases from cooling igneous
magmas.
found in handsome crystals at Schneckenstem

in Saxony, in a breccia made up of fragments of a tourmalme-quartz
rock cemented by topaz. It occurs also in the pegmatites of the tin
mines
Ehrenfnedersdorf, Marienberg and other places in Saxony,
LocalMes
Topaz
is
on the walls of cavities in a coarse granite m

and
the
Jekatennburg
Hmengebirge, Russia, in veins of kaohn cutting
a talc schist in Mrnas Geraes in Brazil; and in the cassitente-bearmg
Bohemia, England, etc
325
sands at San Luis Potosi, Durango and other points in Mexico

In the
United States it occurs on the walls of cavities m acid volcanic rocks, at
Nathrop, Colo in the Thomas Range, Utah, and other places It occurs
,
also in veins Tilth muscovite, fluonte, diaspore and other minerals at
Stoneham, Maine, and Trumbull, Conn

Uses and Pi oduction Topaz is used as a gem
About 36 Ib valued
at $2,675, was produced in the United States in 1911. In the following
,
year the production was valued at only $375.

Danburite (CaB 2 (Si0 4 )2)
Danbunte, which is a comparatively rare mineral, is a calcium

borosilicate with the following theoretical composition
8102=4884,
B2Os 28 39 and CaO= 2277 Usually, however, there are present in it
small quantities of AfeOs, Fe20s,

Russell, New York, contain
SiO2
B 2 O3
49 70
25 80
The
ramidal
Al2
3 ,etc
i
02
Thus, crystals from
H2
CaO
Total
20
23 26
99 98
mineral crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (rhombic bipyIts crystals are

4801
class), with an axial ratio 5445 : i
usually prismatic in habit
which
MnaOs and EfeO
oo
P &>
(100), oo
They
P 06
number of forms, of
P4(i4o), and oo P(iio)
contain a great
(oio), co P2(i2o),
oo
the prisms, 2P4(i42), 2P?(i2i) among

the pyramids and oP(ooi) are the most promThe angle iioAiib=
inent (Fig. 177).
among
57
8'.
When fresh and
pure the mineral is transparent, colorless or light yellow, but when

more or less impure is pink, honey-yellow or
dark brown
vitreous
6317,
white,
and
is
about 7 and density
95-3 02
indices for vellow light are
0=1
6337,
7=1
luster
fracture uneven or conchoidal
its
refractive
a=l
is
Its cleavage is imperfect parallel to
oP(ooi) and
Its hardness
Its
Its streak
JTIG
tal
Danbunte Cr>sI77
with oop, no (m),
p 2, 120 (Z), PSo , 101
<,**,*
<r)"d4P-,
041 (w)
6383
Before the blowpipe the mineral fuses to a colorless glass and colors
It is only slightly attacked by hydrochloric acid, but
the flame green
is
after roasting
decomposed with the formation of gelatinous silica.
It phosphoresces
Origin
on
heating, glowing with a red light.
Danburite
is
probably always a product of pneumatolytic
326
it is found
quartz and pegmatite veins in the vicinity of
igneous rocks and on the walls of hollows within them
Locahtm Its principal occurrences in this country are at Danbury,
on the walls of
Conn , where it is in a pegmatite, and at Russell,
action, as
N Y
rocks
and hollows
in
a granitic rock
Its principal foreign
occurrence
is
at Piz Valatscha, in Switzerland.
EPIDOTE GROUP
(CfcR'"i(OH)(Si(>4)i)
epidote group comprises six substances, of which two are diwith

the composition Ca 2 Al,3 (OH) (SiO^s = Ca2Al2(A10H) (SiO-Os
morphs
The
One
of these,
and the
known as ztnstie, crystallizes in the orthorhombic system,

known as dinozoivite, m the monochiuc system The
other,
These are hancockite,
other four are isomorphous with clmozoisite

epidote, piedmontite
and
allanite
The composition and comparative
axial ratios of the four commoner isomorphs are as follows (assuming

JP(Ti2) as the groundform of clmozoisite)
Clmozoisite
Ca2 Ala (OH) (8104)3
Ca*(Al Fe) 8 (OH)(Si04)s

Epidote
Piedmontite Ca2 (Al Mn)s (OH) (8104)3
Allaxute
Ca2 (Al Ce
Clmozoisite
is
Fe)s (OH) (8104)3

its
though
rare,
8057
15807
8057,
=64
36'
6100
8326,
0= 64
39'
SS9
* 7 6 9*,
18=64
59'
iso-
4457
molecule occurs abundantly
morphous mixtures with the corresponding iron molecule
epidote
Zoisite (Ca 2Als(OH)(Si04)3)

Zoisite is a calcium,
aluminium
orthosilicate containing only
The
quantity of the corresponding iron molecule

tion of the pure Ca molecule is
810=3952, Al2 0s=339 2
>
Colored varieties contain a
from Ducktown, Tenn
CaO=24$9,
little
and red
a small
theoretical composi-
H20=i97
iron or manganese
Total=ioooo
Green crystals (I),

from Kleppan, m
crystals (thvtee) (II),
Norway, analyze as follows

Si02 A12
I
Fe2
39 61 32 89
II 42,81 31 14
class),
FeO
91
2
71
29
Zoisite crystallizes
pyramidal
CaO MgO Mn2

24 So
18 73
Na2
14
i
63
89
H2
Total
2 12
100 88
64
99 13
the orthorhombic system (orthorhombic bi-
with the axial ratio 6196
3429.
Its crystals are
327
usually simple and without end faces
The most frequent forms are

ooP(no), ooP4(i 4o), oo P 06(010) P(in),2Pco(o2i)and4Po6(o4i)
are the commonest terminations (Fig 178)
The crystals are all prismatic and are striated longitudinally Their
perfect parallel to
is
cleavage
The angle no A 110=63 34'.

The mineral is ash-gray,
oo
P 86
(oio)
yellowish gray,
greenish white, green or red in color and has a

white streak
The rose-red variety, containing manganese, is known as thuhte
Very
pure fresh zoisite is transparent, but the ordinary forms of the mineral are translucent
Its luster is glassy, except
on the cleavage
Its
surface, where it is sometimes pearly
Its hardness is 6 and
fracture is uneven
In specimens from Duckdensity about 33
town, Tenn
a=i
7002, /3=i 7025, 7=1 7058

notable fact in connection FIG
for yellow light
with this mineral
is
molecule
that with increase of the
Ca2 Fe3(OH)(Si04 )3
the plane of
its
from oP(oio) to
in the mixture
optical axes tends to change

oo
P 06
Zoisite
178
with*)?,
OIO 6)
sPoo, 021
.*
Crystal
no(), ooPx,
p 4'
(it)
^ in
>
and P,'
(ooi)
Zoisite fuses to a clear glass before the blowpipe
and gives
off water,
It is
which causes a bubbling on the edges of the heated fragments
only slightly affected by acids, but after heating it is decomposed by
hydrochloric acid with the production of gelatinous silica
Occurrence
The mineral
occurs as a constituent of crystalline

quartz veins traversing
schists, especially those rich in hornblende, or of
them
component of the alteration product known as

from the decomposition of the plagioclase
It is thus a
certain basic, augitic rocks known as gabbros
It is also a
saussitnte which results

(p.
418)
product of metamorphism
Good crystals of zoisite are found near Pregratten in

Localities
Tyrol, at Kleppan (thuhte), Parish Souland, Norway, and in the ore
veins at the copper mines of Ducktown, Tenn , where it is associated with
chalcopyrite,
pynte and quartz.

Epidote (Ca2 (Al-Fe) 3 (OH)(Si0 4)3)
Epidote, or pistazite, differs from the monochnic dimorph of zoisite

(dmozoisite) in containing an admixture of the corresponding iron sflicate which
is
unknown as an independent
mineral.
328
Since
consists of a mixture of
it
an aluminium and an iron compound

The four lines of figures below give
composition necessarily vanes

the calculated composition of mixtures containing 15 per cent, 21 per
iron molecule
cent, 30 per cent and 40 per cent of the
its
Per cent
21
30
40
Most specimens
Epidote
is
contain small quantities of
Mg,
Fe,
Mn, Na
or
isomorphous with chnozoisite, crystallizing in the mono-
\
Epidote Crystals with o P 55 , 100 (a), oP, 001(0),
102 (), PI nI () and P ob on (0)
FIG 179
Pw
10!
(r),
|P
55
,
*FiG
180
Epidote Crystals with
iio(w), 2PS6, 2oT(0, -P 55
a, c, r,
,
ioi
*,
wand
W, -3?!,
as
m
(/O
Fig 179
Also oop,
and JP5, 423
(/)
clime system (monochmc prismatic class), with the axial ratio i 5787 i
:
18036. #=64 36'. The mineral is remarkable for its handsome
crystals,
many
of which are extremely rich in forms
The
crystals are
usually columnar in consequence of their elongation parallel to the b

axis
The most prominent forms are oo P 56 (100), oP(ooi), ^P 56 (20!)
P (jol), P(nl), oo P(no) and P 5b (on) (Fig, 179 and 180) In addi-
have been identified

Twinning
common, with oop^(ioo) the twinning plane The angle no A
tion to these, over 300 other forms

is
ilo= 109
Epidote
rarely, red
56'.
is
yellowish green, pistachio green, dark green,
It is transparent or translucent
brown
or,
and strongly
pleochroic.
In green varieties the ray vibrating parallel to the b axis is brown, that
vibrating nearly parallel to
c,
yellow,
and that vibrating perpendicular to
the plane of these two
Its cleavage is
is
green
Its luster is glassy
very perfect parallel to oP(ooi)
density 3 3 to 3 5
Zillerthal are
from
The
Its
and
329
its
refractive indices for yellow light
05=17238, /5=i 7291,
7=1
streak gray
is 6 5 and
hardness
7343
They
a crystal
increase
with the proportion of the iron molecule present, being i 7336, i 7593
and i 7710 :n a specimen containing 27 per cent of the iron epidote
The varieties that have been given distinct names are.

BucUwidite, a greenish black variety in crystals that are not elongated,
Wtthanwte, a bright red variety containing a little MnO.

Fragments of the mineral when heated before the blowpipe yield
water and fuse to a dark brown or black mass that is often magnetic
With
more easy. Before fusion epidote

in
insoluble
After
acid.
practically
heating HC1 decomposes it with
the separation of gelatinous silica
increase in iron fusion becomes
is
The
ordinary forms of the mineral are characterized by their yellow-
ish green color, ready fusibility

talline schists
and
crystallization
Epidote occurs in massive veins cutting crys-
and igneous
rocks, as isolated crystals
and druses on the
walls of fissures through almost any rock and in any cavities that may
be in them, and as the pnncipal constituent of the rock known as epi-
dosite
It
is
common
alteration product of the feldspars (p. 408),
pyroxenes (p 364), garnet, and other calcium and iron-bearing minerals
Pseudomorphs of epidote
mineral
is
known. The
more commonly a product of
after these minerals are well
a weathering product, but
is
contact and regional metamorphism.

It has not been produced artificially
Localities
Epidote crystals are so widely spread that only a few of
the important localities in which they have been found can be mentioned
the Sulzbachtibal, Salzburg,
here. Particularly fine crystals occur
Austria, in the Zillerthal, in Tyrol, near Zermatt, in Switzerland, in

the Alathal, Traversella, Italy, at Arendal, Norway, in Japan, at
Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, and at many other points in North
America
Piedmontite (Ca2(Al-Mn) 3 (OH)(SiO 4) 3)
Piedmontite
the manganese epidote, differing from the ordinary
is
Usually, however,
epidote in possessing manganese in place of iron
the iron and the manganese molecules are both present. Typical analyses of crystals
(II),
and Pine
from
Mt
St. Marcel, in Piedmont, Italy (I), Otakisan, Japan

near Monterey, Md (III), follow
330
A1 2
Si0 2
Mn2
35 68
18 93
II
36 16
22 52
6 43*
III
47 37
18 ss
6 85
14 27
Fe2
i
40
9 33
4 02
The
MÔa
92
contains also 44 per cent Na2<D
II
MgO CaO H2
MnO
3 22
24 32
34
22 05
15 82
25
Total
24
3 20
2
08
contained also
100 oo
100 53*
100 05*
MnO
III contains also 2 03 per cent of the oxides of rare earths, 14 per cent PbO,
CuO, 23 per cent Na.O and 68 per cent KÔ The specimen contained
ii per cent
also
little
The
admixed quartz which was determined with the SiOj
axial ratio of piedmontite is
6100
18=64
8326
39'
m habit to
those of epidote, but they are much

forms
are oo P 60 (100), oP(ooi), P(In),
most
The
prominent
simpler
Twins are fairly common,
P66(To2), ooP5b(oio) and ooP(no)
Its crystals are similar
with
oo
The
P 56
(too) the twinning plane.
mineral
is
rose-red, brownish red or reddish black
It is trans-
parent or translucent and strongly pleochroic in yellow and red tints

and has a glassy luster and pink streak It is brittle, and has a good
Its hardness is 6 and density 3 40.
cleavage parallel to oP(ooi)
refractive indices are the same as those of epidote.
Its
Before the blowpipe piedmontite melts to a blebby black glass and

It is unattacked by
gives the manganese reaction in the borax bead.
HC1 with the separation
acids until after heating, when it decomposes
of gelatinous silica
It
is
characterized
by
its
color
and hardness and by
its
manganese
reaction
Piedmontite occurs as an essential constit-
uent of certain schistose rocks that are

It occurs also
known
as piedmontite schists
m veins and m certain volcanic locks, where it is probably
an alteration product of feldspar.
Its
methods of origin are the same
as those of epidote
Good
found in the manganese ore veins at

on
ilmenite
in crystalline schists on the Isle of
Marcel, Piedmont,
off
coast
of
the
south
Groix,
Brittany, and at a number of points on the
Island of Shikoku, Japan, in crystalline schists and in ore veins
In
the United States it is so abundant m the acid volcanic rocks of South
Mountain, Penn., as to give them a rose-red color.
Localities
crystals are
St.
Allanite (Ca2 (Al-Ce-Fe)3(OH)(SiO 4 )3)
Allanite is a comparatively rare epidote

which there are present
notable quantities of Ce, Y, La, Di, Er and occasionally other of the
rarer elements
Since cerium is present in the largest quantity the
331
formula of the mineral
is
usually written as above, with the understanding that a portion of the cenum may be replaced by yttrium and
the other elements
Some idea of the complex character of" the numeral
may be gained from the two analyses quoted below The first is of
from Miask, Ural, and the second of a black massive

variety
from Douglas Co Colo
crystals
Si02
II
31 13
Al2 0s
30 81
16 25
Fe2O3
Ce2 O3
6 29
10 13
6 24
ii
44
12 50
BeO
Di2
La2
Y2
27
3
3 43
635
FeO
24
8 14
MnO
MgO
25
13 59
61
13
10 43
9 44
CaO
K20
Na2
16
tr
53
56
H2
79
C02
21
Total
99 8r
98 77
Allarute rarely occurs in crystals, but
when
these are found they are
usually more complex than those of piedmontite but

cated than those of epidote. Their axial ratio is
with
=64
59'
78
Their habit
is
much
i
5509
less
:
like that of epidote crystals
compli:
7691
Common
Twins are like those of

P(iio)
usually occurs as massive, granular or columnar
forms are ooFco(ioo), oP(ooi),

epidote
The mineral
aggregates, or as ill-defined columnar crystals resembling rusty nails

It
sometimes forms
It is black
on a
parallel
mtergrowths with epidote.
fresh fracture
and rusty brown on exposed
surfaces,
has a glassy luster and is

with
translucent in thin splinters,
greenish gray or brownish tints and
of
brown Its hardness is 5-6 and
shades
is pleochroic in various
and has a greenish gray or brown
streak
It
The cleavdensity 3-4, both varying with freshness and composition

of
indices
refraction
uneven
Its
the
fracture
and
ages are imperfect
are nearly the same as those of epidote.
332
Small fragments of fresh allanite fuse to a blebby black magnetic

are decomposed by HC1 with the separaglass before the blowpipe and
tion of gelatinous silica
Allamte is distinguished by its color,

reaction for water in the closed tube
manner
of occurrence,
and
the
alters readily on exposure to the weather,

yielding
mica and hmonite
other
compounds
among
Allanite occurs as an original constituent in some
Occurrence
The mineral
and other coarse-grained rocks It is found also in gneisses,

occasionally in volcanic rocks and rarely as a metamorphic mineral in
granites,
crystalline limestones
Localities
The
volcanic rock at
best crystals have been found
Lake Laach, Prussia,
the druses of a
in coarse-grained granitic rocks
at several places in the Tyrol, in the limestone at Pargas, Finland, and

Massive allanite occurs in the coarse
at various points in Ural, Russia
granite veins at Hittero, Norway and as the constituents of granites

Parallel mtergrowths with epidote
at many places in the United States
are found in granite at Ilchester,
Md
CHONDRODITE GROUP
The chondrodite group of minerals includes four members of the
general formula (Mg(F OH^Mg^SiO^y in which x equals i, 3, 5, 7, and
Of these, one (humite) may be orthorhombic
The other
y, i, 2, 3, 4
three are monochmc with the angle =90
The four members of the
group with their compositions and axial ratios are
Prolectite
Chondrodite
(Mg(F OH) 2 )Mg(Si04 )

(Mg(F OH) 2 )Mg3 (SiO4 ) 2
i
i
0863
3 1445
Humite
Clinohumtte
To show
(Mg(F OH) 2 )Mg5 (Si04 ) 3

(Mg(F OH) 2 )Mg 7 (Si04 ) 4
8862 18=90'
0803
0802
0803
=90
'1.4 4033
i
6588
=90
the similarity in the ratios between the lateral axes of the
four minerals, the & axis of humite
is written as i
Chondrodite, humite
and clmohumite frequently occur together Chondrodite has been
reported at more localities than either humite or clmohumite, but it is
not certain that
much
of
it
is
not chnohumite
resemble one another very closely
They
The
three minerals
are relatively unstable under
conditions prevailing at moderate depths in the earth's

crust, passing
easily into serpentine, brucite or dolomite
Only chondrodite is described.
333
Chondrodite (Mg3(Mg(F-OHJ 2 )(Si0 4 )2)

Chondrodite
a rather
is
uncommon
mineral that occurs mainly as a
constituent of metamorphosed limestones that have been penetrated

by gases and water emanating from igneous rocks It is a characteris-
contact mineral
tic
OH
somewhat
consequence of the fact that
The two
possess the power to mutually replace one another
analyses below are typical of varieties containing a maximum amount
of F
Its composition varies
and
Si02
I 33 77
II 35 42
I.
II.
MgO
FeO
H2
57 9 8
54 22
3 96
5 72
F=0
37
14=102 222 16
9 00=104 36-3 78
Total
100 06
100 58
Crystals from, limestone inclusions in the lava of Vesuvius

Grains separated from the limestone of the Tilly Foster Iron Mine, Brewster,
N Y
monoclmic (prismatic class), with an axial ratio
The crystals vary widely in habit and
18=90
0863 11:3 1445
The forms oP(ooi),
are often complex
oo P 66 (100), oo P oo (oio) and various unit
Chondrodite
is
and clmohemipyramids of the general symx?2 are frequently present, but other
bol
forms are also
common
(Fig
181)
Twin-
oP(ooi) is also common

ning
the mineral occurs
however,
Usually,
rounded grains, in some instances
little
about
showing crystal
hmestone
When
through FIG
fresh, Chondrodite
and
is
has a glassy
white or has a
dark yellow, brown or garnet color
It has a distinct cleavage parallel to oP(ooi),

a conchoidal fracture, a hardness of 6 and
a density
for
of 3 15
yellow
light
T= i
Its
are:
refractive indices
01=1607,
=1619,
181
tel
luster, is translucent
light or
scattered
faces,
_ 2 p*2
103
and
&
P
:
1"
(j^),
Chondrodite Crys-
121
2'
p,
(r 4)',
in (to)> jP7
P^, ioi
p,
***
" 7 z' *
'
ni
2 );
ioi
(e%)
&)
The
a axis runs from right to left

and the upper left hand
octant is assumed to be
minus
639
Before the blowpipe Chondrodite bleaches
With acids it decomposes with the production of
without fusing
gelatinous
silica
334
and
It weathers readily to serpentine, chlorite
and conse-
brucite,
quently many grams are colored dark green or black

Occurrence
Chondrodite, as has been stated, occurs in metaa
morphosed limestones It also occurs in sulphide ore bodies and
few instances in magnetite deposits
It
is
probably in
all
cases a pneu-
matolytic or metamorphic product

Localities
It
is
found as crystals in the blocks enclosed
m the lavas
of Vesuvius, in the copper mines of Kapveltorp, Sweden, in limestone

in the Parish of Pargas, Finland, and at the Tilly Foster Iron Mine, at
Brewster,
Sussex Co
N Y
N J
It occurs as grams in the

and Orange Co N Y.
crystalline limestone of
DATOLTTE GROUP
The members
group are four in number, but

(Ca(B OH)Si04) and gadohnite
only two, viz,
are
of
sufficient
(Be2Fe(YO)2(Si04)2J
importance to be described here
of the
datolite
datohte
these
of
Both minerals
crystallize
clinic prismatic class),
Datolite
Gadohmte a
the monoclmic system ('mono-
similarly in
with axial ratios that are nearly alike

'
6345
r=
6273
13215
Datohte (Ca(B
Datolite, or dathohte,
is
^ = 89
^ = 89
2657
51'
OH)SiO 4 )
characteristically a vein mineral
The composition corresponding to the

formula given above is
= 218$;
CaO=3Soo,
Total =100 oo
Some specimens contain a
little AbO,* and

Fe20a but, m general, crystals that have
been analyzed give results that are
close accord
with the theoretical com-
ositlon
182
Datohte Crystal wrth P
The mineral crystallizes in fine crysPOO, zoo (a), OOP, no (m),
iPoo, 102 tals that are often very complicated (Fig
-Poo, 101, (<),
(*); -P, in (), -P3, 212
^2) About 115 different forms have
W, Poo, on (mv) and JPoo, been observed on
Because of the
'
FIG
oo
012
^^
(g)
suppression of some faces by irregular

growth many of the crystals are columnar in habit, others are tabular.
Most crystals, however, are nearly equi-dimensional
The angle
ANHYDROUS ORTHOSILlCATES
no /\ 1 10 -64
The mineral
40'
335
occurs also in globular,

radiating,
granular and massi\ e forms
Datohte
or white, when pure, and

transparent
Often,
greenish, yellow, reddish or violet, and translucent.
Its
is colorless
however,
it is
streak
white and
is
its luster
Its
glassy
It
hardness
is 5
For yellow
are pyroelectnc
crystals
has no distinct cleavage

Its
its sp gr about
Some
3.
and
a- 16246,
light,
0=1.6527,
7=1
6694
Before the blowpipe
and
swells,
finally melts to a clear glass and,
colors the flame green
Its powder before heating
reacts strongly alkaline. After heating this reaction is weaker. The
at the
same time,
it
it
mineral loses water when strongly heated, and yields gelatinous

when treated with hydrochloric acid.
silica
The mineral is characterized by its crystallization, its easy fusibility

and the flame reaction for boron
Datohte has not been produced artificially.
Synthesis
It occurs on the walls of clefts
Occurrence, Origin and Localities
in igneous rocks, in pegmatite veins and associated with metallic comIt is found in many ore deposits of pneumatolytic
at
ongin, notably
Andreasberg in the Harz Mts , at Markirch, in
in
the
Seisser
Alsace,
Alps, in Tyrol, in the Serra dei Zanchetti in the
pounds in ore
veins.
Bolognese Apennines, at Arendal, Norway, and at many other places

In North Amenca it occurs at Deerfield, Mass
at Tariffville, Conn
,
at
Bergen
the
Hill,
Lake Superior
and
at several points in the copper districts of
region
Gadolinite (Be 2Fe(YO) 2 (Si0 4 )2)
Gadolmite
is
well established
dikes
a rather rare mineral with a composition that is not

Its occurrence is limited to coarse granite veins or
pegmatites
of which
it is
sometimes a constituent.
Its theoretical composition is as follows,
on the assumption that
it is
analogous to that of datolite
810=2556,
Y2
FeO=iS32; BeO=io68
3 =4844,
Total=ioooo,
Others contain notaspecimens contain cermm oxides.

ble quantities of erbium or lanthanum oxides and small quantities of
thorium oxide
Nearly all show the presence of Fe20s, AfeOs, CaO and
MgO, and some helium has been found
but nearly
all
The mineral
is
found massive and in rough
crystals with
The
an
axial
show
a b c*= 6273
crystals
0=89 26^'.
3215
comparatively few forms, of which ooP(no), oP(ooi), P>(on),
ratio
336
JPob(oi2), P(Tn) and

usually columnar in
iioA 110=64
are the most common

The> are
and are lough and coarse
The angle
P(in)
habit
12'
usually black or greenish black and opaque or translucent, but very thm splinters of fresh specimens are translucent or
Its luster is glassy or resinous, streak
transparent in green tints
Its hardness is 6-7 and its
conchoidal
greenish gray and fracture
Gadolmite
is
density about 4-4 5

Upon heating the density increases Many crysto
be
made
tals appear
up of isotropic and amsotropic substance, and
some to consist entirely of isotropic matter This phenomenon has
been explained in a number of different ways, but no one is entirely satisIn general, the isotropic material is believed to be an amorfactory.
phous alteration form of the amsotropic variety

into the amsotropic form by heating
The
crystallized gadolmite swells
It
may
be changed
m the blowpipe flame without
up
becoming fused and retains its transparency The amorphous variety

also swells without melting, but yields a grayish green translucent mass
The mineral phosphoresces when heated to a temperature between that
of melting zinc
and
hydrochloric acid
The mineral
silver.
After phosphorescing it is unattacked by

it gelatinizes with the same reagent
Before heating
weakly radioactive
Gadolmite occurs in the pegmatites of Ytterby
near Stockholm, and of Fahlun, Sweden, on the Island of Hittero, in
southern Norway, in the Radauthal, in Harz, at Barringer Hill, Llano
Co Texas, as nodular masses and large rough crystals, and at Devil's
is
Localities and, Origin
Head, Douglas Co, Colo
composed granite
In the
last
22 13
21 86
occurs in a de-
a very complex
I
89
81
FeO
BeO
AbOs
34
54
CaO
Fe20a
13
3 S9
ii 10
9 50
6 87
19 10
12 63
12.74
15 80
Si02
Th02
21 23
(La Di)20a
Y2 0g
it
Specimens analyzed as follows
composition
ErgOs
locality
as a black isotropic variety with
,.
10 43
7 19
H2
34
86
Other
Total
60
100 48
100 02
It has apparently in some cases solidified from an

igneous magma.
In others it is of pneumatolytic origin
337
StauroUte (Fe(AlOH)(A10) 4 (Si0 4 ) 2 )

Staurolite is a mineral that
is
interesting from the fact that it frequently forms twinned crystals that resemble a cross in shape, and which
consequently, during the Middle Ages, was held in
veneration
great
The composition indicated by

composition is not well established
the formula above is as shown in the first line below (I)
Three analyses
are quoted in the next three lines
Its
A12
SiOo
Fe2
FeO
MgO
H2
Ti02
Total
26 3
100 oo
II
27 38
HI
30 23
98 97
loo 33
100 37
IV
27 91
I
Theoretical composition
From Monte Campione, Switzerland

III From Morbihan, France
IV From Chesterfield, Mass
II
Staurolite
crystallizes
in
the orthorhombic system
class) in simple crystals with the axial ratio 4734
FIG 183
FIG 183
(bipyramidal
6828
The indi-
FIG 184
Staurolite Crystal with ooP,
no
P 60,101
FIG 184
FIG 185
(ni),
FIG 185
oopoo, 100
Staurohte Crystal Twinned about

Staurolite Crystal
(&),
oP, ooi
(c)
and
(r)
|P oo
Twinned about |P}
(032)
(232)
vidual crystals are usually bounded by oo P(no), oo P 65 (ooi), P 55 (101)

and often oP(ooi), but all their faces are rough (Fig 183) The angle
More common, however, than the simple crystals
1 10 A i io =50 40'
The most common of these are of two kinds,

are interpenetration twins
06
(i) with fP
(032) the twinning plane (Fig 184), and (2) with |P|(232)
Both types of twins yield crosses, but
the twinning plane (Fig. 185)
are
the arms of the first type
perpendicular to one another and those of
338
Sometimes the
angles of about 60 and 120
twinning is repeated, giving rise to trillings
The mineral is reddish or blackish brown, and has a glassy or greasy
It is slightly translucent in fresh crystals,
Its streak is white
luster.
the second type
but usually
is
make
In very thin pieces
opaque
red and golden yellow tints

(oio)
its
and
Its cleavage
hardness 7 and
its
density
it is
is
pleochroic in hyacinth-
distinct parallel to oo
P 06
ooP(no) Its fracture is conchoidal,

34~3 8 For yellow light, QJ=I 736,
/3=i 741, 7= i 746

Before the blowpipe staurohte is infusible, unless it contains manIt is only
ganese, in which case it fuses to a black magnetic glass
slightly attacked by sulphuric acid
It is distinguished
fusibility
from other minerals by
its
crystallization,
m-
and hardness
Staurolite weathers fairly readily into micaceous minerals, such as

chlorite (p 428)
and muscovite
(p. 355)
has not been produced in the laboratory
mica schist and other
The mineral occurs principal!}
of
result
is
the
rocks
where
it
schistose
regional or contact metamor-
Synthesis
Occurrence
It
phism Because of its method of occurrence it frequently contains

numerous mineral inclusions, among them garnet and mica
Good crystals of staurohte are found in the schists at
Localities
Mte Campione,
Switzerland, in the Zillerthal, Tyrol, at AschaffenBavana, at various places in Brittany, France, and in the
United States, at Wmdham, Maine, at Francoma,
at Chester,
burg, in
field,
Mass
in Patrick
Co Va and
,
N H
m Fannm Co N C
,
Twins of staurohte are used, to a slight extent, as jewelry.

Specimens from Patrick Co Virginia, are mounted and worn as charms
"
under the name of Fairy Stones."
Uses
Dumortierite (Al(AlO) 7 H(BO)(SiOi)3)

Dumortierite
is
one of the few blue
silicates
known
It
is
a borosili-
cate with a composition approaching the formula indicated above

analysis of a sample from Clip, Arizona, gave (I)
SiO2
I.
27 99
II. 28 58
AbOs Fe2
TiÔa
tr
64 49
63 31
MgO B 2
21
49
4 95
5 2i
The
P2 0r> Lossonlgn
20
72
53
Total
99 35
ioo 33
Specimens from California (II) contain in addition notable quantities

of TiCfe, which is thought to exist as Ti2 03 replacing a
part of the AkOa.
339
The mineral
crystallizes in the orthorhombic s>stem in aggregates of

or
very thin prisms exhibiting only ooP(no) and
fibers, needles
oo P oo (100) without end faces
Its axial ratio is a . b=
5317 : i, and
Its crystals possess a distinct
the prismatic angle no A 110=56
cleavage parallel to oo P 66 (100) and a fracture perpendicular to the
axes of the prisms
long
twinning plane
Dumortierite
is
Twinning
common, îth ooP(no) the
is
commonly some shade
of blue, but in
some
cases
is
green, lavender, white, or colorless
and
It is translucent or
transparent
colorless
and red, purple or blue Its
strongly pleochroic, being
streak is light blue

for yellow light are
Hardness is
a= r
678, /3=
and density 3
i
686,
7= i
Before the blowpipe the mineral loses

insoluble
089
its color
and
is infusible.
It is
m acids
It is distinguished from other blue silicates by

acids
character and its insolubility
its
fibrous or
columnar
Its
principal
alteration
(pp 404, 357)

Occurrence and Locates
products
are
kaolin
and
damourite
Dumortierite occurs only as a constit-
uent of gneisses and pegmatites

It is found in pegmatite near Lyons,
Silesia, at Harlem,
France, near Schmiedeberg,
Y, in a granular
Ariz
in
at
Yuma
Co
a
and
dike
rock
Clip,
quartz,
composed of quartz
and dumortiente, near Dehesa, San Diego Co Cal It is evidently

a pneumatolytic mineral
Its common associates are kyamte, anda,
lusite or sillimanite
SODALITE GROUP
The sodahte group includes a series of isometric minerals that may be

regarded as compounds of silicates with a sulphate, a sulphide or a chloride, or, perhaps better, as silicates in which are present radicals conand S The minerals comprising the group are hauymte,
and lasnnte* Of these, sodahte appears to be a mixture
of 3NaAlSiO4 and NaCl, in which the Cl has combined with one atom of
The other members of the group are
Al, thus Na4(ClAl)Al 2 (SiC>4)3
comparable with this on the assumption that the Cl atom is replaced by
It is possible, however, that all are
the radicals NaS04, and NaSa
taining Cl, SO4
nosean, sodalite
molecular compounds as indicated by the second set of formulas given

below. All are essentially sodium salts, except that in typical haiiynite
a portion of the Na is replaced by Ca. The chemical symbols of the

four minerals with the calculated percentages of silica, alumina and
soda corresponding to their formulas are:
340
A12
Si02
Sodalite
Na4(Cl Al) Al 2 (Si04 )3, or
Na2
37 14
31 60
25 60
31 65
27 03
27 26
3199
2732
16.53
31,7
26,9
27.3
3NaAlSi04 NaCl
Noselite
Na4(NaSQi Al)Al2 (Si04 ) 3

3 NaAlSi0 4 Na 2 S04
01
Hauymte (Na2 Ca)2(NaSOrAl)Ab(SiO 1 ) 3

3 NaAlSi0 4 CaSO4
Lasurxte
Na4 (NaS3
or
Al) A12 (8104)3, or
Na2 S
S*
Sodalite
A1)A12 (8104)3)
the pure sodium
is
Sodalite, theoretically,
compound corresponding
Natural
to the composition indicated by the formula given above
crystals, however, usually contain a little potassium in place of some of
the sodium and often some calcium, as indicated by the analyses of
material from Montreal, Canada (I), and Litchfield, Maine (II), quoted
below
Moreover, their content of Cl is not constant
Si02
A12 3
Na2
3752
II 3733
3*38
3187
2515
2456
K2 OCaO
78
10
*
Cl
691
683
35
.
10209
10176*
Includes I 07 per cent
C1O
Total
-155
-154
10054
10022
Sodalite occurs massive and in crystals that appear to be holohedral,

but etch figures indicate that they are probably tetrahedrally hemi-
Most
hedral (hextetrahedral class)
are dodecahedral
habit,
crystals
though some are
tetrahexahedral and others octahedral
forms
ooQoo
(100),
are
developed
usually
The
ooO(no),
0(iu), 202(112) and 404(114).
Interpenetration twins of two dodecahedrons

are common, with
the twinning plane (Fig
FIG 186
Sodalite
Inter-
186)
Twin of Two
Dodecahedrons Elon-
gated in the Direction of

an Octahedral Axis and
Twinned about
0(m)
These often possess an hexagonal habit,

mineral is colorless, white or some
The
penetration
light
shade of blue or red, and
2 3.
its
streak
is
Its luster
parent,
translucent and sometimes
is
vitreous
Its cleavage is perfect parallel
and
its
It
white
fracture conchoidal
Its hardness
Its refractive index for yellow light,
is
5-5,6,
n= 14827
are distinctly fluorescent and phosphorescent.
to
and
is
trans-
opaque
ooO(no)
its
density
Some specimens
341
Before the blowpipe, colored varieties bleach and all varieties swell
fuse readily to a colorless blebby glass
The mineral dissolves com-
and
pletely in strong acids and yields gelatinous silica, especially after heatWhen dissolved in dilute nitric acid its solution yields a chlorine
ing
Its powder becomes bro\\n on treatment
precipitate with siher nitrate
with AgNOs, in consequence of the production of AgCl
The mineral is best distinguished from other similarly
the production of gelatinous

tion for chlorine
minerals
by
appearing
with acids and the reac-
silica
As a result of weathering sodahte loses Cl and Na and gams water

commonest alteration products are zeolites (p 445), kaolin (p 440),
and muscovite (p 355)
It has been produced artificially by dissolving nepheline
Syntheses
ponder in fused sodium chloride, and by decomposing muscovite
with sodium hydroxide and NaCl at a temperature of 500 C
Sodahte occurs principally as a constituent
Occurrence and Ortgm
of igneous rocks rich in alkalies and as crystals on the walls of pores in
some lavas It is also known as an alteration product of nephehne
Its
Localities
in
Hungary,
Good
crystals are
in the lavas of
and at
In North America it
southern Norway;
occur
found in nepheline syenite at Ditro,
Mte Somma, Italy, in the pegmatites of

many other points where nephehne rocks
is
abundant
Noselite and Haiiymte
Brome, near
in the rocks at
Montreal, in the Crazy Mts Montana, and at

material at the last-named locality is light blue
Litchfield,
((Na^CaHNaSCX
Maine
The
Al)Al2 (Si0 4 ) 3 )
Noselite, or nosean, and hauynite, or hauyn, consist of isomorphous

mixtures of sodium and calcium molecules of the general formula given
above
Those mixtures containing a
small quantity of calcium are
usually called nosean, while those with larger amounts constitute hauyn.
The theoretical nosean and hauyn molecules are indicated on p 340
The
theoretical compositions of the pure nosean molecule

(II) are as follows
(I)
and of the
most common hauyn mixture

SiO2
A1 2
Fe2
CaO
Na2
31 65
27 03
II
31 99
27 32
9 94
27 26
16 53
29 41
21
20 91
10 08
13 26
HI
35 99
IV 33 78
31
27 42
*
Ka2
S03
14 06
10 58
12 31
H2
Total
100 oo
100 oo
14 22
3 23
Contains also 57 per cent Cl
63
.
99 61
100 08
342
the analysis of a blue nosean from Siderao, Cape Verde,

and in line IV, the analysis of a blue haiiyn from the lava of Monte Vul-
In line III
is
ture, near Melfi, Italy
Nosean and hauyn
are isomorphous with sodalite
They
crystallize
the isometric system in simple combinations with a dodecahedral

The principal forms observed aie ooO(no), ooOoo(ioo)
habit
is
0(in) and 202(112) Contact and mterpcnetration

common, with 0(m) the twinning plane The twins are
0002(102),
twins
are
often
columnar.
The minerals have a
glassy or greasy luster, are transparent or trans-
and an uneven or
and density 2 25 to 2 5, the
Nosean is generally
value increasing with the amount of CaO present
minerals
both
but
and
may possess almost any color,
hauyn blue,
gray
Red colors are
from -white through light green and blue tints to black
lucent,
have a
distinct cleavage parallel to ooQ(iio)
Their hardness
conchoidal fracture
The
rare
5 6
streaks of both minerals are colorless, or bluish
#=14890
low, light
is
to
Both minerals are
5038, increasing with increase

fluorescent
For
yel-
the
Ca
and phosphorescent.
present
Before the blowpipe both minerals fuse with difficulty to a blebby
white glass, the blue hauyn retaining its color until a high temperature
is
In
reached
this respect
it differs
from blue sodalite which bleaches
at comparatively low temperatures

Upon treatment with hot water
are
both minerals yield NaaS04
They
decomposed with acids yielding
silica
The
of
both
minerals react alkaline
Both
powders
gelatinous
also give the sulphur reaction with soda
on charcoal
The
minerals are easily distinguished from all others by their crystallization, gelatmization with acids and reaction for sulphur.
Both minerals upon weathering
yield
kaolin
or
zeolites
and
calcite
Synthesis
Crystals of nosehte
Na2C03, kaolmite and a

Occurrence
have been made by melting together
large excess of
Hauyn and nosean
Na2SO*
occur in
rocks.
tial
Hauyn
is
so
common
rocks containing
a few metamorphic
many
nephehne, especially those of volcanic origin and
m some of them as to constitute an essen-
component
Localities
Both minerals are found in good crystals in metamorphosed inclusions in the volcanic rocks of the Lake Laach region, in
Prussia,
also in the rocks of the Kaiserstuhl,

Baden, in those of
In
Hills, in Italy, and at S. Antao in Cape Verde
the Albanian
America haiiyn has been reported from the nephelme rocks of the
Crazy Mts,, Montana,
343
Lasunte (Na4 (NaS 3 Al)Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3 )

-
Lasunte is better known as lapis lazuli

and was formerly much used as a gem stone
gem purposes
color
is
given
is
it
It is bright
The
blue in color
material utilized for
usually a mixture of different minerals, but
its
by a substance with a composition corresponding
formula indicated above

Since the
as
a
and
used
pigment, also has
ground
blue
to the
ultramarine, which
artificial
this composition, the
molecule
is
is
sometimes represented by the shortened symbol USs, or if it contains

The deep blue lasunte from
S, by the symbol US2
but two atoms of

Asia contains as
coloring material a substance with a composition
its
may be represented by 15 7 molecules of USs, 76 9 molecules of

hauyn and 7 4 molecules of sodahte, corresponding to the percentages.
that
SiO 2
32 52
CaO
Na 2
27 61
6 47
19 45
A12
S03
Cl
10 46
2 71
47
K2
28
Total (Less C1 = O)
99 97
99 42
Lasunte is thus the name given to the blue coloring matter of lapis
which is a mixture It apparently crystallizes in dodecahedrons
lazuli,
Its streak is blue, its cleavage is dodecahedral, its hardness about 5
and
Before the blowpipe it fuses to a white

gravity about 2 4
Its powder bleaches rapidly in hydrochloric acid, decomposes
its specific
glass
with the production of gelatinous silica and yields H2 S.

It is distinguished from blue sodalite and hauyn by the reaction with
HC1, especially by the evolution of H2 S

Occurrence
Lasunte is principally a contact mineral in limestone.
Localities
Good lapis lazuli occurs at the end of Lake Baikal, in
Siberia, in the
Andes
of Ovalle, in Chile, in the limestone inclusions in
the lavas of Vesuvius, and in the Albanian Mts Italy

Uses
Lapis lazuli is used as an ornamental stone in the manufacture
,
and various ornaments, in the manufacture of mosaics, and as a

pigment, when ground, under the name ultramarine Most of tfre ultramarine at present in use, however, is artificially prepared,
of vases,
ACID ORTHOSILICATES
Prehaite (H2 Ca2Al2 (SiO 4) 3 )
Prehmte is nearly always found

stalactitic and granular masses
The
in crystals,
though
it
occurs also in
theoretical composition of the pure mineral is 8102=43.69,
344
A1 2 03=>2478,
H O = 437
CaO=27i6, and
Most
crystals, however,
contain small quantities of FeoOj and other constituents

SiQ.
Jordansmuhl,
44"
Silesia
4^ 4Q
Cornwall, Penn
Chlorastrohte, Isle Royale 37 41
*
AUOi
KO
I'cjOj
CaO
Al
26
20 88
54
21
02
2<>
27 o^
81
22
20
M0
II.O
Total
tr
49*
10090
ti
4 or
3 46
99 85
72
99 75*
NaÔ
Also 32 per cent
orthoihomhic and hcraimoiphic (rhombic pyThe ciystals vary

i 1272
ramidal class), with a b c= 8420 i
few
foinis
The most
widely in habit, but they contain comparatively
and
6P(66i)
prominent are oP(ooi), ooP(uo), 6P(o6i), 2P(32i)
Its crystallization
is
FIG
187
Prehnite Crystal with
W,
OOP/, I0o
OOP/XXO
JP56, 304 (n), JP55, 308
and oP, ooi (c)
Because they exhibit pyroelectnc
l>olanty in the direction of the a a.xis the

arc thought to be twins, with
crvstals
*
_ _
Wl
(I*)
is
Cleavage
The
as
the
plane
twinning
good parallel to oP(oor)
crystals are
to
parallel
common
habits are also
The angle noAiTo=8o
187)
(Fig
12'
frequently tabular
oP(ooi), although other
Isolated individuals are rare, usually
many
are grouped together into knotty or warty aggregates

Prehnite is colorless or light green, and transparent or transIts luster is pearly on oP(ooi) but
lucent, and it has a colorless streak
glassy
on other
faces
Its fracture is
uneven,
its
hardness
7+
and
its
i 616, 0= i 626, 7 = 1 649

density 2.80-2 95. For yellow light,
Before the blowpipe prehnite exfoliates, bleaches and melts to a
a=
yellowish enamel
At a high temperature
it
yields water
Its
powder is
strongly alkaline. It is partially decomposed by strong hydrochloric

acid with the production of pulverulent silica. After fusion it dissolves
readily in this acid yielding gelatinous silica
The mineral has not been produced
artificially
Prehnite occurs as crystals implanted on the walls of

clefts in siliceous rocks, in the gas cavities in lavas, and in the gangue of
Occurrence
certain ores, especially copper ores

after analcite (p
438),
laumomte
(p
It is
451),
found also as pseudomorphs

In
and xutrohte (p 454)
probably a secondary product

Fine crystals come from veins at Harzburg, in Thuringia,
at Stnegau and Jordansmuhl, Silesia, and at Fassa and other places in
Good crystals are found also in the Campsie Hills in Scotland.
Tyrol.
all
cases
it is
Localities
The mineral
is
abundant
in veins with copper along the north shore of
345
Lake Superior and on Keweenaw Point, and it occurs also at Farmington,

Conn Bergen Hill, N J and Cornwall, Penn
The mineral known as chlorastrolite is probably an impure
Uses
It is found on the beaches of Isle Royale and the north shore
prehnite.
of Lake Superior as little pebbles composed of stellar and radial bunches
of bluish green fibers
The pebbles were originally the fillings of gas
,
cavities in old lavas
as
gem-stones
in
The> are polished and used, to a slight extent,

About $2,000 worth were sold in 1911 and 350 ôrth
1912
Axinite
Axmite
(H(Ca-Fe-Mn) 3Al2B(SiO4)4)
especially noteworthy for
its richness in
crystal forms
a complicated borosihcate for ^vhich the formula given
above is merely suggestive
Analyses of crystals from different localities
vary so widely that no satisfactory simple formula has been proposed
Four recent analyses are quoted below
for the mineral
is
The mineral
is
Radauthal
Si02
Stnegau
Oisans
Cornwall
39 26
42 02
41 53
42 10
100 62
ico ii
100 32
100 66
A12 O3
FeoOs
FeO
MnO
CaO
MgO
H2O
Total
Axinite crystallizes in the trichmc system (pinacoidal class), with

b : c=* 4921
i : 4797 and 01=82
5 2 ', 7=i3 l0 3 2 '54', 0=91
.
habit but nearly all are somewhat

crystals are extremely varied
About 45 forms
tabular parallel to 'P(iTi), oo P'(iio) or oo 'P(iTo)
The
have been observed
In addition to the three mentioned, 2'?' So (201),

P 06 (oio) and oo P oo (100) are the most
P'(III), /P(iFi), 2 y P'
The plane 'P(iTi) is usually
frequently met with (Figs 188, 189)
06 (021), oo
striated parallel to its intersection with oo 'P(iTo)
= 15
34'.
The
cleavage
is
The
angle 100
A i "10
ooP'(no) and the
crystals are strongly pyro electric
Axinite
is
brownish, gray, green, bluish or pink, and
is
chroic in pearl-gray, olive-green and cinnamon-brown
strongly pleotints
It
is
346
a glassy luster and a colorless streak

transparent or translucent and has
It is brittle, has a hardness of
Its fracture is conchoidal or uneven
6-7
6720, /3= i 6779, 7 = 1 6810

Axmite, before the blowpipe, exfoliates and fuses to a dark green
It colors the flame
which becomes black in the oxidizing flame
and a density
For red
of 3 3
light,
a= i
glass
of KHS04 and CaFo to its powder

green, especially upon the addition
It is only slightly attacked by acids.
After
Its powder reacts alkaline
FIG 189
FIG 188
FIG 188
Aximte Crystal with ooPoo, TOO

oo
/p ilo (M),
P',
(a),
2'P'So, 201
(s),
ooP/,
no
(m),
and 'P, ill (r)

and 5 as m Fig
(*)
188
Also ooPoo,
FIG 189
Axmite Crystal with
m, a, r
oio (6), aP' w 021 (v), yP, In (e), |,P3, 132 (0), 4/P^, 241 (o), 3/P3, 131 (I'),
00
/'PI. 130 (w), 3'P3, i3i () and 4'?% 241 (<J).
,
fusion, however,
it
dissolves readily with the production of gelatinous
silica
The mineral
is easily characterized
to the flame
color
it
imparts
green
by
its crystallization
and the
has not been produced artificially

Pseudormorphs of chlorite after axroite have been found in Dartmoor, England
Axmite crystals occur in cracks in old siliceous rocks.
Occurrence
It is found also in ore veins and as a component of a contact rock comIt
posed mainly of augite, hornblende and quartz, occuning near the

peripheries of granite and diabase masses. It was formed by the aid
of pneumatolytic processes
Localities
Excellent crystals of axmite are found at Andreasberg
and other places in the Harz Mts

near Stnegau,
Silesia, near
Poloma, in Hungary, at the Piz Valatscha, in Switzerland, near Verms
and at other points m Dauphme, France, at Botallak, Cornwall, Eng,
land, at Komgsberg, Norway, Nordmark, Sweden; Lake Onega,

Miask, Russia, at Wales in Maine and at South Bethlehem, Penn.
and
347
Dioptase (H2CuSiO4)
Dioptase is especially interesting because of its crystallization, which
rhombohedral tetartohedral (trigonal rhombohedral class)
Its crysTheir axial ratio is i
tals are columnar
are
5342
is
They
bounded by
oo
P2(ii2o),
- 2R(o22i)
or R(ioYi) and
jT>JL Y
- (3141) (a rhombohedron of
usually
~î - (1341) or
^
the third order,

Fig 190)
Besides
occurring as crystals the mineral
is found also
massive and in crystalline aggregates.
The composition expressed by the formula
above
given
H20=n
by some
81023818,
is
44, which
is
CuO=504o;
approached very closely
The same composition may
analyses.
be expressed by CuSiOs
HaO
Indeed, recent
work indicates that the mineral is a hydrated

metasilicate and not an acid orthosihcate
Dioptase has an emerald-green or blackish
green color, a glassy luster and a green streak
It
is
and
transparent
its
fracture
and
pleochroic and is
hardness
is
or
is
its
translucent,
is
FIG
tai
~~
190
Dioptase CiysWlth
P2 "20 and
2R
221
>
mtl[L
brittle
Its
stnations
It is
weakly
For yellow
distinctly pyroelectnc
density 3 05.
'
light,
co=i 6580,
6=17079
Before tie blowpipe dioptase turns black and colors the flame green.
the reducing
it turns black in the oxidizing flame and red
flame without fusing
It is decomposed by acids with the production of
On charcoal
gelatinous silica
Synthesis
Crystals of dioptase have been made by allowing mixtures of copper nitrate and potassium silicate to diffuse through a sheet
of
parchment paper
The mineral occurs in druses on quartz
in clefts in limestone, and in gold-bearing placers in the Altyn-Tube Mt.
near the Altyn Ssu River, m Siberia, in crystals on wulfemte and calamme and embedded in clay near R6zbanya, Hungary, with quartz and
Mmdonli Mine, French Congo, in copper mines at

Co
Capiapo, Chile, and in Peru, at the Bon Ton Mines, Graham
In
Bon
the
State.
same
the
in
Ariz
and near Riverside, Pinal Co,,
chrysocolla in the
Ton Mines
mixture of
it
covers the walls of cavities in the ore, which consists of a
kmomte and copper oxides
348
MICA GROUP
The mica group comprises a series of silicates that are characterized
by such perfect cleavages that extremely thin lamellae may be split
from them with surfaces that are perfectly smooth. The lamellae are
elastic and in this respect the members of the group are different from
Some
other minerals that possess an almost equally perfect cleavage
of the micas are of great economic importance, but most of them have
found
little
use in the arts
divided into four subgroups, (T) the magnesiumiron micas, (2) the calcium micas, (3) the kthium-iron micas, and (4)
Of the latter there are three subdivisions, (a) the
the alkali micas
The micas may be
() the potash micas, and (c) the soda micas

All the micas crystallize in the monoclmic system (monoclmic
matic class), in crystals with an orthorhombic or hexagonal habit
lithia micas,
In composition the micas are complex
The
alkali
aluminium and an
pris-
micas are ap-
the potash
micas
are
more
alkali
Other
mica being KHaAk (8104)3
acid, and
some of the magnesium-iron micas are very complex The members
with the best established compositions are apparently salts of orthosilicic
parently acid orthosihcates of
alkali
acid, and, hence, the entire group

with the orthosihcates
is
placed
All the micas possess also, in addition to

the very noticeable cleavage which yields
the characteristically thin lamellae that are
so well known, other planes of parting

which are well exhibited by the rays of
the percussion figure (Fig, 191)
The
largest ra}
FIG
191
Percussion
on Basal Plane
The
oo
long ray
Pob
(oio)
is
of
Figure
Mica
parallel
to
known
as the
characteristic
ray is always parallel to the chnopinacoid.

In some micas the plane of the optical
axes is the chnopinacoid and

others is
perpendicular thereto In the latter, known
as micas of the first order, the plane of
is perpendicular to the characteristic

the former,
ray and
distinguished as micas of the second order, it is parallel to this ray.
The value of the optical angle varies widely In the magnesia micas
the axes
between o and 15, in the calcium micas between 100 and 120,
and 75
When the angle becomes
zero the mineral is apparently umaxial
But etch figures on all micas
indicate a monoclmic symmetry (compaie Fig 194)
it is
and
in the other micas between 55
ANPIYDROUS ORTHOSILICATES
349
THE MAGNESIUM-IRON MICAS

Biotite
((K H) 2 (Mg Fe) 2 (Al Fe) 2 (Si0 4) 3 )
The magnesium-iron micas
are usually designated as biotite.

micas
of
both
orders
includes
as follows
group
Order
2d Oraer
Anomite
Meroocene
isl
This
Lepidomelane
PUogopiU
The
$= 90
i : 3 2904 with
crystals of biotite have an axial ratio 5774
They are usually simple combinations of oP(ooi), oo P ob (oio),
|P(ii2) and P(Tn) (Fig 192). Twins are

common, with the twinning plane perpendicThe composition face may
ular to oP(ooi)
be the same as the twinning plane or it may be
The crystals have an
oP(ooi) (Fig 193)
hexagonal habit, the angle IiiAoio being
60 22!'.
The mineral also occurs in flat
scales
FlG
^ ***~^*
witu oP, ooi
(c),
oio
In
(6),
P,
^ystel
ooPSb,
(ju) and
and in
scaly aggregates
-JP 112 (<?)
The color of biotites varies from yellow,
Pleochroism is strong in sections
through green and brown to black
perpendicular to the perfect cleavage, ie, perpendicular to oP(ooi)
The
streak of
all varieties is
white
27-3.1, depending upon composition.
Their hardness =2.5 and density
The
refractive indices for yellow
Twinned about a Plane Perpendicular to oP (ooi), and Parallel

The composition plane is
aP(22i)
Edge Between oP(ooi) and
Mica law A=nght hand twin, B and C-left hand twins.
oP(ooi)
FIG. 193
Biotite
to the
a light brown biotite from Vesuvius are' a 1.5412, /3=i 5745.

are higher
darker varieties.
Etch figures are produced by the action of hot concentrated sulphuric
light
They
acid,
Varieties
and
their Localities
wood Furnace, Orange Co
Anomite is rare. It occurs at GreenY., and at Lake Baikal, m Siberia
350
Meroxene
is
name given
the
to the
common
biotite of the 2d order
particularly fine crystals in the limestone blocks included

in the lava of Mte Somma, Naples, Italy, at various points in SwitzerIt occurs
land, Austria
this
and Hungary, and at many other points abroad and
in
country
a black meroxene characterized by the presence

It is essentially a magnesium-free
in it of large quantities of ferric iron
in
It occurs
biotite
igneous rocks, especially those rich in alkalies
Lepidomelane
Two
of
its
is
known occurrences in the United States are in the nepheat Litchfield, Maine, and in a pegmatite in the northern part
best
hne syenite
of Baltimore,
Md
Phlogopite, or amber mica, is the nearly pure magnesium biotite

which by most mineralogists is regarded as a distinct mineral, partly
because
nearly
all
cases
it
contains fluorine
Its color is yellowish
brown, brownish red, brownish yellow, green or white

often pearly, and
it
frequently exhibits
astensm
in
Its luster
is
consequence of the
presence of inclusions of acicular crystals of rutile or tourmaline arranged

Its axial angle is small, increasing
along the rays of the pressure figure
with increase of iron
7=1
a=i
562,
=i
606,
especially characteristic of
metamorphosed limestones
metamorphosed limestones around Easton,
at Edwards, St Lawrence Co
N Y and at South Burgess,
Phlogopite
It occurs
Pa
606
is
abundantly in the
Ontario, Canada.
It
is
also found as a pyrogenetic mineral in certain
basic igneous rocks,
Typical analyses of the four varieties of biotite follow.
Si02
Ti02
A12
FeO
MnO.
CaO
BaO
MgO
Na2
48
21 08
i
55
33
9 68
45
62
89
7 oo
26 49
60
II
9 01
K20
H2 0H2 0+
\
I
90
3*6
III
6 40
9 97
66
I*
6'
233
10
(lessO=F) 99 19
II
IV
III
8 20
219
351
100 83
99 91
Anomite from Greenwood Furnace, Orange Co
Meroxene from
granite, Butte,
24
99 66
N Y
Mont
Lepidomelane from eleohte syenite Litchfield, Maine

phlogopite from Burgess, Can
IV Brown
Before the blowpipe the dark, ferruginous varieties fuse easily to a

black glass, the lighter colored varieties with greater difficulty to a
Their powder reactions are strongly alkaline

The
yellow glass
minerals are not attacked by HC1 but are decomposed by strong
In the closed tube all varieties give a little water
EfeSO*
The biotitcs are distinguished from all other minerals except the other
micas by perfect cleavage and from other micas by their
in strong sulphuric acid
The commoner
color, solubility
and pleochroism
alteration products of biotite are a hydrated biotite,
epidote, sillimamte
chlorite (p
428),
ferriferous
At the same time there
and magnetite,
is
often a
if
the mica
separation of
Phlogopite alters to a hydrophlogopite and to penmnite
is
quartz
(p. 429),
and
talc (p 401)
Syntheses
The biotites are common products of smelting operations.
They have been made by fusing silicates

sodium and magnesium fluorides
Occurrences and Origin
The
of the proper composition with
biotites are
common
igneous and metamorphic rocks and pegmatite dikes
common
constituents of
They
also are
alteration products of certain silicates, such as hornblende
and augite
They are present

sedimentary rocks principally as the
products of weathering
Uses
Phlogopite is used as an insulator in electrical appliances
and to a less extent for the same purposes as those for which ground
No "amber mica" is produced in the
muscovite is employed
United States
Canada.
Most
of that used in this country
is
imported from
352
THE CALCIUM MICAS
Margante (Ca(AlO) 2 (AlOH) 2 (SiO4)2)

Margante, the calcium mica,
is like biotite
in the habit of its crys-
Usually the minwhich, however, are not so well formed as these

eral occurs in tabular plates with hexagonal outlines but without side
tals,
planes
It occurs also as scaly aggregates
Analyses of specimens from Gamsville,
and
(I),
Peekslull,
N Y
H2
Total
gave
(II),
A12
Si02
I 31 72
II
Ga
FeO
50 03
46 58
32 73
12
Na2
CaO
MgO
12
ii 57
oo
ii
26
04
4 88
4 49
The mineral has a pearly luster on its basal planes, and a
glassy luster
its streak
gray and
Its color is while, yellowish, or
on other planes
100 58
100 96
Its cleavage is not as perfect

Its hardas in the other micas, and its cleavage plates are less clastic
It is a mica of the
ness vanes from 3 to over 4 and its density is 3
white
first
order
Before the blowpipe it swells, but fuses with great difficulty

the closed tube and is attacked by acids
gives water
It
Occurrence
present in
some
Localities
associated with
is
Margante
chlorite schists
In
all
cases
corundum
it is
of
It occurs in the Zillerthal, Tyiol,
Switzerland, at the emery localities

the emery mines near Chester, Mass
dionte at Peekskill,
N Y
It
is
also
mctamorphic origin
Campo Longo, m
at
the Grecian Archipelago, at

in schist inclusions in mica
with corundum at Village Green, Penn
at the Cullakenee Mine, in Clay Co , N.

ities in Georgia, Alabama and Virginia
C, and
at
corundum
local-
THE LITHIUM-IRON MICAS

Zinnwaldite ((Li- K- Na) 3 FeAl(Al(F-
OH)) 2 Si5 Oi
The pnncipal hthmm-iron mica, zmnwaldite, is a very complex

mixture that occurs
several forms so well characterized that they have
received different
but in such
names
All of
them contain
lithium, iron
and
fluorine,
has not been possible to ascribe

to them any one generally acceptable formula
Some of the most important of these varieties have compositions corresponding to the foldifferent proportions that it
lowing analyses
ANHYDROUS ORTIIOHILK'ATES
Si02
353
IV
IT
40 19
59 25
s1
46
45 87
22 79
12 57
l6 22
22 $O
III
19 78
FeO
93
MnO
21
66
66
ii 6r
02
06
NasO
63
K2
7 49
5 37
95
I0 6 5
Li 2
3 06
04
4,83
3 99
3^
44
75
42
10 46
3 28
7
94
Total
99 32
102 ii
102 71
105 48
0=F=
97 64
99 05
99 60
102 15
I Rabenghmmer from Altenberg Saxony

Greenish black with greenish gray
streak
Sp gr =3 146-3 IQO
White or light green plates
II Polyhlhiomlc from Kangerluarsuk, Greenland
Sp gr =281
Cryophyllitc from Rrxkporl, Mass,
Strongly plewhroic green and brown2 QOQ

Contains also 17 MgO and i 06 HgO
Sp gr
IV Zinnwaldile from Zmnwald, Bohemia. Plates, white, yellow or greenish
III
ish led crystals
gray
Sp. gr
=2
Zinnwalchle occuis
of biotitc,
Contains also
956-2,087
r;i
IIjO and 08
crystals with
ooP(iio) the twinning plane

It has a pearly luster, is of
u,n
Twins arc
and a tabular habit
many
axial ratio
very near that

with
like those of biotitc
colors, particularly violet, gray,
brown and dark gieen and is strongly plcochroic. Its streak

light, Us hardness between 2 and 3 and its density between 2.8 and 3
It is a mica of the second 01 der
Before the blowpipe it fuses to a dark, weakly magnetic bead
It
yellow,
is
2.
is
attacked by acids
Qccumnte and
Zmnwaldite
Lotahtic\
is
found
m certain ore veins,
Its origin is asgranites containing cassiterite, and

pegmatites
Us principal occuirences are those
cribed to pneumatolytic processes
referred to
connection with the analyses
TU& ALKALI MICAS
The
alkali
m which the principal metallic conaluminium are lithium, potassium and sodium. All
micas include those
stituents besides
these metals are present in each of the recognized varieties of the

alkali micas,
but in each variety one of them predominates
which lithium
is
prominent
is
known
as lefodolite; that
That
in
m which potas-
364
sium is most abundant is muscowte, and that in which sodium is

Muscovite is common
most prominent is paragomte
Lepidolite is
abundant in a few places
Paragomte is rare The first two are important economically
All are micas of the first order, except a few
and all are light colored

Another mica, which is usually regarded as a distinct variety of
muscovite, or, at any rate, as being very closely related to the mineral
iepidolites,
In
is roscoelite
replaced
this,
muscovite is
about two-thirds of the AlgOs
mica which is utilized as an ore
It is a rare green
by VgOj,
of vanadium,
Lepidolite ((Li-
K-Na) 2 ((Al-Fe)OH) 2 (SiO,Oa)
Lepidohte occurs almost exclusively as aggregates of thin plates

with hexagonal outlines
Crystals are so poorly developed that a satisIts variation
factory axial ratio has not been determined
composi-
tion
is
indicated
American
by the analyses
of white
and purple
varieties
from
localities
Si0 2
A12
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
LiaO
NaaO
KsO
Rb2
CsaO.
F.
BfeO
Total
(lessO=F) 99 45
I.
100 53
99 74
99.63
Like-purple granular lepidohte from Rumford, Maine
II White variety from Norway,
Maine
III
Red-purple variety from Tourmaline Queen Mine, Pala, Cal.

also 04 PjOj
IV. White variety from Pala, Cal
*Mn08
Contains
The
mineral
of all
lepidolites
The
while, rose or light purple, gray or greenish
is
and purple
rose
355
varieties
is
and density 28-29

5975* 7 ==16047
contain a
little
The
manganese
streak
white, their luster pearly, their hardness 2 5-4

The refractive indices of a typical variety are
0=i
Lepidohte fuses easily to a white enamel and at the same time colors
It is difficultly attacked by acids, but after heating is
the flame red
easily
decomposed
Maine and
Cookeitc fiom
hte
Its analyses
California
concspond
is
probably a weathered lepido-
to the foimula, Li(Al(OH)2)3(SiOa)2
The
mincial occuis puncipally in pegmatites in which

lubelhte (p 435), and other bi ight-colored tourmalines exist and on
the borders of granite masses and in rocks adjacent to them
It is
In all cases it is probably a
often zonally mtergrown with muscovitc
Occutrencc
pncunutolytic pioduct,
emanations
The
Localities
and
or, at least, is
produced by the aid of magrnatic
mineral occurs in nearly all districts producing tin,

gem tourmaline Its best known foreign
also in those producing
localities are
Jekatcrmbuig, Russia, Rozna, Moravia, Schmttenhofen,

In the United States it is found in large
Bohemia, and Penig, Sa\ on>
quantities at Hebron, Pans, and other points in western Maine, m the
tin mines of the southern Black Hills, South Dakota, and in the tourmar
line localities
Usei>
m the neighborhood of Pala,
Lepidohte
is
San Diego Co
utilized to a slight extent
Cal
m the manufacture of
the preparation of lithia

lithium compounds, which are employed
the
waters medicinal compounds, salts, used in photography and
manufacture of fireworks and stoiage batteries
Muscovite (H a (K Na)Alj(SiOi)a)
Muscovitc is one of the most common, and at the same time the
most important, of the micas Because of its transparency it is employed for many purposes for which the darker biotite is not suitable
While predominantly a potash mica, nearly
some soda, due to the isomorphous mixtuie
Two typical
Si02
I
II.
44 39
46 54
I.
II
all
of the
muscovite contains
paragomte molecule.
analyses are quoted below:
AlsOs FeaOs
35 7
09
34 96
59
Broad plates
FeO
i
07
MnO MgO CaO Na O K

a
ro
tr
.
32
of muscovite bordered
by
Greenish muscovite, Auburn, Maine
2 41
4*
lepidoiite,
Total less
9 77
*o 38
HO
a
Total
.72 10113
5 43
99 63
Auburn, Maine.
QF n
5 88
100.83
356
tabular and frequently orthorhombic or

on their basal pknes reveal
hexagonal in habit, though the etch figures
If onentated to corretheir monoclimc symmetry (Fig 194)
The
crystals are usually
clearly
spond with crystals of

i
|P
3 3128,
ob (023),
Twins
0=89
biotite their a\ial constants are
54',
and
their principal planes oP(ooi),
b
oo
c== 5774
p&
O io)
4P(44i) and -2P(22i) (Fig IQS)

those of biotite are not uncommon in some localities
like
shade of green, yellow or red

It has a glassy luster, a perfect cleavage parallel to the base, a haidness
Pleochroism is marked in dncctions
of 2 and a density of 2 76-3 i
Muscovite
is
colorless or of
some
light
the color of the crystals,

perpendicular and parallel to the cleavage,
the cleavage being lighter
to
direction
in
the
when viewed
perpendicular
FIG 194
I'll,
1)5.
FIG 194
Etch Figures on oP(ooi) of Muscovite, Exhibiting Monodmu, Symmetry
FIG 195
Muscovite Crystal with
and
than when viewed

paratively large
023
is
small
oP, ooi
(<),
<wPw,
oio
(/;),
(r)
The
optic al angle is comvciy different from that

The mineral is a nonconductor
parallel to the cleavage
(56-76),
of biotite which
2P, 221 (Af)
3P>,
in this respect being
(2-22)
and a poor conductor of heat.

For yellow light
vary somewhat with composition
of electricity at ordinary temperatures

a~ i 5619, j8- 1.5947, 7= 1,6027,

Before the blowpipe thin flakes of muscovite fuse on their edges to a
In the dosed tube the mineral yields water which, in some
gray mass
intermediate values are as follows
It is insoluble m acids under ordinary coi>

decomposed on fusion with alkaline carbonates.
Muscovite is very stable under surface conditions
Its principal
cases, reacts for fluorine

ditions,
but
is
into a partially hydrated substance, which

hydromuscovite. It alters also into scaly chlontic
change
is
steatite (p 401),
and serpentine
(p, 398).
may
be culled
products,
into
DomounU
357
a dense fine-grained aggregate of muscovite, often
is
forming pseudomorphs after other minerals

Senc^te is a yellowish or greenish muscovite that occurs in thin,
some schists
curved plates
Fwhsite is a chromiferous variety of an emerald-green color from
Schwarzenstem, Tyiol
Crystals of muscovite have been
Synthesis
made by
fusing anda-
with potassium fluo-sihcate and aluminium fluoride

Muscovite occurs in large, ill-defined crystals in pegOccurrence
flakes in giamtes and othci acid igneous rocks,
in
smaller
and
matites,
slates and
and
various schists and other metasandstones
in some
lusite
morphic rocks
inal
still
It is
found also
in veins
It is
m some
cases an orig-
other cases a mctamorphic mineral and

pyrogemc mineral,
other cases a sccondaiy mineral resulting from the alteration of
alkaline aluminous silicates
The mineral
Localities
acid igneous rocks c\ist
occurs
It is
m all regions where pegmatites and

m North Carolina, South Dakota,
mined
New
While phlogopitc (amber

Hampshire, Virginia and other states
in
some
countries
all
mica
the
is
mica)
produced in this country
produced
is
of the muscovite variety
two forms, (i) as sheet mica, and (2)

Muscovite is used
t/iw
as ground mica. The sheet mica comprises thm cleavage plates cut
It is used in making gas-lamp chimneys, lamp shades, and
into shapes
windows
in
stoves.
The
greater
portion
is
used
as
insulators
though for some forms of electrical apparatus the

better
Because of the comparatively high cost of large
electrical appliances,
amber mica
js
The
sometimes built up into larger ones
ground mica consists of small crystals and the waste from the manufacture of sheet mica giound very fine. It is used in the manufacture
It is also mixed with
of wall paper, heavy lubucants and fancy paints
mica
plates, small plates are
shellac
and melted
Production
into desired forms for electrical insulators
The
total value of the
mica produced in the United
Stales during 1912 was $355,804, divided as follows. 1,887,201 Ib sheet

mica, valued at $310,254 and 3,512 tons ground mica, valued at $45,550
Of this North Carolina produced 454,653 11), of sheet mica, valued at
$187,501 and 2,347 tons of scrap mica, valued at $29,798, or a total

The imports of sheet mica
value for both kinds of mica of $217,299
during the same year amounted to $502,163, of which 241,124 Ib
,
valued at $155,686 was trimmed and the balance untnmmed

The
imports during 1912 were valued at $748,973, and the domestic production at $331,896-
358
may be regarded as a muscovite in which a large portion

A specimen from Lotus, Eldohas been replaced by V2 0s
Roscoelite
of the
AkOs
rado Co
Si02
45 17
Cal
Ti02
gave
A12
78
FeO
24 01
ii 54
besides traces of Li20
60
MgO
i
H,0-
10 37
64
H,0+
Total
4 29
99 80
40
and Na20
mineral occurs as clove-brown or green scales with a specific

It is translucent and has a pearly luster and a
2 92-2 94
of
gravity
refiactive indices for sodium light are, <x= 1,610,
Its
strong pleochroism.
The
0=1685,7=1
704
Before the blowpipe
reactions for
acids
It
vanadium
fuses to a black glass.
it
the beads and
It gives the usual
only slightly alTccted by
is
m small veins ncui
has been found associated with gold
Lotus,
Eldorado Co., California, in seams composed of roscochte and quartz

between the beds of a sandstone in the high plateau region of southwestern Colorado, and as a cement of minute scales between the grams
of the sandstone
on both
In
sides of the seams.
all
cases
it
appears to
have been deposited by percolating water, possibly of magmatic origin

The impregnated sandstone is mined as a source of vanadium The
material, which contains an average of about 3 per cent of metallic
vanadium
concentrated
is
by chemical
processes,
are manufactured into ferro-vanadium.
duced in the United States
is
made from
Most
and the concentrates
of the
vanadium
pro-
this ore,
Paragonite ^(Na-KJAlsCSiO-Oa)
Paragonite, the sodium mica, differs from muscovite mainly in comBoth contain sodium and potassium but in puragomte the
position
sodium molecule
The
is
in excess
analysis quoted
below
is
made on
a sample from
Monte Cam-
pione, in Switzerland
3
Fe2
40 10
tr.
AI2
Si0 2
47 75
It occurs in the
is
much
less
It
K2
Na2
6 04
same associations
common.
as
12
H2
Total
4 58
99 59
some forms of muscovite but it

most abundantly in certain
It apparently occurs
fine-grained mica schists to
given,
m ail known
which the name paragonite schists has been

cases a product of
dynamic metamorphism*
CHAPTER XVII
THE
SILICATES-Cowfowwrf
THE ANHYDROUS METASILICATES

NORMAL METASILICATES
Beryl (Be aAl2 (Si0 3 )o)
BFRYL
is
a frequent constituent of coarse-grained granites.
important as a
the
many
gem
matciial,
and
is
It is
particularly interesting because of
physical investigations that have been
made with the aid of
its
crystals
Although the mineral
is essentially
usually contains also a
it
quantities of the alkalies,
little
and
in
a beryllium alummo-rnetasilicate,
FesOa and MgO,
some
in
many
cases small
cases also caesium.
Analyses of
a green beryl from North Carolina, an aquamarine from Stoneham, Me
and a light-colored crystal from Hebron are given below
,
Si0 2
AfcOi Fe2 0;j
I.
66 84 19 05
II.
66 28 18 60
III
BeO
14
13 61
17 75
21
13 73
IV, 62 44 17,74
40
ii 36
65 54
I
II,
II I
FeO Na2
,22
71
,38
,.
.83
90 54
...
2 01
100 39
2.03
100 30
,,
13
60
3.60
Alexander Co,, N. C,
Stoneham* Me.;
ako.o6%CaO.
Me
The mineral
occurs massive without distinct crystal form and also in
granular and columnar aggregates, but

in sharp and, in
some
its
usual
4989.
method
of occurrence
cases, very large columnar crystals with a
hexagonal habit (dihexagonal bipyramidal

:
Total
100 oo
Theoretical
IV, Hebron,
H2
Cs2
Li2
.......
The forms found on
nearly
ooP2(ii2o), oP(oooi), P(ion), P2(ii22)
In addition, there are present on
many
and an
crystals are
axial ratio
oo
P(tolo),
and 2P2(ii2i) (Fig
196),
crystals other prismatic forms
and the pyramids 3?f (2131) and aP(ao3i).

359
class),
all
is
distinct
Other crystals are highly
360
modified (Fig 197), the total number of forms that have been identified
The angle icli Aoi7i = 28 55' Some crystals
approximating 50
are very large, measuring 2 to 4 feet in length and
i ft
diameter
in
It
Beryl has a glassy luster
Its streak
colorless or of some light shade of green, red, or blue
white, hardness 7-8
and density
6-2 8
is
is
Its cleavage is
very imperfect
Pleochroism is
frequently a parting parallel to the base
noticeable in green and blue crystals
but there
light at 20
is
are co=
5740,
They become greater with
e= i 5690
ing temperature
Before the blowpipe colorless varieties
become milky, but others are
FIG tg6
1'ic,
FIG 196
Beryl Crystals with op, ioTo (w), oP oooi

loii (p) and 2?2, 1 121 00
FIG 197
Beryl Crystal with m,
c,
p and
3Pg, 2131
as
increas-
Fig 196
(c),
<
197
P2, 1120 (a),
P,
Also 2p, 202 1 (M) and
unchanged except at very high temperatures when sharp edges arc fused
to a porous glass
The mineral is not attacked by acids.
Beryl is distinguished from apatite, which
greater hardness
It alters to mica and kaolin (p 404)
Syntheses
8162,
it
much
resembles,
by
its
Beryl crystals have been formed by long heating of

a melt of the molybdate or vanadate of lithium,
AkOs and BeO
and by precipitating a solution of beryllium and aluminium sulphates

with sodium silicate and heating the dried precipitate with boric acid
in
a porcelain oven
Occurrence
The mineral occurs as an accessory constituent
pegmatites and granites, in crystalline schists, especially mica schists and
ANHYDROUS METASILICATES
361
m ore veins and sometimes in clay slates and bituminous lime-
gneisses,
stones
The transparent
Uses
utilized as
varieties are
gems, under the
names
following
Emerald
is
a deep green variety, the color of which
is
probably
due to CroOa,
Aquamarine, a blue-giccn variety,
Golden
beiyl,
a topa/-coloiecl variety,
betvl, a blue vanety, and

White beryl, a coloiless variety
Blue
Localities
Crystals of ordinal y ber>l occur at Stnegau, Silesia, in
the granite dikes near
the cassitente veins near Altcnbcrg, in Savony,
S Piero, Elba, in the Mouine Mts at Down, Ireland, at various points
(especially near Jekatermburg), in Uuil, Russia,
m the mountain counties of Noith
and in North America,

Mt. Antero, Colo at
;
giamte veins at Haddam, Conn., at Acworth,

and at Norway, Hebron, and other points in western Maine
Peiperville,
N H
Pcnn
Carolina; at
Much of
The
in
the beryl of
Maine
is
the variety containing caesium.
emeralds are found in geodes, and embedded in a clay

slate at the Muso Mine, Colombia, New Grenada, but fine gem matefinest
Red Sea, Habachthal, Tyrol, Glen,

Bnuil, Hindustan and Ceylon. The finest
occurs also at Zabara, neat the
rial
New
South Wales, and

aquamarines come from
The most important

tites in
Sibeiia,
beryl mines
m the United
Macon
Cleveland, Burke and
golden beryl and the more usual varieties
Co
and on Whiterock Mt
in
Macon
States are
m pegma-
Aquamarine,
occur at Walker Knob, Burke
Counties,
Co., but those at the first-named
Near Clayton, Ga , a
locality are not clear enough to furnish gems.
contains
bliush
and
large
yellowish green beryls, some of which
pegmatite
yield
gem
States
The
material
finest
was from Stoneham, Me.
the United
aquamarine ever found
Near Shelby, Clevelaid Co and at
,
Crabtree Mountain, Mitchell Co

North Carolina, genuine emeralds
occur in a pegmatite that cuts basic rocks. Fine emeralds have also
,
been mined at Stony Point,

Production
The
C,,
Haddam, Conn., and Topsham,
total yield of emerald
Me
from North Carolina during
The
1912 was about 2,969 carats, valued at $12,875 in the rough
cut
of
the
stone
was
but
some
value
$25 per carat,
average
especially
fine gems from the Shelby locality were valued at $200 per carat
There
were also produced
in the
of beryl, valued at $1,765.
United States during this year other varieties
362
Leucite (K2 Al2(SiO 3 )4)
what are apparently simple

Leucite occurs almost exclusively
isometric crystals, but which are actually polysynthetic twins of a doubly
At 500 and above, leucite substance is isometric.
refracting substance
from molten magmas as isometric crystals, which, upon
The twinning is revealed by striation
further cooling, become twinned
It separates
The substance is, therefore, dimorphous

crystal faces
Theoretically, leucite is a potassium aluminium meUsihcate, but
on the
most natural
crystals contain
some soda and many contain small quan-
The calculated composition of the pure molecule and

tities of calcium
the actual composition of two natural crystals are shown below
Si02
55 02
A1 2
Calculated
Mt
Mt
Vesuvius
ss 28
Vulture
54 94
24 08
25 10
The
K2 O
CaO Na2
80
60
20 79
23
15 18
mineral occurs in icositetrahedrons, 262(211),
0(no) and oo
HjO
21 58
23 40
oo (100)
Total
100 oo
13
100 75
100 38
some
cases
parallel to oo 0(no)
is common, but often the twins are polysynthetic and are recognizable
The twinning lamellae are
only by stnations on the crystal faces
modified by
oo
Twinning
amsotropic, as shown by their optical properties, but at 500 the twinning disappears and the crystals become completely isotropic through-
out
and colorless, white or light gray m color.

and has a white streak. Its cleavage is
imperfect parallel to oo 0(no), and its fracture is conchoidal or unevt n.
It is brittle
Its hardness is 5-6 and density 2 5.
Its indices of refracLeucite
is
glassy in luster
tion approximate
i 508
Before the blowpipe leucite
the production of pulverulent
is infusible
silica
Its
It
is
soluble
m HC1
with
powdei reacts strongly alka-
line
It
is
distinguished from other minerals
violet color it imparts to the flame
and
its
by
its crystallization,
reaction toward
HCl,
by the
It is
most apt
is
to be confused with analcite (p, 458) and colorless garneL

It
distinguished from the latter by its inferior hardness and from the
former by its mfusibility and failure to yield water when heated in the
glass tube below red heat
Analcite, moreover, fails to give the flame
test for potash
The mineral alters quite readily into analcite and some other zeolite,
into a mixture of orthoclase and
nepheline, or into orthoclase (p. 413)
ANHYDROUS METASILIOATES
and muscovite, or into orthoclase alone*
363
Its final alteration product is
kaolin
Us crystals have been obtained by fusing its constituents,

by molting a mixture of SiOa, potassium alummate and vanaand by fusing a mixtuic of Si(\> and AlÔ* with an excess of KF
Syntheses
and
also
date,
Occurrence
It occurs
and high m
In some old rocks
silica
cases
lavas low in
only in igneous rocks, especially
in the plutomc rock known as missourite
potash, and
it is
it is
pimuiy
Localities
repie&ented by
mineral
Leucite
is
an
its alteration
products.
essential constituent of the lavas
In
all
the
Rhenish Prussia,
near Wiescnthal, Saxony,

at
the Leucite Hills,
in the Sicbcnburgei, Bohemia;
Vesuvius, Italy,
and other places in Wyoming, and at several places in Montana, at
Kaiserstuhl, Baden,
Magnet Cove, Ark and near Hamburg, N J

VMS. It is suggested that the large masses
,
Leucite Hills be used as a source of potash

the rocks at this place contain ro ]>er cent of
of leucitc rocks
On the assumption
KÔ it is estimated
the
that
that
the total quantity of potash in them amounts to about 200,000,000 tons.
THE AMPHIBOLOUS
The amphibolous embrace a
large numbei of minerals, some of

as
lock components. Economically,
which are extremely important
Jio
^-T~^\Ji
pio
~ ^110
100
110
uo
FIG. ig8
Pyroxene (A) and Amphibolc (#) Crystals* Illustrating

Differences in InterseUionb of Cleavage*
Cross-Sections, of
they have
little
value.
paratively slight extent.

bic,
monoclimc and
the arts, but only to a comApparently they crystallize in the orthorhom-
Several are used
iri
triclmic systems.
are divisible into two groups, the pyroxenes and

the amphtboles, which differ from one another in the ratio between their
The amphiboloids
364
i, while in the
between the prismatic
The
2
i
angle
approximately
amphiboles
and 93), and on
is nearly equal (87
planes ( oo P, no) on the former
the latter very unequal (s6-i24). Since, moreover, in all members of
both groups there is a distinct cleavage paiallel to the unit prism, the
of intersection of the cleavage planes in the pyroxenes and in the
In the pyroxenes
a and b axes.
this ratio is nearly i
it is
angles
This difference
hornblendes are also different
age angles of the two

(Fig
prismatic and cleav-
groups serves leadily to distinguish
between them
198)
The pyroxenes appear to be

and the amphiboles under high
common
the more stable at high temperatures

Thus pyroxenes are more
pressuies
than the amphiboles in lavas and amphiboles more
than pyroxenes in crystalline
common
schists
Chemically, the amphiboloids are metasihcates ot Na, Li, Mg, Ca,

Fe, Mn, Zn and Al, or isomorphous mixtures of Ihcse metasihcates with
one another and with an orthosilicate of the general composition rep(Mg Fe)((Al Fe)O) 3 SiQi
resented by
THE PYROXENES
(R"Si0 3
The pyroxenes
R'Al(Si03 ) 2 and
RVoVSiO,)
occur very widely spread as constituents of igneous
have been filled by igneous processes. Some

members of the group are also common metamorphic pi oducts Although
rocks,
and
in veins that
crystallizing in different systems their crystals possess a ccitam family

resemblance, expressed best in their hon/ontal cross-sections, which
have a nearly orthorhombic symmetry, i e they uic nearly symmetrical
about two planes at right angles to one another, passing through the
,
a and
b axes,
which are nearly equal
the pyroxenes
is parallel
The most
perfect cleavage of all
to ooP(no), and consequently their cleavage
angles aie nearly equal (Fig I98A)

They approximate 92 and 88,
with the plane of the a and c axes (the plane of symmetry in monochnic
forms) bisecting the acute angle
The best known members of the series with their axial ratios are
listed below
In the case of the orthorhombic members it will be noticed
is made x
This is clone to emphabetween
the
correspondence
orthorhombic, monoclimc and trichmc forms in their axial ratios The usual orientation, that which
that the shorter of the lateral axes

size the
regards the longer of the lateral axes as 5(=i) gives a
9702
and .9713 : i
5700 for hypersthene. By
many authors wollastomte and pectolite are placed in an independent
:
5710 for bronzite,
365
group partly because of the fact that they are much more easily decomposed by acids than are the other pyroxenes, and partly because of
their
very different crystal habits, and
different axial ratios
Orlhorhombic (possibly twinned monochmc)
Bronzite
MgSiO
(Mg Fe)SiO,
Hypersthene
FcSiOj
c =*
oss
587
=10308
5885
02QS
5868
Monoclimc (monochmc prismatic

Wollaslomtc
CaSiO,
Peclohte
HNaCa2(Si0 3 ) 3
Diopside
Sahhte
Hedcnbcrgite
Schejfente
Aiigile
class)
0=8
0523
9649
=1
1140
9864
=84 40'
(Mg Gi)SiO,
(Mg Fc)Ca(Si0 8)2
10921
5893
FeCa(SiO n )2
S83
=74 10'
10955
5904
74
14'
= 1090-6
6012
73
ii'
7?
09'
(Mg Fc)(Ca Mn)(SiO,)i

r(Mg PeJCXSiCMj
I (Mg Fc)((M Fc)0)jSi04
OpO
'
74
lNd(Al Fc)(biOOa
Acmite
Aeginnc
fadcitc
(M
Fe)((Al
oqS
,0.)
613
Na\l(SiO,)j,
Spodumene
1283
LiAl(SiO,)>
6234
Trichnic (trichnic piiucoidal ckiss)
Rhodonite
MnSiOi
Bu\tamtte
(Mn
Rabmglonite
Fowlente
Ca)SiOi
(Ca Fe Mn)jFcfc(SiOOi
(Mn Fc Ca Zi
'6=1
0729
6213
108
=10807
6237
^saio834'
44'
In addition, there arc several comparatively rare monoclimc pyroxenes and one trichnic form, that contain zirconium. They occur only
as components of rocks rich in alkalies.
PYROXENES
Enstatite (MgSiOa)
Bronzite
Hypersthene (FeSiO 3)
The orthorhombic pyroxenes are isomorphous mixtures of MgSiOa

The pure magnesium and iron molecules are not known in
and FeSiOs
nature, though the former has been produced artificially.

members of the group contain both magnesium and iron.
Nearly
all
When
the
proportion of the iron present is small (5 per cent FeO), the mixture is
known as ewtotite Mixtures with 5 to 16,8 per cent of FeO (cor-
366
MgO FeO =3 Z X are known as bronzite and mixtures

more
than 16 8 per cent FeO are known as hypersthene
containing
The composition of MgSiOs and of some typical members of the group
responding to
follow
Si0 2
A12
FeO
MgO
60 03
II
58 oo
35
36 91
55 So
52 12
3 16
16 80
i 69
20 94
21 56
HI
IV
II
III
CaO
HaO
Total
100 oo
100 22
39 97
80
100 00
27 70
3 20
99 Si
Calculated composition of MgSi03

Portion of large crystals of enstatite from Kjorrestad, Norway
which
Calculated composition of upper limit of bronzite, i c
,
=3
IV Hypersthene powder separated from a gabbro
The
MgO
FeO
at
Mt
Hope,
Md
three minerals occur in crystals that have a well marked orthoit is believed that this may be a case of pseu-
rhombic symmetry, but
dosymmetry only, i e that the minerals may in reality be monochnic,

and that their apparently orthorhombic symmetry may be due to
Monochnic
repeated polysynthetic twinning of very thin lamellae.
fusion
of
and
in
has
made
the
been
Si02
by
MgO
presence of
MgSiOs
it
is
certain
but
not
this
is identithat
B20a,
cal with an iron-free enstatite
,
The
natural crystals of the oilhorhombic

pyroxenes are columnar in habit and are
bounded by
usually
oo
P 66(100),
addition
|P 56
Enstatite CrysFIG. 199
tal with oo P, no (m),
oo Poo, 100 (a), oo Poo,
oio
(6), |P co, 023 (q),

JPoS, 012 (*), |P5,
016 ($) and |P, 223 (T)
amount
of
iron
oo
JP
P2(2i2),
06 (014),
on some crybtals
(034),
P(iii),
P 06(010),
oo
P(no),
with the
of
001*2(120),
aP5(an),
iP*(o)
and other forms (Fig 199)

All cleave perfectly parallel to ooP(uo) with u cleavage
angle of 88 i6'-2o' and 91
4o'~44'* The
angle
noAiIo=88
The
16' to 88
20'.
and other physical properties of

the orthorhombic pyroxenes vary with the
color
Enstatite
gray, yellow or green.

Bronzite is brown,
or some shade lighter than hypersthene and darker than enstatite.
All colored varieties are pleochroic, the difference in color in different
Hypersthene
is
present
is light
black, dark purple or dark green
directions increasing with the increase in iron

Green, red, yellow and
tints are most prominent.
All varieties have a colorless streak.
brown
ANHYDHOUH METASILICATES
Many
oo
367
hypcisthencs and bronzites exhibit a metallic shimmer on

to tiny inclusions with then flat sides parallel to
P 06(010), due
The hardness
this direction
between
the orthorhombic pyroxenes
of
and 6 and then density between
and
vanes
3 5 increasing with
Their refractive indices for yellow light are
the iron present
Enstatite
Hypersthene
7=1
=i
/3=i 669
665
=i
=i
692
702
674
705
Before the blowpipe the iron-free members of the series are infusible.
iron they become more easily fusible, very ferruginous
With increase
hypersthene melting easily to a greenish black weakly magnetic glass

When treated with hydrochloric acid the members near enstatite are
unattacked, while those near hypersthene are slightly decomposed
Crystals of these pyroxenes have been made by fusing
Syntheses
the proper components with BaOj), and by heating mixtures of SiCfe and
MgCfe They are frequent constituents of slags
Occurrence
talline schists,
filled
The rhombic pyroxenes occur
by igneous magmas
tions at the earth's surface
and
in igneous rocks, in crys-
m metamorphosed dolomites and in veins that have been
rarely to talc
They are not very stable under the condiThey weather to serpentine, hornblende
Enstatite occurs also
meteorites
Good crystals of the orthorhombic pyroxenes are found

the volcanic bombs (inclusions m lava) of the Lake Laach district,
Locahhe^
in
in oie veins at Bodenmais, Bavaria, at Mlnds, Hungary,

the trachyte of Mont Dore, France, in apatite veins at Snarum,
Norway, and in a glassy andesite on Peel Island, Japan In the United
Prussia,
North Carolina,
basic coarse-grained igneous rocks
States they occur
the
of
York
volcanic
and
New
and
New
Highlands
Jersey,
Maryland,
rocks in Colorado, and at the Corundum Mines,

cially fine bronzite occurs on Paul's Island, Labrador.
Georgia.
Espe-
MONOCLINIC PYROXENE'S
The
monoclinic pyroxenes comprise a series of isomorphous mixtures

and the
Na, Li, Ca, Mg, Fe" and
Mn
of monoclinic mctasihcutes of
silicate
is
R"
(R"'0)a Si0 4 in which

,
R"
is
usually
Mg, Ca
or
Fe and R'"
Al or Fe.
.Although their chemical composition vanes quite widely, the crysmembers of the group is practically the same With
tallization of all the
the exception of wollastomte and
pectolite
the habit of their crystals
is
and their corresponding mterfacial angles have approximately

the same value.
similar
368
The group may be subdivided
into four subgroups (i) the wollas-
tonite subgroup, including this mineral and pectolite, with calcium as

the principal metallic component, (2) the magnesmm-calcium-iron
and augtte, and (3)

pyroxenes, including diopside, sa\hte, lelenbergite
and
A fourth
the alkali pyroxenes including acm te,jaleite
*po lumene
subgroup includes the rare zirconium-bearing pyroxenes
All crystal-
lize in the monoclinic prismatic class
WoUastomte Subgroup
These minerals, because their axial ratios are somewhat different

from those of the other monoclinic pyroxenes, and because they are
much more easily decomposed by acids, are by some mineralogists regarded as constituting an independent group
Wollastonite (CaSiOs)
WoUastomte analyses correspond very closely to the theoietical

There is, however,
composition required by the formula assigned to it
there
arc present also
and
a
little
Fe20a
usually
present
nearly always
A dimorph, pseudowollastonite, 01
made
has
been
/3 wollastomte,
by melting wollastomtc and cooling
been
nature
Its crystals arc hexagfound
not
it
has
but
yet
slowly,
small traces of other constituents
agonal or monoclinic with an hexagonal habit
Si0 2
Theoretical
The
MnO CaO MgO Na2

48 25
51 75
Bonaparte Lake,
oo
FeO
NY
mineral
50 66
forms
07
tabular
P 60(100), -Poo(ioi),
or
H2
47 98
46
05
columnar crystals
oP(ooi), P6o(io7),
Total
100 oo
72
99 94
bounded by
oop2(i2o), -PS(i22)
and
oop|(54o) (Fig 200).

sometimes found with oo P
Twins
6b (100)
are
the
The angle 540 A 540 = 79

twinning plane
The mineral occurs also in granular
58'
g
;-^\
and
fibrous masses
feet
parallel
little less
*,
\
tal
11
4.
Wollastonite Crys-
with bP t ooi
ioo
(a),
+P 55
102
(c),
-Poo,
ioi
(/),
oo
POO,
ioi
(),
-hJP
() and oopf, S4o
PO
(h)
Its
P 06
cleavage
(100)
is
per-
and only a
Wollastonite
a
TV
FIG -200
to oo
is
usually
colorless
or
some cases is grayish, yellow-uj-ir

i
lsh reddlsh or brown
It is transparent
or translucent and has a white streak, Its
luster is glassy except on the
cleavage face
where it is often pearly. Its hardness is
white, but in
>
4 5-5 and density
8-2
9,
and
its
369
a=i 621, |8==i 633, 7=1 636

Befoic the blowpipe wollastonite fuses with difficulty to a white
are
Its fusing point vanes between 1240

and 1325,
in iron
increase
with
It dissolves in HC1, leaving a residue
diminishing
of gelatinous silica, and is attacked vigorously by strong solutions of
transparent glass
NaOH
When
fused
recrystalhzes in hexagonal crystals (pseudo-
it
wollastonite)
The mineral
distinguished from other white silicates by its crysIts princleavage and its solubility
hydrochloric acid
is into apophylhte (p 443)
alteiation
cipal
Ciystals of wollastonite have been made by fusing SiCfe
Syntheses
is
tallization, its
and CaFa, and by dissolving the hexagonal modification (made by fusing

and cooling wollastonite) in molten calcium vanadate at 8oo-9oo.
Wollastonite
Occurrence
is
metametamor-
characteristically a product of
morpluc pioccsscs, both contact and regional
It occurs in
phosed dolomites, in the limestone inclusions in the lava of Vesuvius,

in many gneisses and in some eruptive rocks. It is found also
etc
,
abundantly in caltaicous
slags
Crystals of wollastonite aie found in the phonolite of the

ncai
a contact metamorphosed limeFmburg, Bavaria;
Kaiberstuhl,
stone neai Cxiklova, Ilungaiy, in the limestone bombs in the lava of
Localities
Mt, Somma, Naples, Italy, and of Santorm, Greece, and m limestone

Dunn, N Y Granulu or fibrous masses occur also at Attleboro,
Penn at dilTeient points in Lewis, Essev and Warren Counties, N,
Y and at the Cliff Mine, Keweenaw Pt Mich.
at
Pectolite
(HNaCa2 (Si0 3 )3)
Pectolite was formerly regarded as a partially weathered wollastonite

Recent analyses, however, indicate that it may have a definite composition which can be represented by the formula written above, as shown
by the analyses quoted below The excess of water shown by most
analyses
is
SiOs
ascribed to the admixture of
AlaOs
MgO
CaO
some weathered
NasO
I.
54 23
33 72
9 34
IL
45 32
34 oo
9 32
32 21
8 57
III
53 94
I
IT
TTT
71
43
K2
Theoretical
Niakornat, Greenland
Point Barrow, Alaska
Contains also
per cent
material,
EM)
Total
2 71
KX> oo
2 55
,47
4 09
100 30
100 82
..
.370
mineral usually occurs in fibrous masses of acicular crystals

but in a few cases in tabular
elongated in the direction of the orthoaxis,
The
forms flattened parallel to

to the same plane
oo
Its cleavage is distinct parallel
oo (100).
Pectohte when pure, or nearly pure,
is
colorless or
white or gray, and
Its luster is pearly on cleavage surfaces

and satiny on fracture surfaces Its hardness is about 4 5 and its densome specimens phosphoresce
sity 2 88. When broken in the dark,
Its average refractive index for yellow light is i 61.
It yields
Before the blowpipe the mineral fuses to a white enamel
hot
with
treated
when
and
tube
water when heated in the closed
hydrochloric acid it decomposes, leaving a residue of flocculent silica.
is talc (p 401).
principal alteration product of pectohte
been produced
have
of
fine
needles
pectohte
Small,
Synthesis
The
heating to 400 mixtures of Si02,

proportions
Occurrence.
The mineral occurs in
the walls of cracks

fillings,
AkOs, Na20, CaO and BfeO,

druses
and as
by
in various
isolated crystals on
m eruptive rocks, and also in a few instances as vein
and as a constituent
of
metamorphic rocks.
It is mainly a
secondary mineral
Localities
Crystals are found in seams
m basalts at Edmburghshire,
and in the eleohteJ

about 4 per cent
with
Ark
(manganopectohte
Magnet Cove,
fibrous
Barrow
At
Point, Alaska, fine-grained
aggregates are
MnO)
found in abandoned workshops of the Eskimo
Radially fibrous masses
occur in the Thunder Bay region, Lake Superior, at Dibco, Greenland,
and at a number of points in the Alps.
Scotland, at Bergen Hill,
in clefts in traprock,
syemte at
Magnesmm-Calcium-Iron Pyroxenes
Diopside-Augite
The calcium-magnesium-iron pyroxenes include a number of compounds that have been given distinctive names They are apparently
isomorphous mixtures of the metasihcates of Mg, Ca, Fe and Mn, or of
these together with the magnesium and iron salts of the basic orthosilicate
of iron and aluminium (Mg-Fe)((Al- Fe)0) 2 Si04.
The crystals of all members of the group
m their
are alike in habit
and
similar
Their axial ratios are nearly the same and

the angle ft has nearly the same value in all
It is possible that the
slight differences observed are due to the effect of the varying amounts of
mterfacial angles
iron present.
The
crystals are nearly all short
columnar in habit, with
371
The simplest crystals are bounded by

ooP(no), ooPSb(oio) and P(Tii), but
P(III),
Other
2P(22i), oP(ooi) and 2P 02(021) are also common (Fig 201)
forms to the number of 95 have been observed, but they are comparaContact and interpenctration twins are fairly common
tively rare
the vertical zone well developed
ooPob(ioo),
In the contact twins the usual twinning plane is oo P

Polysynthetic twins are twinned parallel to oP(ooi)
tration twins
The
planes
POO(IOI) (Fig
cleavage
and 87*
about 93
is
66 (100)
(Fig 202)
In the mterpeneFa
and
(Is 2) are the twinning
203)
parallel to oo P(iro), the cleavage angles being
Partings are also
common,
parallel to
one or the
other of the three pinacoids

All the pyroxenes of this group have a glassy luster and are transparent or translucent, Their color varies with composition as does also
FIG
FIG 201
FIG 201
Axigilc Crystal with oo P,
FIG 203
202.
no
(m),
oo
P 55
joo
(a),
oo
P So
oio
(b)
and
P, Tn(s),
FIG
FIG 203
202,
Interpenetration
Augitc Twinned about
Twin
of Augitc, with
oo
P 65
-P So
(100)
(101) the
Twinning Plane
and density. The limits of hardness are 5 and 6 and of

and 3 6. The streak of all varieties 'is white Pleochroism
has been observed in some occurrences but it is not as noticeable as in
their hardness
density 3
the corresponding amphiboles. In the pyroxenes of this group it is

usually in shades of green, but in the diallage of the Lake Superior region
strong in shades of amethyst
Before the blowpipe the members of the group are fusible, their
The fusing
fusibility increasing with the quantity of iron present
temperature of the pure diopside is 1381 and of hedenbergite xioo-
it is fairly
The fusing points of the other pyroxenes of the group he between

1 1 60,
None of the varieties are attacked by acids to any
these temperatures
appreciable degree
All the pyroxenes are distinguished from other minerals
crystallization
and
their cleavage.
by
their
372
Diopside
is
a mixture of the magnesium and calcium
the two molecules are in the ratio
silicates
of the cor-
The
calculated
responding iron molecule diopside grades into sahlite

composition of a mixture of the formula MgCa(SiOs)2
the
first line
The compositions
in the following
two
m which
With the addition

is
indicated in
of several typical diopsides are quoted
lines
Si0 2 A12
Theoretical
55 55
Albrechtsberg, Aus
Alathal, Switzerland
55 6o
54 28
Fe2
l6
51
98
Its crystals are usually characterized
CaO
Total
18 52
5 6 18 34
25 93
26 77
100 oo
17 30
25 04
100 02
FeO
91
MgO
by the presence
101 43
of the basal
plane (Fig 204)

of the angle no
The
value
A 110=92
So'
Diopside is usually light

green or colorless, yellowish,
dark green or nearly black
and rarely deep blue
The
lighter varieties are transpar-
FIG 204
(m), oo
ooi
31
Diopside Crystals with oop, uo

(a), oopSb, O io (6), oP
Poo, 100
(c),
1 (A),
-P, in (), +2P, 221
+P5o,Toi
(o),
ent or translucent, the darker

ones opaque
The density of
the pure mineral is 3 25. Its
refractive
3P3,
light are.
(p)
indices
7=16980,
increase with increase in the iron molecule
Among
for
yellow
1.6685,18= 1.6755,
All these values
the varieties that
names may be mentioned

a
colored
translucent variety, and
Malacohte,
pale
have been given
distinct
Chromeôpstde, a bright green variety containing from one to

several per cent CtaOs
Diopside occurs in igneous rocks and in metamorphosed limestones.
Hedenbergite is the calcium-iron pyroxene, though it always consome of the diopside molecule The calculated compositions of the
type mineral (FeCaS20e) and of a specimen from its best known locality
tains
are.
Si02
Theoretical
Tunaberg, Sweden
48 39
47 62
AkOa FegOs FeO

i
88
10
29 43
26 29
MgO
2,76
CaO
Total
22 l8
IOO 00
21. S3
lao 18
The
mineral
is
black, except varieties that contain
It occurs in crystals
grayish green
lamellar masses
and
refractive
for
indices
=
/3=i 7366, 7
Sahhte.
yellow
a= i
light,
Mn
which are
205)
and
7320,
Intel mediate
hedenbergite
characterized
(Fig
Its density is 3 31,
7506
are
373
several
between diopside and

pyroxenes which are
by possessing all three of the

Mg and Fe in notable amounts
Of these the most common is sahhte, which is
elements Ca,
grayish, grayish green or black

crystals
It occurs
FIG
Forms a,
u an(* s as
in F '? *4 Also aP *
021 (s) and
and granular masses

analysis
typical
tr
follows,J
the
Hedenbergite
205
Crystal
specimen
A
'
>
&>
coming from Valpelema, Italy

Si02
54 02
20
Schefiferite
FeO
MgO
CaO
Total
8 07
13 52
24 88
100 69
a brown or black pyroxene characterized
is
by the
fact
contains considerable manganese

It may be regarded as hedenwhich a portion of the iron molecule has been replaced by the
bergite
that
it
A specimen from the best

corresponding manganese molecule
Langban, Sweden gave*
locality for the species
28,
It occurs
of the zone
The
17,
known
CaO=i9 62=99
22
m tabular crystals that aie usually elongated m the direction

ooPob
mineral
is
P(Tn), Poo (Tor) and in crystalline masses

brown or black, according to the percentage
sp gr. is 3.46-3,55 and its fusing temperature
(oio),
yellowish
of iron present
Its
I200-I250
known as wolan, from St Marcel, Italy, is charby the presence of about 5 per cent NagO, due possibly to the
admixture of NaMn(SiOa)2
Its sp gr.=3 21.
fine blue variety,
acterized
Jeffersonite
is
is
a variety containing
zinc, occurring at
Franklin Fur-
Its color
found in large crystals with rounded edges
greenish black on fresh fractures and chocolate brown on exposed sur-
nace,
faces.
Si0 2
49 91
J.
It is
An analysis yielded
AlaOs
i
Q3
FeO
ro 53
MnO ZnO
7
oo
4 39
MgO
CaO
8 18
15 48
H2
i
20
Total
9862
374
Augite is the name given to the Ca-Mg-Fe pyroxenes containing

alumina
They are isomorphous mixtures of (Ca, Mg, Fe) SiOa with
the alumino and ferric orthosilicates of the same metals, and often with a
The varieties of augite
small quantity of the acmite or jadeite molecule
are numerous, their composition and properties differing with the proin the
portions of the various molecules
prominent varieties are
The
compounds
three most
a pale to dark green richly magnesian variety
Fassatie,
Sp gr
298
Ordinary augite
in igneous rocks
>
a dark green or brownish black vanety, common

For yellow light, a=i 712,
Specific gravity 3 24
5=1717,7=1733
a variety that is characterized by the possession of a
to oo P 60
parting and a lamellar structure, usually parallel
Diallage,
distinct
(100).
is
Omphacite
a bright green sodic variety
Sp gr
=3
of fassaite (I), of three varieties of augite (II, III, IV)
33
and
Analyses
of onipha-
cite (V) follow.
A12
Si0 2
I
41 97
II
50 41
III 51 01
IV 46 95
54 21
I
Fe20a
10 63
6 07
36
09
Na2
FeO
MgO
CaO
26 60
10 29
12 92
22 75
16 58
20 80
*6
19 02
10 03
14 61
4 84
3 51
55
6 78
3 16
9 75
10 91
4 47
3 12
33
Loss
2
70
Total
100 10
100 02
4.51
.05
99 90
100 32
100 15
Grass green, Fassathal, Tyrol
Monte Somma, Italy

Monte Somma, Italy
IV Black, Monte Somma, Italy
II
III
Yellow,
Dark
green,
Omphacite from the Eclogite of Otztal, Tyrol
Also
92% K O and .46% TiO8

a
The
augites are usually in short prismatic crystals (Figs. 201, 202).

are common constituents of igneous rocks
All the pyroxenes of this group are subject to change under the
They
on the
Under the influence of the weather

Under metamorphosing conditions they change
into the corresponding amphiboles, more particularly into the bright
conditions
earth's surface
they alter to chlorite

green variety
common.
known
Steatite,
as
urahte.
Alteration
to
tremohte, epidote and other
frequent alteration products
serpentine
is
also
minerals are also
Syntheses
Diopside and augite are
have been made by
common
fusing their constituents
without the addition of a flux
375
m furnace slags.
open
crucibles,
Molten hornblende
They
with or
crystallizes
as
monoclmic pyroxene
The most common methods of occurrence of the various

The magnesium-calcium
have
already been mentioned
pyroxenes
varieties such as diopside and sahlite are found principally in metamorThe green varieties are most common in schists and the
phic limestones
Occurrence
black varieties
igneous rocks, especially the basic ones
Augite often
occurs also in ore veins, especially with magnetite
The occurrences of the various pyroxenes are so numerous
Localities
It will be sufficient to state that
that they cannot be enumerated here
of
are
the
found
Ala Valley, Piedmont, at Zerdiopside
good crystals
m Sweden.
matt, in Switzerland, at Pargas, in Finland, and Nordmark,

Hedenbergite occurs at Tunaberg, Sweden, and Arendal,
scheffente at Langban, Sweden, and augite at
Fassathal, Traversella, Piedmont;
Mt
Norway,
Mt Monzom,
the
Vesuvius, Italy, the Sandwich
Islands and the Azores
Raymond and Rumand Dekalb, N Y (diopside),

J (hcdenbergite and jeffersomte)
In the United States good crystals are found at

ford,
Me
(diopside, sahhte), at Edenville
and at Franklin Furnace,
Alkali Pyroxenes
The
them of
pyroxenes are characterized by the piesence
sodium They may be regarded as isomorphous mixtures of the sodium, lithium, iron and aluminium metasihcates, thus
alkali
alkalis, especially
Na2Si03+Fe2(Si03 )3~2NaFe(SiO;j)2, or NasSiQs+AhKSiOsJs-aNaAl

The three most common alkali pyroxenes are acmite, jaderie
($103)2
and spodumene Spodumene is used as a source of lithium Jadeite
was formerly a favorite material from which to carve sacred emblems
Acmite
Aegirine
Acmite has a composition corresponding to the formula NaFe(SiOa)2,

and is rare More commonly this molecule is mixed with the augite
molecule in the compound known as aegmne or aegmte, or aegmneaugite) according to the proportion of the augite molecule present
When the mixture contains about 2,50 per cent Na20 the corresponding mineral is usually known as aegerine-augite. When
are absent (NagO 5* 12-13 per cent), it is known as acmite.
MgO and CaO
these limits
The
it is
Between
aegirine.
calculated compositions of the pure acmite molecule
and the
376
and aegirme-augite as
composition of specimens of acmite, aegirme
found by analyses are
A12
Sl02
Si 97
II. 51 66
5 65 4 28 9 39
12 37 10 98 22 01
30
8 68
43
68
too 25*
ioo 41 t
94
99 73
12 46
5 23
16 28
4 88
33
Total
100 OO
13 43
28 28
49 3 2
IV. 5
K2
MgO CaO Na2
FeO
34 60
III
Fe2
14
Theoretical acmite
III
Acmite, Rundemyr, Norway

Aegirme, Sarna, Dalekarhen
IV
Aegirme-augite, Laurvik,
II
Norway
* Contains also
69 per cent MnO, 39 per cent
i
also
Contains
25 per cent TiOa
t
and
11
per cent TiOj
t Contains also 66 per cent TiQj
Acmite
crystals are usually
more
acicular
m habit
than those of the
P(Tn) and
ordinary pyroxenes, and their terminations are steeper
are
common
and
and other
6P("66i)
Poo(Toi)
steep pyramids are not
uncommon
(Fig 206).
vitreous luster, and is
Its color is reddish
brown to brownish black and In some cases
The mineral has a
green
Its hardness
is
and sp
gr.
refractive indices for yellow light arc.
j3=i 7990,
7=1
8126
greenish black
yellowish gray or dark green.
Aegirme
FIG 206
tal
with
(a),
_oop,
in
(5),
Acmite Crys-
oo
p 60
oo
Poo, oio
no
ioo
(6),
+P,
(m),
+3P5> 3"
+6P, 56t (0)
(5),
and 8P, SSi

and Q merge
(12)
= 3 52 Its
a = 1,7630,
is
strong in green and
brown
tints.
streak
is
Plcochroism
is
Its
Haulncss
is
and density 3 52
Before the blowpipe acmite and aegirine fuse
The fusing temBoth

perature of acmite is from 970 to 1020
minerals are slightly attacked by ucul before and
to a black magnetic globule
after fusing
Acmite has been made by the

Synthesis
fusion of a mixture of powdered quartz, FfyQz and NiioCO;* in the
proportions indicated by the formula NaFe(SiOs)2
Both minerals are limited m

rocks, in which they are primary
Occurrence
nch igneous
Localities
their occurrence to soda-
Crystals of acmite occur in a dike of pegmatite near
Eker, Norway, and in a nephelme syenite at Ditro, Hungary.
377
They occur abundantly in the

crystals are more common
in
the
neighborhood of Langesundfjord, Norway,
syenite dikes
Aeginne
nephehne
m some
cnmte
instances in crystals a foot long. They are found also in cansyenites at Elfdalen and elsewhere in Sweden, in nephehne
syenite
on the Kola Peninsula, Russia, and
in the
same rock at Hot
Springs, Ark.
Jadeite (NaAl(Si0 3 ) 2 )
Jadeite
is
not
known
in
measurable crystals, but, because sodium
almost universally present in the mineral spodumene, where it is apparently in isomorphous mixture with LiAl(Si03)2, it is assumed that the
is
molecule NciAl(Si03)2 ciystalhzes in the same way as the spodumene and

Most specimens of jadeite are isomorphous mixthe acnnte molecules
When in addition to these
tures of the jadeite and diopside molecules
there
is
a notable admixture of the acmite molecule, NaFe(SiO,3)2
the mineral
The
is
known
mineral
is
ments were made
as chloromdamte
of great ethnological interest because so

of a rock
composed
many
orna-
mainly of jadeite by the ancient

"
"
inhabitants of China, Mexico, South Amenca and elsewhere

Jade
all instances their
ornaments, however, arc not all made of jadeite, but
material resembles this mineral in color, structure and density

Many
of them aie made of fibrous aniphiboles, some of which correspond to
jadeite in composition
The theoietical composition of the mineral is given in line I, and the

analyses of specimens from Mexico and China in lines II and III,
AbO,i
I
II
59 39
58 18
25 56
68
21 56
III. 58
I
II
III
23 S3
FcO
CaO NagO
MgO
KgO
H2
67
1,72
94
2 49
3 37
35
Total
ioo oo
IS 35
81
77
13 09
49
53
.
100 56
100 62
Theoretical
Oavua, Mexico
Ornament, China
Jadeite occurs in fibrous, flaky and dense, finely granular masses

Its color
luster, inclining to pearly on cleavage surfaces
with a glassy
is
in
some cases white or yellowish
green or bluish green.

of 87
Its fracture is
white, but
Its streak is white
tough and
splintery.
more frequently bright
Its cleavages
make
Its hardness is 6 7
angles
and
its
=*
1.654
density 3.3-3 35. Its intermediate index of refraction,
a
Before the blowpipe jadeite fuses easily lo transparent, blebby glass
It is unattacked by acids.
After fusion, however, it is easily decomposed
378
by HC1 and sometimes by Na2 C03 At high temperatures (225

235) it is also decomposed by water
to a white hornblende
Jadeite alters by metamorphic processes
(tremohte)
Ornaments and instruments made of jadeite, and waterworn fragments of the mineral are known from many localities in China,
Tibet, Burma, Switzerland, France, Egypt, Italy, Mexico and Central
Localities
The original sources of the material of the ornaments are

The mineral, however, occurs with albite and nephelme
not known
America
in a dike at
Tawman, Burma, and probably
metamorphic
schists.
as a constituent in
some
Spodumene (LiAl(Si03 )2)

Spodumene is essentially the lithium molecule corresponding to the
sodium molecule jadeite Nearly always, however, the mineral contains
some of the sodium molecule, and a small quantity of helium Three
typical analyses are quoted below
Colorless,
Theoretical
Branchville,
64 49
64 25
27 20
Conn
Si02
27 44
Yellowish green,
Mmas Geraes,
Brazil
Kun*lto,
S Diego
Co C tl
,
64 32
64 42
27 79
27 32
20
FeO
67
CaO
17
8 07
Li20
Na2
K2
7 62
74?
39
55
100 oo
39
03
Total
7 20
24
12
99 90
101 07
99 51
Crystals are usually columnar parallel to oo P (no) or tubular parto oo P 66 (100) (Fig 207)
They are more complex than those of
allel
the members of the diopside-augite group and their habit is different

frequent forms are ooP 60(100), ooPob(oio), coP(ixo),
The most
Some of
ooP3(i 3 o), 2PSb(o2i), 2P(22i) and P(Tn)
are of enormous size
In the Etta Mine, Black Hills, South
ooP2(i2o),
them
Dakota, are many 30 ft long and 3-4 ft. in diameter. One measured 47 ft, in length. Most crystals are striated vertically. Twins are
379
common, with ooP(no), the twinning plane

Although ciystals
uncommon the mineral more fiequently occurs as platy or scaly
The angle no A ilo=93
aggregates
fairly
are not
Spodumene has a
glassy lustei, which
is
pearly on cleavage surfaces
Its color is white, gray, greenish or yellowish
green, or amethystine
It is transparent or
Its
translucent, and its streak is white
fracture is uneven or conchoidal, its hardness
between 6 and 7 and its density 3 2
Dark
marked
exhibit
green crystals
pleochroism
Refractive indices for yellow light in speciare

a=i65i,
mens from North Carolina

18=1669,
Two
as
gems
7=1677
varieties
have been named and used
^^
^
FlG
These are
OAMfe, a glassy emerald-green variety,

from Alexander Co
C
,
Kut^s^te,
or
pmk
lilac
variety,
it
Spodumene Crys-
W|
from
I20
(r),
2P 2 2 1 1
,
>
(ju)
gj
P^
2? So, 021
130 (),
-HP, 221^
but at 400
'
San Diego Co California

Under the mfluWhen
ence of radium rays it becomes green
heated to 240 it becomes a darker rose
color,
(/)
(d),
+P,
and P
65
IOJ
loses all color
Before the blowpipe the mineral swells up and fuses to a colorless

It is
glass, at the same time imparting a crimson color to the flame
unat tacked by acids. It melts at about 1325
Its powder reacts
alkaline
It alters readily to albite, muscovite, eucrypfate (LiAlSiOt), or
mix-
or cumatohte.
One of the commonest mixtures is known as cymatchte

The mixture of albite and eucryptite has been called
$ spodumenc,
Spodumene
crystals
tures of these
have not been made
Occurrence atid Origin
and ciyRtallme
schists,
It is often associated
Localities
The
where
it
artificially
mineral occurs in granites, pegmatites
was formed by pneumatolytic processes
with cassitente
Spodumene
crystals occur at
Huntmgton, Mass
in a
mica schist, at Branchville, Conn in pegmatite, at

quartz vein
a gneiss, at the Etta
Stony Point in Alexander Co N. C , in cavities
Mine and at other places in the Black Hills,
D,, in a pegmatite; at
?
Brazil
the lepidolite localities in California and in Mmas Geraes,
The ordinary varieties of the mineral are used as a source of
Uses
lithium
m the manufacture of lithium salts, and the transparent varieties
380
kunzilc m this country during 1912

gems The total production of
One specimen found in this
was valued at $18,000, all from California
Another was a crystal measunner 9X5X7 inches
year weighed 47! oz
The other forms of the mineial were not mined In teccnt years a few
as
tons have been furnished by the mines in the Black Hills
TRICL1NIC PYROXENES
include the four mmcials rhodonite, bmtamtlc,
They are completely ibomoiphous The
fowlente and babingtonite
first is the manganese metasihcate, MnSiOs, and the otheis aic iso-
The trichmc pyroxenes
of this molecule with the
morphous mixtures
con expending
calcium (bustarmte), or of these two with the corresponding

tornte), or with the iron and zinc compounds (fowlente)
silicate of
11011
(babmg-
R = Ca,Fe,Zn)
RhodomteFowlente (R"MnSiOa.
is the pure manganese silicate with the pcitentagc comIn II is the result of an analysis of ciyslals fiom
in I
shown
position
An
Sweden
analysis of bustamite fiom Campiglia, Italy, is
Pajsberg,
fowlente from Franklin Funute, N J., in IV
one
of
in
and
III
quoted
Rhodonite
A1 2
Si02
MnO FeO
458s
54 IS
II 45 86
45 92
III 49 23
26 99
34 28
37
IV 46 06
All
are trichmc
ZnO
M0
Ha O
CaO
Total
JOO OO
36
65
40
100 09
72
81
18 72
100 38
3 63
7 33
04
04
<><;
(pmacoidal class), with the aual constants of
10729
.6213,
=-io3
lO'.jS-ToB^'.r-Si
JO'
and i 0807 i
and 01-102
27',
for rhodonite,
:
.6237
jS=io834 7-82
S3
bahmgtonitc.
tals
possess
for
Thoir crys-
many
habits, of
which the cubical, tabular,

and columnar arc the most
Fig
208
(JO*
Rhodonite Crystals with

110 (), oP, ooi (<;),
P''
ioo (a)I,-"
221 (n)
oo
Poo ,010(6),
P 08(100),
2,P(22i) (Fig
2,P, 221
'p,
i7o
oo
pas,
Wand
common.
They an
usually
rough with rounded edges,
The most
f requont i y
-'
f
forms
are oP(ooi),
curnng
'
oo
P 06(010),
208)
oo'PCiTo),
The angle ioo A 001*72
37',
P/(iu")
and
Their cleavage
is
381
ooP'(no) and oo 'P(i To)

Although crystals are
some places, the minerals are more usually in dense,
perfect parallel to
fairly
common
in
structureless or finely granular masses
have a glassy luster which is somewhat

surfaces
on
They are transparent or translucent and
cleavage
pearly
have
a
rose-red color when pure
When mixed
all except babmgtomte
All the trichnic pyroxenes
may be yellowish, greenish, brownish

are pleochroic in rose and yellowish tints
Their streak
with other substances their color

or black
They
Babmgtomte is greenish black and is pleoAll have an uneven fracture

Dense
chroic in green and brown tints
Their hardness
varieties are tough and their crystals are brittle
is
always reddish white
= 5-6,
nite
and density
3 4-3 7
The intermediate refractive index
of rhodo-
73 for yellow light
is i
Before the blowpipe
all
become
The
of
black, swell
rhodonite
and fuse
is
to a
about 1200
brown
and of
fusing tempeiature
bustarmte about 1300
They are attacked by acids with loss of color
When exposed to the weather the membeis of the group containing
glass
manganese
manganese
alter to
OKide,
a mixture of which the principal constituents are a

silica and water, or to mixtures of carbon-
MÔs,
ates of manganese, or a mixture of the carbonates of manganese, iron
and calcium
Syntheses
mixtuie of
Crystals of rhodonite have been prepared by fusing a

and MnCte and bypassing a current of steam and COa
SiCfe
MnCb and Si02 Rhodonite and babmgtonformed in the slags of manganese iron furnaces, and
has been found in cavities in roasted iron ores
over a icd-hot mixture of

ite crystals are also
the latter
Occurrence
The members
of the
group containing manganese occur

and other metals, and in contact zones
between limestones, shales and igneous rocks, associated with other
manganese minerals. Under these conditions they may have been proRhodonite occurs also with
duced by the help of magmatic emanations
rhodochrositc in deposits of manganese ores and in other associations,
m veins
of magnetite, copper
where
may be
it
as a rare
of secondary origin.
component of
Babmgtomte occurs
principally
siliceous rocks
Localities
Crystals of rhodonite and bustamitc occur in iron ore
Fine crystals of rhodonite
deposits in the gneiss of Langban, Sweden
the iron ore at Pajsbcrg, Sweden, and crystals of fowlente
are found
metamorphosed limestone associated with the zinc ores at Stirling

Massive rhodonite is abundant at
Hill and Franklin Furnace, N J
in
Jekatermburg, Ural, Russia, at Kapmk, Hungary, at Blue Hill Bay,

C, associated with wad Massive busMaine, and in Jackson Co.,
382
tamite occurs at Rezbanya, Hungary, in veins

limestone, and at Mts
fibrous masses
Civillma and Campigha, Italy,
Babingtomtc occurs
druses in granite at
in a mica schist at Athol, Mass , and
Baveno,
Italy, and in the ore veins at Arendal, Norway
The principal occurrences of gem rhodonite in this country are in
In the former locality the

Siskiyou Co Cal and near Butte, Mont
a fine-grained
mineral occurs nine miles north of Happy Camp
It consists of a mixture of quartz grams cemented by
quartz schist
,
rhodonite and traversed
by
veins of pyrolusite
The Montana
material
is in radiating groups with quartz, pyrite and brown manganese ovide

At the Alice Mine it is associated with rhodochrosite
Transparent rhodonite
Uses and Production

to
The
slight extent
used as a gem-stone
is
total yield of the material
m the United States
during 1912 was valued at $550,
THE AMPHIBOLES
(R"Si0 3 R'At(Si03 ) 2 and R"(R"'0),Si0 4 )
,
The amphiboles
some other
common
are
schistose rocks, as for
alteration products of pyroxenes
and
abundant as components of ceitain
instance, the hornblende schists, and they otuu
The> are
silicates
also
The crystals of till the

to
are
similar
habit
of
the
those
pyroxenes (Fig 209),
amphiboles
but since the ratio between the a and b axes is about
to i , the angles
also as original constituents of igneous rocks.
>
between
their cleavage planes, which, like those of the pyroxenes, are
parallel to
igSB)
ooP(no), are from 54 to
The plane
The members
of
symmetry
of the
156
and 124 to 126
(see Fig
bisects the obtuse angle.
group are about as numerous
(is
those of the
common
types are much fewer. Moreover, there is

no subgroup corresponding to the wollastomte subgroup of the pyroxenes. The best known members of the series, with their axial Mtios *ire:
pyroxenes, but the
Orthorhombit (possibly twinned monoclhuc)

Anthophylhte
Gcdnte
(Mg Fe)SA
(Mg.Fe)(A10) 2 &iO4
fl
Mg Ca(Si0 ) 4
Actouhte
(Mg
Cummingtonite
Gr&nente
"
Hornblende
fc
521
-.523
Monochmc (monochmt
Tremolite
r*
a-fe
.^17
prismatic class),
6
r,s4T5
'
.3886
Fe) 8Ca(Si03)4
(Fe MgJSiOj
FeSi0 8
(Mg Fe),Ca(Si0 8)<

(Mg Fe)((Al
NaAl(Si0 8) 3
.2937
}NaAl(Si0 3 ) 2
Glaucophane
(Fe Mg)SlOl
(Ca Mg)((Al Fe)0) 2 SiO'
NaFe(SiOJ
jô
Riebeckilc
NaFe(SiO,)2
Crocidohte
Tnclmic (tnclmic pinacoidal
Na Fei)(Al
Aemgmatite
S3
29
"
S4 9 6
75
= 7545'
=5475
2925
= 76lo'
3506
/3- 7 7
(Na2 Ca Fe)Si0 3
Arfvedsowte
383
class)
Fe)^(Si TiJiÔ*
6778
j8
= 7249'
ORTHORHOMBIC AMPHIBOLES
Gedrite
Anthophyllite
The orthorhombic amphiboles are comparatively rare They are

isomorphous mixtures of MgSiOa, FeSiOs and the alummo-orthosihcates
(Mg- Fe)(A]0)oSi04 The pure MgSiOa has not been found in nature,
The mixture of the magbut it has been produced in the laboratory
silicates (Mg-Fe)Si03, is known as anthopkylhte.
In
always contains a little of the molecule (Mg-Fe)(A10)sSiOi
Gedrite, which is much less common than anthophyllite, contains more
AbOs than does this mineial, which may be regarded as due to a larger
nesium and iron
nature
it
admivtuic of the molecule (Mg Fe)(A10)2SiOi.

applied to aluminous anthophylhtcs
The
difference in composition of the
The name
two minerals
is
is
thus
shown by the
following analybct. of (I) anthophylhte and (II) gednte
Si0 2
I
II
FeiAi AbO,j
57 98
46 18
I
II
44
Brown
MnO
FeO
63
31
10 39
21 78
..
2 77
crystals,
Franklin,
Macon Co
MgO CaO Na2
H2
28 69
79
99 99
25 05
37
99 89
20
.
2 30
Total
C-
Colorless prisms, Fibkcrnas, Greenland
The orthorhombic amphiboles usually occur in platy or fibrous

aggregates that rarely show traces of end faces, and, consequently the
The planes in the prisratio between c and b is not accurately known.
matic zone
can
are,
however,
be recognized
as
sometimes so well developed that
they
ooP 06(010), and ooP(no)

P(xio) and distinct parallel to oo P 36
oopco(ioo),
perfect parallel to oo
The cleavages intersect at angles 54
Cleavage
is
2o'-55 i8\
minerals have a glassy luster which is slightly pearly on cleavage
surfaces
They are green or brown in color and have a colorless, yellow
(oio)
The
white or gray streak and are translucent and pleochroic in colorless,
384
Their fracture
greenish and brownish tints
Hardness
is 5 5
m anthophyllite
and density
are
is
somewhat conchoidal
The
3 2
^=1633,

18=1642,
<>57, and in gednte,
7=1
and i 644
Pure magnesium metasihcate has been made in orthoSynthesis
rhombic crystals mixed with monochmc crystals, by rapid cooling of a
magma made by heating Mg salts and silica with water at 375-47s
i
623,
636,
Occurrence
The minerals
are found in crystalline schists
and hornblende
particularly in hornblende gneisses
more
where they
schists,
are distinctly metamorphic minerals, having been derived in

at least, by the alteration of the orthorhombic pyroxenes
some
cases,
They
alter
to talc
Anthophyllite occurs in dark brown platy abrogates at

Kongsberg and Modum in Norway, associated with hornblende in mica
schists, on the Shetland Islands, Scotland, associated with sei pen tine,
Localities
and at the Jenks Corundum Mine in Macon Co N C

Gednte occurs in yellowish gray fibrous aggregates at Bamlc, Norway,
in dark brown aggregates associated with magnetite and brown mica, at
Gedres, Hautes-Pyr&iees, France, and m a mica schist at Fiskernas,
Greenland, associated with a large number of metamorphic minerals
,
MONOCLINIC A.A1PHIBOL&S
The monochmc amphiboles,
like the corresponding pyroxenes, commixtures

of
the
metasihcatcs of No,, Mg, Ca and Fe
prise isomorphous
/
5
\
FIG 209
Ampibole Crystals with
P w on
,
and the basic orthosihcates
of
o P,
(r)
no (m},
-P So
and
Al and Fe
oo
p Sb oio
,
jor
(6),
*>
PJ, 130
(e);
(/).
Recent work seems to
indi-
cate that in tremolite there is present also a little HkCX

In the amphiboles the alummo-silicate is more common than in the
pyroxenes and
consequently aluminous amphiboles are more common than aluminous
pyroxenes
385
monoclimc amphiboles crystallize with the same habit in

columnar like those of the corresponding pyroxenes,
the
terminations are different (Fig 209)
which
but on
Moreover, all
distinct
a
have
cleavage parallel to oop(no) with cleavage angles of
All the
crystals that are
about 56-! 24
The amphiboles
crystallization
and
aie distinguished from other minerals
by
their
their cleavage
For convenience, the monoclimc amphiboles may be subdivided into

the magnesium-calcium-iron amphiboles including tremolite^ actinohte, cummmglomte, gtunente and hornblende, and (2) the alkali amphi(i)
boles, including aifvedsomte, glaucophane
Before the blowpipe

is
all
the
and nebecfote
members of the group fuse to a glass which
coloiless, green or black, according to the
The
varieties rich in iron are attacked
by
quantity of iron present
acids
Magncsium-Calcium-Iron Amphiboles
Tremohte-Hornblende
This group includes the monoclimc amphiboles that are mainly metamagnesium and iron and the mineral hornblende, which is a mix-
silicates of
ture of these molecules and the orthosihcate
(Mg Fe)((Al'Fe)0)2Si04
present in some members as an isomorphous

mixture, but it does not occur alone as an independent member correHornblende is the only
sponding to wollastomtc among the pyroxenes
The calcium mctasihcate
is
member of the series that is essentially aluminous

The ciystals of the monoclimc amphiboles are
short columnar or
Their axial ratios are nearly alike and their cleavage

only by a few minutes. The simplei crystals are bounded
long and acicular.

angles differ
ooP(no), oP(ooi),
3? 00(031),
by ooPob(ioo), oo P 03(010),
+P6o(Toi), -Pob(iot), 2P2(T2i), 2PI(2ii) and POO(OII) (Fig
Contact twins arc common, with cop<x>(ioo) the twinning
209).
the pyroxenes
plane as
Polysynthetic twins are larc
All the amphiboles of this group have a glassy luster and are transAll the members but hornblende arc white or
parent or translucent
some shade of green, though

common and yellow and red
colorless
quently so dark as to be almost black
5-6 and density
and brown varieties are not unknown. Hornblende is fre-
varieties are
Their streak
is light,
hardness
is
0-3 4> depending upon composition

The cleavage is perfect in all the amphiboles and there is present
often also a parting parallel to oo P oo (too) and P oo (Toi), the latter due
to gliding
Pleochroism
is
strong
all
the colored varieties
green
386
and yellowish green tones in the green varieties, and brown and
brown tints in the brown varieties
yellow-
ish
When there is mixed

Tremolite is the calcium magnesium silicate
with this the corresponding iron molecule the mixture is known as
actinohte if the proportion of the iron molecules present is not great
The theoretical compositions of the two molecules Mg3Ca(Si03)4 and
and analyses of several tremVI The almost universal
and
lines III, IV,
m
of
water
trcmohtc, and the Lick of
presence of small quantities
to satisfy all the SiOj rebases
metallic
enough Mg, Ca, Fe and other
some
to
vealed by the analyses has suggested
muicialogLsts that the
water is an essential part of the compound, and that its composition is
Fe3 Ca(Si03)4 are given

olites and actmolites in
best represented
Si0 2 A1 2
I
in lines I
Fe2
FeO
28 83
33
IV
57 40
38
58 80
VI
55 50
13
25 93
36
2 S 69
*3 89
3 05
6 25
22 23
22 56
16 47
MgsCa
90
Total
ioo oo
ii
tr
Theoretical for
Na 2 O HoQ
10 93
42 17
ioo oo
T
25
13 46
22
09 40*
40
99 12
TOO 55
29
99 06
(SiO.)*
Theoretical for Fc,Ca (SiOi) 4
III
Tremohte, Easton, Pa
IV
Tremolite, Gouverneur,
QiO
MgO
57 72
II
II,
by
II 46 90
III 58 27
and
Asbestus, Bolton,
N Y
Mass
VI Actmohte, Gremer,
ZillerLhal,
*Also
Tremolite
is
Tyrol
oSMnOand
42
white 01 nearly white, and actinolite
former occurs in columnar crystals,

while actinolite
is
terminations
The
in plates
is
green
and occasionally
The
in libers,
nearly always in long, slender acicular ciystals without

refractive indices for yellow light in tiemoliteiue
ct-i 6065, j8=i 6233, 7=1,6340.
In actmohie, j~i,6n(), 0=-i 6270,
7=16387
Both minerals melt
for tremohte being
Asbestus
is
in the blowpipe flame, the fusing temperature

about 1290 and for actinolite about 1150.
a fibrous variety of tremolite, actinolite or anthophylhto.

have been crushed and wheaml under
It occurs principally in rocks that
The actinolite asbestus

great pressure
the chrysotile variety (see p 398), but
is
used for the same purpose as

regarded as less valuable.
it is
387
is Sails Mountain, Georgia, but prombeen

At the
reported near Kamiah, Idaho
ising deposits have recently
forms
distinct
asbestus
lenses
in
the
It is
gneiss
Georgian locality
intrusive rock,
basic
altered
an
possibly
Smaragdite is a grass-gieen actmohte, which is often an alteration
Its principal source in this country
The name is also applied to a bright

product of pyroxenes and ohvine
a
chromium
little
hornblende
containing
green
actmohte
or tremohte and usually some
fibrous
a
is
finely
Nephrite
chlorite,
forming dense rock masses that are white or of a light green

was formerly much ubed, like jddc, in the manufacture of
It
coloi
images, charms and implements
Cummingtonite a,nd grimerite aic amphiboles containing notable

In grunente, the qudntity of
quantities of the molecule FcSiO*
Because
present is very small but in cummmgtomte it is fairly large
of its similarity to anthophyllite, this mineral is frequently referred
Mg
to
as
amphibole-anthophylhtc
It
intermediate
is
in
composition
between grunente and actmohte Analyses of specimens from several

well known localities are quoted below
Al 2 Ch
SiOa
I
57 26
II
47 17
FcaOs
75
oo
73
12
FeO
15 64
43 40
MgO
70
2 61
MnO~
tr
i
Cummingtonite, near Baltimore, Mel

Contains
CollobriSres, France
I
II
Na2
C<iO
21
Grunente,
08
47
90
also,
H2
Total
2 22
99 88
100 08
80
07,
KaO^
07
and
These two minerals are comparatively rare and have not always
In general appearance
been recognized as worthy of different names
much
like
are
more
brown or gray in
actinohte,
though
they
perhaps
The specific gravcolor, and they occur in nearly the same association
ity of
cummmgtonite
about 3
1.65 in
52.
The
varies between 3
and
3 3
and that
of grunente
intermediate refractive index for yellow light
cummmgtonite and
is i
is
62-
1.697 in gninerite
Hornblende is the name given to the monoclmic aluminous aznphiboles that contain only a small quantity of alkalies. In other words,
most of the hornblendes are isomorphous mixtures of the actinolite molecule and the molecules (Mg- Fe)((Al- Fe)0)aSi04
The
containing NdaO
aegirme among the pyroxenes
varieties
(known as
and (Na- K)Al(SiO)2
katojorrfc)
correspond to
388
The
hornblende that are distinguished by distinctive
varieties of
names are
bluish green or greenish black variety, and
Edemte, the white, gray or light giccn variety, both of which coneither the ferrous or feme condition,
little iron
tain
Pargasite,
the green,
very
of parasite,
Smaragdite, a bright green chromiferous variety
black
the
Common hornbletide,
vanety,
greenish
Basaltic hornblende,
and
is
which contains a laige pioporlion of
ferric iron
black in color
Their refractive indiceb for yellow light aic as follows
ft
Pargasite, Pargas, Finland
Common Hornblende,
Basaltic hornblende,
Norway
Kragero,
Bohemia
The fusing temperature of pargasitc

blende about 1200
613
020
042
629
680
725
is
about 1150
and
632
6153
752
of horn-
Analyses of typical specimens of these varieties follow
Si0 2
I
A1 2
51 69
4 17
II 42 97
16 42
III 49 33
IV. 39 17
I2 7 2
I
II
III
IV
14 37
MgO CaO
Fe2 03 FeO
2
.
34 9 83 17 17 12 17
i 32 20 14 14 90
72
4 63 17 44
12 42
5 86 10 52
Common Hornblende,
Vosgcs
Pargasite, Pargas Finland
9 Qi
Aho
Also
Niii0
82
18
14 per
<
53
K a O Tn
79
2
85
i^
87
Total
100 25
102 75
25
03
*<)
<)g
48
2 OJL
39
99 91
15
cnl T\(\
66 per tent F
Also 1.21 per tent K

Edemte, Saualpen, Cannthia
Albo i 51 [>er <uul MtiO
Basaltic, Jan Maycn, Greenland
Among
the
commonest forms
are the following
of
alteration
Tremolite into tile (p 401)
in lhi
umphihoIoR
and wipcntiiu*, and
hornblende into serpentine, chlorite (p 428),q>idolu and Imitiie, often

with the addition of magnetite and other iron compounds in oases where
iron was present in the original mineral
Most of these thungcs me
brought about by regional metamorphism. The production of hiotiie is

about by the action of magmas
The common weathering
also brought
products of hornblende are chlonte, epidote, culcite, quarts, magnetite

and sidente Under the conditions of high temperature and high pressure, hornblende sometimes passes over into augite and magnetite.
Syntheses. Amphibole crystals have not been found in slags nor
have they been made by dry fusion. Crystals of hornblende, however,
have been obtained by heating to 555
months, a mixture of
in a glass tube with water
components
its
for three
389
Tremolite occurs
Occurrence
and dolo-
mites that have been subjected to regional metamorphism and in crystalline schists
Actmohte, cummmgtomte and grunente are found in
such laige quantity as to constitute

crystalline schists, in some cases
Actmohte schists are such rocks containing
essential parts of the rocks
in addition to the actmolitc some quartz, epidote and chlorite
Gru-
nente
gmnente, actmohte, magnetite and
schists consist essentially of
quarts
Common
it is
it
is
the puncipal constituent and

others, the hornblende schists,
the principal component other than quartz
The mineral is
common metamoiphic
also a
it
ib
igneous and metamorphic rocks,

In some schists, as the amphibohtes,
hornblende occuis
such as gneisses and schists
and
blue-green
fibrous
alteration product of pyroxenes
When
frequently pscudomorphs
it
is
vhich
the
pscudomoqjhmg hornblende
known as urahte
The chemical
changes attending this alteration aic illustrated by the analyses of a

pyio\ene (I) from the Grua Tunnel in Norway and of the urahte (II)
produced from
it
AlaOs FcO
I
S3
9*
27
7 81
42 02
30 3 25
9 30
II
Also
19 per cent
Basaltic hornblende
those rich
is
MnO CaO
i
24 51
20 90
99
94
Kj0
found only
MgO NagO
10 92
48
9 63
45
Loss
26
i
07
Total
100 37*
100 04*
anJ 26 per cent in IE

in igneous rocks,
and
especially
miion
Edenite occurs in ciystalhnc limestones that have been metamor-
phosed by contact action

is
Pargasite
in gneisses
and
Tremolite crystals occui at Campolonga, Switzerland;

at Rezbanya, Hungary, at New Canaan, Conn , and at Diana, Lewis
It occurs also in flat plates at Lee, Mass ; near Byram,
Co N.
Localities
Penn at Edenville, N Y., and at Litchfield, Me,,

and other places in the limestones in Quebec, Canada
Actmohte occurs with chlorite at the Zillerthal, Tyrol, in talc and
at Easton,
chlorite schists near Jekatermburg, Ural, Russia; at Arendal,
Norway,
Buckingham Co., Va at the Bare Hills, Md,; at Mineral
and at Unionville, Penn in the soapstone
Hill, in Delaware Co
at Bolton, Brome Co
and New Fane, Vt
Wmdham
at
quarries
at
and
other
many
points.
Quebec,
at Willis
Mt
390
Asbestus
is
Sterzig, in Tyrol,
abundant at
near Greenwood Furnace,
N Y
on the Island
of Corsic
in the Bare Hills, neai Baltimore, JVL
at Pylesville, Harford Co in the same State, at Barnet's Mills, Fau

localities at which it has been mentioned as
quier Co , Va , and at the
,
being mined
The
of
principal occurrences
Cummmgton, Mass, and a

Washington,
arc kongsbcig,
Norway,
gneisses and schists at Mt
cummmgtomte
layer
Md
Grunente occurs in a rock composed of this mineral, gai net and hemIt has also been dcbcribcxl as the
atite near Collobneres, Var France
,
in the Lake Supenoi iron icgion,

principal constituent of certain schists
contains a notable quantity
locks
these
in
but since the amphibole
of
MgO it should better be classed -with cumminglomle

The
localities
at
which crystals of the hornblendes have been
found are very numerous.
bombs
Excellent crystals occui in Ihc volcanic

in cavities in inclusions
in the Lake Laach district, Prussia,
the dikes
within the lavas of Aranyer Mt Siebenburgen, Hungary,
inclusions in
of porphyry, near Roda, Tyrol, on the walls of cavities
,
In
the lavas at Vesuvius, Italy, and at various points in Sweden, etc
at Russell
North America fine crystals are found at Thonu&ton, Me
and Pierrepont, N Y at Franconia, N H and in the glacial debris
at Jan Mayen, Greenland. Pargasite occurs at Paigas, Finland, and
,
Phippsburg,
Me
Alkali Amphiboles
The
alkaline amphiboles include mbeckite> croadohtc, glaucoplmue
and arfvedsomte The first two are nonalummous iron-soda umphiboles

and the last two are aluminous compounds
Glaucophonc contains the
molecule NaAl(Si03)s which is found also in hornblende, and, therefore,
it may be regarded as a connecting link between the common and the
alkaline amphiboles
Glaucophane
m containing very little CaO,
The
differs from hornblende, however,

intermediate link halo/onto bridge*
the gap between the two.
Glaucophane is, theoretically, a mixture of the two molecules

NaAl(Si03)2 and (Fe- Mg)Si(X$. It is essentially u mixture of the cummmgtomte molecule with one corresponding to the jadeite xnolecul'
An analysis of a specimen of katofonte (comthe pyroxenes

in the lava at Sao Miguel, Azores,
387) from the samdmite bombs
among
pare p
quoted in
is
lines II
and
Si0 2
line I for
comparison with the two glaucophane analyses in
III
FcO
AbOs FeaOa
45 S3
4 10
9 35
IL 56 65
12 31
3 01
15 14
9 ?8
4 31
I-
III.
56 71
I
II
III
391
23
CaO
Na2
46
4 89
6 07
29
MgO
72
4 58
12
4 80
4 33
Kalofonlc, Sao Miguel, A/,orcb
Also
20
93
K2
88
i
4 83
Total
05
99 96
100 02
25
100 15
96 per (cut TiOa
Glaucophane, lie dc Groi\

Glaucoplunc, Shikoku, Japan.
Glaucophane
is
rarely
Even when
found in ciystals with end faces
these exist they are lough and yield poor measurements
The
mineral occurs in columnar crystals, in needles and in foliated

Their prismatic planes are oo p 66 (100),
ob (oio) and oo P(iio)
P(7n) and oP(ooi) are the only termina-
or granular aggregates in rocks

oo
The cleavage angle is about 55 20'.

blue or bluish black, translucent and strongly pleochroic in yellowish, violet and blue tints. Its streak is grayish blue,
tions that have been identified
Glaucophane
its
is
fracture uneven,
its
hardness about 6 and
its
density 3
Its refractive
a= i
6212, j8 1.6381, 7= 1.6300

Before the blowpipe the mineral turns brown and then
It is difficultly attacked by acids.
olive-green glass
indices for yellow light arc
mdU
to
an
Glaucophane is distinguished from the other amphiboloids by its

color, and from other blue silicates by its crystallization, hardness and
manner
of occurrence,
It is usually unaltered but
it
has been described
being partially changed to chlorite

It has not been produced
Synihews
Occurrence
in
mica
schists
teristically
one instance as
artificially.
The mineral is found only in metamorphosed limestones,

and in the garnet rock known as eclogite. It is charac-
a metamorphic mineral
Localities.'
Glaucophane occurs
m long crystals in various schists in
Syra, Cyclades, Greece; in hornblende schists in the He de Groix, Brittany, France, in a glaucophane schist on the Island of Shikoku, Japan,
and abundantly
in various schists
m the Coast Ranges of California,
392
and Crocidohte
Arfvedsonite, Riebeckite
rare
These amphiboles are comparatively
They
occiu principally
usually as prismatic grams

in coarse-grained alkalme igneous rocks,
embedded in the lock mass Arfvcclsomtc, how-
without terminations,
m some
ever,
in
cases, occuis
minations can be
Riebeckite,
on some of which
groups of crystals
tei-
identified
near that
NaFe(S Oa)2, has a composition veiy
molecule FcSiOa
of acmite,
Ai fvodsomte
and crocidohte contains, in addition, the

either of these and has no equivalent among
is much more complex than
of
specimens of the two minerals aie
Analyses
In line IV
the pyroxenes
quoted below
typical
is
an
analysis of crocidohte
Black arfvedsonitc, Kangcrdluarsuk, Greenland

Riebeckite from granite, Qumcy, Mdbs
Ocean
III Riebeckite from Socotra, Indian
R. I
IV Bark blue radial aggregates of crocidohte, Cumberland,
I
II
Arfvedsonite
oo
is
usually
in
So (oio), but otherwise very
long
much
prisms flattened parallel to

hornblende. It m block or
like
It s hardst rcaL
dark green and translucent, and has a dark bluish gi ay
Thin
1S
rt
splinters
plcochroic
strongly
and
6
ness is
density 3 4-3 5
to oo I>6b
those
and
olive
are
paialM
oopSb
to
giccn
(oio),
parallel
are deep greenish blue
Its refractive
indices
for
yellow light are:
7=i7S
05=1687, 0=1707,
Before the blowpipe the mineral fuses easily to <i black magnetic
It is not acted upon by acids.
flame yellow
globule and colors the
Riebeckite is found only in embedded prisms, showing no terminaIt is black, vitreous and very plcochroic m gieen and dark blue
tions
tints
Its density is
about 3
is about
3,
and
its
hardness 5.5-6.
Its reft active
fuses easily,
i 687.
index for yellow light
flame.
the
to
imparting an intense yellow color
Crocidohte is an asbestus-hke, lavender-blue or dark green nebeckitc,
that contains a larger amount of iron, due to the presence of the molecule FeSiOa
it
earthy masses. Itb st reak is lavender-blue

In all cases it appears to be a
hardness is 4
"
The green fibrous variety ib known as catVeye."
It occurs also in
or leek-green and
secondary mineral,
Before the blowpipe
its
393
Both nebeckite and: rfvedsomte weather to aggregates of iron oxides,

The decomposed, brown crocidolite is the wellquartz and carbonates
known ornamental
"
stone
"
tiger's-eye
and Localities Arfvedsonite is found principally in

in soda, especially the coarse, nephelme syenites of
rich
rocks
igneous
the augite syenites of Norway. It
Greenland, Kola, Russia, and
Occurrence
occurs also in the nephelme syenites of

and of the Trans-Pecos district, Texas
Riebeckite
is
formed
also
giamtes, syenites, etc
It is
Dungannon township,
Ontario,
acid locks nch in soda, such as certain
found on the Island of Socotia in the Indian
Corsica
Ocean, in fine-gramecl granitic locks at Ailsa Crag, Scotland,
and a few other places The crocidolite variety occurs in a clay slate
on the banks of the Orange River in South Africa, at various pomts in
the Vosges, Salzbuig, Tyrol and Andalusia, in Europe, in Templeton,

I
Ontano, in veins at Beacon Pole Hill, near Cumberland,
grannear St Peter's Dome, El Paso
ites at Quincy and Cape Anne, Mass
Co
Colorado, and as fibers in rocks at various other points
m the United
States,
TR1CUN1C AMPHIBOLE
The only known tnclmic amphibole is the comparatively rare aenigmatite, an alkali amphibole with a complicated composition that may
be represented by the formula Na4Feq(Al-Fe) 2 (Si Ti) 12 O3s
The
mineial
occurs
very
complex
crystals,
alkdlinc rocks at Naujakasik, Greenland,
and at
It
with
noAiTo=66,
the Fourch
Mts
in
Ark
several other places
is
and translucent or transparent and
black, or brownish black,
has a reddish brown streak
It
is,
brownish black and reddish blown
moreover, strongly pleochroic

It is brittle, has a hardness
tints

of a little more than 5 and a density of 3 7-3 8
It is partly decomposed by acids
fuses to a brownish black glass
It
is
distinguished from other dork hornblendes
of
66.
by the cleavage angle
BASIC METASILICATES
Kyamte
((A10) 2 SiO 3 )
Kyanite, cyamte, or disthene, is a fairly common product of metaThe name kyamte suggests the sky blue
moiphisni in certain schists
color noticed in
many
specimens
The name
disthene refers to the
different directions.
great difference in hardness exhibited
The mineral is regarded as a basic metasihcate of the theoretical
394
=
8102=3702, ^203 6298 (compare pages 319,
composition
320).
a little FeaOs but otherwise they corspecimens contain

indicated by the
very closely to the calculated composition
all
Nearly
respond
above formula
B C upon
,
A light
A12
Si02
blue specimen from North
Fe2
62 25
36 29
Kyamte
Thompson
River,
gave
analyses,
CaO
55
crystallizes
MgO
100 51
tnchmc system
the
Total
06
(luclinic
piruicoiddl
2' and
i
Si', 0= 101
709* = 9
with an axial ratio 8991
Their
well
are
habit
is
developed
Very few crystals
oo
66
P
with
tabular
or
columnar
(ioo) predomiMore frequently the mineral occurs
nating
class),
in long,
flat
isolated blades, or in
flat,
Some
210)
(Fig
plates
diveigmg
are
crystals
the
Usually, however, only

very complex.
forms oo Poo (ioo), ooPoo(oio), ooP'(no),
oo'P2(2io)j oo'P(iTo)
FIG 210 -Kyamte Crystal with oo PQO, ioo (0),

oo POO, oio
(ft),
oP,
ooi
(c),
00 P'2,
co'P,
no
oo P',
210
10 (Jf)
and
(m)
and oP(oor) arc
pres-
common
according to several
Twinning
of
most
however,
which,
yield twins in
laws,
which the basal planes (oP) of the twinned inThe most frequent
dividuals are parallel
ent
is
twins have oo P 65 (ioo) as the twinning plane

Other twinning planes are perpendicular to the axis c, or to the
The basal plane oP(ooi) also serves as the twinning plane
axis b
(I)'
some cases Twinning is often repeated, producing lamellae crossing

columnar crystals approximately parallel to the basal plane, and giving
rise to a definite parting in this direction
The
and
cleavage of
is
kyamte
less perfect parallel to co
very perfect parallel
P 06
(oio)
parting parallel to oP(ooi), as already stated

faces
is
Otherwise
pearly
in color, less frequently
gray
dark and light blue
different faces
macropmacoid a
and
it is
l8=;i
its
is
Its
The
specific
brown or
varieties are
hardness varies greatly
on the same
face.
5 parallel to the vertical edges,
direction at right angles to this
about 36, and
tints.
on cleavage
often hght blue
luster
and the darker blue
in different directions
about
The
The mineral
glassy.
oop65(ioo)
colorless or white, yellow, green,
It is translucent or transparent
pleochroic
on
it is
it is
to
It frequently possesses also
and
On
the
7 in the
gravity of the mineral
refractive indices for yellow light are;
is
a 2=1.71 71,
7222,7=1.7290.
Before the blowpipe kyanite whitens, but otherwise
it
reacts like
other minerals that
it
acids
It is distinguished from the few
resembles by the great differences in hardness on
It is insoluble
sillimamte
395
At a high temperature (about 1350)

cleavage surfaces
to
silhmanite
ently changes
its
it
appar-
Kyanite weathers to muscovite, talc (p 401) and pyrophylhte

(p 406), and is itself an alteration product of andalusite and corundum
It is not known that the mineral has been produced in the
Synthesis
laboratory
FTO 2TT
Kyanite occurs as large plates and small
Bladcrl Kyanito Crystals in a
hwiUcrlaml
crystals in micaceous
and
m cons
othei schists (Fig
constituent of some quarUites

it
IV!
Quart/, &< hist from
(About natural
st/e
211),
At Horrsjoborg,
PM/O Forno,
and as an important
Wermland, Sweden,
In a few places
forms a distinct layer of schist several meters thick
zones of contact metamorphism, but it is more frequently
found
it is
the result of dynamic metamorphism (cf p. 26).

Locates Crystals have been found at Gremcr in the Tyrol, at
Lincoln Co Ga
Mte Campione in Switzerland, and at Graves Mt
mineral also occurs in fine plates at Chesterfield, Mass , at Litchfield, Conn,; at Bakersvillc, N. C, and on North Thompson River,
The
B C Canada
,
Uses
Transparent kyanite
is
sometimes used as a gem.
396
Calamine ((ZnOH) 2 SiO 3 )

It is one of
is an important ore of zinc
While theoretically a
used as a source of metals
Calamme, or hemimorplute,
the few
silicates
it
pure zinc compound
usually contains a little FcjO? and ficquently

In some cases it contains also a little carbon-
small quantities of PbO

A number of formulas have been suggested foi it, of which the
ate
According to several piommcnl mmeione given above is the simplest
the formula ZnaSiO4 HaO is prof ci able
alogists, howevei,
Si0 2
Theoretical
25 01
WytheCo, Va
23 95
Fnedensville,
Pa
24 32
The mineral occurs
ZnO
FeoOj
12
HjO
Total
100 oo
67 49
6 7 8S
50
99
65 05
89
99 38
9<>
orthoihomlnc and
in brilliant crystals that are
with an axial uitio

distinctly heniimorphic (rhombic pyramidal class),
i
The crystals
of 7834
.4778
usua lly tabular parallel to
are
<*>P&(oio)
Many
modified but
some are
ple,
oo
with
P(i 10)
ate
and
highly
fairly simoo
66 (TOO)
the
3? 05(301)
prismatic zone, 3Po6 (031), Poo (101),
Poo (on) and oP(oot) at the analogue pole and ^P2(i2j) at the
Calamme Crystals with
FIG 212
no
(m), oo
oio
(6),
Poo,
P56, 100
2P*2,
on
(e),
12!
(i)),
Poo
3P3oi
031 (0 and oP, ooi
oo P,
>po6,
(a),
,
101
Wi
(A),
3P,
(c)
warty aggiegates and in crusts

compact Its cleavage is perfect
Calamme
is
The angle
antilogue pole (Fig
212)
no A no
Tunis are fanly
76
c/
common, with oP(ooi) the twinning

plane
Often
grouped
in
The mineral
crystals sue
many
sheaf-like,
is
also
lilmms
01
granular and
parallel to oo p(i 10)
glassy, transparent or translucent,
and when pure
is
colorless or white
Usually, however, it is gray, yellow, brown, greenish

or bluish
Its streak is white, its hardness 4-4 5 and its density 3.2 3 5
It is brittle
The mineral is strongly pyroelec trie
with the end of the crystals terminated by dome faces the analogue pole.
In contact twins both ends are analogues. The mineral becomes phosphorescent upon rubbing, and is fiuoiescent m ultra violet light. Its
ot- 1 6136, 0= r 6170, 7=1 6360.
Before the blowpipe calamme is almost infusible, but on charcoal
swells, colors the flame greenish and fuses with difficulty on the edges*
refractive indices for yellow light are
it
With soda
gives the zinc sublimate
it
397
In the closed glass tube
it
de-
and yields water and becomes cloudy Its powder dissolves

even weak acids with the production of gelatinous silica
Calamme is distinguished from smithsomte by its reaction with acids
crepitates
in
and from other minerals by

alters
its crystallization
and reaction for zinc
produced
It
Calamme has not been
to willemite, smithsomte and quartz

artificially
It occurs principally in the
Occurrence
upper or oxidized zones of
and in layers above the zone of permanent ground water

zinc
and
It is associated with lead
certain
in
lead-bearing limestones
ores and various zinc compound^ and it often pseudomorphs calcite,
galena and pyromorphite
Calamme occurs in nearly all places where zinc and
Localities
It is abundant at Altenberg near Aachen in Rhenlead ores arc found
veins of zinc ore
Wiesloch, in Baden, near Tamowitz, in Silesia, at

Rezbanya, Hungary, near Bleiberg., Cannthia, near Santander, Spain,
at
ish Prussia,
at Fnedensville,
in Cumberland, England, at Sterling Hill,
J
at the Bertha Mine in Pulaski Co , and
near South Bethlehem, Penn
at the Austin Mine, in Wythe Co Va , and in the zinc-producing areas
,
in the Mississippi Valley
It is
Usett
ores
and
is
common
a-bbociate of other zinc ores
mined with the former as a source of
and many lead
zinc.
ACID METASILICATES
SERPENTINE GROUP
The
silicates
serpentine group includes a large number of hydrous magnesium

that differ from one another mainly in the proportions of water
m the ratio of silica to magnesia None of them yields

All
though their crystallization is thought to be monoclmic
The most prominent memdense fibrous or platy aggregates
present and
crystals,
occur in
bers of the group are
BUMgaSigOo, or
H(MgOH),<(Si03 )2
HUMgsSisO i o, or
Serpentine
Meerschaum.
H3 Mg(MgOH) (8103)3
Steatite
All are soft
importance.
H2Mgij(SiOs)i
and nearly
infusible,
and
Si02
MgO
=43 'So
4346
1304
=60
"63
83
27 01
12 16
52
31 72
4 76
all
are of considerable economic
398
Serpentine (H4 Mg3 Si2O 9 )
The substance known as serpentine may be two different minerals,

one orthorhombic and the other monochmc
They, however, cannot
be distinguished, except by microscopic study
Serpentine occurs in
masses of a white, gray,
structureless, fibrous, foliated and schistose
brown or green color It is translucent and has a dull, slightly glistening
The variety known as " noble seror fatty luster, and a white streak
nearly transparent and has a clear gieemsh or yellowish
The mineral,
white, yellowish green, apple-green or dark green color
pentine"
is
pure, has a hardness of 3, but it frequently seems harder because

there are often mixed with it tiny remnants of the much harder minerals
The specific gravity of pure serpentine is
from which it was derived
when
2 5-2 6
Serpentine fuses
/3= i 502-1 570

vary widely
on thin edges when heated in the blowpipe flame
When
It yields water in the closed tube

tallizes
as olivme
It is
heated to about 1400
decomposed by hydrochloric and
it
crys-
sulphuric
fibrous* varieties,
acids with the separation of gelatinous silica, which,
retains the shapes of the fibers. It is also soluble in dilute carbonic acid
Its
powder
reacts alkaline
is a silky, nearly transparent fibrous variety occurring in

apparently orthorhombic.
laminated masses or in microscopic
Antigonte is a form occurring
Chrysolite
veins
It
is
monochmc
scales, that are possibly
Baltwnonte and ficrolite are coarse, green, fibrous varieties
Analyses of a pure green serpentine, and a typical chrysotde, both

from Montville,
J are quoted below
Si02
A1 2
I 42 05
II 42 42
I
II
Fc2
30
FeO
MgO
CaO
.10
42 57
41 01
05
62
63
Green serpentine, Montville,

Chrysotile, Montville,
H2 O
Total
14 66
99 73
15 64
100.55
J
Also 33 NiO.
Massive varieties are distinguished from tak by their solubility in

and by differences
hardness, and chrysotile is distinguished from
acids
ampkibok asbestus
by
the presence in
it
of water,
Synthesis.
Serpentine has been made by the action of a solution of
Na2SiOs upon magnesite for 10 days at 100.
Occurrence
The mineral is a common decomposition product of
several other
magnesium
silicates,
more particularly
olivine,
pyroxene
Many
and chondrodite
399
igneous rocks rich in these minerals are com-
pletely changed to serpentine, especially around their peripheries, and

some metamorphosed limestones are also partially or completely ser-
probably a secondary mineral in all cases

C ,
Serpentine occurs in large quantity at Webster,
Penn
at
the
Foster
Iron
Easton,
Montville,
J
Tilly
Mine,
Brewster, N. Y at Thetford and Black Lake in the Eastern Townships
It is
pentimzed
Localities
of Quebec,
and at many other places
fiom many places
in
m North America,
It is also
known
Europe
The
Serpentine when massive is used as a building stone
finer varieties are sawed into thin slabs and used for ornamental purposes
Uses
Marble with streaks and spots
of serpentine
"
is
known
as ophicdcite and
is employed as an ornamental stone.

under the name "verd-antique
Mixtures of serpentine with other soft minerals are ground for a paper
The fibrous variety chrysotile is mined and sold under the
pulp
name
of asbestos, which, because of its fibrous structure, its flexibility,
and because it is a nonconductor of heat and

It
electricity is becoming an exceedingly important economic product.
is woven into paper and boards that rrc used to cover steam pipes, and
its
incombustibility,
to increase electric insulations,
and
is
manufactured into shingles
It
the manufacture of automobile tires,

used also in fireproofing,
in making paints, and as a substitute for rubber in packing steam
is
pipes
The
Preparation
of serpentine that
its
The
method
mined
by many
in
Vermont comes from a mass
small veins of chrysotile
The rock
is
separated by washing, or by some other mechanpulp rock at Easton is a mass of serpentine, talc and
crushed and the liber

ical
chrysotile
cut
is
a few other minerals
It is
ground and sixed for use in paper manu-
facture
Production
is
Chrysotile
is
mined
in
Vermont and Wyoming.
The
rapidly increasing but the actual amount mined annually
production
has not been disclosed.
The total aggregate of chrysotile and amphibole

asbestos (see p. 386), produced in the United States during 1912 was
4403 tons, valued at $87,959 The imports of unmanufactured asbestos
same year were valued at $1,456,012, of which $1,441,475 worth
came from Canada. The total production of this country m the same
year amounted to about $2,979,384, most of which came from the Thet-
for the
ford district in Quebec. This is about 80 per cent of the world's production. The value of the serpentine used as an ornamental and build-
ing btonc
is
not known,
400
Garnierite
Garmente may be regarded as a serpentine or talc in which a portion

magnesium has been replaced by nickel, or possibly as a mixture
of the
of a colloidal
magnesium
silicate
tance consists in the fact that
and a nickel compound

Its
importhe only commercial source of nickel
it is
aside from the pentlandite in the pyrrhotite of Sudbury, Canada.

Three analyses of garmerite from New Caledonia follow.
Si0 2
NiO
35 45
4S IS
37 78
42 61
33 9i
21 91
MgO
These show that as
diminishes,
NiO
increases.
Garmerite is a dark green to pale green substance with many of the

Its luster is dull, or like that of varphysical properties of serpentine
nish
It has a greasy feel, a hardness of 2-3 and a density of 2 3-2 8
Its streak is light green to white
heres like clay
It is infusible
When
and becomes magnetic.
decrepitates
touched to the tongue it adbefore the blowpipe, but
when heated
It is partly soluble in
HCl and
HN03
It
is
readily distinguished
structure, its
greasy
feel
from malachite and chrywcolfa by
and the absence
of a
good copper
The mineral occurs
its
test.
as earthy masses, as
mamillary coatings and as impregnations and veins in serpentine. In

all cases it appears to have resulted from the weathering of
periclotite.
The earthy masses are residual and the veins are deposits from downward percolating water that obtained nickel from the decomposing
rock
The principal occurrences of garnierite

mined as a source
very closely
allied
of nickel,
are New Caledonia, where it is

and at Riddles, Douglas Co,, Oregon, A
species, genthite, occurs associated
serpentine at Texas, Lancaster Co,, Perm., at Webster,

in Spain, and at a few other places
Production
Thio,
Garniente
is
with chromitc
N.
in
C., at Malaga,
mined from 40 mines on the plateau
of
New Caledonia,
6| per cent
ore.
at the rate of about 130,000 tons annually of a

In 1912 there were produced 72,315 tons of ore and
5,097 tons of matte containing 2,263 tons

value of ore and matte was about
$1,140,000,
nickeL
The
aggregate
ANHYDROUS METAHIIJCATES
401
Meerschaum (H4 Mg2Si3 Oio)

Meerschaum, or scpiohte, occurs as a massive, dense, earthy aggre
or reddish color, and also as a finely fibrous,
gate of a white, yellowish
It is opaque, has a conchoidal
crystalline aggregate (parade piohte)
Its hardness is 2 and density
fracture and a shining white streak
will
on
float
about 2
water, because they are not
Dry specimens
Two
duced
Of
When
wet
easily
touched to the tongue a clinging sensation is prohave been recognized
varieties of the commercial material
these, one,
sepiohte,
is
HsM^SiaOi*) and
the other
j8
sepiolite,
has the composition indicated above

The analyses of white meerschaum irom Asia Minor and from Utah
gave the following
results
Al 2 0j
Asia Minor
52 4$
80
Utah
52 97
86
Of
this 8
80%
was driven
off at
Fe20j
70
100,
MgO
23 25
22 50
Included also
H2 O
Total
23 50
100 oo
18 70 *
tire
99 74
14 Mn 0j and
2
87
CuO
Before the blowpipe the mineral fuses on its edges to a white enamel
Often, at first, it tuins brown 01 black and then, upon higher heating,
it
bleaches to white
At low temperatine
in the
ebbed tube
it
yields
hygiostopic water. At high temperature water is given off fieely

The mineral dissolves
hydicx hlouc auci, with the production of gelatthe case of theot variety
inous silica
little
Meerschaum resembles chalk and
kaolin,
from which
it is
easily dis-
tinguished by treatment with hydrochloric acid.

The mineral is found as nodules in young
sedimentary beds in Asia Minor, where it is associated with magnesite.
Both minerals are believed to be alteration products of serpentine It

occurs also with opal at Thebes, Greece. A iccl variety occurs in limestone at Qumcy, France, and a green and white variety forms a small
In nil of its occurrences it seems to be
a silver ore in Utah
vein
secondary
Cfre^
-Mecrathaum
is
used for carving into ornaments and pipes.
Steatite
(HaMgaCSiOaM
Steatite, or talc, usually occurs in flaky, foliated
and massive forms,
appear to be tabular crystals with hexagonal outlines,

It also forms, with chlorite and a few other substances, the rock soapstone. Although its crystallisation is unknown, because of the close
and
in plates that
402
and those
of
chlorite and the

analogy between its physical properties
micas its symmetry is believed to be monoclmic
The composition of pure white talc and ordinary soapstone are shown
by the two analyses below
White
tile
Urserenthal, Switrerlanil
Si02
A12 3
Fe2
63
29
24
09
32 08
MgO
H2
4 9S
100 90
99 68
Total
The composition corresponding

5,
85
7i
FeO
Si02 =63
Soapstone
Gnqualand, Africa
MgO=3i
The cleavage
and
to the formula
HjMg^SiOa)!
is-
cleavage surfaces
its
H 0=4 8
3
of talc is well
marked and on
its
The mineral is white,

Its cleavage plates arc flexible
luster is pearly
or
ti anslucent
is
or
and
The massive
bluish,
transparent
gray, greenish
forms,
known
as soapstone, aie white, gicenish, yellowish, red or brown

the mineral being chosen to represent r
the
All varieties are soft
and all have a soapy feeling The density of pure

talc is 2 6-2 8
For yellow light, a i (530, #= i 589, 7*= i 1589.
Before the blowpipe the mineral exfoliates, hardens and glows
brightly, but it is nearly infusible (fusing temperature is about 15^0),
It yields water in
melting only on the thinnest edges to a white enamel.
It is unattacked by acids
the closed tube only at a high temperatuie.
Its powder reacts alkaline.
before and after heating
It is distinguished from other white, soft minerals by its softness, its
insolubility in acids and its infusibihty
scale of hardness
Occurrence
The mineral
is
common
alteration product of other
magnesium silicates, often pseudomorphing them. Thus, pseudomorphs of the mineral after actmolite, Imnuite and siihlite are common
Pseudomorphs after pectolite, dolomite and quarto are also known. In.
these forms
it is
secondary.
marbles and other crystalline rocks, where it was

produced by regional metamorphism, It is found, further, as small veins
cutting serpentine and metamorphosed limestones, as layers under the
name of talc schists, associated with other schistose rocks and as massive
It occurs also
aggregates of finely matted fibers, probably resulting from the alteration

of basic igneous rocks
The last described variety is the rock soapstone.
403
is usually white, fibrous and pure

It is gi< und and
The impure \ ai icty (soapstone) is sawn
as talc
market
placed on the
into blocks and boards
Talc and soapstone occur at many places
Localities
Good white
The vein
material
Bohemia,
platy talc occurs at Lampersdorf, in Silesia, near Piessnit?,
Steiermark, at Andermatt, in Switzeiland, at Russell,
near Mautern,
New York, at Webster,
C and at
Gouverneur and other points
Easton, Penn
Ground
U$e\
talc is extensively used as a lubricator,

the manuetc
as
a
facture of papci, as a fillci
curtains, cloth,
foundry facing, in
the manufacture of molded rubber goods, ub a toilet powder, as a polishing material, as a pigment, in the manufacture of gas tips, pencils, cray-
ons, etc
tubs,
tories
and
Soapstone is sawn and used as linings of acid vats and laundry

manufacture of table tops, sinks, etc in chemical labora-
in the
Because of
itb
nonabsorbent
qualities it is also being used
Its various uses are due to its softness,

largely in electric switchboards.
of
resistance
its
to the attacks of acids
and
power
mfusibility,
Production.
The
principal sources of talc
and soapstone
the
United States are m a belt on the east side of the Appalachians exLargest producers
tending from Vermont to Georgia
1912 were:
a production of 25,313 tons, valued at $576,473,

with
a production of 66,867 tons, valued at $656,270,
New York,
a
with
Vermont,
pioduclion of 42,413 tons, valued at $275,679
Virginia, wilh
Of the aggregate of 159,270
$600,105, and 119,561 tons were sold ground for $989,726.
Of
tons, valued at $1,706,963 produced

1912,
15,510 tont. were sold in the rough for $66,798, 2,642 tons, sawed into
slabs, were sold for $50,334, 21,557 tons were manufactured and sold for
this
aggregate 133,289 tons, valued at $1,097,483 were talc and 25,981 tons,
In addition to the home producvalued ai. $609,480 were soapstone
tion, there were also consumed in the United States 10,989 tons of high-
grade
talc,
valued at $122,956, which was imported,
KAOLIN1TK GROUP
The kuohnitc group
of minerals comprises hydrous
aluminium
sili-
cates corresponding to the magnesium silicates of the serpentine group

The principal members of the group are*
Kaohmte,
HiAbSfeOo, or
H2 Al(Al(OH)3)a(Si0 3 )4
HzA,h(SiQz)4
=346,50 Si0 2 , 39 S 6 kO> *3 94

66,65 SiOa, 28 35 AlsOs, 5 oo
Pyrophyllite,
H2
H2
404
Kaolmite corresponds to serpentine in which all the Mg has been reIn addition to these, there
placed by Al and pyrophyllite to steatite
which
related
are other closely
may be intei mediate in comcompounds
two Among them the most common arc alloand

hallo vwtc
phbne, montmonllonite
of
Kaohmte is the base
economic
are
Both minerals
importance
position between these
of
all
clay products like pottery,
tile,
bnckb, etc
Kaolinite
The crystallization of kaohnile is piobably
The ciystals,
jnonoc hnu
rare, are thin plates with an hexagonal habit,
which are
planes oP(ooi),
ooP(no) and ooP>
'
ratio is
:
5748
base
the
to
parallel
5997 with
(oio)
=83
bounded by the
and +P(7ii). Thou axial
Their cleavage
n'.
is
peifect
Distinct crystals have been found only on the Island of Anglesey,

Wales, and at the National Belle Mine, at Silveiton, Colo wheie they
comprise a white powder eveiy grain of which is a ciystal
,
The
when
mineral,
has a hardness of
pure, is white or colorless
and a
specific gravity of 2
45
and transparent.
It
is
It
infusible before
It is
only slightly attacked by HC1
decomposed
by alkalies and alkaline carbonates with the production of hydratcd
Its index of refi action is about i 56.
silicates
the blowpipe and
is
The greater part of the kaolmite known is not in nystuls

occurs in foliated or dense earthy masses to which various
ft
usually
names have
been assigned
Naknte
is
a white crystalline mass of kaolmite
flakes often arranged in fan-like or divergent groups.

flakes
have a pearly
made up of tiny
The individual
It occurs as vein lillmgs in certain ore-
lustei
bodies
St&nmarkite is a dense mass of microscopic grains often forming

nodular masses and occurring as veins ancl nests in rocks.
It is harrier
than pure kaolin (H 2-3), and is often yellowish, gray or reel in color
Kaohn is an
becomes
earthy, friable
mass
of flaky kaolmite
which when moist
and, therefore, of great value in the manufacture of

more soluble in acids than the crystallised variety. It
plastic,
pottery
It is
fuses at about 1780
Kaolin
is
distinguished from chalk
meerschaum and
talc
by the
by
its
reaction toward HC1, from
reaction for Al with
Co (NO;*) a, and
front
mfusional earth by the fact that its powder will not scratch glass,
Clay is a mixture of kaolinite, quartz, fragments of other mineral
ANHYDEOUS METASILICATES
405
and various decomposition products of kaohmte and other

among the most important being various colloidal, hydrous,
aluminous silicates and magnesium and calcium carbonates
The
particles
silicates,
of colloidal material in the

clay the more plastic
gieater the proportion
valuable
lor manufacturing purposes
the
more
it is and
Different clays
have received
diffei
ent
names which indicate in a way their uses
Among
the most impoitant of these arc
China day, a very puie, white kaolin,

Ball day, a white, very plastic clay,
Fje
day, a fanly pure clay capable of resisting great heat,

Flint day, a hard clay which is not plastic even after grinding,
Brick day, an impure clay suitable foi making brick,
Pottety day, stoneware clay, terracotta day, etc , are jU impure clays
that are adapted to the uses suggested by their names
Sample analyses
of
kaohmte and
of
some
of the purer clays follow
F
IS
Total
ioo
100 oo
100 00
99 97
Occurrence
Here
it
was
Kaohmte
foimccl partly
occurs
in feldspathic
rocks near ore veins,
by ascending magmalic
solutions
and partly
by descending IIgS04, produced by the oxidation of the sulphides In

Most kaolin, however, is a weathering
the uppci poi lions of the veins
product of feldspar (see p. 408), and of feldspathic rocks. When
acted upon by water, and more particularly by water containing dissolved CDs, the feldspars lose alkalies, calcium and some silica, leaving
an aluminium
silicate
AlaO,* 6SiOi(
behind.
Thus,
for the
KAlBLAt) - K a O 48102
*
potash feldspar orthoclase.

Al20;j sSiOu,
which with
(kaolimte).
Other
silicates also yield
kaohmte on weathering
in
some
cases
completely changing so as to yield pseudoinorphs of kaolin.

Very complete weathering of this kind takes place in bogs, and
406
some
of the best
known beds
of kaolin arc believed to
have been formed
at the bottoms of peat bogs
measurable crystals occurs only at the two

The puic, white, dense
that have already been mentioned
almost
um\ci sally
occuis
The
Clay
widely spread
Kaohnite
Locakhes
localities
kaolin
in
is fairly
of kaolin in
principal localities
Ala
Mt
Illinois,
Savage,
Missouri,
Production
Md
North America aie near Jacksonville,
various points in Tennessee, Noith Carolina,
New Jersey and
The
Pennsylvania
total value of clay products manufacluiccl in the
United States during 1912 was over $172,800,000, of which by far the
common brick, of which $51,706,000 worth
largest part is represented by
with an output valued at $3 6 504,000
It
followed
were made
Pottery
,
not possible to estimate the value of the clay represented in the manufactured product because in most cases the manufactui CM s mine their
own clay and make no account of the raw material The quantity of
is
clay mined
amounted
m the United States and sold to manufacturer
during 1012
In 'addition, there
to 2,530,000 tons, valued at $3,946,000,
tons of clay, valued at $1,952,000
were imported 334,655
Pyrophyllite
(H2Al2 (SiO,j)4)
m groups of radiating 01
Pyrophylhte nearly always occurs

orthorhombic or
monochmc
The bundles
fibers that are either
diveigmg
in crystallisation
It
of libers derive easily

may be isomorphous with steatite.
into flexible sheets that have a pearly luster on their cleavage faces
When pure the mineral is light-colored shades of yellow, gray 01 green
transparent or translucent and has a greasy feel

tureless masses are known as agalmatohte.
It
is
Dense, struc-
Its density is 2.8 or 2,0

Before
is very soft, about i
melts on the edges to a white enamel and fibrous varieties
the closed tube pyrophyllite assumes a
Heated
exfoliate and swell
It is only partially soluble in IIC1, but
silvery luster and gives off water.
The
mineral
the blowpipe
is
it
completely decomposed by Na2COs*

It is best distinguished from ta'c by the reaction for aluminium,
Synthesis
Upon heating to 3oo-soo a mixture of SiOs>, AliAt and
potassium silicate a mass is obtained which consists of aiulalusite,
muscovite and pyrophyllite
Occurrence and
locator
Pyrophyllite
points m many different associations, where
is
found at a number
of
probably the result of

silicates
Its
other
of
localities
in the United
principal
weathering
States are Graves Mt., Ga., Cotton Stone Mt., Deep River, Curit is
bonton and Glenclon,
Chesterfield, S
407
and Mahanoy City,
Penn
Uses
making
The massive form
Agalmatohte
small images
is
and
of the mineral
for the other
is
used to some extent in
purpose for which talc is employed

used by the Chinese as a medium from which they carve
slate pencils,
CHAPTER
Tim
SI
LIC
XVIII
ATKS
ontmmd
THE ANHYDROUS TRIMETASILICATES

THE FELDSPARS
ol .ill mineials
They
feldspars are among the most impoitanl
locks
and in mixtures
of
constituents
as
are abundant
many igneous
THE
filling
Their principal
veins
they indicate
which they
by
scientific
impoitaiuo
lies in
their composition the nature of the lock
the
fact that
magmas from
some systems of rock classithe rocks is based primarily upon the presence
and the naming of the fddsputhie rocks is in
Consequently, in
crystallize
fication the grouping of
or absence of feldspar,
accordance with the nature of their most prominent feldspathic constituent
Moreover, some of the feldspars aie of economic importance.
Chemically, the feldspars may be regarded as isomorphous mixtures

of the four compounds, KAlSuO^NaAlSiiOs, NajAlAlSioOs, CoAlAlSi a O
and BaALAlSiaOs, each
of which, except the third, has been found nearly
and murodme, barhimlt* and Mite, anthird, Na2AlAlSioOs, has been mule m the
pure in nature as orthoclase

orthite
and cdswn
The
it occurs in nature only in isomorphous mixtures with

The pure compound has been
the anorthite and albite molecules
laboratory, but
called carnegê^te
and
its
mixtures anemomitn
also been regarded as salts of the acid
drogen
is
replaced
(NaSi)AlSi2
8,
The
feldspars have
HftAlSigOx in which the hy-
by various
albite,
radicals, thus. (KSi)AlSijjOK, orthodase;

(CaAlJAlSiaOg, anorthite, and (BaAl)AlSijOs,
celsian
The potash molecule
crystallines
fiom magmas containing potas-
sium, sodium and calcium, but it also frequently forms isomorphous

mixtUres with the soda molecule and in some cases with the barium
molecule
Mixtures of the potash and calcium
molecules are e\-
tremely rare as minerals, but they have been formed experimentally

in the laboratory
The albite and the calcium molecules are usually
intermixed
Both are known
in a nearly
but their mixtures are much more common
pure condition an minerals,

Indeed they are BO common
that they are separated from the other feldspars and formed into a clh408
ANHYDROUS TRIMETASILICATES
409
subgroup under the name of the plagwdaw group, with albite and
The plagioclases constitute the best
anorthite as the two end members
tinct
known isomorphous series of compounds in

The calculated compositions of pure
albite, anorlhite
and
celsian with their specific gravities are
K2
7
Albite
64
68
18 4
TO 5
Anorthite
43
36 7
Celsian
32 o
27 2
Orthoclasc
the realm of
mineralogy.
orlhoclase (or microclme),
Na2
CaO
BaO
Sp Gr
16 9
8
20
41 8
All the feldspars aic trichnic, but the pure potassium
55
61
76
3 34
and sodium com-
pounds, in addition to possessing distinct trichnic phases (micioclme and

albite) occur also in crystals which, because of sub-microscopic twinning,
(p 420) are apparently monochnic (oithoclase and barbiente)
Usually
the forms on orthoclasc arc designated by symbols that refer to the
monoclmic a\es, but since the habits of all feldspars are the same they
can be as readily understood when referred to the tnclimc axes The
crystallographic constants for the
of unmixed molecules are
members
of the group that consist
Anglc(ooi)A(oio)
*{
90
86
24'
85
50'
The simple ciystals of feldspar exhibit three habits, but on nearly all
the same forms occur. These are oP(ooi), ooP 06(010), ooP'(no),
oo'P(no),
&
/P/ oo (101), 2/Py oo (201)
and
less
commonly
s/P' 00(021),
P/3(i3o), oo /P3(i3o), /P(I n), P/(i7i) and oo P 60 (100)

In orthodase and the other apparently monochnic forms these symbols
may be written oP, coPob, oo P, p*, 2Poo, 2P5b, oopj, P and
2'Py
(QJ
i),
oo
oo poo (Figs. 213 and 214).

There have, moreover, been reported on
orthoclasc about oo other planes and on the plagioclases about 45;. Of
these, however,
a number are probably
vicinal, as
they have extremely
large indices,
The principal habits are the equidimensional, the columnar (Fig.

and the tabular (Fig. 214) The tabular crystals are usually
The columnar forms are elongated parallel
flattened parallel to oio
213),
to the c or the a axes
410
common, according to five laws, and much less common

Of the five common laws three apply to all
according to several others
The
the feldspars, and the remaining two to the tnclimc types alone
The other
first three are the Carlsbad, the Manebach and the Baveno
Twinning
two are the
is
albite
and the penclme
In Carlsbad twins, 100
the twinning plane and usually oio
is
the
is
/77\
%
LLV
FIG 214
FIG 213
FIG 213
Orthoclase Crystals with
oo P,
aP
FIG 214
55
Orthoclase Crystals with m,

P,
in
oo
(0),
P3
b,
130
no
(m),
201
(y)
wPw
oio
and y as m Fig 213

and 2P 2b 021 ()
(a)
(ft),
(c)
and
P oo loi
(c),
oP, OOT
Albo
^
\zw
FIG
FIG 215
FIG 215 Carlsbad Interpenctration Twins of Orthoclase

(100),
FIG 216
composition face
ooPw
216
Twinning plane
ia 00
(oio)
Contact Twin of Orthoclase According to the Carlsbad Law.
The twinned parts may interpenetrate, as is usually

the case (Fig 215), or they may he side by side forming a contact twin
If
the contact twins the planes Tot and ooi are equally
(Fig 216)
composition face.
prominent, since they are nearly equally inclined to the c axis the twin
may be mistaken for a simple crystal (Fig. 216), In rare cases the
composition face
is
100 and the twinned parts are in contact,
ANHYDROUS TBIMETAHILICATES
411
The Baveno
twins are contact twins, with 021 the twinning and comAs the individuals are elongated parallel to
position planes (Fig 217)
the a axis the result of the twinning is a square prism with its ends
crossed
by a diagonal that separates the same forms on the two twinned

In some cases the twinning is repeated and a fourlmg
individuals
results
In Manebach twins, the twinning and composition plane is ooi

These usually occur m columnar crystals elongated parallel to 0, or in
tabular crystals flattened parallel to ooi or oio (Fig 218)
Ccirlsbad, Baveno and Manebach twins, as has been stated, are com-
mon
to feldspars of both the monochmc and tnclmic phases, but the

penclme and albite laws are found only in the tnclmic types The
FIG 218
FIG 217
FK, 217
Fid 218-
-lUveno Twin of Orthoclasc
Twinning and composition plane, aP
M iintbiu h Twin of Orlhoi Use
description of these
CUSSed.
is,
ob (021)
Twinning and composition plane, oP(ooi)
therefore, deferred until the plagioclases are
Besides occurring in crystals, nearly
all
the feldspars are
known
also
m gianular and platy masses

The pure feldspars are coloileas and transparent or translucent, and
have a glassy luster which, on cleavage faces sometimes approaches
As usually found, the feldspars are white, pink, reddish, yellowpearly
Some specimens show a bluish white shimmer
ish, gray, bluish or green
or opalescence (moonstone), and others a reddish spaikle (sunstonc),
all
due to enclosures of other minerals

index from that of the
mam
or of lamellae of a different refractive
portion of the mass
All
have u white
All possess a very perfect cleavage parallel to the base (ooi)

streak
and a scarcely less perfect one parallel to oio Their fracture is uneven
to conchoitlal, and hardness 6
Befoie the blowpipe fragmentb of the potash, barium, and calcium
412
on their edges to a porous glass

feldspars are very difficultly fusible
The soda feldspars are a little more easily fusible The fusing temperature of albite is between 1200 and 1250, that of orthoclase approxiAnorthite is soluble in
mately 1300, and that of anorthite 1532
The other
of gelatinous silica.
hydrochloric acid with the production
three feldspars are insoluble
The feldspars are distinguished from othei minerals
by
their crys-
two nearly perfect cleavages approximately perpendicular to one another, and their hardness
They are distinguished
in the descriptions
indicated
be
will
from one another by characters that
tallization, their
of the several varieties
Feldspars rich in orthoclase and soda weathei fanly leadily to musThe soda feldspars in some cases change
covite, or kaolin and quartz
addition of the calcium molecule calcite
the
With
to zeolites (p
445).
often found in the weathering products.
Under certain conditions,

magnesium and iion rmncuils, the
especially when
of zoisite and albite, 01 a
mixture
a
to
often
calcium feldspars
change
mixture of these with garnet, chlorite (p 428), epidote and otlici comis
in rocks containing
pounds
This mixture
is
often designated
by the name &an\wntr
All crystals of the feldspars, except those of
pure albite
Syntheses
and pure orthoclase (including microchnc), have been made by slowly
Albitc and
cooling a dry fusion of their components m open cuinbles
orthoclase have been produced from similar fusions to \\hi<h tungstic
acid, alkah-tungstates or phosphates, or alkali-fluoride ha\r been a dried
They have
also
been produced with quart/ by fusion
the presence
of moisture in closed tubes

All except the barium feldspars occur as
Occurrence and origm
important constituents of most igneous and of many metamorphic
rocks.
They occur also abundantly in a few sandstones (sirkoses) and
a few water-deposited veins, and are found
craters as products of gaseous exhalations
rare
They have been
mound a few
volcnnic
The barium
feldspars are
seen only in dolomite associated with Imnte and
tourmaline, in manganese ores and manganese epidote, and intergrown

with albite in a pegmatite at Blue Hill, Delaware Co , Pa
Witih. respect to origin feldspars
magma, primary
deposits
from
may be primary
separations from a
solutions, pneumatotytie deposits, or
they may be the result of metasomatic process. They are

products of contact and regional metamorphism
Uses
The feldspars, though extremely abundant, have
few uses
common
compara-
In the future the potash varieties may become a

source of the potash salts used in the manufacture of fertilizers. At
tively
413
present the principal use of the feldspars is in the manufacture of porcelain and other white pottery products and enamel ware
They are
used as fluxes to bind together the grains of emery and carborundum
making of grinding and cutting wheels, and are employed also in

the manufacture of opalescent glass, artificial teeth, scouring soaps and
"
"
ready roofing
All the feldspar used in commerce comes from pegmaProduction
The total quantity produced for all purposes in the United States
tites
in the
during 1912 amounted to 86,572 tons, valued at $520,562. Of this,

26,462 tons were sold crude at a value of $89,001 and the balance
The
ground
principal varieties
though ohgoclase
albite,
mined are
(a plagioclase rich
orthoclase, microchne
m soda)
mined
is
and
in small
quantity.
ALKALI FELDSPARS
Orthockse and Microcline (KAlSbO?)
Barbierite
and Albite
Orthoclase and microchne have the same chemical composition

Both are potash feldspars, but both may contain sodium
On the
other hand barbiente and albite are both essentially soda feldspars but
both usually contain some potassium
In orthoclase the sodium is
due to the admixture of the barbiente molecule, and m microchne to
the presence of the albite molecule
The soda-rich microchne is generally
known
exibt as
The pure barbiente is not

Analyses of these four varieties follow
as anorthodase.
a mineral
SiO 2
AlaO,i
63 80
21 00
II
65 23
19
TIT
67 oo
IV 66 18
67 99
VI. 68 ?8
T
II
CnO
Na 2
K20
13 80
76
o 31
10 12
78
15
ii 74
IQ 52
36
13 03
01
19 27
7<5
3 o5
10 62
31
39
6 23
10 81
315
HjjO
I
152
known
to
Total
40
IOO 00
27
loo 00
QQ 70
ioo oo
oo
09 03
09
99,82
OrthocUsc, Aclularia, Elba

Soda-orlhoclase, JDrachenfels, Prussia,
lit. Burbiente, KrajjjcrtS,
Also ,56 BaO.
Norway
IV. Microclmc, Ersby, Pargas, Finland.
Anorthoclase, from granite, Kekequabic Lake,

trace of
Mmn
MgO
VI, Albite, from htchfieldile, Likhfiold, Maine.
Albite
is
described
among
Also .23
Also
82 FcjOj and
FO and .09 MgO,
the plagioclascs (p, 418),
414
that the latter shows clearly
FIG
219
and miciocline
noticeable difference between orthoclase
The most
is
Section of
its
tnchnic symmetry by
Microclme Viewed between Crossed Nicols
structure indicates twinning
( ifltv
Rownbmck
its
twinning,
The
grating
and its optical properties, while in orthoclisc the twinning is so

minute as to be unobservable and the op1 ical properties arc similar to
those of monochmc crystals
This difference is best exhibited in thin
when viewed m polaroed light under the

Under these conditions certain secmicroscope
tions of microclme exhibit series of
light and dark
sections
bars crossing one another

perpendicularly (Fig,
The
219), while sections of orthoclase do not.
grating structure is
due to repeated twinning

and pericline laws at the
according to the albite
same time (p 419).

in
is
FIG
220
Adulana
Crystal with m,
b,
and x as m
Figs 2x3 and 214
c,
Also
fP 55, 203
fo)
If this
method
of twinning
orthoclase
the lamellae are so

present
minute that they cannot be seen even under
high powers of the microscope
Several
names that
tinct varieties of the
mon
use
refer to
more or
less dis-
potash feldspars are in com-
The most important
are*
Adularia, a nearly pure orthoclase, that is nearly

transparent, occurIts crystals have the characteristic habit
ring in veins
illustrated in
Fig 220
415
Samdtne, a glassy soda orthoclase, occurring as large crystals often

flattened parallel to oio,
embedded
in lavas
Moonstone, a translucent adulana, exhibiting a pearly luster, with

a very slight play of colors
Sunstone, a translucent variety exhibiting
from
reddish flashes
inclusions of mica, or other platy minerals

Perthtte, parallel mtergrowths of thin lamellae of orthoclase
and
albite
Microchne-perthite* parallel mtergrowths of lamellae of microclme

albite
and
Oithoclase and the other pseudomonoclmic feldspars may be distinguished from the distinctly tnclmic forms by the value of the cleavage
angle which in orthoclase
except in microclme
= 61
#=i
oj=i 519,
524,
7=1
in the tnclmic
The value
forms about 86,
of the angle
noAiô
Its refractive indices for yellow light are.
526
With
The sp
the admixture of the albite mole-
gr of pure orthoclase is 2 55 and

a
little
of albite (see p. 412)
than
that
higher
fusing point
Oithoclase may be distinguished from the other pseudomonoclimc
cule these values increase

its
90, and
p 409
(See
orthoclase
13' in
is
feldspars
by
its specific
Syntheses
Crystals
gravity and the flame reaction

of orthoclase have been made
by
fusing
SiOa and AkO* with potassium wolframate, vanadale or phosphate

Also by heating aluminium silicate with a solution of potassium silicate
in a tube at 100, and by heating muscovite in a solution of
and
KOH
silicate at
potassium
Occurrence
igneous rocks
600
The potash
feldspars are essential constituents of the

and trachytes and of some
granite, syenites, rhyohtes
crystalline schists,
and are accessory components of a number of other
They occur in most pegmatite dikes and as gangues in some ore

veins, and m many contact metamorphosed rocks
The potash feldspars are so widely spread that an enuLocalities*
meration of their important occurrences is here impossible
The best
known localities of orthoclase are Cunnersdorf, Silesia, Drachenfels
and Lake Laach, Rhenish Prussia (samdme), in the Ziller thai, Tyrol
rocks
(adulana)
and at
Mt
at St
Gothard
in the Alps (adularia)
Antcro, Chaffee
developed at Stnegau,
Silesia;
Co
in
at Baveno, Italy,
Microclme crystals arc well
the pegmatite dikes of southern Nor-
Col
way; and at Pike's Peak, Col (amcutomte). Anorthoclase occurs at

Tyveholmen and other points in Norway and in the lava of KilimandIn
jaro, Africa, and in that on Pantdlena, an island near Sicily.
North America pegmatites are abundant in" southeastern Canada, in
416
Piedmont plateau area immediately east of

the Appalachian Mts and throughout this district all forms of the
Soda-potash feldspars ha\e
opaque potash feldspars are abundant
been described from many places, but whether they j,ic soda orthoclase
New England and
in the
,
or anortholcase has rarely been determined

All phases of the alkali feldspars occur as
and metamorphic rocks
components of igneous
POTASH-BARIUM FELDSPARS
barium comprise an isofeldspars containing potassium and
as
the two end members as
celsian
and
with
orthoclase
series
morphous
The
follows
Sp Or
Ortioclase
Barium
KAlSi3
(Or)
orthoclase
OrjoCei
Or^jCei
503-2 645
2 725-2 818
Or-iCei-OrrCî
BaAl2 (SiOi) 2
Hyalophane
Cdsim
2 55
(Ce)
3 384
composition of some of the barium feldspars are illusthe

analyses quoted below
by
The chemical
trated
Si02
I 51 68
II 52 67
A12
BaO
21 85
16 38
21
15 05
12
III. 53 53
23 33
30
IV. 54 15
29 60
26
I
II
III
IV
CaO
MgO K2
04
3 23
71
12 47
..
46
i
oo
Ha O
Na2 O
10 09
7 82
52
Total
100 oo
14
99 88
99 xo
ioo oo
58
Theoretical for Or2 Cei
Bmnenthal, Tyrol
Jakobsberg, Sweden
Sjogrufran, Sweden.
The minerals are isomorphous with orthoclase (with the possible

exception of celsian, which may exhibit the triclmic habit and may more
properly be isomorphous with microchmc), and their axial constants tire
intermediate between those of orthoclase and celsian.
for
is
6584.1
The
a\ial ratio
7 = 00
Its
5512 01=90,
115 35',
Its crystals, as a rule, have the udularia habit.
cleavage angles are 90
The Indices of refraction of the barium feldspars are:
hyalophane
|8
ft
Barmm-orthoclase
(OrioCei)
5201
Hyalophane
(OnCei)
5373
539S
5416
Hyalophane
(Or 7 Ce3 )
5419
5419
5469
5837
5886
5940
Celsian
5240
5257
417
m metamormanganese mines at
Jakobsberg and Sjogrufran, Sweden, and mtergrown with albite m a
pegmatite at Blue Hill, Delaware Co Penn
These feldspars are rare
phosed dolomites
They ha\ e been found only
in the Binnenthal, Valais, at the
SODA-LIME FELDSPARS
name given to the group of isomorphous

The
and anorthite are the end members
albite and anorthite molecules are isomorphous in all proportions and
the physical properties of the mixed crystals accord completely with
their composition
Certain mixtures are much more common than
Plagioclase
feldspars of
is
the general
which
albite
These were given individual names before it was recognized

that they were merely members of an isomorphous series and these
names were later applied to mixtures of definite compositions The
others
names and the compositions
of the mixtures corresponding to
them are
given in the following table
68 7
NaAlSiaOsCAb)
Ab(,Ani
Qligodase
J
19 5
22 i
CaO
Sp Gr
2 605
10 o
30
24 o
87
53
55 6
28 3
57
10 4
2 679
49 3
32 6
*5 3
34 4
17 4
20 i
2 765
64 9
62 o
Na2
AbOs
Si02
Albite
649
Andenne
Ab]An
Labrador ite
AbjAni
AbiAnj
Bytotvmte
AbiAn
AbiAn J
Anorthite
CdAl^SiCXjMAn)
fJ
708
46 6
43
36
2 742
Nearly all plagioclases contain small traces of K20, MgO and Fc20s,
but otherwise their composition is nearly in accord with that demanded
by
their symbols, so that
be calculated
composition
termined
is
if
one constituent
is
known
the others
may
Moreover, the accord between physical properties and

so close tlut from the former the latter may be de-
oligoclascs, however, contain a large admktuie of the micromolecule so that they contain a notable quantity of KsO
These
are known as potadi-oligodc&e and are represented by the feldspar in a
Many
clinc
lock at Tyveholmen, Norway, the composition of which
SiOa
Al a On
59 50
22,69
FcaOs
2
47
CaO
S
MgO
tr.
K2
2
50
Na2
6 38
as follows
is
H2
i
37
Total
100 37
418
Some authors
limit the
to feldspars of this kind
name anorthodase
and
as soda-microclme
designate the trichmc soda-potash feldspar
which the anorthite
There is another group of soda-lime feldspars
form isomolecule and an analogous sodic molecule (Na2Alo(SiCh)2)
been
not
found
has
sodic molecule
among
morphous mixtures The pure
but it has been prepared synthetically at temperatures above
minerals,
1248, under the name
carnegieite
a=i
indices for yellow light are
to exist independently
it is
Its sp gr
509,
=2
7=i SH
513 and
its refractive
Although not known
believed to be present
the feldspar of
have hitherto
that
possibly in other feldspars
Lmosa, near Turns, and

been described as plagioclases
there
is
If future
work establishes the
a distinct series of feldspars composed
fact that
of isomorphous mixtures
and carnegieite it is proposed to name the group anemouute

to distinguish it from the plagioclase group which comprises isomoiphous
mixtures of anorthite and albite
of anorthite
The Lmosa feldspar has properties
AbiAm
but
its
nearly like those of the plagioclase
analysis yields the results
line I.
The composition
of
is given in line II
II
_
THE
is best expressed by
All the plagioclases have a tnchmc habit, which
are parallel to
which
the value of the angle between their cleavages,
of
the common
some
of
The crystal constants
ooi and oio
the
planes
the table
mixtures and the values of their cleavage angles are given in
below.
Albite
6357
55*1 93
23'
6377
5547 93
3*'
"6
n6
"6
"6
-55* 93
13'
'
<?- 6335
-6321
SS77 94 3'
'
Ohgoclase.
Andesme
Labradonte
Bytownite
Anorthite
=
-
55*4 93 4'
86
29' %** Q'

23'
90
29' 89
3'
24'
86 32'
59' 86 14'
55' 86
5'
'
6347
55' 9*
85
50'
are rich
forms, but those of
Crystals of the soda-rich plagioclases
are
much simpler Albite crystals
anorthite and the hme-nch members
are usually tabular parallel to oo P 06 (oio) and elongated parallel to

Others are elongated parallel to b (Fig. aai), Ohgoclase ib
c or a
419
more frequently columnar parallel to c, andesme tabular parallel to

oo P So (oio) or oP(ooi), and labradorite and bytownite tabular parallel
to oo P 06 (oio)
Twins are e\en more common than among the potash
Carlsbad
feldspars
(Fig
Manebach and Ba-
222),
veno twins are not uncom-
more frequent
mon, but
than these are the twins
two laws that
after
impossible
with
spars
habit
the
in
are
feld-
monoclinic
The
two
most
common
among
twinning laws
FK,
the plagioclases are
co
the albite and the pcncline

laws
221
P'
no
;Py CO
Toi
Crystals with
Albite
(/;/),
oo
oo
oio
(&),
oo'p,
no
oP, oor
(c)
and
(l)
is oo P66 (oio) and the comsame

the
The
(Fig 223)
position plane
twinning is usually repeated
times
that
so
many
apparently homogeneous crystals may be built up
In the albite law the twinning plane
of
numerous lamellae parcel
Fie,
Fro
222
Albite
to oio
Since the angle between oio
and
222
Twinned about
oopcoj 100
Composition
Compare Fig 316
fate
ool*oo,oro,
Carlsbad law
FIG 223.
Albite
Twinned about
law
oo
So,
oio
Compare
Composition face the same
Albite
Fzg. 222
all the plagioclascs is greater and less than 90, it must follow that
the surface of then basal cleavages is not a plane, but that it consists of
parallel strips of surfaces parallel to oio, and inclined to one another at
ooi in
angles alternately greater and less than 180.
Therefore basal cleavages
420
of the plagioclases very frequently exhibit parallel
stnaUons when exam-
ined in light reflected at the
proper
It
is
angles
this
(Fig
224)
Ivunnmg uhich,
repeated in submicioscopic
lamelltie, is believed to pro-
duce the monoclmic pseudosyrnmctiy

It will be
twinning
position
FIG 224
-Twmnmg
of Ohgoclase
StnaUons on Cleavage Piece

(About natural
the same symmetry
bi/c
of
orthoclase
noted that the

plane has the
of
hymmdiy
the
in
plane of
monodmiC
crystals, and, consequently,
twins about this plane have

as amespomhng
with reference to one anothci
mono-
contiguous layers of
clmic crystals
In the pencline law the

twinned portions are super-
The individuals are

posed
twinned about b as the twin-
nmg axis, and
are united about
a plane nearly perpendicular
^^/
oo P 06
to
(oio),
known
"rhombic section"
as
(Fig
^
the
Albile Twins with the Crystal

Twinning Axis and llu- Khomlm SciThe form r is
the Compos, turn F uc
Aniline law
v
(43)
*
Fio 225
* the
u <>
8 /l
The
225)
with the different plagioclases, but
is
position
Fio 226
Rhombic
section
vanes
always nearly perpendicular to oio
Fio 226
"
Position of
of this
Flti.
Sections
"
Albitc
(*1) an<l
2*7
Amwthitc
(/*),
Diagram of Crystal of Tnchnic Fciclbpar Kxhibilin Stnations Due to

Polysynthetic Twinning According to the Albile and the Pcridmc Laws
FIG
227
(Fig 226). As nearly all pencline twins arc elongated in the direction
of the ft axis, and the twinning is repeated, lamellae arc produced,
sections perpendicular to oio, cross the albite lamellae at

It is the presence of the two kinds of
(Fig 227)
in
which,
421
angles near 90
twinning in microclme that gives
it its
peculiar grating structure
polarized light (see Fig 219)

The plagioclases are light-colored, but pinkish and greenish shades
are less common in them than in the potash feldspars
Their streak is
They are usually translucent but in some cases are transAlbite

often exhibits a pearly luster and often a bluish shimmer
parent
when
Oligoclase
containing as little inclusions plates of hematite, glistens
colorless
with a red shimmer and affords the
finest
sunstones
The most
bril-
liantly colored plagioclases are some forms of labradonte, which, on

cleavage surfaces, show a great display of yellow, green, red, purple and
blue flashes
known, but
The cause of the play of colors is not

to
due
the presence of numerous very tuny
probably
reflected light
it is
parallel acicular inclusions

The refractive indices of the plagioclases vary with their compositions.
For yellow
light the \alues for the specified mixtures are as follows
Albite
(Ab l0 oAn
5290
5333
Oligoclase
(Ab?sAn22)
5389
5431
5469
Andesme
(Ab&oAn4o)
549
553
556
Labradonte
(AbisAn,^)
5545
5589
5634
Bytowmte
(AbaoAngo)
5691
5760
58os
Anorthite
(AbgAnoi)
5752
5833
5884
5386
Before the blowpipe all the plagioclases fuse to a white or colorless

glass, at the same time colonng the flame an intense yellow (albite), or a
Albite fuses at a lower temperature than
yellowish red (anorthite)
anorthite
The temperatures
at which synthetically prepared plagio-
clases melt completely are as follows
Anorthite
i>55o
AbsAni
Ab4Ani
AbsAni,
1,521
i,49
1,450
Albite
1,100
1,362
1,334
1,265
est
unattacked by HCi, but anorthite is decomposed by this reagent

The intermediate
with the separation of gelatinous or pulverulent silica
Albite
is
plagioclases are
more or
less easily
decomposed as they contain more or
less of the anorthite molecule
The
plagioclases are distinguished
from the feldspars possessing the
422
by the twinning stnations on their basal cleavages,

and from the potash feldspars of both monochmc and triclimc habits by
The characteristics of the
the color imparted to the blowpipe flame
another are their specific
one
from
them
plagioclases best distinguishing
monochmc
and
gravities
The
habit
their optical properties
plagioclases
weather to kaolin and mica
(paragonilc)
mixed
with quartz and calcite in the more basic varieties, and to zeolites (see
basic varieties alter to epidote,
p 45) In rock masses the more
some instances into scapohte (p 423), and very commonly into the mix-
as saussunte, which
known
ture
is
an aggregate containing
/oisite or
most important component

been nude by processes
Crystals of plagioclase have
oithoclase
For examin
crystals
making
analogous to those employed
Al
and
SiOy
been
have
2 0;j with
albite crystals
produced by fusing
garnet as
its
Syntheses
ple,
sodium wolframate, and by heating precipitated aluminium silicate with

Anorthite
a solution of sodium silicate m a platinum tube to 500
a
mixture
of
of
made
been
SiOj,
AbQs
by long heating
crystals have
the proper proportions, and by fusing vcsuvianilc and
and CaCOs
garnet
Occurrence
but
is
much
It
plagioclases
vein masses in certain crystalline schists

as a primary rock constituent than the other
however, frequently found as a secondary product
Albite occurs
less
common
is,
resulting from the changes produced
phic processes, thus
it is
clase
/s^=~v
>>
common
in
m other plagiochuses by
many
mclamor-
crystalline schists
and andesme occur
granites
Oligo-
and the other
more siliceous igneous rocks and Ubradorite, bytowmte and anorthite

the more basic rocks
Anorthite has also been found
The
m meteorites
which crystals of
the plagioclases are found are too numerous to be
mentioned here
Especially line crystals of albite
occur at Roc-Tourn6 in the French Alps,
Localities
localities at
DaupmnS, France, at Amelia Court House, Va

at Middletown, Conn,
and at Chesterfield m
,
FIG
2 28
Potash-
Oiigoclase Crystal
Forms
m and c
?R ?3oV(y)
Massachusetts
Excellent
crystals
of
oligoclase
occur at Arendal and at other places in Norway, and

at McComb and Fme
St Lawrence Co., N. Y.
>
m
m
certain igneous rocks at

Potash-ohgoclase occurs
Tyveholmen and elsewhere in Norway and in the lava of Kihmamljaro,
Africa. Its habit is prismatic (Fig 228)
Crystals of andesme are
found at Bodenmais,
m Bavaria,
Arcuentu, in Sardinia, and at Sanford,
in
Maine
Labradonte
crystals occur at Visegrad,
423
Hungary, and at
Mt
Aetna, Italy, and beautiful cleavage pieces come from Labrador,

where it forms one of the constituents of a coarse-grained igneous rock
Anorthite crystals occur at Volpersdorf, in
Siebenburgen, Hungary,
Silesia,
at Pesmeda, Tyrol,
in the
Aranya Mt,
in the inclusions in the
lavas at Vesuvius, Italy,

the lava on the Island of Unjake, Japan,
at Phippsburg, in Maine.
and
Uses
Albite from the pegmatite veins of southeastern Pennsylvania
and northeastern Maryland is mined for use in pottery manufacture
SCAPOLITE GROUP
(Na4Al2 (AlCl)(Si 3
The
8 )a-HCd4Ai fi
(A10)(Si0 4 ),)
scapohtes comprise a series of isomorphous
compounds
of which
the two end members are manaltte, Na4Al2(AlCl)(Si30s),j and mewnite>

Ca4Alf,(A10)(Si04)(), Between these two are many intermediate com-
pounds known under the

is
represented in
The
and
name miz&omte Their composition

manahte and meionite molecules, thus,
collective
terms of the
two end members of the series

members, and the actual compositions of
natural crystals are given below
theoretical compositions of the
of several intermediate
four specimens of
I.
II
Manahte, Piaiwra, Italy

Ripomte, Ripon, Quebec
of
III
IV
Contains ako
80%
SOg, 49 Fe/>3 and a trace
MgO
Y
Werncntc, Rossie,
Mt, Vesuvius
Meionite,
Contains also
10% 80s and
Contains also 46
material
*Volatile
MgO
and
32 FeO.
46% undecomposed
424
All the
members
crystallize in the
pyramidal hemihedral division of
the tetragonal system (tetragonal bipyramiclal class) in fairly simple

columnar crystals with an axial ratio i . 442 for manahte and i
4393
The principal forms are oP(ooi), oo P oo (ioo), oo P( T 10),
for meionite
oop 2 (2io), P(III), Poo
in A ill =43
45'
(101)
The
habit of the crystals
oopoo(ioo) predominating
in
The
22 <>)
and
is
always tolumnai
the prismatic zone, and
The
prominent
The
with
ooP(no)
Litter
only
predominates
ites
also
angle
form
miz/on-
scapolites occur also
grams embedded in
limestones, in columnar and
fibrous aggregates and in strucin crystal
tureless
All
masses
scupohtes have a
the
glassy lustei,
FIG
Scapohtc
Poo, ioo
229
1 10
oo
(w),
Crystals with
(a),
P,
ii (r),
oP,
and
aie transparent
pearly
or
or
colorless
translucent,
white, giay, greenish, bluish or
311 (s)
reddish
Their cleavage
streak
imperfect
choidal
2
54 fpr
parallel to
and
have
white
nearly perfect paiallcl to oo poo (roo) and

Then fracture is uneven 01 conooP(no)
is
They are brittle, have a hardness of 5- 6 and <i density of

manahte and 2 76 for meiomte, The refractive indices
naturally vary with

For the two end
light
which approaches
They
are
the proportions of the two molecules present.

of the group the indices for yellow
members
marialite,
w= 1.5463,
6=15395,
meiomte,
o>=r.5897,
=15564In
Before the blowpipe all members swell and fuse to a white glass
and MagMe arc insoluble, those
hydrochloric acid, mixtures between
between Ma2Me and MaMe2 are partially soluble and those between
Ma
MaMe2 and Me
are nearly completely soluble.
members of the senes are distinguished by their crystallization

and cleavage and all except pure meionite are characterised by the
chlorine reaction
They are distinguished readily from the feldspars
All
by
their fusibility with swelling,
Manahte and meionite
are rare
The common scapolites are the
mizzonites of which dipyr and wernerite are the nontrunspurent varieties
The former includes varieties occurring in elongated prisms containing between 54 per cent
and 57 per cent SiOs,
i.c.,
MaaMe to MagMe,
425
latter embraces varieties containing between 54 per cent and 46

cent
per
SiCfe, or Ma2Me to MaMea
Occurrence
The scapohtes occur in crystalline schists, crystalline
and the
limestones and also
and on the contacts
of igneous
limestones included
volcanic lavas (meiomte),
masses (wernente)
They
are found also
igneous rocks as the result of alteration of the feldspars, especially

when these rocks are intrusive
limestones, and also as an alteration
In a few places they are associated with magnetite
product of garnets
and apatite in veins of iron ores In most cases they appear to have
been derived from feldspars by the action of metamorphic processes
On the other hand, scapohte changes to albite, epidote, bio tit e, muscoand to a mixture of minerals
Meiomte crystals occur in the fragments enclosed in the
lavas of the Lake Laach region, Prussia, and of Monte Somma, the
Mizzonite is associated with meiomte
precursor of Vesuvius, Italy
vite
Localities
Monte Somma
the Pyrclayey limestones

Dipyr occurs
wernente at Arendal and Bamle, Norway, at Malsjo,
Sweden, at Diana, Lewis Co and at Gouverneur and Pierrepont,
Y at Canaan, Conn at Bolton, Mass and
St Lawrence Co
at
ennees,
manahte
at Ripon, Quebec,
and at Pianura, near Naples, Italy
CHAPTER XIX
THE SILICATES
Continued
THE ANHYDROUS POLYSILICATES

UNDER
easily
the polysihcales are grouped
all
the minerals that cannot
orthosilicates, the metasihcates or the tri-
be assigned to the
They are usually very complex in composition and are

commonly regarded as isomorphous mixtures or solid solutions of silicate
metasilicates
molecules of various types*
THE BRITTLE MICAS

The
brittle
micas are so called because, while they possess a very

rivals that of the true micas in its pcifection,
marked cleavage which
their cleavage foliae are brittle,
The group
and not
elastic as arc
consists of four minerals of
mixtures of the molecules H2CaMg4(SiOi)s and

the fourth is approximately H2(Fe MgJAbSiO?
known
the mica fohae
which throe are apparently
HaCaMgAiÔ^, and
The drst three are
as xantkopkylhte, brandtstte and chntomte and the fourth as

Of these the last two are the most important
Chloritoid
ddoritoid
is believed to be a basic orthosilicate, but, because of the

similarity of its
properties to those of the brittle micas, it is thought best to discuss it
in the same group with them
All members of the group

an hexagonal habit.
Clintomte
Clmtomte, or
crystallize in the
monocimic system with
(H (Mg-Ca
seybertite,
may
be regarded as a mktuie of the mole-
H2CaMg4(Si04)3 and HaCaMgAleOia in the proportion 4 5,

which requires the percentage composition shown in line I below. The
analysis of a specimen of the mineral from Orange Co., N. Y., is given in
cules
line II
Si0 2
A12
FeaOs
FeO
11909 4097
II 19 19
39 73
61
88
CaO
H2
2228
13.36
21 09
13
MgO
426
Total
430
....
100.00
4,85
1,26
101.72
ANHYDROUS POLYSILICATES
427
Well developed crystals are so rare that their axial ratio has not been
The best crystals appear as long, thick, sixsided plates with a well developed basal plane and several pyramids and
domes with rounded edges If the axial ratio is assumed to be the
satisfactorily established
same as that
P*
(056),
for biotite the principal forms are oP(ooi),
fP & (052),
-f
P ob
(027),
-iP(ii4), -?P(337), and -2P( 2 2i)
Many
the crystals are superposed twins, like
those of muscovite
The mineral
is
(Fig 230)
reddish or brown, and
has a glassy
Twinned
Pressure and FIG 230 -Clmtomte
r
j
j
According to the Mica Law
percussion figures are easily produced on the
_, p>
Formg
(
cleavage plates, and in nature parting often
and ;P 5* 012 (u)
337
takes place along these directions, yielding
and a white streak
It
luster
, ,
fragments with rectangular edges
and its density 3
The hardness
^m
of clintomte
is
=i
4-5
646,
0=1657, 7=1658
Before the blowpipe clintomte becomes white and opaque but does
It is completely decomIn the closed tube it gives off water
not fuse
posed by hydrochloric acid

It is distinguished from most other minerals by its micaceous cleavage, and from the true micas by its brittleness and solubility in hydrochloric acid
Clintomte occurs in a coarse, serpentimzed limestone at Amity,
Orange Co,
N Y
Chlontoid (H2 (Fe-Mg)Al 2 Si07)
Chlontoid
ferrous
differs
from the other
compound
Its
micas in being essentially a

composition approaches the formula given
above, though the analyses of
many specimens
Si0 2
AlsOs
FeO
23 72
40 71
28 46
II 25 50
38 13
23 58
MgO
5 19
depart widely from
H2
this.
Total
7 ii
ioo oo
6 90
99.30
Theoretical for HjFeAl2 Si07
II
brittle
Specimen from chlorite
The mineral
schists,
St Marcel, Italy
is believed lo be monochmc
crystallization because of
of
its crystals to those of biotite
the similarity
It often occurs in six-
more frequently m lenticular or spindle-shaped grams

and ball-like aggregates of plates and grains and in foliated
Twins like those of biotite are also fairly common.
sided plates, but
and
sheaf-like
masses
428
The mineral
is
dark green or black, and translucent
It is
strongly
blue and yellowish green tints

It has a
pleochroic in olive green,
its cleavage faces and a waxy luster on fracon
luster
or
pearly
glassy
Its hardness is 6-7
ture surfaces
index
and density 3 4-3 6
Its refracti\e
is i
741
Before the blowpipe chloritoid exfoliates on the edges and fuses with
mass In the closed tube it gi\ cs off water
difficulty to a black magnetic
unattacked by hydrochloric acid, but when in Jmc powder is comSome forms of ott relit e are solacid
pletely decomposed by sulphuric
It is
uble
strong nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the separation of
gelatinous silica
Masonite
Qttreltte
I
is a dark grayish variety from Nalick,
contains a little manganese and has a slightly chfTcicnt
formula from chloritoid
Ha(Fe MnjAJaSfcOo
Its
Itssp
composition
may
be best represented by
gr=33
The
chlontoids appear to be fairly stable, as their only alteration

products thus far noted are the chlorites and the micas and otti elite
All varieties of chloritoid are found principally
Occurrence
grained schists
fine-
where they are believed to be the result of regional and
contact metamorphism
Localities
The most noted
occurrences of chloritoid are Pregattun,
Tyrol, St Marcel, Italy, Ottrez, Belgium; Natick, R, I
and Augusta
and Patnck Counties, Va,
CHLORITE GROUP
The
green.
chlorite group is so named because its principal members are

The group comprises a number of platy hyduws magnesium,
aluminium
silicates that
appear to be isomorphous mixtures of mole-
cules that are approximately
the former of which
and the
is
BLi(Mg FeÂlgSiOu and
known
H,| (Mg- FcXiSisOu,

as the amesite molecule (designated At),
latter as the serpentine
pentine molecule
molecule (indicated
by
Sp).
The
ser-
form of serpentine known us

which
be
as
one
of the end members of the
anhgonte,
may
regarded
is
represented in the platy
series
The independent e\istence of the arnesite molct ult is doubtful
The mixture of these two molecules gives rise to the orthot ///orz/rs, which
1
constitute the principal of the two subgroups of the chlorites.

The
other subgroup is known as the group of the leptocUmfa
These consist of one or both of the two molecules mentioned above and others that
may be
regarded as derived from them
plex to be represented
Their composition
by any simple formula
is
too com-
429
ORTHOCHLOR1TES
The orthochlontes comprise the
minerals
Pennimte
SpAt -SpaAt 2 SpsAt2=34
FeO
29 3
21 6
26 6
AI 2
Si0 2
Coru'ndoph^hleSpA.U-Sp3A.t7 SpAU =26
Prochlonte
Sp3At7~Sp 2 At3 SpAt 2 =25
Chnochlore
Sp2 Ats=3o
Sp2 Ata-SpAt
MgO H2
31 8
14 9
34 8
03 22 o
14 6
7
37 7
12 8
12 9
13 o
Analyses of typical specimens are as follows
Si0 2 A1 2 O 3 Fe2 O* FeO
MgO CaO H2
Total
15 19 21 88
44
III
07 28 08 15 50
i 93 33 06
29 87 14 48 5 52
33 71 12 SS
66 12 27 100 03
Corundophihte 24 77 25 52
26 02 20 16
II Prochlonte
Chnochlore
IV Pennimte
I
II
Chester,
74
3 4
34 7
99 34
9 65 100 92
13 60 100 19*
Mass
Zillerthal,
Tyrol
III
West
IV
Zermatt, Switzerland
Pa
Chester,
The
98
Contains also
NiO=
17,
Cr2O3=r
56.
orthochlontes crystallize in tabular and pyramidal crystals that
are usually repeated twins so that their true nature is difficult to decipher
The simpler crystals have a monoclmic habit, but the twins are usually
Then crystallization is believed

hexagonal or rhombohedral in habit
to be monoclmic, with the axial ratio 5774 .1:2 2772 and =89 40',
The most common forms appearing on them are oP(oor) Pob(oii),
;
(40.11), oop6b(i OI ) and

JP&(043), -AP
Twins are very common The two most com6P^(26i) (Fig 231)
mon twinning laws are the mica and the pennme laws In the former
the twinning plane is perpendicular to oP(ooi) and in the zone with
The two parts
aP(ii2) (Fig 232, compare Fig 193)
oP(ooi) and
?P(22 S ),
]P(Ti2),
are levolved 60
with respect to one another
In the pcnnine law
the twinning plane and the composition face (Fig 233)

Twins following the first law have their twinned parts either side by
side (Fig 234), or superposed (Fig. 232^
Those following the pennine
oP(ooi)
is
their parts superposed

The twinning is often repeated so
that complicated trillings and sixhngs are produced
Chnochlore crystals are tabular with hexagonal outlines but a mono-
law have
clime habit (Fig 231), and
penmmte
is in
thick tabular crystals with a
430
and a rhombohedral habit, or

resembling steep rhombohedrons (Fig 235)
trigonal outline
in slender prismatic ones
Its characteristic twins
Prochlonte and corunare according to the penmne law (Fig 236)

without well developed crystal
dophilite are found in six-sided plates
forms.
FIG 233
FIG 232
FIG 231
Clmochlore Crystal with oP, ooi
FIG. 231
FIG
Pcb, oio
(c),
and -^Ps, 132
(?>),
4P3,
401
(f),
Clmochlore Twinned According to Mica Law, in which the Twinning

Zone with oP(ooi) and -lP(ii2)
Perpendicular to oP(ooi) and in the
Forms oP, ooi (c), JP oo 31 o 30 (/) -6PJ 261 (i>) and ?2P> 9 27 17 (<*>)
232
Plane
is
FIG. 233
Clmochlore with
Same Forms
as in Fig
Twinning and Composition Face,
FIG
FIG 234
232
Twinned about oP(ooi)
as
Pennine law.
FIG 236.
235
Clmochlore Tnllmg Twinned According to Mica Law, but with Individuals

by Side with oP(ooi) common and Irregular Compoulion Faces*
=$?,
(225) and y- |P 55 (205)
234
Side
Pennmite Crystal with oP, ooi (c) and a Form Resembling 3!*, 3031
FIG 236
Pennmite Crystal Twinned about oP(ooi), Pennine Law
2 35
The
orthochlorites
on the basal plane.
have a glassy
luster with
(w).
a slightly pearly luster
some shade of green, blackibh and

bluish green being the most common shades. At a few localities white
or yellow varieties are found. Varieties
containing chromium are often
They
are usually
The
rose-colored or violet
streak of
all varieties
431
is
white or light
All are strongly pleochroic in shades of green

gieen variin
eties, yellow and brown in brown varieties, and violet and carmine
the
base
Their cleavage is distinct parallel to
rose varieties
(ooi),
green
Percussion and
yielding lamellae that are flexible and slightly elastic
the
pressure figures, with rays in the same relative positions as
micas, occur naturally and often a parting takes place along their
The hardness
planes yielding triangular plates

is
below 3 and their density
is
For the
2.5-3.
of all orthochlontes
different varieties these
properties are.
The
Sp Gr
1-2
Prochlonte
2 78-2 96
Clmochlore
2-2 5
Pennmite
2-2 5
Corundophihte
25
29
refractive indices for yellow light are* in
chnochlore,
0=i
=1 583
585,
in corundophihte,
585,
7=1.596,
65-2 78
6 -2 85
penmmte,
prochlonte,
*=r 575, in
#=i 58+
and
Before the blowpipe the orthochlontes exfoliate and fuse with diffiSome varieties whiten The varieties rich in iron fuse more
culty.
readily than those
which there
Hydrochloric acid attacks
more ease
all
is little
iron
some instances to
all
Sulphunc acid completely decomposes
Chlontes have been produced

Synthesis
of alkaline solutions on pyroxenes.
The orthochlontes
They occur as essential
Occurrences
silicates
in
yield water when strongly heated

varieties with difficulty after fusion with
In the closed tube
a black glass
them
artificially
by the action
are alteration products of various

constituents
crystalline schists
and as the alteration products of silicates in igneous

The orthochlontes
rocks, in which case the latter assume a green color
also form pseudomorphs after garnet, biotite, augite, hornblende, etc
and sometimes they occur filling little veins cutting through altered
(chlorite schists),
rocks
Corundophihte
is
frequently
associated
with
the
mineral
corundum
Localities
The
numerous that even
which the orthochlorites occur are so

most important cannot be mentioned here.
localities at
all
of the
In the United States corundophihte occurs at Chester, Mass., and

Asheville,
N C
at Batesville,
at
West
D C
Va
Chester,
and
pyrochlorite at Foundryrun, Georgetown,
,
pennmite at Magnet Co^/c, Arkansas, and chnochlore
Penn
DEBCBIPT1\E MINERALOGY
432
LEPTOCHLORITES
to the chlontes that occur in
The nameleptochlonte is usually given

They are very complex
fine scales and fibers
Because
composition
,s not
ceitamly
ui distinct crystals the.r crystallization
they do not occur
hke the orthochlontes in general appearance,
e leptochlorites are
and
They
in origin
are,
soluble
however, completely
are the best
Of this group thuringite and ddesvte

fine dark green and pleochroic
1S in
very
bead
It forms
pseudomorphs
mine at Spurr, Mich
Delessite
The former
a black mag-
after garnet at the
Spurr
but
usually green,
is
fibers
Mt
iron
in lare cases
that are strongly pleochro.c
Viewed
dark peon
a common alteration
as he
frequently occuih
fibers are
This chlorite
are yellow
along their axes they
and
amphiboles, and
of
pyroxene
product
in basic volcanic rocks
filling
and
hydrochloric
known
It fuses to
scales
nmk' It usually occurs in bundles of

the
The green varieties, viewed across
of amygdules
becomes brown or black
silica
of gelatinous
acid with the separation
netic
in
finally fuses
it
is
The minoul when heated
with dfficulty to a black mag-
neticbead
of the two minerals are given

Analyses of typical specimens
m
.
.,
the
following table
Si0 2 Ai2 03Fe 2
FeO CaO
Thunngite, Spurr,
'
Mich
Delessite,
Dum-
barton,
Scot-
land
22 35 2 S 14
34 39
i 19
32 oo 17 33
"-4S
MgO H 2
6 4i
Total
99*S4
25
57 20.4^ IS 45
4i
Vesuvianite
is
Vesuvianite
It
is
extremely
complex
isomorphous mixtures
and Ca2 Al(OH)Si2 07
resented
mineral in limestones.
consisting of
apparently
composition,
common metamorphic
two compounds CaAlaAl(OII'F)(Si04)5

be better repcomposition may perhaps
of the
Its
be
Ca 7 Sio024, in which R/4 may

general formula R'4Al 2
the
Four
or
4
analyses, which emphasis
4
2
(A10 H)
by the
H
from different localities
m
composition shown by crystals
great variations
Ca2 ,(A10H) 2
are quoted below*
H2
NaaO
I
at 100
H20+
433
Less
0=F
Total
55
II
58
III
44
36
24
13
58
IV
Garnet colored masses and crystals form Pajsberg, Sweden

Mt Gunnison Co
Finely crystallized material from Italian

From Franklin Furnace, New Jersey
II
III
and a trace of PbO

IV Cahformte Fresno Co Cal
Contains also
Colo
ZnO=i
74,
CuO=
i 48,
Also 91 per cent CO.
Vesuviamte occurs both massive and
Its crystals are
crystallized
m the tetragonal system
(ditetragonal bipyrarmdal class), with
ratio of about
This
5375
an
axial
vanes with the composition
and
therefore, different
is,
specimens from
The
calities
m
lo-
are
crystals
columnar
thick
usually
different
but some ciystals are
habit,
pyramidal and otheis acicular.

The columnar crystals usually
contain ooP(iro) and oPoo
the prismatic zone,
(100)
and
oP(ooi),
P(in),
237suviamte
oopoo,ioo
(m]j
oox
l\
in
(p)
and oP,
(c)
and
oP 2 (2io), and 3^3(311) (F

237)
about 60 forms have been observed on them
The angle
often POO(IOI), 3P(33i),

all
IIO
Crystdlb Wlt
(a),
= 5o
In
39'
The
glassy in luster and yellowish, greenish or brownish,

A bright green,
It is transparent or translucent.
or gray and green, translucent, massive variety from points in California
The streak of all varieties
is used as a gem under the name cah/ornite.
mineral
rarely blue or
is
is
pmk
The cleavage of the mineral is indistinct parallel to oo P(no)

Poo (100) and its fracture conchoidal. Its hardness is 6-7 and
white
and
oo
density 3 35-3.45.
=i
701
Its refractive indices foi yellow light are
w= 1.705,
434
Before the blowpipe vesuviamte melts to a swollen brown 01 green

It is decomposed with difficulty by cicids, but after being strongly
glass
heated
eral
it
The min-
dissolves with the separation of gelatinous silica
powder
reacts alkaline
The mineral
characterized
is
by
its
form when
in crystals
and by
its
easy fusibility
The
recognized varieties that are used as gems are

Cdtformte, a white, green or gray and green variety in finely gran-
masses, resembling jade
Cypnne, a blue variety containing copper

alteration products are mica, chlorite and steatite,
other minerals are also known to be foimed from it by weathering
Its principal
and
Vesuviamte
Occurrence
is
preeminently
contact
mineral
metamorphosed by granite and othei igneous
occurs in limestone
and
also in crystalline schists
tals
on the walls
It
rocks,
found also as well developed crys-
It is
and ore
of veins containing quart/, calcitc, gurnet
minerals
Good crystals are common at a number of places where

Localities
limestones are in contact with igneous rocks, notably at Piitsch, and in
the Monzom Mts
SwitzTyrol, at Zermatt and at othei points
,
and the Albanian Mts,, m Italy,

erland,
and at many places m Norway and Sweden In North America good
crystals occur at Sandford, Phippsburg and other places in western
Maine, near Amity, N Y and at Templeton, Quebec, and a fineat Vesuvius, in the Alathal,
grained, massive variety occurs in Inyo and Tulaie Counties, in California

Californite is best known from Indian Cieck, Siskiyou Co , and
from a point 35 miles east of Sclma, m Fresno Co California

Other
localities are at Big Bar Station, Butte Co and Kxctcr, in Tulare Co.,
the same State
,
Production
The quantity
1909 was about 3,000

$275 worth was used
Ib
of californite used
valued at $18,000
Tourmaline (RoAl^ (B
R=H,
Tourmaline
tallization, its
is of
Al,
Mg, Fe,
as a
gem
stone in
In 1912, however, only
OH* F) a
Al, Cr, Fe,
K,
Na
great scientific interest because of its complex cryscrystals and the phywcal properties which it
handsome
exhibits so beautifully.
Moreover,
it
furnishes
gems
of
many
colors,
which, because of their brilliancy, are greatly admired by many persons

The mineral appears to be a derivative of the alumino-borosilicic acid
'
which the hydrogen
in
435
may be
replaced by Al,
four groups of comby Cr, by Mg and Fe" or by Li or Na,
Moreover, in most specipounds between which are many gradations
mens a portion of the hydroxyl is replaced by fluorine In other words,
giving rise to
the mineral
is
an isomorphous mixture
of several substances that are
The
derivatives of the alummo-borosihcic acid mentioned
four groups
of tourmalines that are clearly distinguishable are
Alkah
tourmalines, which are colorless, red or green,
and
trans-
parent
2
Iron tourmalines, which are usually dark blue or black and trans-
lucent
3 Magnesium tourmalines, which are yellowish brown, or brownish
and translucent
4 Chrome tourmalines, which are dark green, black and translucent,
or colorless and transparent
Typical analyses of these four varieties follow

I
II
III
IV
38 07
34 99
37 39
9 99
9 63
IO 73
3^ 56
8 90
42 24
33 96
27 89
32 58
FeO
26
14 23
64
MnO
35
.06
SiO2
CaO
56
MgO
07
18
2 or
NaaO
&20
LiaO
15
44
HfeO
01
34
tr
59
4 26
28
3 62
100 29
100 oo
Ti02
Total
I
II
100 42
99 70
Rose-colored (rubellite), from Rumford, Maine

Black, from Auburn,
Maine
Y. The A1A includes ,10 of Fe2 8 .

Brown, from Gouverneur,
IV Green, from Etchison, Montgomery Co Md Contains also 79 FcjOj, 05
NiO and
III
The varieties
brown,
(2)
recognized by distinct names are (i) ordinary, black and

rubellite, pink or red, (3) indicolite, blue or bluish black, (4)
436
Brazilian sapphire, blue and transparent,
(5)
Brazilian cm&ald, or
Brazilian chrysolite, green and transparent, (6) peridot of Ceylon, honeycolorless and transparent
yellow and transparent and (7) acfaoite,
Tourmaline forms handsome crystals that are frequently character-
They ciystalh/c in the

possessing a triangular cioss-section
rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system and aie hemimorphic
ized
by
The crysaxial ratio of i

4474
(ditrigonal pyramidal class), with an
ore
and
in
teimmated
columnar
habit,
tals are usually prismatic or
by
00
FIG
238
1120
Tourmaline Crystals with H
and H
(a),
FIG 239
ion
u,
p
and H
/,
oiu(ri) and
(r).
jp
-4
/,
01X2
a,
it,
(r)
2131
(/)
loTo
0221
(o)
",
P
,01 To
and oP, ooi (0
at
(;;/,);
analogue polo,
at dnliloguu pole
m, m\,
3P|
*u
CO
-,
---
Tourmaline Crystal with

_j.i
FIG 240
FIG 239
FIG 238
6 ib
c, o, r, r\
ami
us in Fig
2^8
Also
at (inuloguc polo
Cooling Crystal of Tourmaline Powdered with .1 Mixture of Minium and

Sulphur to Show the Distribution of the IfileUnt Charge, The upper end is the
FIG 240
analogue pole
rhombohedrons The most prominent prismatic fdccH arc ooP(ioTo),

oo f 2(1120) and the most common terminal faces
\ R(oi
R(ioi i),
f2),
a
6
-2R(o22i) R (2i3i), R (325i) and -11^(1232), though many other
rhombohedrons and scalenohedrons have been observed. Most forms
3
are hemimorphs so that the opposite ends of the c
u-\is are
differently
terminated (Figs 238 and 239)
The prismatic faces are vertically
striated and the mterfacial edges are often rounded,
The angle icTi
The mineral has a vitreous luster whether transparent
or opaque.
It
brittle
is
and has no
Its hardness
3 036-3
is
7-7 5
104 for
distinct cleavage
and
its
magnesian
density
varieties,
and 3 122-3 220 for green and black

than in any other mineral, the same
arrangement of
streak of
colors,
3 007-3 I 34 f r alkah varieties,

3 140-3 212 for blue iron varieties
varieties
The
color varies
more
crystals often exhibiting different

Moreover, many crystals show a zonal
colors at opposite terminations
The
4J7
with concentric colorless, red and green layers

The mineral becomes elecuncolored
all varieties is
trified by friction and like other hemimorphic substances is pyroelectric

The analogue pole is usually more simply terminated than the antilogue
The refracpole, in many instances showing only R(IOII) (Fig 240)
= i 6422, e= i 6225
tive indices for yellow light in colorless crystals are
In iron-bearing varieties the refraction
Dark varieties
tion of the c axis the mineral

varieties,
is
stronger
exhibit very strong pleochroism
darker than
is
Viewed in the
direc-
always, except in the case of colorless
when viewed
in a direction at right angles to
it
In very dark varieties the ray vibrating perpendicular to c is almost

completely absorbed, while the ray vibrating parallel to c passes
Thus, thin slices cut
through with a dark brown or dark green tint
the plane
through only light that vibrates
Tourmaline tongs are two such pieces or plates of dark
tourmaline mounted so that they may be revolved in their own planes
parallel to the c axis will let
parallel to c
When the c axes in
the two plates are parallel light is transmitted

This
it all vibrates in a single plane
the c axes are crossed the light that passes through the first plate
light is said to
When
is
be polarized because
entirely absorbed by the second, so that no light passes through

The behavior of tourmaline before the blowpipe varies widely
Alkaline varieties are practically infusible
Iron varieties fuse with
great difficulty and magnesium varieties very easily to a blebby glass

When fused with a mixture of acid potassium sulphate and pow-
dered fluorspar
Tourmaline
all varieties
is
give a distinct reaction for boric acid
readily distinguished from all other minerals
by
its
and the reaction for boron

In massive forms it differs from garnet and vesuwamte which it somewhat resembles by its difficult fusibility and bnttleness. The imneral
It is known, however, to alter into mica,
is, on the whole, very stable
crystallization, hardness, lack of cleavage
chlorite
and
steatite
Synthesis
Occurrence
It
The mineral has not been produced

Tourmaline
is
artificially
a characteristic pneumatohtic product
occurs in pegmatites, in quartz and ore veins, and in limestones

schists on the peripheries of granite masses where it is the result of
and
438
contact action
It occurs also as
an
original,
pyrogemc mineral
in acid
The variety in limestone is usually brown The lithium

igneous rocks
varieties are usually associated with lepidohtc
The transparent varieties are used principally as gem
Uses,
stones,
and the darker, translucent

Localities
Tourmaline
varieties in optical instruments

is
so
common
that an enumeration of
occurrence is impossible in the present place.

varieties occur at Ekaterinburg, Uial,
Red
on the
its
or gieen transparent
Isle
of Elba,
at
Cam-
and in Mmas Geraes, Brazil

polonga, Switzerland, Pemg, Saxony,
in the limestone at Gouveroccur
fine
brown
crystals
N. Y and handsome black ones at Pierrepont, N Y New Hope,

Penn and in Alexander Co ,N C The gem tourmaline oum sat several
at Hadclum, Conn
and in San
points in western and central Maine,
localities uie at Hebron, Pans,
Maine
The
in
Co
California.
Diego
neur,
The tourmalines are in pockets m pegmatite

most common, but all colors occur, and many
The centers of the gem industry m California
are
variegated
crystals
are P#la and Mesa Grande, San Diego Co where many pink tourmaPoland and Auburn
The green
varieties are
crystals occur associated \uth the lithium mica,

a pegmatite dike The best of these when cut
in
in
pockets
lepidolite,
carat
$20
bring
per
The total output of #cm tourmaline in the United
Production
lines
and a few green
States during 1909 was 5,110 pounds valued at $133,192, but in 1912
the yield had fallen to $28,200,
Cordierite (OM*'Pe)2AIa(A10)aaUOui)
Cordierite, dichroite, orîohte, may be an isomotphous mixture of
Its composition is apparently as shown by the
several molecules
formula given above, although the persistent appearance of water in all

recent analyses may indicate the presence of hydroxyl in the molecule
most authors
Since, however, the mineral readily undergoes weathering,
I f the water
regard the water as due to some hydrous alteration product
is regarded as essential the formula becomes Ha(Mg- FiOiAlsSiioOa?
,
The
of
calculated composition of the mineral and the actual compositions

as shown by analyses, are:
some specimens,
Si02
Theoretical
AbOa Fe2 0'i FeO
51 36
34 96
Haddam, Conn 49 14
CabodeGata
4858
32 84
,,
63
3244 315
MnO
,
04
19
917
tr.
MO H0
Total
13 68
JQO oo
10 40 1,84
6,63
xoo 08
99.97
Cordiente
is
with the axial ratio
class),
Its crystals are usually short
439
columnar with an hex-
.5871
5584
agonal habit due to the equal prominence of oo P(no) and oo P co (oio)
In addition to these planes, there are usually present also
(Fig 241)
The angle no A ilo=6o 50' Interwith

ooP(no) the twinning plane, are known but
penetration twins,
Contact
common
are
not
repeated tu ins,
they
twinned parallel to the same plane, are more
oP(ooi),
common
(on) and P(ii2)
06
usually possess a pseudohex-
They
The cleavage is good parallel

agonal habit
to oo P 60 (oio) and there is often a parting
parallel to the base (ooi)
When
in fresh condition the mineral has a
glassy luster
tinge
by
and a bluish, yellowish or grayish

It is transparent
reflected light.
and colored
translucent
or
varieties are strongly
and grayish
11
T.J
T.T.L
yellow shades, which become more intense
upon heating Its hardness is 7-7 5 and sp
tnchroic
gr
=2
dark
in
green
vary with
In specimens from Ceylon,
refractive
Its
63
blue,
the composition
indices
FlG
00
Cordicntc Crys
2 4*
with cop
tal
PC, Oil
OIO
iP,
00
<*>tt
'
oP? OOI
IO (w),
(fl),
(c)j
POO,
130
(d)
P in
(r)
uaj,
and 3? 3, 131
(0)
ai 5918, /3=i 5970, 7=1 5992
It is very slightly
Before the blowpipe cordiente is difficultly fusible
attacked by acids, but is completely decomposed when fused with alkaline carbonates
The
and
mineral
is
distinguished from quartz most easily by
its
cleavage
crystallization
Cordiente
weathers
readily into fibrous or scaly aggregates of

yielding well defined pseudomoiphs. The end
product of the alteration is a muscovitc, or a mixture of this mineral and
biotite
Several of the alteration products are so characteristic that
micaceous
minerals
they have icceived distinct names

Among these are chlorophylhte, a
green chlontic mineral, fahlumte, a serpentine-like mass, gigantohtc, a
brown, gray or green micaceous aggregate
large 1 2-sided prisms made
of thick plates, and p%mte a dark green aggregate forming prisms

that are platy parallel to the base
up
Crystals of cordierite have been produced by fusing its

an open crucible and then cooling the mass very
Syntkes^s
constituents
in.
slowly, but since the result
cordiente
is
was an anhydrous product
its
identity with
doubtful
Occurrence
Cordiente
occurs
ab
crystals
embedded
in
gneiss,
440
schists, granite, quartz porphyries, and rhyohtic and andesitic lavas

It occurs both as a pyrogenetic mineral and ab a product of contact
metamorphism
Uses
Cordiente
Localities
Good
is
used to some extent as a
crystals of cordiente arc
gem
found in gneiss in Boden-
mais, Bavaria, and at Arendal and other points in Noiway, in the volcanic bombs thrown out by the volcanoes of the Lake Laach district in
and the volcano Asama Yama, m Japan, and m the anclcsitc at

Cabo de Gata, Almena, Spain It occurs also in gianitc veins at Haddam and near Nonvich, m Connecticut, in gneiss, at Guilfoid, m the
same State, at Bromfield, Mass and near Richmond and Unity m New
Prussia,
Hampshire.
CHAPTER XX
THE SILICATES
Continued
THE HYDRATED SILICATES

Chrysocolla
(H2 CuSiO4-H 2 O,
CHRYSOCOLLA occurs
that are
made up
symmetry
mineral
CuSiO*
2H 2 O)
usually in dense masses without
but at several places
tallization,
or
it
any
sign of crys-
has been found in spheruhtic forms
The
of fibers that are apparently acicular crystals
of these, however, is
unknown
The
general view
is
that the
is colloidal
The
theoretical composition of chrysocolla, corresponding to the

formula given above, and the analysis of a specimen from the Old
Dominion Mine, in Arizona, are given below
CuO
SiOo
Theoretical
Globe, Arhs
Many
The
cially in
31 58
30 28
6 27
84
Mn2 Os
EbO
2 22
20 541
28 71
Total
oo oo
99 90
MgO, CaO and FeO, and some the
ZnO
various analyses that have been recorded vary so widely, espethe determinations of water, that the true composition of the
mineral
to
45 23
analyses show the presence of
presence of
An
34 23
FeoOs AkOs
is still
It is possibly a solid solution of colloids
doubt
analysis of a specimen from Huiqumtipa, Chile, which is thought
have been exceptionably pure gave
SiO 2
46 14
A1 2
58
CuO
28 85
FeO
CaO
38
64
MgO
83
H3
Total
20 15
99
57
This corresponds to the formula Hs(Cu OH) (8103)2 HfoO

The specimen w<is a turquoise blue enamel, with a hardness of 3 5 and a sp gr
= 2532
It is green or
Chrysocolla has an opal-like or earthy structure
and
blue
translucent
Its
is
streak
white.
turquoise
greenish
Impure
varieties may be brown or black and have a dark brown or dark green
441
142
streak.
It
between
has a conchoidal fracture and
The mineral
is
It yields
Its hardness varies
is brittle
density between 2 and 2 2

infusible before the blowpipe, but
and 4 and
its
the closed tube and
water in
is
colors the flame
it
decomposed by HC1
green
with the production of pulverulent silica
It is distinguished from other green and blue silicates by its reaction
toward HC1 and the green flame it imparts to the blowpipe flame
Occunence
Ch^socolU is produced by the oxida-tion of copper
oxidation products with silicic
compounds and combination of these
It sometimes replaces other
veins
acid in the upper portions ot ore
minerals, as atacamite, cerussite
morphs
them
after
Uses
with them
and labradontc and forms pseudo-
Chrysocolia is mined with other ores of coppei and is treated

Exact statistics of the quantity profor the metal it contains.
duced are not obtainable
The mineral occurs in many copper mines, especially m

It occurs as blue crusts on the
Bohemia, Hungary, Italy and Russia
Localities
J as a bluish green matrix cementing black

Old Dominion Copper Mine, Globe, Arix and intimately
It is also abundant
mtergrown with opal at the Boleo Mine, California
in
all
occurs
varieties,
it
where
Chile,
basalts near Somervillc
masses at the
Glauconite [Hydrous Silicate of Iron
and Potassium]
Glaucomte, or greensand, is an important constituent of some sediIt is probably a mixture of several substances, of which the
compound FeK.(SiOs)2 ^H20 may be most essential. Tt occurs as little
ments
round grains and

o,f sand, and
beds
pellets,
mixed with the
also as a
component
shells of foraminifera,
of limestone, marl, clay
forming
and sand-
Glaucomtic sands, because of their richness in potash wcie

fertilizers
the regions in which they are found,
stone
formerly used as
ScotAnalyses of glaucomte grams from Ashgrove, near Elgin,

land (I), and of glauconite sand from Antwerp, Belgium (II), are as
follows*
Si02
I
II
49
A12
Fe2
FeO
MgO CaO Na 2
09 15 21 10,56 3 06 2 65
4 79 19 90
50 42
Glaucomte
streak
hardness
is
5 96 2
55
3 21
28
21
,21
KaO
H0
o<[
ii 64
100 02
7 87
5 28
99,9:2
blackish, or yellowish green, in color, with
It resembles earthy chlorite,

is
and
its
density
2-2
8.
but
It is
is
Total
light green
probably amorphous.
opaque*
Its
HYDHATED
SILICATES
443
fuses with difficulty to a black magnetic slag and is

in part by strong hydrochloric acid, but aftei fusion is com-
The mineral
decomposed
pletely dissolved \\ith the separation of
It yields
gelatinous silica
water in the closed tube
Occunence and
Glaucomte occurs in oceanic deposits

Its principal
rocks
of
and
sedimentary
nearly all geological ages
occurrences in this country are in the belt of cretaceous beds on the
Localities
Atlantic coastal plain
New
It is best
known from
Jersey and from Spotsylvama and
the coastal portions of
Stafford Counties, in Virginia
certain
apparently occurs also as a decomposition product of augite
In all cases it appears to have been produced by sec-
It
basaltic rocks
ondary processes, MZ
by the absorption
of potassium
compounds and
soluble silica by colloidal ferric hydroxide

In the ocean these comof
animal
matter upon ferrugiresult
from
action
the
pounds
decaying
nous clays and fragments of potassic silicates in rocks, \vhen of later

origin than the rocks themselves, by the action of solutions of potassic
salts
upon
iron hydroxids
It
differs from glaucomte in containing no potassium
or
a
ferrous-ferric
a
silicate
be
ferrous
lEfeO)
(FeSiOs
may
hydrated
It occurs as round grains in the cherts
silicate (Fe2Fes (8104)3 sHaO)
Greenalite
Lake Superior region, and in its physical properties it closely

resembles the glaucomte granules in rocks. It is believed to be the
of the
source of the hematite ores of the district.
Apophyllite
(H 7KCa4(Si0 3 )s 4|H2 O)
containing no alummia
Apophyllite differs from the zeolites (p 445)
some
of
its
water
its general
having
replaced by fluorine, but
and
appearance and
its
manner
of occurrence
like
it is
them
The
calculated
composition corresponding to the formula usually assigned to the mineral
I
given
Analysis II is of a specimen from Bergen Hill, N. J , and
III of a specimen from Golden, Colo
Some specimens contain also
small quantities of ammonia,
is
Si02 A1 2
I
II
52 24
III
51 Bg
Fe2
CaO Na2
25
S3 7
25 03
i
54
13
24 51
K2
5
59
H2
16
Fl
Total
100 oo
4 05
16 61
21
3 81
16 52
70
100 14
too 69
The mineral is tetragonal (ditetragonal bipyramidal class), with

b c- i
i 2464.
Its crystals usually contain the forms oo P oo (100),
:
DESCRIPTIVE MINKKALCXSY
444
Tn addition,
P(III) and oP(ooi), and often ooPjfoio) 01 <x>P2(2io)
about 55 other forms have been identified, but most of them die rare.
Many of these are \icmal planes with large (uiameteis The crystals
are of four types, (i) pyramidal with P(ITI) piodommating, (2) prismatic with ooPoo(ioo) and P(III), the former predominating, (Fig
242A), (3) cubical, withooP (100) and oP(ooi) equally prominent (Fig
2426), and
allel
(4)
to P(iii)
tabular parallel to oP(ooi) (Fig 2420)

is
The angle
rare
in AiTi = 76
Twinning
par-
The mineral
also
occurs in granular and lamellar masses
Apophylhte
is
glassy
on fracture surfaces and most
ciystal faces, but
It is while, grayish, flesh-colored or

on oP(ooi) it is distinctly pearly
It possesses a very peifect
white
is
Its streak
red, and transparent
a
less
and
perfect one paialiel to oo P(no)
cleavage parallel to oP(ooi)
A
FIG
242
Apophylbte Crystals with oo?co

00
P3> 3*
(y)
Its hardness is
It is brittle
For yellow
pyroelectric
4 5-5 and
co=
TOO
(a),
P, TTT
its
density
5356,
(/>),
oP, 001
(<)
and
C T.ibulu.
B Cubical
Prisrrutu
light,
"2-24.
Tt is
stiongly
$68.
Before the blowpipe apophylhte exfoliates and fuses easily to a blcbby

white enamel, and imparts a violet color to the flame nan the assay.
In the closed tube it loses water and becomes opaque. It also loses
Most specimens give the reaction for

water upon being pulverized
Half the water is lost at a comparatively low temperature
(24o-26o), but the last remnant of the remainder is driven off only at
fluorine
fluorine begins to escape

The mineral dissolves in
separation of slimy silica. At i&>- igo", umlei a pressure
of 10-12 atmospheres, it dissolves in water, and from this solution it
a red heat
At 400
HC1 with the

crystallizes
upon
cooling
is
recognized by its crystallization,

the basal plane, and its fluorine reaction.
Apophylhte
its
pearly luster on
Syntheses
Apophylhte crystals have been obtained from solutions
of its constituents in water containing COa, heated in a closed tube to
150-160
They have
also
been formed by the action of a solution of
HYDRATED
SILICATES
445
The mineral has also been described

potassium silicate on gypsum
of
mason
old
Roman
nuns
the
from
ly around hot springs
The mineral
Occurrence
in veins in granite
some
conditions
it
alters to calcite,
Good
Localities
found in the locks surrounding hot springs
It is also
stone
occurs in the cavities of volcanic rocks,

ore veins and ore deposits
lime-
and gneiss and
and
to pectohte (p
369)
crystals of apophylhte occur at St
and Radauthal, Harz,
Under
Andreasberg
at Stnegau, Silesia, near Cipitbach, in the Seisser
Alps, Tyrol, in the magnetite mines at Uto, Sweden, at Disko, Greenland, at many points in eastern Nova Scotia, at Bergen Hill, N, J.; at
Table Mt., Golden, Colo., and at Santa Barbara,
in Brazil
THE ZEOLITES
The group known
as the zeolites comprises minerals that are hydrous

aluminium with calcium, sodium, potassium, barium or
The calcium compounds are commonest, followed by the
strontium
sodium compounds
Compounds with the other elements are comsilicates
of
paratively rare
While it is probable that some of them are primary products resulting

from the cooling of a magma, in the great majority of cases the zeolites
are secondary products derived by the alteiation and hydration of
alkali-aluminium
silicates,
such as the fcldspais, Icucite, nephelme, etc
They are nearly always found in veins, 01 on the walls of cie vices in
rocks (especially \olcanic rocks), where they have been deposited by
They are commonly associated with calcite, pectocirculating water
datohte
All are well crystallized and some of them are
or
hte,
prchnite
m complicated ciystals
Many
of the zeolites
have been recrystalhzed from solutions in
The solutions having been produced by the action

superheated water
of various reagents upon aluminous silicates
Before the blowpipe all the zeolites fuse with intumescence, or bubbling,
and
all
soft (3 5-5 5),
mon
give water in the closed tube.
and have a low
They
are comparatively
specific gravity (2-2.4),
The most com-
zeolites are
Ileulandite
(Ca-K2
HtCaAIaCSiOsV 3H2
Philhpsite
(Ca-K2)Al2(Si03)4 4i>H20
Harmotome
Stilbte
(H2 (Ba K 2 )Al2 (Si03)r sH2

(Ca-Na2)AkSioOi6 6H20
Laumonfate
CaAl^SiO^ 4HaO
Ptilohte
Monoclmic
Monoclmic
Monoclmic
Monoclmic
Monoclmic
DESCRIPTIVE MINKK AL< X V

J
446
Ca(AlOH) 2 (SiO<03 2lIjQ
Monochnic
Na2 Al(A10)(SiOah 2H 2 O
Oithorhombic
(Ca Na2)Al2(SiOi)2 2jH 2

(Ca NaaJAb (8103)4 -6H2O
Oithorhombic
Chdbazite
Analcite
NaAKSiOsV HbO
Isometric
Scolecite
Natwhte
Thomsomte
Ptilohte ((Ca
K2 -Na2)Al2SiioO24
Hexagonal
occuis in shoit, hanhke,
5H2O)
white or colorless crystals, aggregated into delicate tufts or spongy

Their luster is
Their system of crystallization is unknown
masses
The
vitreous
needles apparently have
The mineral
their long a\es
is
a,
cleavage pcipenchcular to
scarcely acted upon
by
boiling hydio-
chlonc acid
The composition
Si02
70 35
of ptilolite
AlaQs
CaO
ii
3 87
90
from Colorado
77
i
quoted as follows
HaO
Total
10 18
09 90
KuO
NoaO
about
ib
83
480
The mineral is found m the cavities

Table Mts Jefferson Co Colo
of a volcanic lock in
Giccn and
Heulandite (H4 CaAl2 (SiOa)
3HL>0)
monochmc crystals (monoclmic pusmatic class),

Heulandite occurs
with the axial ratio 4035 . i . 4293 and /S<)i 25', in foliated and
granular masses and in globular aggregates
The
theoretical composition of hculandite (the
also be written CaAlaSioOio-
Gunmson Co Colo
Anthracite Creek,
Al 2 0<j
CaO
59 22
16 79
17 18
9 20
8 07
I
II
of a
of \vhith
may
specimen fiom
are given below*
Naa O
Si0 2
II 57 38
fowwhi
SHÔ), and the analysis
82
K2
40
HaO
Total
14 7(>
16 27
roo oo
100 12
Theoretical
Gunmson Co
Colo
prominent forms are

ooF(iio), 2?
OD (021)
ooPw
(oio),
and P(Tn)
2P66
(Figs.
P ob
Their most
(oio)
aPoo (201), oP(ooi),
243 and 244). The angle
Its crystals are usually tabular parallel to oo
(201),
no A i7o=43
Twins are known, with oP(ooi) the twinning plane,

56'
The cleavage is perfect parallel to oopSo(oio) and the fracture is
uneven or conchoidal.
The mineral has a glassy luster, which becomes pearly on oo p So
(oio),
HYDRATED
It is colorless, white, yellow,
447
SILICATES
brown, pink or red. Its streak is white.

For yellow
3-4 and a density of 2 2
It is brittle, has a hardness of
a= i
light,
4998,
0= i
5003,
7=1 S7
Before the blowpipe heulandite whitens, exfoliates, crinkles and melts

to a white glass
It yields water in the closed glass tube and becomes
dull
and opaque
cipitation
of
It is
decomposed by hydrochloric acid with preor gelatinous silica

Its powder reacts
pulverulent
alkaline
Heulandite is distinguished
before the blowpipe
by
and
its crystallization
its
reactions
Syntheu*
Crystals have been made by heating anorthite powder
with gelatinous silica in water containing carbon dioxide
to 200
FIG 244
FIG 243
FIG 243
Heulandite Crystal with
2P
FIG 244
The mineral
Occurrence
found also
Localities
P3b
201
(/)
oio
in gneisses
* P,
(b) t
and oP, ooi
Heulandite, var Bcaumontitc
and occasionally
It is
oo
no
(w),
aPoS
201
(s)
(t)
Forms same as
in Fig
243
occurs in the cavities of porous basalts,

granites, associated with other zeolites
and
in some ore veins

Good crystals occur
in the druses
and veins in volcanic
rocks at Fassa, Tyrol, at Montecchio Maggiore, Italy, at Lake Mien,

Sweden, and along the north shore of Lake Superior It also occurs in
druses
gneisses at the
Campsie
quarries (beawmonfote), Baltimore,
Hills, Scotland,
and at Jones Falls
Md,
Philhpsite ((Ca
Phillipsite is a calcium,
potassium alummo-sihcate with the theoretical

I.
The composition of a specimen from
composition indicated in line
Richmond, Australia,
barium and sodium.
is
shown
in line II
Many
specimens contain
448
A12
Si02
The mineral
'
7095
64
76
20 7
22 70
48 8
II 45 60
I
crystallizes in the
Total
16 5
16 62
6 05
4 51
4 52
2563 and 18=124
H2
K2
Na2
CaO
monochmc system
\\ith
100 oo
ioo oo
the a\ial latio
Its crystals arc ncvei simple but
23'
are always twinned parallel to oP(ooi), forming groups with an orthoThese are often twinned again
rhombic or tetragonal habit (Fig 245)
with
P ob (on)
the twinning plane, producing intcrpenctration fourhngs

oo ?(no) the
twinning
Three fourhngs twinned again, with
(Fig 246A)
plane, result in a group of 12 individuals (Fig 246 B)

crystals are usually bounded by oP(ooi), ooPob (oio)
The
individual
and
A
FIG 246
FUG. 245
FIG 245
Phillipsite Tnterpenetration
(c),
FIG 246
Phiihpsite
The
pob (on)
ooP(no)
oo
P Sb oio
,
Fourlmg
c faces are
of
Twin about oP(ooi)

(/>)
and
oo P,
two twins
on the oulbidc.
no
Forms arc oP, oot
(m)
like FIJJ
twinned again about

fourhngs twinned about
,445
B Three
though oo Poo (ioo), ooP2(i2o) and several othoi forms also occur on
/
them The angle iioAiTo= 6o42 The faces oo p(i 10) and oo P So (oio)
are usually striated parallel to the edge between the two
JBcftidcs occur-
distinct crystals the mineral

ring
ular aggregates
ish,
is
also found in radially fibrous glob-
Phiihpsite has a glassy luster, is colorless or white, yellowish, grayreddish or bluish, is transparent or translucent ami has u white
streak.
Its cleavage is distinct parallel to oP(ooi)
It is brittle,
index,
0=i
has a hardness of 4 and a density of
and ooPob
2.2,
(oio).
Itb refractive
51.
Before the blowpipe
it
fuses to a white glass
In the closed glass tube
It is
gives off water and becomes cloudy and milky.
HC1 with the separation of gelatinous silica, and in dilute
it
precipitation
decomposed
in
HgSO* without
HYDRATED
It is distinguished
solves
in
by
its
without
KfeSCU
SILICATES
449
the fact that it discrystallization and by

precipitation of BaSQt (see Harmotome,
below)
Synthens
Crystals of philhpsite have been produced by heating
potassium alummate and silicate in a closed glass tube at 200
The mineral
Localities
occurs
m the vacuoles of basic igneous rocks
at the Giant's Causeway, Ireland, at Capo di Bove, near Rome, Italy,

the state of Victoria,
at Aci Castello,
Sicily, and at various points
Australia
Harmotome (H2 (Ba

Harmotome
is
2 )Al 2 (SiO3)5
5H2O)
a barium compound almost identical in crystallization
with philhpsite
Its theoretical (I) composition (also written (Ba
and the analysis

shown below
Si02
A1 2
I 46 64
crystallization
H2
BaO
23 67
21
25
and twinning
KÂfeSisOu sHgO)
from Thunder Bay, Canada, are
(II)
CaO
IS 78
17 16
II 46 36
The
of a specimen
of
18
13 9i
Total
100 00
101 49
54
harmotome are the same as
i 2310, with
7032
|8*=i24
form
more
the
contain
crystals
commonly
oo P 56 (100), and a few more orthodomes
philhpsite
Its aîal ratio is
The
50'
Fourhngs are common, but m these the planes

oo P So (oio) form the outside of the group,
whereas
philhpsite the outside planes are
The planes oop(no) and ooPoo
oP(ooi)
(oio)
are
striated
as
in
philhpsite
(Fig
247)
In gencial appearance and physical propIt FIG

harmotome resembles philhpsite
247
Harmotome Fourling Twinned like
has, however, but one distinct cleavage, which
ft
itc,
is parallel to oo P 8b (oio)
Its hardness is
246 A,
erties
4-5 and density 25

are
a= 1.503, 7=1
Its
508
like philhpsite before the
closed tube
HC1
It,
icfractive indices
It acts very
blowpipe and
much
the
however, dissolves readily in
with the separation of pulverulent
and in dilute HsSCU with precipitation

weaklv alkaline
that
Commonly the /;
Faces are on Ihe Outside
Note
differences
tions of strutions
figure
direc-
on
this
and 246 A,
silica,
of
BaSO^.
Its
powder reacts
450
The mineral is distinguished from all others but philhpu 'e by

and from this mineral by its reaction with H^SOi
its
crystallization,
It occurs
m the vacuoles of volcanic rocks,
in gneisses,
giamtic rocks
and a few ore veins

Localities
It is
found at St Andreasberg
m Har/s, m veins m granil e
the syenite near Christianui,

at Strontian,
Scotland, in druses
and in the Beaver Mine,
Ml
on
at
Rabbit
calcitem mines
Norway,
,
near
Thunder Bay, Ontario, and

Stdbite (Ca
in the gneiss undei
New York
City
Na2 )Al 2 Si,,0, o-eEkO)
Stilbite, or desmmc, is found in twinned nystals with <ui orthorhombic habit resembling the simple twins of philhpsite, and in sheaf-
Fro, 248.
like
aggregates (Fig.
Slicaf-hke
Abrogates
248), in radiating
bundles and in thin platy
prisms
composition calculated from the formula given above is as in I

a soda-free specimen from French Creek
Its
The
result of the analysis of
Mines,
Colo
Pa
Si0 2
I
II.
III
is
given
m II and of a sodium-bearing specimen from Golden,
m III
A12
CaO
57 4
16 3
77
58 oo
13 40
16 78
54 67
The
80
7 98
MgO
Na2
*
1/40
tr.
,i
1.03
p~i2g
Total
100,00
19 16
47
crystals are monoclinic (prismatic class),
1.1940, with
HaO
17,2
'8 30
99,93
too 06
with an axial ratio of
are always interpencf ration

with
the
as
twins,
Th<; indivicloP(ooi)
twinning plane
phillipsitc
7623
10',
They
HYDRATED
SILICATES
451
uals are simple combinations of oopSb(oio), oP(ooi) and ooP(iio),

Their cleavage is
and they are usually tabular parallel to oo P So (oio)
perfect parallel to oo
P So
(oio)
and imperfect
parallel to
oP(ooi)
Stilbite is colorless or white, grayish, greenish, yellowish,
brown
oo
P So
of 3-4
It
has a white streak and a glassy luster that

It
(oio)
is
transparent or translucent,
and a density
of 2
2.
red or
nearly pearly on
is
is brittle,
has a hardness
a=i
494,
1498, 7=1 500.

Before the blowpipe
glass
it exfoliates, swells and crinkles to a white blebby

In the closed tube it yields water and becomes cloudy and opaque
decomposed by HC1 with the production

powder reacts alkaline.
It is
of pulverulent silica
Its
Occurrence
Stilbite occurs m the vacuoles of amygdaloidal basalts,
m veins cutting granites and other coarse-grained rocks, and on the walls
of cracks in gneisses
and
schists
It occurs also as deposits
around hot
springs
Its principal localities are the basalt rocks of the Isle
Localities.
Arran in Scotland, Mourne Mts and the Giant's Causeway, in

It occurs
veins at Radauthal in
Ireland, and the Deccan, in India
the Harz, at Stnegau, in Silesia, and at Falun,
Sweden It is abundant in the old volcanic rocks of Nova Scotia; of Lake Superior, and
of Skye,
m
m
of Table Mt near Golden, Colo , and near Bergen Hill,

J , and is
present in cavities in gneisses at several points in Connecticut and
,
Pennsylvania.
Laumontite (CaAl2 (SiO 3 )4-4H2 O)

Laumontite occurs
aggregates
in
Its formula
monochmc crystals and in radiating fibrous

demands the composition shown m I The
analysis of a specimen from Table
Al 2 0s
51 07
21 72
II 51 43
21 52
Fc2 0a
Mt
CaO Na2
Colo
is
ii 88
19
35
II*
H20
ToUl
IS 31
100 00
13 81
xoo.ia
KaO
IT 90
94
quoted in
Its crystals are usually very simple monoclmic (prismatic class),

combinations with an axial ratio 1 1451 : i : 5906 with
99 18'
The most common forms observed are oop(no) and 2P6o (201), and
often these are the only two present (Fig. 249)

Frequently crystals of
this type are twinned parallel to oopoo (100). Their cleavage is perfect
The value in ilo=93 44'.
(oio) and oo P(iio1
parallel to oo P
&
Laumontite
is
white, grayish, yellowish or reddish,
and has a glassy
452
on cleavage surfaces
<ind its streak
translucent
or
parent
ness of 3-3 s
luster except
refractive
On
is
these
it is
white
nd
ti
of
densily
are
indices
It is trans-
pearly
has a hard-
It is buttle,
23-24
Its
7=
=1,524,
1,513,
Before the blowpipe it swells and melts to a

It gelatinizes w it h HCl
It readily
white glass
yields
some water at low lempcrature
tube, but a red heat
FIG 249-Lauraontite
oP,
Crystal with
no (m) and
,1,1
and a
Laumontite
(c)
is
Occurrence
volcanic rocks
required 1o
to &norlhitc
2P,
201
is
It
the
last
by
its
crystals
the cavities of basic
found in veins in clay
also
is
occurs
off
pyroxene mineral.
best recognized
It
in a closed
dnve
slates,
and
schists
and as a gangue mineral m certain ore veins.

bartonshire,
known
Its best
Locahties
at Bergen Hill,
at
Nova
shore,
and
the trap rocks
Scotia
Scolecite
is
many points on the north shore of Lake Superior,
and on Keweenaw Point, on the south

near Annapolis,
Scolecite
Skye and DumTable JVft Colo
localities are 1he Isle of
Scotland, in the Zillcrthal, Tyrol; at
white and
(Ca(A10H) 2 (Si0 3)3

it
2H0)
occurs in silky, fibrous ami dense radiating
masses and also in crystals that are often aggregated into divergent
groups (Fig. 250)
Its formula (written also CaAbSiaOio sHhO), demands the composition indicated in I. The analysis of a specimen from Table Mt., Colo
,
is
quoted in II
SiOs
AbOs
26 05
25 28
I 45 92
II 46 03
The mineral
3434 and
$=90
is
Fe2 03
CaO
.'27
12 77
monoclmic (domatic
42'.
NagO
KgO
14 27
Its crystals are
04
.13
Total
13 75
100.00
14,48
100,00
-=
class), with a : b : c
,9764 i
columnar or acicular
the direc:
and are usually bounded by oo P So (oio), oo (110),

P(IIT)
and P(nx) (Fig, 251)
Other planes are sometimes present in the prismatic zone, and -P 66 (101), -3P(33i) and -3P3(i3i) at the termination of c
tions.
being
Twins are more common than simple crystals, the twinning plane
P s> (100) and the composition plane the same* The angle
oo
88
37'
HYDRATED
Scolecite
or white.
is
SILICATES
and colorless
P(nol and its fracture
glassy in luster, transparent or translucent,
FIG 250
453
oo
Divergent Groups of Scolecite Crystals from near Bombay, India
Its hardness is 5-5 5 and density 2.2-2

4 Its
are
On a cooling crystal the front priscrystals
strongly pyroelectnc
matic faces (no) are positively charged and the
conchoidal or uneven.
corresponding back faces (ilo) negatively charged.

Their hemihednsm is brought out clearly by etch
figures
a=i
The
5122,
refractive indices for yellow light are:
j8i
5187,
T=I
5*94-
Before the blowpipe scolecite crinkles and fuses

to a white blebby enamel. In the closed tube it
yields water
and becomes white and opaque
It
gelatinizes with acids
Scolecite
is
distinguished
by
its
crystalliza-
tion
Scolecite has been obtained by treatSynthesis
ing natrohte (p 454) with a solution of CaCfe*
Crystals occur on Roman tiles that have been ex-
posed for
centuries
to
the
waters
of
the hot
FIG
Scolecite
251
Crystal with oop,
(ft),
P,
and -P,
Twinned
oo
P oo
to,
(a)
about
(too)
springs at Plombieres, France

Occurrence
It occurs in the cavities of basic volcanic rocks
veins in crystalline schists.
in
in
and in
454
Its principal occurrences ate veins in siliceous rocks in

the Bern
the cavities of basalts
Uri, Switzerland, and in
atStaffaand the Isle of Mull, Scotland, at Table Moun-
Localities
Canton
Fjord, Iceland,
tain,
near Golden, Colo
and
in the Deccan, India
Watrohte (Na 2 Al(AlO)(SiO 3 )3

Natrolite occurs in acicular crystals,
ular
ia<hal
in
fihious, gran-
and dense masses
Its theoretical composition (I)
from Magnet Co\e, Ark
47 36
26 86
II 47 56
26 82
Natrolite
is
and the analysis of a specimen
(II)
coricspond veiy closcl}
FcO
Si02
I
and
2H 2 O)
20
CaO
13
MgQ
09
NaoO
15 40
class),
HaO
Total
4<>
100 oo
with a
99 83
*
ft
<
9783
:i- 3536 and ooP(no), ooPoo(ioi), ooP2(r2o), co p <>6 (oio),

P(m) the most commonly occurring forms (Fig 252) Additional
forms that are fairly common are PJI (ii io.ii), 3P(33i ) an(l 3^3(*3i)
The prismatic angle is nearly 90 (88 45'),
causing the crystals to appear tetragonal
Some crystals are apparently monodimc
5', in which
(prismatic class) with 0=<jo
case the substance is dimorphous. The habit
FIG 252
Natrolite Crystals
with ooP, no (tn) P, in

o Poo, oio (6) and
(0),
t
Pfj, ii 10 ii
(*)
of the crystals is columnar, or ancular,
m the
direction of the c axis with Ht nations
on the
prismatic planes parallel to this direction. In

the case of a few crystals from Norway, however, the elongation is
the direction of
Twins are known, with $P

(301) the twinning plane.
Natrolite is glassy and transparent or translucent.
b.
Tt is colorless or
Its streak is white.

Its cleavage is
white, yellowish, reddish or green
Its fracture is uneven or runchoidal, its
perfect parallel to ooP(no).
hardness 5-5 5 and density 2.2-2 5. Its refractive indices for yellow
light are
ai
7 148874754, ]8-i 479

Before the blowpipe the mineral fuses quietly to a colorless glass at
the same time coloring the flame yellow. In the closed tube it loses
water and becomes cloudy and opaque. Its powder reacts alkaline
Natrolite is easily distinguished from other zeolites,
by its crystallisation
and action before the blowpipe
Syntheses,*
Crystals of natrohte have been obtained
by
dissolving
HYDRATED
SILICATES
455
the powdered mineral in a closed tube with carbonated water at 160

and cooling Crystals supposed to be those of natrohte have been produced by treating nephelme in a closed tube at 200 with a solution of
alkaline carbonates in carbonated water
The mineral occurs
Occurrence
in the cavities of volcanic rocks,
as an alteration product of nephelme, sodalite and plagioclase

grained rocks
and
m coarse-
Crystallized natrohte is abundant in the volcanic rocks

and
the
Kaiserstuhl in Baden, m the basalts of Silesia and
Hegau
rocks of Tyrol and Italy, in those of the
in
the
volcanic
Bohemia,
Localities
of
in veins in the syenites of
Auvergne, France,
Langesundfjord, in Nor-
way m the basalts of Cape Blomidon and other points in Nova Scotia,
at Eagle River, in Michigan, and Bergen Hill, N J
and in the nephe,
lme syenites
of
Magnet Cove,
Ark,,
Thomsonite ((Ca
and elsewhere,
Na2 )Alo(Si04)2 2jH2 O)
is evidently an isomorphous mixture of

the ratio of Ca to Nd2 varying between
Thomsomtc, or comptomte,
soda and lime molecules
and
The
(Ca Na2) Al2(SiO-i)2
calculated composition represented by the formula

In I is given the calculated
2H20 is given in III
formula of the compound in which Ca
which
this ratio
basalt of Table
L
II
is
Mt
A1 2 3
CaO
37 o
31 4
12 9
36 9
31 4
11.5
III 36 8
31 3
86
IV 40 68
30 12
Thomsonite
,9932
ii 92
crystallizes in the
0066
'
as 3
i and
II, that
2
i
The analysis of tabular crystals from the
near Golden, Colo , is given in IV.
:
Nag
is
The
crystals,
Na2
48
64
95
4 44
H2
Total
100 oo
13 9
13 8
100 oo
100 oo
13 8
12 86
orthorhombic system with a
100 02
:
c~
which are
rare, usually have a pris60 (100), oo P(no), oo

06 (oio)
P
They are bounded by oo P
8P 60 (801), and often |P 06 (012), and are striated
oP(ooi), 4?
The angle 110 A 110=89 37'. The crystals
parallel to c (Fig. 253).
matic habit.
oo (401),
are commonly grouped in radial aggregates or spherical concretions.

Rarely, the mineral is in fine-grained structureless masses
Thomsonite has a glassy luster that in some cases is slightly pearly,
on cleavage planes It is transparent or translucent, colorless,

white, gray, green or red and has a colorless streak. Some radial aggregates are red and white in concentric zones. The cleavage of thornespecially
456
to
perfect parallel
Its fracture is
(ioo)
sonite
oo
is
oo P6o
5-5 5
~~
P 56
(oio)
and
uneven
and a density
less pcifect parallel to
has a hardness of
It is buttle,
electric
Its
of
3-2
4,
indices
refractive
and
aie
is
pyro-
01=1498,
525
Before the blowpipe it swells and fuses to a

In the closed tube it gives
white glass
up
\\ater
and becomes opaque
It gelatinizes
with
HC1
Its powder icacts alkaline

Lmtomte is a green, piehnite-hkc
Thomsomte
253
Crystal with cc P no
FIG
(w),
oc
oopso
100(0),
P 00,010(6),
SPoc,
8oi(e),4P,40i(</)
and oP, ooi (c)
variety
occurring as little structureless pebbles on the

It is used to
north shore of Lake Supcnoi
some extent as a gem stone

and its sp gr 2 34
Chlorastrolite
curring
as
is
hardness
is
5-6,
fibrous variety, also
oc-
on
pebbles
Its
the
shores 'of
Lake
It is often
Superior, especially on Isle Koyalc
It also is employed as an ornawhite in concentric zones
pink and
mental stone
Some of the chlorastrolite is piobably fibrous piehnite

The mineral occurs in the vacuoles m igneous rocks, as a
of pegmatite dikes, and as an alteration product of nephchne
Occurrence
constituent
m nephelme rocks,
and
of the plagioclases
crystalline schists
It is
found also as little pebbles on the north shore of Lake Superioi, where
was washed from amygdaloidal basalts
it
It is found m the basalt of Kaaden and othci places m

Localities
Bohemia, in the porphyries of Kilpatnck, Kilnulcom and Port Glasgow,
in Scotland,
m the inclusions m the lavas of Mte
Somma, near Naples,
on Laven, Aro and at other places in Norway, in the

basalts at Port George and Cape Split in Nova Scotia; on the shore of
Lake Superior near Grand Marais, Minnesota, where it originally filled
amygdaloidal cavities in diabases and basalts; in cavities in the nephelme syenites at Magnet Cove, Ark
and in the basalt at Table Mt
Italy,
in veins
near Golden, Colo

Production
Chlorastrolite to the value of $350 was sold during
1912
Chabazite ((Ca
Na2 )Al2 (Si0 )^6HoO)

4j
Chabazite has a variable composition

It is probably an isomormolecules corresponding to the
phous mixture of the Ca, Na and
general
formula
(R"R'2 )A1 2 (8103)4 eHgO,
chemical types of the mineral are given below,
Analyses
of
the
three
HYDRATED
AI 2
Si0 2
Fe2
43 84
20 99
II
47 S 2
19 48
III
49 24
18 07
SILICATES
457
84
Phacohle from Richmond, Victoria

II From the basalt of Table Mt Golden, Colo
I
Haydenite from Jones Falls quarry, Baltimore,
III
Also 43 SrO
Also i 47
Md
BaO
It crysChabazite occurs in crystals and in compact aggregates

rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system (ditngonal
i 0860
scalenohedral class), with a : c= i
Crystals are usually of a
tallizes in the
cubical habit because of the predominance of the
FIG 254
FIG 254
rhombohedron which
FIG 255
Chabazite Crystal with R, toll
(r),
FIG 256
]R, oils
(e)
and
sR 0221
7
($)
FIG 255
Chabazite Interpenetration Twin, with c the Twinning Axis and oR(oooi)

the Twinning Plane
FIG 256
Phacolite with
1123
(/)
and
Same Forms as in Fig 254 and also oR, 0001

3R 0223 (p) Interpenetration twin about oR(oooi)
(c),
JP2,
has nearly equal a and c axes

Besides R(io?i), the most common
forms are oR(oooi),
2R(o22i) (Fig 254), though other
R(ox72 and
minus rhombohedrons, scalenohedrons and a prism (ooP2, 1120) and
pyramid (|P2, 1123)
ioTiAiioi=85
14'
of the second order are also
The
known
The
angle
crystals are often striated parallel to the
R and -JR Twinning is not uncommon Both conand Interpenetration twins are known, the former with R(ioli)
the twinning plane, and the latter with oR(oooi) the twinning plane
edge between
tact
(Fig 255)
habit
and
In the variety of chabazite known as pkacohte, the crystal
is lenticular
because of the nearly equal prominence of f P2(ii23)
2R(o22i), and twinning
parallel to
Chabazite
glassy in luster,
or white, gray, yellowish or pink
is
is
oR
(oooi) (Fig 256).

transparent or translucent, colorless
Its streak is colorless.
Its cleavage
458
is distinct
parallel to
4-5 and density
is
Its hardness
R(ioTi) and its fracture uneven
Its indices of rcfi action are about
08-2 16
148
Before the blowpipe fragments of the mineral usually swell and fuse
In the closed tube they yield water and
to a porous translucent glass
become cracked, but remain clear The variety from Victoria (phacohte),
The mineral
however, becomes cloudy and red and breaks into pieces
of
but
after fusion
is decomposed by HC1 and the separation
slimy silica,
powder reacts weakly
Its
is insoluble.
Chabazite
is
by
distinguished
alkaline
and
its cryblalli/ation
its
reaction in
the closed tube
Chabazite crystals have been obtained l>y dissolving the

of the mineral in carbonated water in a closed tubc ut 150 and
Syntheses.
powder
cooling, and by heating to 200 a nrnture of freshly

AbQs and Ca(OH)2 in water containing COa
'When
chabazite
Occurrence
volcanic rocks
is
is
fused alone
it crystallizes
pi capitated
SiO,
as anorlhite
The mineral occurs in the vacuoles of basalt** and other

and on the walls of crevices m gneisses and schists It
found also in ore veins and as a deposit from thermal spi ings
Localities
It
is
abundant in nearly
canic rocks occur, especially
all
Rhemsh
regions in which basic vol-
Hesse, Silcsiti, Bohemia, Tyrol, Italy; Canton Un, Switzerland, Kilrnalcolm and Skye,
Prussia,
Scotland, Iceland, near Richmond, Victoria (phacohte), and elsewhere.

it occurs
the basalts
southwestern Nova Scotia,
In North America
on the
and Baltimore,
(haydemte], and in the basalt of Table Mt. and Golden, Colo.
walls of clefts in a gneiss at Jones Falls
Md
Analcite (NaAl(Si0 3 )2'H2 O)

Analcite corresponds to the monohydrate of a sodium leucitc.
Its
formula demands the composition shown in I

In II is given the analysis of a specimen from Table Mt
Colo
Many analates contain small
,
quantities of
CaO
Highwoods Mts
Si02
I
54 54
II
55 81
III
54 90
In III
as
the analysis of calciferous crystals from the
Mont.
AkOs Fe2
23 20
22 43
23 30
CaO MgO
tr
Na2
14 OQ
90
70
13 47
10 40
K2
.
H aO
Total
8 17
loo oo
...
8 37
100 08
60
7,50
100 30
Analcite forms isometric crystals that are

usually ioofiltctrahcdrons,
More rarely they are modified cubes (Fig, 258),
202(211) (Fig. 257)
HYDRATED SILICATES
459
containing ooOoo(ioo), ooO(no), 2000(210), 202(211), O(nr) and

Some
occasionally 0(332) and icositetrahedra with large parameters
crystals
show double
The mineral has
refraction
which
a glassy luster.
is
regarded as due to strain
It is transparent or translucent,
colorless or white, gray, yellowish, greenish or reddish
Its streak is
oo (100)
It possesses a very imperfect cleavage parallel to oo
white
is
and
Its
hardness
and an uneven fracture
density 2 2-2 3
5-5 5
light, n= i 487
Before the blowpipe analcite fuses to a colorless glass, imparting a
In the closed tube it yields water, but retains
yellow color to the flame
For yellow
its
form and
It gelatinizes
luster.
with
HC1
powder reacts alka-
Its
line
Analcite resembles leucite and light-colored transparent garnets

from garnets by its less hardness and from leucite
It is distinguished
Fit,
l'n.
FIG 258
FIG
257
257
258
Analcite Crystal with 262, 21
Vnalutc Crystal with oo
00
,
100
(a)
(n)
and aCb, 211 ()
by the presence of water and by its easy fusibility. It diffeis fiom

chabazite by fusing without intumescence to a colorless glass
Synthew Crystals of analcite have been made by heating sodium
m a dosed
silicate, or a hydrate, with an aluminous glass to i8o~i9o
m
a
similar
manner
a
and
mixtuie
of
sodium
silicate
tube,
by heating
and aluminate with hmewater. Crystals have also been obtained by
heating to 500 a mixture of finely powdered laumontite with an aqueous
solution of
sodium
silicate,
Analcite occurs as a primary constituent of certain

alkaline volcanic rocks
the Little Belt and the Highwood Mts,,
Occurrence
Mont
and elsewhere
It occurs also filling cavities in volcanic lavas
and as a secondary mineral, replacing nephehne, leucite and sodahte
both volcanic and plutonic rocks.
,
Localities
It is
found in the vacuoles of basalts on the Cyclopean
Islands, near Catoma,
Sicily,
m the Kaiserstuhl,
Baden, In the Seisser
460
Old Kilpatnck and elsewhere

Alps, Tyrol, at Dumbarton,
Scotland,
at Bergen Hill, N. J , Table Mt near Golden, Colo , on Kewcenaw Pt ,
Lake Superior,
in southwestern
veins in southern
Norway,
Nova
Scotia,
in druses near
and elsewhere
Richmond,
It occurs
Victoria, and
as an original component of igneous rocks in the Highwood Mts and

the Little Belts Mts, in Montana, near Cnpple Creek, Colo ; near
,
Sydney,
S Wales, at Winchester, Mass
and elsewhere
CHAPTER XXI
THE TITANATES AND TITANO-SILI GATES
THE titanates are salts
ogous to
H4 Ti04
silicic
of titanium acids that are in all respects anal-
Thus, the normal titanate is a salt of the acid

salt of metatitamc acid (H4Ti04-H 2
acids
and the metatitanate a
=H2 Ti03)
The
mineral, perovskite, for instance,
is
a calcium metati-
Dititanates are
tanate (CaTiOs) and tlmemte a ferrous metatitanate
=
are
no dititanates
salts of
Ti
There
2
2 05)
2 Ti205(2H4 Ti04-- 3H2
known among
minerals, but there
is
one mineral which
is fairly
common
may be regarded as a dititanate in which one of the Ti atoms has

This mineral is
been replaced by Si, giving rise to a titano-silicate
that
sphene, which
is
the calcium salt CaSiTiOs
Perovskite (CaTiOa)
Perovskite occurs almost exclusively in small crystals with a cubic
Although apparently complexly modified cubes, they arc in fact
habit
'
complicated intergrowths of orthorhombic lamellae, with

i
#:&:<;=
7071 (approximately)
The formula CaTiOs is equivalent to 41 i per cent CaO and 58 9
per cent Ti0 2 but the mineral usually contains also some Fe
:
The
Its fracture is uneven to concleavage of perovskite is cubic

choidal
Its
It is brittle, has a hardness of 5 5 and density of 4 02
color varies from pale yellow through oiange-yellow to reddish
and grayish black

mineral
is
Its streak is coloiless
transparent to opaque
and
luster
adamantine
brown
The
yellow light
are about 2 38.
Perovskite is infusible
the blowpipe flame. The salt of phosphorus bead in the oxidizing flame is green while hot, colorless when cold
In the reducing flame it is green-gray when hot, and violet blue when
The
cold
mineral
is
completely soluble
m hot H2 S04.
and magnetite, and possibly anatase.

Syntheses
Crystals have been formed by heating a mixture of
Ti02 CaCOs and an alkaline carbonate until all the alkali volatilized,
and by fusion of TiOs, CaCOs and CaCl2
It alters to ilmenite
461
462
Microscopic crystals of perovslute occur

where they aie probably separated from the

in
some igneous
rocks,
It also occurs in chlorite schist and limeembedded in the rocks, and also implanted on the
Achmaton Mine in the District Slatonst, m the
Urals, near the Fmdelen glacier near Zernutt, Switzerland, m Val
Malenco, Italy, at Magnet Cove, Arkansas, in coarse-grained, nephelme
m great quantity at Catalao,
syenite, and associated with magnetite
magma
producing the rock
stone as small crystals

walls of cracks at the
Goyaz, Brazil
Ilmenite (FeTiO^)
Ilmemte or menaccamte,
is
consisting of the titanates of
one of a
Mg,
series of
Mn and
Fe,
isomorphous compounds
of which crystallize m
all
the rhombohedral tetartohedral division of the hexagonal system (trigThe crystallographic constanth of ilmemte
onal rhombohedral class)
are,
however, so nearly
ditngonal skalenohedral,
like
those of the mineral hematite, which is

the two compounds often nystalhze
that
and consequently many specimens of ilmemte when analyzed

show notable quantities of Fc20. These are rcgaulcd as solid solutions of Fe20s in an isomoiphous mixture of FeTiOa and MgTiQa
The
together,
axial ratios of the
two mmeuilb are:

Ilmemte
Hematite
'
c=i
6
=1
385.
1365
The composition corresponding to the above formula is Ti3i6

per cent, Fe" 368 per cent and 0=31,6 per cent, but the mineral
nearly always contains some
Mg and ferric iron
An
(FVaO,*)
analysis of
ilmemte separated from a pendotite in Kentucky gave:
Ti02
FeO
MgO
FcsOa
49 3 2
2 7 81
8 68
9 13
Ihnemte
is
rarely found
AljjOa
2
crystals.
84
SiOu
Other
76
1.56
It is usually in large
Total
100 10
homo-
sand grams.
geneous masses, in granular aggregates, in thin plates and
The crystals have a tabular or rhombohedral habit and resemble very
closely those of hematite.
|p 2
^(4223),
The predominant forms are R(ioTt), oR(oooi)
-2R(o22i) and
- JR(oi7a)
(Fig, 259)-
The
angle loTi
Ixoi=94
29'
Simple crystals, bounded by oR(ooox), R(io7i) and
R(OIII) are also common
The mineral is
black and opaque,
and
its
streak
is
black to brownish
TITANATES AND TITANO-SILICATES

Its cleavage
red
It
is
has a submetallic
parallel to oR(oooi),
luster,
fiacture conchoidal
its
5 to 6, and a specific gravity

a good conductor of electricity
nearly infusible. It gives the reac-
a hardness of
It is slightly magnetic,
of 4 5-5
and
463
Before the blowpipe ilmemte
and
is
When
tions for iron with beads
is
the micro-
bead, which is brownish red in

reducing flame, is treated with tin on
cosmic
the
salt
charcoal
it
changes
to
a violet-red
color.
The
pulverized mineral is slowly dissolved in

hot HC1 to a yellow solution If this is filtered
and boiled with the addition
of tin
it
pIG
Ilmemte Crystal
259
with R, ioli (r), oP,
changes
to blue, indicating titanium
t^te
Ilmemte can be distinguished from hemaby its streak, from magnetite by its
QQOl
ffi
--
2
^
'
,.
and
aR, 0221 0)
,
.
,
f
*.
strong magnetism and from most
other heavy black minerals by its reaction for titanium
i
lack of
Upon weathering ilmemte
alters to
sphene and limomte
Crystals have been obtained by melting together Ti02
Synthesis
and FeCl 2
The mineral
Occurrence
rocks,
and
occurs as a constituent of
many
igneous
produced from them by meta-
of the crystalline schists
morphisni, especially of gabbros and diorites and their derived schists,

where it has crystallized from the magma forming the original rocks.
It occurs also in veins cutting these rocks
their contacts with other rocks
and
also as great
In a few places
it
masses near
forms the
mam
com-
ponent of sand
The mineral
Localities
and
diorites
abound
is
found at
many
places where gabbros

Europe are in the
Its principal occurrences in
Ilmen Mountains, Ural, at Menaccan, Cornwall, England, and at

Kragero, Arendal and Snarum in Norway. In North America it is
found as crystals
New
pegmatites at several points in Orange County,
York, at Litchfield, Connecticut,
in large masses
the Adirondacks,
at
New
Bay
St. Paul,
York, and
Quebec, and
in northeastern
Minnesota
Because of its abundance, many attempts have been made to
ilmemte as an ore of iron, but on account of the large quantity of
titanium in it, no satisfactory means of smelting it on a commercial
Uses
utilize
scale
have been
at present.
however,
of iron
it
successful, and consequently the mineral has little value

With improvements in the processes of electric smelting,
may before long become an economically important source
DESCIUPTIVK MIN1GHAMMSY
464
Titamte (CaSiTiOs)
occurs as crystals, but in some places
Titanite, or sphene, usually
masses
Although the formula lor the mineral
and
compact
in granular
cent CaO, 408

it docs 286 pci
Ti0 2 and 306 per cent Si0 2 many specimens show also the
and in many cases consulei.ihle cjuantities of
presence of Fe20a, AhOj,
is
as
simple, as given above, requiring
per cent
Y2
fiom
Analyses of three specimens
Si0 2
Zillerthal
Arendal
St Marcel
&
FcjAs
26 61
o 35
41
29 01
18
30 40
42 oo
24 30
<)2
M()
Besides 04<V.
yielded
AbO ViAi MnO

i4
07
()
0< >
r> -
<>
tr
to";.
( )
and
'
'.
Total
101 55
100 98
So
too 50
loss.
monoclimc (pnsmatic cLi,ss), with a //:/=- 7547

Their habit vuues widely
Some ate
8543 and 0=119 43'
The
.
CaO
Ti02
32 29
30 oo
tlifleient localities
Fio 260
crystals are
Titanite Crystal with
100
<Poo,
and JP, Iii

Fro 261
Titanite Crystal with
a and
a,
eol*,
FIG 262
Titanite Crystal with m,
<
(a),
-JP&o,
as in Kig. 260.
no
n and
10^ (i)
(/)
Also
1>,
ol*
oot
() and
(r)
(m)
c
as in Fig a6i.
Also
+1, In
(<),
double-wedge-hke, others are envelope-shaped, others prismatic, and

others tabular
On the wedge-shaped crystals iP(f u) and
eo
JP
predominate
(Fig*
260).
On
(102)
the envelope-bhapcd ones ooPoo(ioo),
-P(iu) and oP(ooi) are most prominent (Fig, 361), umi cm the tabular
ones oP(ooi) is the largest face
The prismatic crystals are
(Fig, 262).
often more complicated
In all about 75 forms have been identified
Both contact and penetration twins arc common, with oo P fib
(TOO)
TITANATES AND TITANO-SILICATES
465
The cleavage is distinct parallel to oo P(uo), and

the twinning plane
there is often, in addition, a very perfect paitme; parallel to
2P(22i),
The planes oo P 5d (100) and
due to polysynthetic twinning
intersection with
are
often
to
their
striated parallel
P(no)
2-P(Ti2)
which
is
The angle noAiTo=66

The mineral is brown,
29'
Its
gray, yellow, green, black, rose or white
streak is white or pink, its luster is vitreous or resmoub and it is transIts hardness is 5-5 5 and gravity 3 5
parent, translucent or opaque
It is pleochroic in yellow, pinkish
and nearly
Its refrac-
colorless tints
In a specimen from St
vary widely with the composition
Got hard, the indices for yellow light are a i 874, /3= i 8940, 7=2 0093
The principal recognized vaneties aie
tive indices
Titamte, opaque or translucent uith black or brown colors

Sphene, translucent, light-colored, brown or yellow
Ti tan omo) p/nte, white,
granular
alteration
product
of
rutile
or
ilmemte
Gteenovtte, rose-red, translucent variety containing
manganese.
heated before the blowpipe the mineral iuses to a dark glass,
With beads some varieties exhibit
fusing point bemsj I2io-i23o
When
its
the reaction for manganese and all show the colors characteristic of
All vaiietics aie sufficiently soluble in HCl to give the violettitanium
colored solution
when Healed with
tin,
and
all
are completely decom-
posed by HaSOi
Sphene is distinguished from itainolite and fat net by its crystallizaand softness, from i/> alenle by its gi eater hardness, from other
tion
similarly coloiecl minerals
Upon
decomposition'
by the
it
reaction foi titanium
yields calute, magnetite, rutile
and other
oxides of titanium and ilmemte

Crystals of titanite have been
of CaCIjj.
Synthesis
made by
fusing SiCte
and
Ti02 with an excess
Spheric* is a widely spread constituent of igneous rocks

has probably formed directly by crystallization from a molten
magma, and is in many schists and limestones that have been metaIt occurs
morphosed In the latter cases it is of metasomatic origin
Occurrence
where
also
acid
it
as implanted crystals on the walls of cracks and cavities in

granular rocks, under which conditions it is pneumatolytic.
Further,
it
is
common
decomposition product
of
ilmemte and
rutile*
The mineral occurs
so widely spread that even its printoo

to
mention here
numerous
cipal
Particularly fine
are
Ala
and
S*
found
at
Marcel, in Piedmont, at various points
crystals
Localities
localities are
DEHCKIPTIVK MINEHALO(!Y
466
at Zoptau, in
MOM via,
near Tavistock and

Maine, at unions points in Lewis,
Wales,
Tremadoc,
St Lawrence and Orange Counties, New Yoik, pnncipally m limein the Zillerthal, Tyrol,
in
at Sandford,
stones, at Franklin Furnace,
Buncombe and Alexander

ville,
New
Jersey, also in limestone, in Iredell
Counties, North Carolina,
Renfrew County, Ontario
and near Egan-
PART
III
CHAPTER XXII
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
Determinative Mineralogy. Minerals are identified by means of
and physical properties A mineral specimen may be
their chemical
This procedure will

analyzed by the ordinary methods of chemistry
reveal its empirical composition but it will not distinguish between
For this other means must be relied upon, and of these the
dimorphs
most convenient are those based upon physical properties

Since chemical analysis in the ordinary way is a long and tedious
process, requiring bulky reagents and laboratory apparatus, it is not
Conseapplicable in the field or when rapid determinations are desired
quently, chemical analyses are employed only when other methods of
determining a mineral are inadequate or when the accurate composition
of the specimen
is
desired
The
usual methods of determining minerals employed by mineralogists are based on their physical properties and upon blowpipe tests,
the latter being utilized to differentiate substances with nearly similar
physical properties,
Blowpipe Analysis. By means of the high temperatures that

be secured with the aid of the blowpipe, many chemical reactions
may
may
be made to take place which are impossible at ordinary temperatures.

The reagents used are few and generally m the solid form, and consequently
may be made to occupy little

and
Many
of the reactions arc
characteristic of the different elements
may be made
results
space
and most of them

and with small quantities of material* The
are qualitative only, but when combined with the study of the
delicate
rapidly
physical properties of the substance tested, they are usually sufficiently

definite to enable one to recognize its nature
In a few instances liquid
467
468
DETERMINATIVE MINMK AL( )( Y

!
reagents must be employed to

easily obtained
gu e
decisive icsults, but

they aic few and
The
Blowpipe.The blowpipe (Fig 26,0, in its simplest

foim, is a
tube with a small outlet through which a an rail of dir
may be directed
through a flame upon a small particle of subbtancc
A puctical mitru
FIG. 263
Simple Blowpipes
ment consists of a mouthpiece, a tube, an an -chamber to

catch moisture
a side tube and a tip
pierced by a small hole. The tip is placed
the
flame of a Bunsen burner, an alcohol
lamp 01 some otlici source of flame
and a current of air is blown
through it by placing the mouthpiece to the
lips,
breathing
full,
and allowing the contraction of the cheeks

to force
thc nir fiom the mouth
Other
forms of blowpipe are
advocated
for
special purposes
Frequently
the side tube is curved in
such a
way
It is
that the air

passing through
heated before it issues from
the tip and a hotter flame

is
produced than is possible with
the
simpler instrument,
Since
264 -Bellows for Use with Blow.
If intended to be
pipe
worked
--
by
it
is
have the hands

the assay, the
often
desirable to
free to
manipulate
blowpipe is some-
BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
469
pressure required to force the air from the reservoir

foot
Source
of
Heat.
is
applied
by the
The
best source of flame for general use with the

burner supplied by ordinary gas, and furnished
the Bunsen
blowpipe
with a tip which is flattened at the upper end and cut off obliquely
The blowpipe is supported on the upper end of this tip and pointed
is
downward
parallel
with
Thus, the flame
it
is
blown down upon the
assay
Since, however, illuminating gas often contains noticeable traces of
sulphur, for the detection of this substance

an alcohol lamp for the gas burner
it is
mixed a
little
often advisable to sub-
With the
stitute
alcohol should be
turpentine in the proportion of one part of the latter to
former to increase the reducing power of the flame

Supports. The principal supports used to hold the material under
Sheets of
investigation the assay are charcoal, platinum, and glass
twelve of
ttu
aluminium, plaster slabs and unglazed porcelain are also sometimes employed, but for most purposes the first three are entirely adequate
Charcoal. Charcoal is used in reduction tests and
the study of
It should have a flat surface and should be well burned
sublimates
Platinum.
The
Platinum
is
used principally
m the form of wire and

4 mm
foil
wire should be of about the thickness of coarse horsehair
and should be fused
),
3-mch long glass tube to serve as a handle

It is employed mainly in the production of colored glasses or beads
The foil should be thin When about to be used, it should be bent into
into a
m which mixtures may be fused

used m the form of tubes
These should be of a
When closed
hard glass about 90 mm long and 6 mm inside diameter
a shallow cup
Glass.
Glass
is
at one end, they serve to hold substances which are to be heated to a

Tubes
high temperature in the study of their volatile constituents
open at both ends are employed to study the effect of roasting the assay
in a current of air
Other Apparatus. Other pieces of apparatus desirable for satisfactory blowpipe work are A magnet, a magnifier, a pair of forceps, a
small hammer, an anvil, a pair of cutting pincers, a piece of blue glass or
a screen composed of strips of celluloid colored different shades of blue,
or a hollow glass prism filled with indigo solution.
Reagents. Since blowpipe tests are made on minute quantities of
material, it is necessary that all reagents used be as pure as possible.
Those most frequently employed
ms
salt,
bonate,
or
salt
of phosphorus,
are* Borax,
Na2B40r loEfeO,
NH4NaHP04 4H20,
Na2C03, aad potassium
sulphate,
HKS04,
microcos-
fused sodium car-
mftr,
KNOs,
cobalt
470
ntfrate,
in solution,
Co(NOs)2 6H20,
copper o\idc,
ribbon, Mg, granulated zinc, Zn, sulphuric acid,

and turmeric papcn
acid, HC1, and blue litmus
in special tests,
employed
CuO, magnesium
HoSOi,
hydrochloric
Other reagents are

arc used generally
above
but those mentioned
The blowpipe flame
The Blowpipe Flame.
is
used not only for
but also to produce o\idi/mg and reducproducing a high temperature,

adding oxygen to the substance
The oxidizing flame aids
ing effects
heated and the reducing flame abstracts it
A luminous flame, such as is produced by a candle or a
Bunsen burner,
(c) an inner,
with the airholes at the foot of the tube closed, consists of
non-luminous cone (Fig 265) containing unigmtcd

gas, (&) a luminous envelope surrounding this,
which there is paitul combustion of the gas passing
out from the
nonlummous
cone,
and an outer
purplish
mantle
protected from the air by the outer
the
mantle,
gas in the luminous inner cone is not
Because
entirely
consumed
The
available ovygcn combines
with the easily combustible hydrogen, while the carbon

of the gas is separated m extremely fine piuticles
These are at a high temperature and arc, therefore,
In this condition, carbon is an active
incandescent
FIG 265
Candle
reducing agent, combining with oxygen readily, ab-
fiom any oxygen-bearing

Conbrought in contact
sequently this portion of the flame exerts a reducing
action upon anything within its sphere.
In the outer mantle, there
is an abundance of oxygen
This combines with the carbon parFlame, Showing
Three Mantles
stracting
it
for this purpose
compound with which
it is
tides as they pass out from the luminous envelope, forming, at first,
carbon monoxide, CO
This unites with more o\ygen forming carbon
Since the temperature in this

dioxide, C02, and giving a blue flame.
portion of the flame is very high and there is an abundance of oxygen
present, substances subjected to its action are oxidized.
The
use of the blowpipe accentuates the effects of the different

porand serves to direct it upon the particle to be tested
tions of the flame
To produce the reducing flame (R F ), the blowpipe jet
is placed at the
edge of the burner flame near its base, and a gentle current of air is
blown (Fig 266)
This deflects the flame without mixing too much
it
with
and
it remains luminous.
Its most energetic part is
oxygen
near the end of the luminous cone
The oxidizing flame (O.F )
is
(<z).
produced by passing the tip of the blow-
BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
471
pipe into the flame a short distance (Fig 267) and blowing strongly, but
sharp-pointed, nonlummous flame results, with an inner
steadily
blue cone
The most
effective oxidizing area is just
beyond the
tip of
the inner blue cone
Before attempting to use the blowpipe for producing oxidizing and

reducing effects, the two flames should be practiced with until they can
The reducing flame is the most difficult

be manipulated with certainty
be
It
must
maintained unchanged for some time
to use successfully.
and the assay must be completely enveloped
Otherwise, oxidation
results.
may
ensue.
FIG, 266
Reducing Flame.
tie.
Oxidizing Flame
267
to reduce with the blowpipe flame, a
little
it
to secure satisfactory
In order to
test one's ability
borax should be melted in a
small loop made at the end of a platinum wire

It will form a colorless
Into this should be introduced a tiny gram of some manganese
glass
compound
If the
borax with the added manganese
is
heated in the
This, if heated
oxidizing flame, an amethyst-colored glass will result
in the reducing flame, will again become colorless, but the color will
return
if
can be
skill for
Use
the assay
made
is
touched by the oxidizing flame. When the colon

and reappear at will, the proper amount oi
to disappear
the manipulation of the flames will have been attained

The closed glass tube is used to discover
of the Closed Tube.
whether a substance contains water or not, to detect
its volatile
con-
472
stituents,
and to discover the natuie of
its
decomposition products
also employed in the observation of cert din other characteristic
It is
m a substance produced
by heating it to d hifljh temperature

The material to be tested is powdered and slid into the tube with the
which is lone; enough to icdch nearly
help of a little, narrow papei tiough,
The tube is then tapped to settle the nwtenal and the
to its bottom
end containing the assay is heated, at fust gentlv, latei moie vigorously,
changes
even to redness, either in the burner flame
01 in
the flame pioduced by
the blowpipe
Water is indicated by the condensation of little drops on the upper,
If the water, when tebted \\ith litmus paper,
cooler portion of the tube
(H2 S04 HC1, HNO or UF)

ammonia has been evolved.
reacts acid, a volatile acid

it
reacts alkaline,
The charactei of the gases evolved
Gases
their color
(a)
is
is
best
indicated.
If
recognized by
and odor
Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S)
is
recognized by
its
odor
It
indicates a
sulphide containing water

recognized by its reddish
Nitrogen peroxide (NA)
a nitrate or a nitrite
indicates
It
odor
characteristic
(V)
its
HN0
3,
(c)
the reaction
is
brown fumes and

In the case of
2HNOi-0+H/)+NA
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) attacks the glass of the tube
Its presence in the assay indicates
Sublimates or coatings
may
and etches
it,
a fluoride
be deposited In the cooler portion
of
the tube
(a) If white, they may indicate
tnoxide or tellurium dioxide
(b) If
if
salts,
antimony
trioxidc, arsenic
gray or black, they indicate arsenic, mercury or tellurium
(c) If black j while hot,
and
ammonia
and reddish brmmi.whm (old, antimony sulphide;

and reddish yellow, when told, arsenic sulphide,
reddish brown, while hot>
Changes of Color are very characteristic for certain substances, the

following being of greatest importance
(a)
(&)
(c)
From white to yellow and to while again on cooling: zinc oxide.

From white to browmsh red and back to yellow* lead oxide,
From white to orange-yellow and back to pale yellow when again
cold:
bismuth oxide
(d) From red to black and red agam when
The mercury oxide is volatile
Use
of the
cold:
Open Tube.- The open tube is
treat the assay with a current of hot

oxygen.
mercunc and
used
when
ferric oxides.
it is
desired to
charged in the same

manner as the dosed tube, the assay being placed about 12 mm, from
It is
BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
The tube
the end
taken to incline
rent of hot
air
it
is
473
then held in the forceps over the flame, care being
an upward cur-
slightly for the purpose of producing
By
this
means, the following substances are easily
detected
is detected by the choking odor of SOj
Arsenic yields a white volatile sublimate, which disappears upon heating
Antimony gives white fumes which may partly condense on the cooler
Sulphur
portion of the tube as a white sublimate and partly escape from

sublimate is only slightly volatile
Mercury
yields globules of
its
end
The
mercury
Tellurium yields a white sublimate, which, when heated, fuses to colorless
drops
Selenium gives a sublimate which is white 01 steel-gray near the assay
The odor of the volatile
(SeOj) and red at a greater distance (SeO and Se)
metal
is
If the tube
exceedingly disagreeable
it will produce a blue color
is
allowed to discharge through
the flame,
The Use
of the Charcoal.
shallow depression
is
FIG. 268
blowpipe flame played upon
made near one
end of a piece of charcoal, the powdered assay placed
this,
and the
Proper position of charcoal
it,
while the charcoal
held in a tilted
is
assay decrepitates when

be
a
of
The principal
should
moistened
with
water
heated,
drop
to
are.
be
noted
phenomena
Volatilization, fusibility, decrepitation,
position
by
the
left
hand (Fig 268)
If the
it
deflagration, odor, reduction
and the production
of sublimates.
The substance vaporizes and disappears

The substance melts entirely, or partially,
Volatilization
Fusibility
in
the different
parts of the flame, some substances fusing easily and others only with great
difficulty
Decrepitation
The substance
flies
to pieces
when heat
is
ing decomposition or the presence of water, or included gases
applied, indicat-
474
The substance suddenly burns
Deflagration
\\ith httle explosions charac-
teristic of nitrates
Reduction and Sublimation
some substances may

with
difficulty
When
heated on chaicoal with the
easily be reduced to the metallic state, otheis are
2PbO+C=Pb2+CO.
Thus,
In cases
(Na 2 B 4
In any
RF,
educed
Reduction takes place most
powdered and mixed with about four times

readily if the assay
carbonate
sodium
(NasCO) Thus
dry
is
its
volume
of
PbS+ 2Na2CO-,+ C
a
of great difficulty,
case, the heat
potassium cyanide
little
'
(kCN)
or borax
to the mixture will frequently hasten the result
ioH 20) added
until nearly all the assay sinks into the
must be applied
charcoal
When sufficiently heated, some substances yield a globule of metal, others

are completely volatilized, others yield fumes, produced by the oxidation of
portions of the assay, while yet others aie partly reduced to a globule of metal
and partly volatilized Thus, during the reduction of PbS, some of the lead
may
be oxidized according to the reaction
PbS+Na.COi
Noib+PbO+COj,
When fumes are proand a portion of the oxide may settle on the coal
duced, they are deposited upon the coolei portions of the charcoal in the form
of sublimates
Gold,
which possess characteristic properties
silver,
and copper compounds
yield globules of
metal without
The metals are separated fox examination by cutting

charcoal beneath the assay, and crushing he mass with
sublimates
out the
water in a small mortar

remauis as spangles, grains
its color
and by the
fact
Upon pouring ofT the watei, the metal

or powder
The silver is wogni/,ed by
that
its
solution
in nitric acid
yields a
white precipitate upon the addition of a drop or two of hydrochloric acid

Copper and gold have nearly the same color, but
mtnc
ammonia
copper dissolves in
of
an excess
acteristic,
at id while gold
is
insoluble.
Addition
to the solution of copper gives a char-
deep blue color
and
cobalt give gray infusible powders winch are

magbut yield no sublimates,
Iron, nickel,
netic,
of
Molybdenum,
tungsten,
and some of the rarer metals give gray powders

and no sublimates.
that are nonmagnetic
Antimony
yields
limate (Sb 2
1
in
copious white
3 ),
fumes, forming a volatile white subwhich becomes black when touched with the R.F.
Potassium cyanide must always be used with
minute quantities
care, as it is
a deadly poison, even
BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
When
touched by the
tip of
the
475
will
it
volatilize
and
color
flame >cllowi&h green

The metallic bead, when dropped
upon a sheet of glared papci, breaks into a number of smaller
the
ones
Arsenic volatilizes completely and consequently yields no globule of
metal
It gives abundant white fumes which form a white subli-
mate and have a
garlic
odor
The flame
at the
same time
is
colored blue
Bismuth yields a reddish white, brittle globule and an orange-yellow

sublimate which becomes lemon-yellow when cold
Cadmium
gives
brown fumes
sublimate, while the flame
in
is
F and
the
a reddish brown
yields
colored dark green
Lead
yields a gray malleable bead, and incrusts the charcoal with

a lemon-yellow sublimate near the assay
The flame at the same
time is colored blue
The yellow incrustation is composed of lead
oxide
Molybdenum gives a crystalline incrustation which js yellow when

hot and white when cold
When touched by the F it becomes
dark blue, and when heated for a longer time dark copper-red
The blue incrustation may be molybdenum molybdate (MoMo0 4)
and the red one, molybdenum dioxide (MoOJ
Selenium yields brown fumes, but the sublimate wfoch is near the
When heated with the reducing flame, it disappears
assay is gray
and the
characteristic
bad odor
is
evolved
The flame becomes
blue
<M
Tellurium coats the charcoal
dark yellow
a green color
The
with a white
sublimate
coating disappears in the
RF
bordered
by
which acquires
Tin gives a white globule which is malleable and a yellowish white

When moistened with a
coating, turning white upon cooling
drop of Co(N03 )2 solution and heated in the OF, its color
changes to blue-green
Zinc burns in the
with a bluish white color and evolves thick
This bewhite fumes which condense as a yellowish sublimate

comes white on cooling, and, when moistened with a dirop of
cobalt nitrate
and again heated,
it
turns grass-green (compare
tin)
Other metals also give characteristic reactions on charcoal, but the

above are the most important
DKTKRMINATIVK MINKHAUXrt
476
Use
of the Beads.
The beads me used
foi
the deled ion of metals
that produce tluiract eristic, coloied compounds when lusecl \\ith borax
wire
pieie of pint
or microcosmic salt or some olhei leaênt
mum
fused mto a glass rod serves as a support. The end of the \vne is bent
This is moistened and plunged into powcleiecl borax,
into a little loop
salt or other reagent and then heated carefully until the
New material is added by
is fused to a clear glass
material
adJhermg
the
into
and
po\\dercd will and heating
again
dipping the loop again
to
fill it
are
of
until the globules
large enough
completely. A tiny
glass
is
taken
tested
up by heating the bead and
portion of the material to be
microcosmic
pressing
it
while
still
soft
upon a
bit of the
powdered assay, which has
been placed in a clean watch-glass. The bead containing the substance

and the pheis then heated with the O.F. and afterward with the R.F
If the reduction is
nomena resulting are carefully observed
difficult, a
,
little
stannous oxide or chloride
will
hasten
it
If
the head becomes
opaque because saturated with the assay, n portion is jeiked olT while it
is hot and it is built up again by the addition of more of the teugent
In some cases, compounds other than the oxides do not yield the
characteristic beads of the metallic oxides
Therefoie,
it
is
safer in
all
testing by the bead reaction, to first toast the subslamc by

gently heating on charcoal with the O.F. to chive off its volatile constit-
cases
when
uents
The
colors of the
most characteristic beads of
metallic* oxides are
tabulated below.
COLORS OP
tiORAJC
BEADS
Kmeruitl-ttreen
ftltitt
Kttiltlish
brown,
Rt
I'nlu bottle-gruen
Cnlfir1i*m
Opaque brown
Oray
nr gray
Yellow nr brown
('ftlorlesH
Yellow brown
le
KW
nwtrlv
BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
477
COLORS OP MICROCOSMIC SALT BR\DS
Cobalt
all
is
the only metal which produces the same colored bead under
This is a beautiful blue
Other oxides give blue beads
conditions
under some one or more conditions, but under other conditions their
beads have other colors
The cold bead of chromium oxide

bead of manganese is always violet
is
always green and the oxidized
Flame Coloration. Many substances impart a distinct color to the

nonluminous flame of the burner or the blowpipe
Frequently, these
colors are best seen after the substance in powdered form has been
moistened with hydrochloric acid, as the chlorides are usually more
In the case of silicates, it is often advolatile than other compounds
mix the powdered assay with an equal volume of powdered

In testing for flame coloration a very small particle of the
substance, or its moistened powder, or of the mixture of the substance
visable to
gypsum
and gypsum is held in the flame by the aid of the platinum loop which
has been cleaned by dipping into HC1, and heated repeatedly until it
no longer colors the flame
When
several different flame-coloring elements are present in the
assay, the stronger color may mask the fainter one, and, therefore, some
means must be made use of to shut off the brighter color, while allowing
the fainter one to persist

the flame through some
This
medium
faint rays
and opaque
which are
really different in color
unaided eye.
is
by viewing
transparent to the
In other cases, two flames
usually accomplished
(a screen) that
to the brighter ones
is
appear of nearly the same tint to the

In this case, the screen is again used to cut off certain
DETERMINATIVE MINKKALCKJV
478
rays that arc
be
different
common
to the
two
colors, \vhen the
enough to ho distinguishable
The
si
remaining rays may
icons most
frequently
purpose are pieces of <oloied #lass, whith uic held close to

Red glass absoibs all but ted ui>s Blue tflass stops certain
the eye
Gicut difficulty is somered and green rays and all the yellow ones
used for
this
times experienced in securing glass exhibiting pure tolois, so that in

most cases it is more convenient to use transparent celluloid films that
have been manufactured expressly for the examination of colatcd flames
These films are given the tints that are most useful for the purpose
Care must be taken in using them, however, since celluloid
desired
highly inflammable
For more accurate work the spectroscope is often employed. The
use of this instrument depends upon the fact that each substance, when
in the form of gas, emits light composed of one or mote lays of definite
is
wavelengths, and the spectroscope separates these so that each may

be identified. The most convenient instrument for blowpipe work is
the Browning direct vision pocket spectioscope, but sime the constituents of
all
common
the spectroscope there
The most
Red by
is
minerals can be recogni/cd without the aid of

no need for further rcfeiente to it,
characteristic colors imparted to the
lithium,
lithium flame and
strontium,
banum
blowpipe flame are
and calcium. Sodium salts obscure

strontium and ralnum flames
the
salts the
Ydlow by sodium.
Green by most copper compounds, thallium, barium, antimony, phosphoric
The flame of phosphoric
acid, bone acid, molybdic acid, and nitm and.
acid is bluish green, the flames of boric uud and barium are yellow KIWII, and
those of molybdic acid and antimony are very faint. The copper and thallium
The nitric acid flame coloration is bron/e green ami
flames are vivid greens*
a flash only
Blue by copper chloride, copper bromide, selenium, arsenic and lead
The arsenic flame is faint. Tht selenium and the copper chloride Humes arc
exists as
brilliant azure-blue
Violet by potassium, caesium and rubidium.

obscure the reaction
Sodium and lithium
salts
Detection of Certain Elements in the Presence of Others, In

many cases, as has been stated, the color imparted to the flume by one
substance entirely obscures that given it by another when the two are
same compound. Thus, the faint violet color of the

flame
is obscured by the
potassium
strong yellow of sodium and the
brilliant red of lithium.
When this is the case, the light is viewed
through the proper screens and the different rays in this manner are
present in the
BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
479
Since the flame tests afford the readiest
differentiated
means
of detect-
ing the alkalies and alkaline earths, considerable attention has been
devoted to means of differentiating their flame colors
Among the
methods proposed
for this purpose is that
based upon the use of blue and
green glass screens

Detection of the Alkalies and the Alkaline Earths.-
The potaswhile
flame is
the
sodium
blue
reddish violet through
glass,
invisible or is blue, hence, the potassium flame is detected in the presence of sodium by viewing the mixed flame through a blue scieen
sium flame
Lithium
is
is also
detected
m the presence of sodium
glass, since the lithium flame
is
Since the flame colors of Li
screen
with the aid of blue
when viewed through a blue

and K are so nearly alike when
violet-red
viewed through a blue screen, they cannot easily be distinguished

When viewed through a green screen, however, the Li flame is nearly
is bluish green
Through the green screen the
flame appears orange
If search is to be made for the alkaline earths, the assay is repeatedly
moistened with sulphuric acid and placed in the hottest portion of the
invisible, while that of
Na
After the alkalies are driven
flarne
barium
off,
the flame will become yellowish
green,
present, through green glass it will appear bluish
The assay is then repeatedly moistened with pure hydrochloric
green
acid and again brought, while still moist, into the hottest portion of the
if
is
flame
A red coloration, appearing after the yellowish green barium
flame has disappeared, indicates calcium or strontium or both
Through
green glass the calcium flame appears green and the strontium flarne
faint yellow foi an instant
Through blue glass calcium gives a faint
greenish gray and strontium a puiplc or rose color
The phenomena exhibited by the alkalies and alkaline earths may be
summarized as
follows*
Flame Color
Through Blue GKiss
Potassium
Violet
Reddish violet
Through Green Glass

Bluibh green
Sodium
Yellow
Blue to invisible
Orange-yellow
Lithium
Carmine
Violet-red
Invisible
Barmm
Calcium
Yellow-green
Yellow-red
Green-gray
Green
Strontium
Scarlet
Purple
Faint yellow
Bluish green
silicates is accomplished by fusing

The
If the
the powdered assay on platinum wire with a little pure gypsum
is
are
the
with
sodium
fused
earths
carbonate
alkaline
sought for,
assay
The fused mass
on platinum wire, or better, on a piece of platinum foil
detection of the alkalies
DETERMINATIVE MINER AIAKJY
480
is
then extracted with water ancl the lesiclue tieated with hychochlonc
Silica will be precipitated, leaving in the solution a mixture
acid
of
sodium chlonde and the chloiules
tion
is
then tested
ol
the alkaline eailhs
The
solu-
the flame \\ith the aid oi a clean ])latimim wire
An almost
The Copper Test
certain test lorcoppei
and
loi chlorine
to the llame by
is affoidcd by the difference in the coloi imparted
copper
substant
es beside*;
Seveiul
chlonde and most other coppei salt**
copper
in the case ol eoppei alone the colot oi the flame
give green flames, but
is
changed to sky blue by touching the assay with IH1, 01 a chlonde.

are so characSpecial Tests. A fe\v tests with special reagents
teristic for certain
elements that they are specific:
When
a powclcied substance containing S

is
dry Na.CO,i and heated intensely
when placed on a silvei com and
the
residue
for some time on charcoal,
or
moistened with water
hyclrochlouc acid, will yield a black or brown
Tests with NasCO.j.
fused with four times
(i)
its
volume
oi
due to the production of N<iiS(BuSOt f NaaCOs

+C2 Nti2S+BaCO,i+2C02), which is soluble, The solution containing
the sulphide reacts with the silver, producing insoluble At&S, which is
stain.
This reaction
is
3=
brown or black Thus: NaaS+Aft,+HjO+OÂftsS+2NaOIL Sulphides and sulphates are distinguished by roasting the compound on
Sulphides yield the sulphur-dio\ide odor,
tompounds, fused with N;ii>C0 j
chaicoal without NasCO.j

(2)
Manganic and
(especially
when a
(hiomutm
little
niter
is
added), vield lolorvd masses -the
manganese compound a l>nght green mass (NagMnOt) and the chromium compounds a bright yellow mass (NtigCrOt). In the case of
the manganate, the reaction
may be
MnQj+NaaCQa+O-NaaMnOt+COa.
(3)
Sodium carbonate may
also
If a
and detecting silicic Acids
volume of Na2COa on charcoal,
with soda to form sodium
be emi>loyed for tfaiHHfasittg iffiiatn

with 4 or 5 times its
silicate is fused
it
silicate,
will
break up, the
silica
combining
thus:
(ZnOH) 2 Si03+ aNasCOjj - aZnO+No4SiOi+ 2CO*+ Hs0,
Upon treatment with acid, H4 Si04
is produced
(Ntt4S!Oi4-4HCI 4NaCi
This appears as a gelatinous precipitate in the solution;
but upon evaporating to dryness, moistening with
strong acid, and again
+H4Si04).
4 SiOt is broken down into 2H S

evaporating to dryness, the
and SiQa,
the latter of which is insoluble, and can be filtered
off, leaving the bases
in the filtrate
Tests with the Cobalt SolutionsCertain metallic

oxides,
when
BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS
481
moistened with a few drops of a solution of crystallized cobalt nitrate

dissolved in ten parts of water, and heated, yield distinctive colors that
The assay is powdered,
often serve as aids in their detection
may
moistened with a drop of the cobalt solution, and placed on charcoal

and heated intensely Compounds containing alumina yield a mass of a
blue color, without luster
few other substances
also give blue
may
masses, but the materials are fused and, consequently,

luster
Magnesium compounds give a pink color
show a glassy
In testing for other substances, it is necessary first to obtain their

This is done by roasting on charcoal until a distinct sublimate is produced This sublimate is moistened with a drop of the
oxides
F Under these conditions, the

and heated gently by the
white zinc sublimate (ZnO) changes to a bright yellowish green and tin
oxide (SnCte) to a bluish green
solution
Tests with Acid Potassium Sulphate.
Hydrogen potassium sulwith

in a closed tube,
fused
when
a
substance
powdered
phate (HKS04)
may
For example
cause the evolution of gases
2HKS04+CaF2 = K 2 S04+CaSC>4+2HF,
which in many cases
Nitrites
and
may easily be recognized
nitrates yield reddish
brown fumes (N.A) with the character-
odor of nitiogcn peroxide

Chhi ales yield a yellowish green explosive gas (CIO..)
Iodides yield a violet gab, which colors blue a papei soaked
istic
m starch paste,
added to the HKS0 4

Bromides yield a reddish blown gab (Br), turning staich paste yellow,
when MnOj is mixed with the HKSd
when a
little
MnO
ib
Chlorides yield hydrochloric acid (HC1), recognized
voluminous white fumeb
it
by
its
odor and the
forms with ammonia
This
Sulphides yield hydrogen sulphide (HjS) with itb characteristic odor
gas blackens paper moistened with lead acetate
Fluondes yield hydroiluonc acid (III) gab, which has a pungent odor and
etches glass
and the
HF
duven up the
The
etching
Thus,
is
due to the reaction between the SiOj of the
Si02+4HF=SiF 4 +2H.0
The SiF 4
is
volatile
glass
and
is
tube, leaving tiny pitb from which the SiOj
was taken
This
reaction is best seen by heating the assay with four times its volume of the
reagent and then cleaning and drying the tube
The reaction is more delicate if the finely powdered assay is mixed with
microcosmic salt and heated m an open tube
"When the salt is heated, it
breaks up, yielding
NaPO,
which reacts with the
(thus
HNii(NH4)P04 4H 20=NaP03+NH
fluoride as follows
^ CaNaP04+2HF
+sH 0)
8
482
with Metallic Zinc and Hydrochloric Acid certain

which sire characteristic. The
yield colored solutions
By Reduction
metallic
salts
is powdered and
mixed
and
the muss is
and
nitci,
thoroughly with sodium caibonate
slightly
moistened and placed m a htlle spnal at the end of a line platinum wire
substance to be tested
After fusion,
it is
not soluble in IIC1)
dissolved in a
and a
acid are added
(if
little
water, a lew chops of hydrochloric
strip of zinc or tin, or a few Bruins of the metal, are
The hydiogen, evolved by the contact of

the solution
then placed
the metal and the acid, educes the oxides and the solution becomes
i
colored
The most important elements detectable by
this
method
are:
Molybdenum, which gives a blue, then guvn, and itiully a blackish brown
solution
Tungsten, a blue, then hi own or copper-red solution
Vanadium, a
blue, green or vjolet solution,
Columbum, a blue
solution which loses its color
on addition of water,
Chromium, a green bolution

Titanium, a violet solution.
In the case of titanium the read ions are,
TiO,+aN.ij(U--N,uTi0 4
Na<Ti04+8Hn
"
TiCliiH
TK'U
.'
.|Na('l
TiClitHt'l.
The TiCfo produces the violet solution.

Magnesium ribbon is geneiully employed us an aid in the detection
of phosphoius
The powdered assay is placed in the bottom of a closed
glass tube with a piece of
the powder
is
magnesium ribbon about
in close contact
with the metal.
tensely until partial fusion ensues.
mm
This
The completion
ts
long, so that
then heated
in-
of the reaction
is
known by the formation of a brown or black glass, winch is the phosphide of magnesium. Upon crushing the tube and moistening its contents with water the characteristic odor of
phosphine
odor of wet phosphorus matches),
is
perceived (the
Hydrochloric acid furnishes the readiest test for carbonates. If the

powdered substance is heated gently with dilute acid in a test tube, a
brisk effervescence will result
if
it
contains the carbonic arid radical.
Sometimes the effervescence can be detected by holding the mouth of

the test tube to the ear, even when the
escape of gas cannot be seen.
The gas (COg)

water
is colorless,
will cause turbidity,
and when allowed to bubble through lime
CHAPTER XXIII
CHARACTERISTIC REVCTIONS OF THE MORE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS
AND ACID RADICALS
Aluminium
tested for Al
blue color to
481)
(p
Fusible minerals cannot be
by the method using
all
CXNOata
satisfactorily
since cobalt imparts a
glasses
Since zinc silicates yield the same color reaction with
Co(NOs)2 as
do infusible aluminium compounds, the presence of aluminium in

cannot be assured unless the absence of zinc
Antimony (pp
472, 473, 474, 478)
is
silicates
proven
In the presence of lead or bis-
muth, the assay is heated on charcoal with fused bone acid, which dissolves the lead and bismuth oxides, while the antimony oxide coats the
charcoal
When antimony and lead are piesent in the same compound,

mony
the anti-
oxide forms a white incrustation surrounding a dark orange-yellow
incrustation of lead antimonate
Arsenic (pp. 472, 473, 475, 478) .Arsenic in arscnates and arsenusually be detected by heating the powdcied assay with six
volume of a mixture of equal parts of NasCOs and KCN (or
powdered charcoal) in a dry closed glass tube, when an arsenic mirror
may
ites
times
its
form on the cold part of the tube This may be further tested by
breaking off the end of the tube and heating the mirror in the burner
will
flame
The
escaping fumes will have the characteristic garlic odor.
allowed to pass through the flame, they will tinge

If there is
little
If
violet.
doubt as to whether a white sublimate on charcoal con-
tains arsenic, or
mony, a
it
if it is
desired to test for arsenic in the presence of anti-
of the coating
which
is
farthest
away from
the assay
may
be scraped from the surface of the charcoal and placed in a narrow glass
If arsenic oxide is present in the coating, the arsenic
tube and heated
mirror will form on the walls of the cooler part of the tube.
Barium (pp
in
478, 479) .Before applying the flame test for barium,
be fused with four parts of dry Na2COa and charcoal

a loop of platinum wire, crushed, placed in a test tube, treated with a
silicates
should
first
DETERMINATIVE MINICHALOCSY
484:
After c ooling, warm

cvapoiatccl to diyness
HC1, then add about to cc of \\alci and lilter off the
insoluble silica. To the filtrate add a few drops of IfeSOj, collect the
and test with the flame (see also under
precipitate on a small filter,
few cc of dilute
with a very
UNO* and
little
Calcium).
A veiy chainttcnstic test is the following:

Bismuth (pp 472, 475)
The powdered substance is mixed with twice its volume of a mixture
composed of equal parts* of KI and floweis of sulphui, iind heated in the
RF
on charcoal
form a coating
at
If
Bi
some
us
bismuth will
This test serves
present, a blick-red iodide of
little
distance from the assay.
to distinguish between Pb and Hi, both of which yield yellow oxide

coatings when tested on charcoal
Boron
To obtain
(p 478)
pounds containing boron,
it is
the green flame in the rase of most comusually sufficient to moisten the line pow-
der with a drop of strong sulphuric acid and introduce a small quantity
The flame will be colored green,
into the flame on a platinum wire
but only for a moment. More resistant compounds, like the silicates,
must be fused with a flux; composed of one jKirt of powdered fluonqxir
and four parts of KHSOt before the green coloration can be obtained.
The HF generated decomposes the silicate and sets
free the boron.
In the presence of copper compounds or phosphates, which also give

green flames, the finely powdered assay is moistened on platinum foil
The excess of acid is then removed by heating, and

the powder mixed into a paste with glycerine and a little sodium carbonate
When heated in the flame, the sodium will mask t he green color
due to the copper and phosphorus, but not thai produced by boron.
with sulphuric acid.
If
dilute
boron compounds are fused with Nua("Q and then treated with
HC1, a drop of the resulting solution will cause turmeric paper to
turn reddish brown after being dried at ioo

monia, the color changes to black.
Bromine
or two
NasCOa
moistened with am-
Solutions of bromides in water or
(pp. 478, 481)
(after fusion with
If
HNQt
insoluble otherwise) will yield with a drop

of silver nitrate solution a yellowish
precipitate of AgHr, which is
if
ammonia If this precipitate is mixed with Iii*S and heated

a dosed tube, a yellowish sublimate of BiBr& will result, (Compare
Chlorine and Iodine.)
soluble in
in
Cadmium
(pp. 475, 478).
difficult to recognize
the
When
present with
cadmium coating on
Pb or Zn,
charcoal,
it is
often
In this case, the
CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS, ETC
485
coating may be scraped from the coal and heated very gently in the
closed tube
A yellow sublimate of cadmium oxide will form just
On
above the assay

and lead oxides
further heating, this will be
masked by the
zinc
Calcium (pp 478, 479)

Calcium in silicates and other insoluble
compounds may be detected by the same method as that used for the
detection of barium
The precipitate of CaSO*, however, is dissolved
when heated with a large volume of water
Carbonates.
See
p 482
Chlorine (pp 480, 481)

Chloride solutions, when treated with
ammonia When
yield a white precipitate of AgCl, soluble
AgNOs,
If mixed with 61283 and heated

a
exposed to the light, it darkens
closed tube, a white sublimate of Bids is formed
(Compare Bromine
and Iodine
Chromium
In the presence of large

477, 480, 482)
the powdeied assay (if not a silicate) is mixed
volume of equal parts of Nd2COs and KNOs and fused
quantities of Fe,
with double
its
(pp
476,
Cu, etc
F when an alkaline chromate will be

on a platinum spiral m the
foimed
This, dissolved in water and boiled with an excess of acetic
acid yields a solution which gives a yellow precipitate of PbCr04 with a
few drops of lead acetate
,
Silicates containing small quantities of
chromium and
large quanti-
copper and iron should first be fused on charcoal with a mixture

of one part of sodium carbonate and a half part of borax
The clear
ties of
glass thus produced
is
dissolved in hydrochloric acid
and the solution
This is then treated with water, filtered, and

evaporated to dryness
the filtrate boiled with a few drops of nitric acid to oxidize the iron
By
the addition of ammonia, the chromic and other oxides are precipitated
The
precipitate is collected
tested with the bora\ bead
on a
filter,
washed, and treated as above, or
Cobalt (pp 474, 476, 477)

For the detection of cobalt in the presence of iron or nickel, see under those metals
Columbium (pp 476, 477, 482) When a compound containing

columbmm is fused with five parts of borax on platinum foil, dissolved
in concentrated HC1 and diluted with a little water, the solution becomes blue when boiled with granulated tin. The color does not
It disappears, however, when
change to brown on continued boiling
diluted with water. If titanium is present in the same solution the
DETKRMINATIVK MINMUALO(!Y
486
color will be
first violet,
Tungbten, \\lmh gixes a blue
then blue
solu-
same conditions, can be distinguished fiom olumbwm by
tion under the
the bead test
If
the solution
boiled
is
\\itli
xu,
instead ot
tin, its
from blue to bro\\n
coloi changes rapiclh
powdered substance may be lused in a test tube or

crucible with ten paits KITSOi, and then digested \\iih cold \\atcr for a
If columbium is present, an insoluble \\hilo lesidue will he
long time
left
This, if collected on a filter, washed, and then treated in n test
Or the
finely
tube with hot concentrated HOI, will yield the blue solution \\hen boiled
with granulated
tin,
\ veiv deluate test foi

477, 478, 480")
in HCI 01 IINOa, dilute
them
dissolve
to
compounds
CM ess A deep pinple-blue solution
with water and add ammonia
Copper (pp
476,
474,
soluble coppci
is
of
CuCl2'6NH3
Fluonne
powder
ture
assay
SiOg
(pp. 472, 481)
in
will lesult
-If the mineinl
a closed tube
If
fluorine
is
to be tested
MXOMIW
piesent
is
salt
t
a silicate,
and
its
this mix-
he glass above the
HF
At the same time, a ling of

produced
of
tube in consequent e of the
the
the
cool
in
portion
deposited
be etched by the
will
is
6NH,,
mixed with four parts of fused mil
ib
heated
is
or Cu(NQa),j
reaction
allaSiFn
Upon heating,
Gold
(p
the ring
474).
SiO a
moveb up the tube to a tooler portion,
The metal
is
best detected
bv Ueatment
with
%
aquaregia of the metallic bead, produced by fusion with NaaC (),j on

charcoal
This yidds a light yellow solution, which, when taken up on a
filter
paper and moistened with stamuws chloride, gives
tin*
"
purple of
Cassius,"
Or,
the mineral
to be tested for free gold, it is powdered and

and the solution diluted and filtered
The filevaporated nearly to dryness, diluted with water urn! a few drops
if
is
treated with aqua regia

trate
is
of a solution of ferrous sulphate are added.

If gold is present in small
If the #old
quantity only, the solution will be colored bluish or purple,
is
present
m larger
powder.
Free gold
will
quantity, the metal will be precipitated us u
may also be detected by powdering
pass through a
fine sieve.
the substance
Brush the material adhering to
brown
until all
lie
sieve
and add to the powder. Then place in a basin

containing a lit lie mercury (i cc), and immerse the basin and its content in water, Shake
the basin gently with a
rocking motion and gradually allow the rock

powder
The
to escape
gold will
fall
to the
487
bottom and amalgamate
with the mercury

After the mass has been reduced to a small volume,
transfer to a mortar and grind in a gentle stream of water, until nothing
but the amalgam
open
Then
is left
the mercury
air until all
place in an iron spoon and heat in the

driven off, or the amalgam may be
is
placed in a shallow cavity on charcoal and heated with a small blowpipe

flame until all the mercury volatilizes
The residual gold may be col-
lected into a globule by placing a little borax or sodium carbonate

the cavity and heating until quiet fusion takes place
When dnwng off the mercury from the amalgam extreme care must be
taken not
to bieathe its
fumes, since they are poisonous.
The operation
should not be performed in a closed room
Iodine (p
481)
glass tube with
Substances containing iodine, when fused in a

yield a vapor which is recognized
KHS04 and Mn02,
as that of iodine
by
its violet
color
In the presence of other halogens, iodine may be detected by mixing

the powdered substance with 81383 (prepared
by fusing together small

quantities of bismuth and sulphur) and heating in a closed tube or on
charcoal before the blowpipe. If iodine is present, a red sublimate of
bismuth iodide
is
produced
(Compare Chlorine and Bromine
Iron (pp 472, 474, 476, 477)

To distinguish ferrous and ferric
If
conditions, the assay is added to a borax bead containing copper
the iron is in the ferric condition, the bead will be bluish green, if in
the ferrous condition, it will contain red streaks of cuprous oxide.
In the presence of easily fusible metals like lead, tin, zinc, etc
substance
is
heated on charcoal with borax
reducible metals do not
the
RF
The
the
easily
become oxidized and, consequently, are not
The glass is separated from the metallic bead,

absorbed by the glass
and is heated on a fresh piece of charcoal in the R F , when it acquires
the characteristic bottle-green color produced
on addition of tin
by
iron,
and becomes
vitriol-green
In the presence of cobalt, the blue color of the cobalt bead masks the
In this case, iron is detected by heating the blue
green of the iron bead
F. sufficiently long to convert all the
the
glass on platinum wire
With very little iron present, the bead is green when

hot, and blue when cold, with more iron the bead is dark green when
hot, and pure green when cold, this latter color resulting from a mixture
of the yellow iron and the blue cobalt colors
F red Upon reduction
Manganese colors the borax bead in the
bead
becomes
with tin on charcoal, the
If cobalt also is
bottle-green,
iron into peroxide.
488
F is Auk violet
present, the bead produced in the
becomes green when hot and blue when cold
Tu the
RF
it
-The coating of lead oxide icsemblcs very

472, 475, 478,)
The two may be distinguished by the proclosely that of bismuth
The iodide of lead is lemon-yellow.
cedure descnbed under bismuth
Lead (pp
In the case of silicates, beioio testing for

advisable to mi\ the powdci of the assay with one
Lithium (pp 478, 479)

flame coloration,
it is
part of fluorspar and one and a half parts of KHSOi and

If boron is present, the flame
with a drop of water
then red
The
m into a paste
is at
lust green,
shown by the production
presence of phosphoric acid is
of a green flame together with the red one
foi
This
ib
especially noticeable
after moistening the assay with sulphuric acid
Magnesium (p 481) The Co(NOs)2 test for magnesium is applicable only to white or colorless minerals ancl is by no means conclusive.
The most satisfactory test is that employed generally in oidmary qualitative analysis, viz, precipitation with the aid of
The powdered
^soluble
sodium phosphate*
in acids, is fused
with
and evapopowdered, dissolved in a few cc of dilute
2 or 3 cc, HC1 and warmed for
It is then dissolved
rated to dryness
a few minutes
There is next added about 10 cc, of water and the solumineral,
if
HNO
tion is boiled
boiling
and
aluminium.
and
filtered to
NEUOH
This
is
is
added
remove
silica.
The
filtrate is
heated to
m slight
excess to pi capitate iron and

filtered and the filtrate is boiled again, and to
now
added some ammonium oxalate ((NH^CoO*) to separate calcium.

After ten or fifteen minutes, the calcium oxalate is removed by several
it is
nitrations until the filtrate
is clear
To
the
filtrate
phosphate and strong ammonia are added.

after standing for some time, a fine white
NH4 MgP04 6H2 will form
If
a solution of sodium
magnesium
is
present
crystalline precipitate
of
Manganese
Manganese compounds soluble in

(pp. 477, 480)
are readily detected by oxidation with persulphate*. The
procedure is to dissolve in a few cc of moderately dilute HNCXj (sp. gr
HNOs
i 2),
add about one-half
few drops of
ammonium
water) and gently heat
ganic acid, which
is
its
volume
of dilute solution of
persulphate (200 gr
(NHOaSsO*
The manganese will be

The reaction is
purple
AgNOa
ancl
to one liter of
oxidized to perman-

Compounds
that are insoluble in
HNOs must first
489
be fused with
Na2COs
on charcoal
Mercury
and a few
In the presence of sulphur, chlorine, iodine

heated with dry Na2COs in a closed
(pp 472, 473)
acids, the assay is best
The
glass tube
acid combines with the
Na and
the
Hg
sublimes.
Molybdenum (pp 474, 475, 477, 478, 482) The white coating of
MoOa on charcoal, if touched with the R F is partly reduced, beF some of it volatilizes, but some
If heated by the
coming blue
,
reduced by the charcoal, forming a copper-red coating

Small quantities of molybdenum are detected by treating the powAfter
dered assay with a little strong sulphuric acid on a platinum foil
is
heating until most of the acid

ing mass becomes
is
evapoiated, and then cooling, the result-
blue, particularly after being
repeatedly breathed
upon, or after being moistened with alcohol and dried
by heating
In the presence of Co, the color of the Ni

Nickel (pp 474,476,477)
In such cases, a small portion of the mineral
is often masked
is fused in the R F to a globule
A fragment of borax " twice the size
is
on
of the globule
charcoal and the two are heated by
placed beside it
borax bead
the
The two
globules will roll around under the flame in contact,
F
will remain quite distinct, any cobalt will be oxidized by the
and be absorbed by the borax, which will become blue
If the mineral
but
placed upon a clean part of the coal and the treatment is continued
with fresh portions of borax until all the cobalt has been oxidized and
is
the borax no longer becomes blue, the nickel present will impart its
and reddish brown color to the borax " (Phillips )
characteristic violet
Nickel
is
best detected
oxime ((CHj)oC2(NOH)o)
by ti eat mg its solution with dimethyl glyThe assay is dissolved in acid, after fusion
(NEWQH
if
necessary, and the solution i& neutralized with
one-half volume of dimethyl glyoxime solution, made by dissolving
one part of the compound in 100 pts of a 40 per cent alcohol, and again
with Na2CO<3,
Add
add a little (NHOOH to neutralize A bright red crystalline precipitate

form if nickel is present, according to the leaction.
will
NiCl2+2(CH3 )2C2 (NOH)2
- (CH3 ) 2 C2 (NOH)2 (CH3 ) 2 C2(NO) 2 Ni+2Ha

Hitnc Acid
Nitric acid is best detected by dis(pp. 472, 478, 481).

:
in
the
dilute
solving
(i
i) BkSO-i, cooling and adding to the soluassay
tion in a test tube a few drops of a strong solution of FeSO* in water,
490
the FeSC>4 to trickle quietly down

holding the tube slanting and allowing
If nitrates are
its side and form a layer upon the acid solution
present,
solutions
two
of
the
will form at the contact
a brown
ring
Oxygen,
in
some
of the higher oxides,
be detected by the liber-
may
ation of chlorine when they are treated \sith HC1

the case with the higher oxides of manganese, thus
This
is
particularly
Mn02 +4HCl-MnCl2+2H2 0+2CL

The
chlorine
is
by
recognized
its color,
its
odor and
its
bleaching
action
In the test with magnesium ribbon,

best to fuse the phosphates of Al and the heavy metals with two
the fused mass, and
parts of Na2COs on charcoal, to remove and grind
then to ignite the powder with magnesium ribbon in a closed glass tube
Phosphoric Acid (pp 478, 482)
it is
(Brush and Penfield)

If a small crystal of
on a phosphate and a
ammonium
little
dilute
molybclatc
(NHO^MoOi
HNOu be dropped
upon
it,
be placed
the crystal
yellow in consequence of the production of ammonium phosThis test is available

phomolybdate ii(Mo03 ) (NH4 ) 3 P04 6H 2
will turn
m HNOs
only for compounds that are soluble

If the mineral is insoluble
HNOa,
carbonate on platinum wire
it
The bead
must
is
first
be fused with sodium
then dissolved in nitric acid
cold is added drop by drop to a little of an ammomolybdate solution and allowed to stand without warming. If
and the solution when
mum
the assay contained the phosphoric acid radical,

will be formed.
a yellow phospho*
molybdate
Potassium.
See pp 478 and 479
Selenium (pp 473,475,478)

Selenates and sclemtes must be reduced
with sodium carbonate on charcoal before the peculiar otlor is evolved.
Silicon (pp 477, 480)
Small splinters of silicates yield an infusible
skeleton of silica when heated in a bead of microcosmic salt. This flouts
around
the liquid bead as a particle with the shape of the original

or
as a transparent flake
In some cases the original splinter
splinter,
remains undecomposed
Many
silicates
decompose in strong
mass of silicic acid
tion of a gelatinous
gelatinous silica
is
HN04
or
HC1 with
If the solution
evaporated to dryness, the
silica
the produccontaining the
becomes insoluble

and remains as a residue when the mass
and digested with water
is
warmed with a
491
little
strong
acid
In case of insoluble
silicates it is
The
before proceeding with the test

of a
sodium
itate will
which
silicate
necessary to fuse with Na2COs

fusion results in the production
soluble in acids
is
The
gelatinous precip-
appear only after the acid solution of the fused mass
is
evap-
orated
Silver.
Seep 474
Sodium
Seepp 478 and 479
Strontium (pp
478, 479)
treat as in the test for
Ba
If
cipitate, the flame will first
with
HC1 and
Ba
heating, the Si will gradually disappeai
and the green
flame will be seen
color of the
is
In the case of insoluble compounds
both Ba and Sr are present in the final piebe crimson

Upon repeated moistening
If a substance containing sulphur

Sulphur (pp 472, 473, 480, 481)
heated with NaoCOs on charcoal in the R F and the fused mass is
transferred to a watch glass and moistened with water, the addition o{

little dilute solution of ammonium molybdatc, to which HC1 has
been added,
will
pioduce a blue color
Sulphides arc distinguished fiom

taining water or the
yield an odoi
of
SOj
OH
most sulphates (except those con-
group) by heating in the

sulphates yield no odor
The
distinguishing between these
two
classes of
The
sulphides
Anothci means of
compounds
is
as follows
The
finely powdcied substance is fused with caustic potash (KOH) in a

The spoon or foil with
platinum spoon, or on a piece of platinum foil
its
contents
is
thrown into water containing a
strip of silvei
If
the
remains quite white, the S is present as sulphate, if the silver

becomes black, S is piesent as sulphide Substances exercising a reducsilver
ing action must, of course, not be present
Tantalum cannot be recognized in the presence of columbium by any

simple tests
Tellurium (pp 473, 475). A powdeied tellurium compound, heated

Na2COs and charcoal powder in a closed glass tube and treated
with
when
lunde
cold with hot water, yields a purple red solution of sodium telThis color will disappear if air LS blown through the solution.
Tellundes may be detected by gently warming the finely powdered

The solution
substances with a few cc of concentrated sulphuric acid
492
After cooling, the addition of water will piecip-
become carmine
will
itate the tellurium as a blackish
gray powdei, and the carmine color
will disappear
Thallium.
Tin (pp
fairly easily
on charcoal
Seep 478
The reduction of tin compounds is accomplished

by mixing borax with Na2COj and ttcatincj \\ith the K F
The metallic tin thus obtained, when heated on charcoal
475, 4^ x )
by the OF, yields a white incrustation which becomes bluish green

when moistened with cobalt nitrate and heated (see Znu)
Or, if
warmed in a test tube with moderately dilute HNO*, a white powdery
metastannic acid (EfeSnOs) will result
If to a borax bead colored blue by a copper, a small quantity of tin
be applied, the bead will turn
compound be added and the
RF
brown
Titanium (pp 476,
cosmic
salt in the
color.
When
becomes
477, 482)
If iron is piesent,
the bead of micro-
has the iron color, and in the R F a blood-red

fused with tin in the R.F. on charcoal, the color
this is
violet
very characteristic reaction is obtained as follows Fuse on charfoil one pa.it of the assay with ft paits oi NujCOj and a
Then dissolve m a small quantity of toncent rated HC1
bora\
coal or platinum
little
and add granulated tin. The Imhogen genet a ted by the

and HC1 will reduce the TiCh in the original acid solution to TiCla
and the solution will assume a violet color, especially after standing
(2-2 5 cc)
tin
several hours
For an extremely
and borax, as m the
delicate test, fuse the
color test with tin
in a test tube with

and water, and, after cooling,
by heating
2 cc
powdered assay with Na2COs

the fused mass is dissolved
If
of a mixture of equal parts of IlgSOi
diluted with about 10 cc of cold water,

the addition of a few drops of HsOg to the diluted solution will produce a
golden yellow or orange color if titanium is present.
Tungsten (pp
ties,
tungsten
is
474, 476, 477, 482)
may be detected by fusing
When
small quantipresent
the assay with five or six times
weight of Na2COa, extracting the resulting mass with water, filtering

and adding to the filtrate strong hydrochloric acid. White tungstie
hydroxide will be precipitated and this precipitate will become pale
yellow (WOa) on boiling
Upon acidification and boiling with a few
its
particles of tin, a blue mixture of oxides results.
The blue
color will not
493
(Compare tests for columbium

disappear on the addition of water
On long-continued boiling, the color will change to brown (WOs)
tungstate be decomposed by boiling with HC1, it is not necesSimply boil with strong acid until a light yellow precipisary to fuse
Then dilute with an equal quantity of water,
tate (WOs) is obtained
If the
add tin and boil, and the clue

brown on long-continued boiling
Uranium
metals that
(pp
its
Na2COs
ammonia and add a
fusing with
(first
\\ith
If the
476, 477,)
characteristic
bead
is
or borax,
uianmm
if
change to
mixed with othci
Na2COs
much more and
HC1 and
If
so
will
m HC1
necessary), then nearly neutralize
excess of Na2CO.j will dissolve the
Filter, acidify the filtrate with

Then add ammonia in excess
is
This
obscured, dissolve the assay
strong solution of
tion ceases, then about half as
The
color will result.
let
compound
first
boil until all the
uranium
is
until precipita-
stand for some time
present,
precipitated
COa
it will
is
expelled
be precipi-
tated as a gelatinous light yellow ammonium uranate (NH 1)211207 To

confirm, filter and test the precipitate in the bead of microcosmic salt
Vanadium (pp 476, 477, 482) Vanadium compounds, first roasted

on charcoal and then fused with four parts Na2COs and two parts potassium nitrate on a platinum spiral, when extracted with hot watei,
filtered, acidified
with acetic acid, and treated with a few drops of lead

This may be
acetate, yield a pale yellow precipitate of Pb,3(V04)a
tested for
vanadium
in a
microcosnuc
salt bead.
the solution obtained by extracting the fused mass be filtered and

acidified with HC1 and well shaken with hydrogen peroxide, it will
If
become reddish brown or garnet
color
to the acidified solution
If
metallic zinc be added, a green blue color will result.

will
gradually become violet
if
the solution
is left
This, however,
standing in contact
zmc
with
If
the substance
tion thus
produced
is
HC1 or HfeSOt, the soluthe addition of water the
soluble in concentrated
will
be red-brown
On
color will change to green-blue or will disappear

Upon the addition
of HaOa the i eddish brown color will reappear if the dilution be not
If treated with metallic zinc the green blue color will again
too great
appear, but will gradually change to violet on continued action of the
zinc
If the blue or violet solution is poured off the zinc and a few
drops of hydrogen peroxide be added, the characteristic brown color

For a more accurate determination of the presence
again result
will
of
vanadium, add
NHiOH
in
excess to the acxd solution
and pass
494
through
The
HsS
it
solution will
become garnet
if
vanadium
is
present
Infusible white or light-colored zinc comZinc (pp 472, 475, 48*)
a paste with a drop of
pounds, when finely powdered and made into
Co(N03)2 solution, and then heated on charcoal by an O,F assume a
,
this way with a hot

green color But silicates of zinc when treated
flame often form a fusible cobalt silicate which is blue
In the presence of antimony and tin, it is almost impossible to detect
zinc
by blowpipe
blowpipe reactions
Co(N03)a
tests,
as
all
three
metals exhibit nearly the same
However, the zinc sublimate when moistened with

solution and heated in the OF. becomes grass-green,
whereas the
tin
sublimate, under the
same treatment, becomes blue-
green
Zirconium, in the absence of titanium, molybdatcs and boric acid,

detected, after fusion of the assay with a little NaaCO,j, by dis-
may be
HC1 and diluting with water

and then moistening with this dilute solution a
solving the assay in a few drops of strong

to four times the volume,
When the paper is dried gently its color will

piece of turmeric paper
change to reddish or orange if zirconium is present
APPENDICES
L GUIDE TO THE DESCRIPTIONS OF MINERALS
BECAUSE of the great number of minerals known and the difficulty
of recognizing them at sight, some means must be employed to aid in
their systematic study in order that they may be identified without an
inordinate
expenditure of
time
The most convenient method
of
arriving at the name of a mineral is by means of a guide, or a set of

"
"
used in Botany for determining
tables similar in scope to the
keys
the names of plants, Many tables have been pioposed by mineralogists

Some
for this purpose and many different kinds are still in use
of these are based on the chemical properties of minerals, and others
Those
on their physical properties. Both kinds possess advantages
based on chemical properties are more effective in leading to the name
of the mineral being studied, but those based on physical properties
are
more apt
to lead to a better knowledge of
its
most evident charac-
teristics
The most serious objection to the use of determinative tables lies

in the danger that the student will feel, when the name of the mineral
is obtained, that the object of his search is at an end, whereas their
true aim should be to lead him to such a thorough study of the mineral
that there will remain no doubt in his
mind as
to
its real
nature
In the present volume the tables are intended to serve simply as

guides to the descriptions of the minerals given in the body of the text.
It is here that the distinctions between the different species must be
found
In
many
instances the differentiation between several minerals
dependent upon chemical tests; hence it is desirable to familiarize

oneself with the characteristic tests of the various metals and the acid
is
radicals
The tables in the following pages are divided into two great divisions.
The first division includes those minerals that have a metallic luster,
and a few which might be confused with these Minerals possessing a
opaque on their thinnest edges Most of them give a
metallic luster are
black or dark-colored streak.

ing minerals,
The second
division includes the remain-
those with a nonmetalhc luster
These are trans-
parent in splinters and on their thin edges, and most of them give a
495
APPENDlUJkb
496
colorless or light-colored streak.
of streak, color in reflected light
ness
it is
than
2 5
The
subdivisions are based
and hardness
With
on color
reference to hard-
convenient to remember that minerals with a hardness of less

will leave a mark on paper, those with a hardness of less than
by a cent, those with a hardness of less than 6 can

be scratched by a good knife blade, and those with a hardness of less
than 7 can be scratched by quartz
In testing for hardness it is important to know not only that the
3 5 can be scratched
scratching substance will actually scratch the substance being tested,

latter will not scratch the former.
Further, it is like-
but also that the
wise important that the scratching substance be clean and fresh. If a

cent or a knife blade is being used for scratching, it should be bright;
if a mineral is being used, it should not be coated with a Urmsh or a
layer
of weathered substance
be remembered that the color of a mineral

and not on a weathered surface.
It is also to
fresh fracture
is its
color
on a
must be stated that the tables in this book are not expected
names of minerals; they are to serve
as
on
to
the
which the minerals are described.
merely
guides
pages
Recourse must be had to the descriptions of the individual minerals
Again,
it
to determine for their users the
before the nature of the substance being studied can be established.
APPENDICES
497
KEY TO THE DETERMINATION OF MINERALS

A -MINERALS WITH METALLIC LUSTER
*
STREAK BLACK OR DARK GRAY
The
ref<
are to pages in this book
'
APPENDICES
498
MINERALS WITH METALLIC LUSTER

STREAK BLACK OR DARK GRAY
STREAK BROWN
(C
4l
(Cow)
APPENDICES
A MINERALS WITH METALLIC LUSTER

STREAK BROWN
(Cm)
STREAK RED
STREAK YELLOW
499
(Con)
APPENDICES
500
MINERALS WITH METALLIC LUSTER

STREAK YELLOW
(Cm )
STREAK CRAY
(Cow)
APPENDICES
MINERALS WITH METALLIC LUSTER (Co)
STREAK WHITE
MINERALS WITH NONMETALLIC LUSTER

STREAK DARK GRAY OR BLACK
STREAK BROWN
501
APPENDICES
502

STREAK BROWN
STREAK RFD
(Coil )
(Con)
APPENDICES
B
503
(Cow)
STREAK YELLOW
STREAK ORANGE
STREAK GREEN
374
196
APPENDICES
504

STREAi.
GREEN
(Con)
(COW.)
STREAK BLUE
STREAK WHITE
464
300
*0S
388
374
373
365
273
330
176
176
461
418
APPENDICES
B
505

STREAK WHITE
(Cm
(Con)
APPENDICES
506
B.

STREAK WHITE
(Con)
(Con
APPENDICES
B

STREAK WHITE
(Cotl )
507
(Cow)
APPENDICES
508

STREAK WHITE
(C(JW
APPENDICES
B
509

STREAK WHITE
(Con
(Can
APPENDICES
510

STREAK WHITE
(Con
(Cow)
APPENDICES
B
511

STREAK WHITE
(Cofl
STREAK COLORLESS OR WHITE
(Con)
APPENDICES
512

STREAK COLORLESS OR WHITF
(C<)U
(Con
APPENDICES
II.
513
THE MORE IMPORTANT MINERALS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR PRINCIPAL,
LIST OF
CONSTITUENTS
ALUMINIUM
Albite
Epidote
Orthoclase
Alum
Feldspars
Piedmontite
Alumte
Garnet
Prehmte
Amblygomte
Gibbsite
Pyrophyllite
Sillimamte
Analctfe
Glaucophane
Andalusite
Harmotome
Sodahte
Anorthite
Heulandite
Spinel
Augite
Hornblende
Spodumene
Axmite
Jadeite
Staurohte
Bauxite
Kaolin
Stilbite
Beryl
Battle micas
Kyanite
Laumontite
Thomsomte
Cancrmite
Lazulite
Tourmaline
Celsian
Lazunte
Chabazite
Lepidolite
Leucite
Turquoise
Uvarovite
Chrysoberyl
Cordiente
Topaz
Vanscite
Margarita
Vesuviamte
Wavehte
Cryolite
Micas
Microclme
Cyanite
Natrolite
Zoisite
Diaspore
Nephehte
Many other silicates
Corundum
Zeolite
Dumortiente
ANTIMONY
Ar Simony
Bournomte
Jamesomte
Stibmte
Breithauptite
Pyrargynte
Senarmontite
Sulphantimorates
Tetrahednte
Dyscrasite
Stephamte
Valentimte
ARSENIC
Proustite
Arsenates
Enargite
Arsenic
Erythnte
Realgar
Arsenolite
Gersdorffite
Scorodite
Arsenopynte
Lollmgite
Smaltite
Chloanthite
Munetite
Sperryhte
"Niccohte
Claudetite
Olivemte
Cobaltite
'
Domeykite
Orpunent
Sulpharsenites
Tennantite
514
APPENDICES
BARIUM
Barite
Celsian
Harmotome
Psjlomelane
Hyalophane
Withente
BERYLLIUM
Bertrandite
Chrysoberyl
Beryl
Beryllomte
Gadoliriite
Herdente
Phenacite
BISMUTH
Bismite
Bismuthmite
Bismuth
Bismutite
Sulpho-bismuthimtes
Tetradymite
BORON
Axinite
Danbunte
Sassolite
Boracite
Datohte
Dumortiente
Tourmaline
Borax
Ulexite
Colemanite
BROMINE
Bromyrite
Embohte
lodobromite
CADMIUM
Greenockite
CAESIUM
Pollucite
CALCIUM
Actinohte
Andradite
Chabazite
Colemanite
Margarita
Anhydrite
Danbunte
Phillipsite
Ankente
Datohte
Picdmontite
Anorthite
Diopside
Prchnitc
Apatite
Dolomite
Apophyllite
Epidote
Fluonte
Scheehte
Sooledte
Aragonite
Asbestus
Gaylussite
Pcrovskite
Stilbitc
Thomsonite
Glaubente
Tftanite
Grossulante
Gypsum
Harmotome
Tremolite
Uvarovite
Vesuvianite
Calcite
Heulandite
Wollastonite
Cancnnite
Hornblende
Laumontite
Zoisite
Augite
Autunite
Babingtonite
Bustamite
Carnotite
Many
other silicates
APPENDICES
515
CARBON
Cancrmite
Diamond
Carbonates
Graphite
Hanksite
CERIUM
Allamte
Monazite
Thorite
Fergusomte
Gadolimte
Samarskite
Xenotime
CHLORINE
Apatite
Atacamite
Cryolite
Halite
Boracite
Hanksite
Pyromorphite
Scapohte
Sodahte
Carnalhte
Kamite
Sylvite
Cerargynte
Mimetite
Vanadmite
CHROMIUM
Chromite
Crocoite
Uvarovite
COBALT
Cobaltite
Glaucodite
Erythnte
Linnaeite
Smaltite
COLUMBIUM
Columbite
Samarskite
Tantalite
Columbates
Polycrase
YtrrotantaJite
Fergusomte
COPPER
Atacamite
Chrysocolla
Malachite
Azunte
Copper
Melacomte
Berzelianite
Covelhte
Ohvenite
Bornite
Cuprite
Stromeyente
Bournonite
Cypnne
Tennantite
Brochantite
Dioptase
Tetrahednte
Chalcanthite
Domeykite
Tenorite
Chalcocite
Torbermte
Chalcopyrite
Enargite
Libethenite
Allamte
Gadolinite
Turquoise
DIDYMIUM
Cerite
Monazite
APPENDICES
510
ERBIUM
Allanite
Gadolmite
Fergusonite
Xenotime
Amblygomte
Fluonte
Herdente
Yttrotantahte
FLUORINE
Topais
Lepidolite
Tnplitc
Vesuvianite
Cryolite
Phlogopitc
Waguentc
Durangite
Tourmaline
Apatite
Chondrodxte
GERMANIUM
Conficldite
Argyrodite
GOLD
Calaverite
Petzite
Gold
Sylvamte
lodyrite
Marshite
Krenncrite
IODINE
Mteraitc
IRTDIUM
Platfniridium
Iridosmine
IRON
Actmolite
Fayahte
Almandite
Andradite
Ferberite
Ankerite
Gadolinite
Marcasite
Melontcrite
OKvine
Pen tlaiK lite
Franklinite
Gedrite
Anthophyllite
Pharnmconiderite
'
Arsenopynte
Augite
Glauconite
Goethite
Pyrope
Biotite
Greenaljte
Babmgtonite
Gruenerite
Pyrrhotite
Scorodite
Bormte
Hematite
Hornblende
Sidertte
Chalcopyrite
Hypersthene
Tantalite
Chromite
Columbite
Ilmenite
Triphylite
Iron
Triplite
Turgite
Bronzite
<
Pyrite
Staurolite
Cordierite
Lepidomelaae
Crocidohte
Limomte
Vivianite
Cummingtonite
Dufremte
LoJlingite
Wolframite
Magnetite
Many other
silicates
APPENDICES
Altaite
Anglesite
Bournonite
Cerussite
Clausthahte
Crocoite
Descloizite
Dufrenosite
Amblygonite
Lepidolite
Lithiophihte
Actmolite
Ankente
Anthophylhte
Asbestus
Augitc
Biotite
Boracite
Brittle
micas
Bronzite
Brucite
Carnalhte
Chlontes
Chondrodite
Chtysotile
Alabandite
Babmgtonite
Bra unite
Bustamite
Columbite
Fowlente
Frankhnite
Hauerite
Hausmanmte
sir
518
APPENDICES
MERCURY
Amalgam
Coloradoite
Calomel
Cinnabar
Metacmnabarite
Onofnte
Tiemannite
MOLYBDENUM
Molybdenite
Molybdite
Wulfcnitc
Powellite
NICKEL
Annabergite
Gersdorffitc
Niccolite
Breithauptite
Chloanthite
Linnaote
Melonitc
Pentlandite
Ullnwnite
Garniente
Genthite
Mjllente
Zaratite
NITKOCt N
Soda-niter
Niter
OSMIUM
Indosmine
PALLADIUM
Palladium
PHOSPHORUS
Phosphates
PLATINUM
PI atinir idium
Platinum
Sperrylite
POTASSIUM
Alunite
Jarosite
Niter
Apophyihte
Kainite
Orthodasc
Biotite
Kahnltc
Carnallite
Lepidolite
Carnotitc
JLeucitc
Phlogopite
Psilomelanc
Glauconite
MJcrocline
Sylvitc
Hanksite
Muscovite
Many
Harmotome
Nephelme
other silicates
SELENIUM
Aguilante
Berzelianite
ClausthaHte
Naumannite
'Oxxofrite
Selen-tellurium
Tiemannite
APPENDICES
519
SILICON
Opal
All silicates
Quartz
SILVER
Amalgam
Hessite
Pyrargynte
Argentite
lodynte
Silver
Bromynte
Petzite
Stephanite
Calavente
Miargynte
Stromeyente
Cerargynte
Pearceite
Sylvamte
Dyscrasite
Tetrahedrite
Embolite
Polybasite
Proustite
Acmite
Glaubente
Paragonite
Albrte
Glaucophane
Soda
Analcite
Halite
Sodalite
Beryllonite
Hanksite
Soda-niter
Borax
Cancnnite
Jadeite
Stilbite
Lasunte
Thenardite
Chabazite
Mirabilite
"Thomsomte
Trona
SODIUM
Crocidohte
Natrolite
Cryolite
Natron
Ulexite
Durangite
Nephehte
Many
other silicates
Gaylussite
STRONTIUM
Strontiarute
CcIestJte
SULPHUR
Arsenopynte
Lazunte
Pyrrhotite
Brochantite
Leadhilhte
Sulphates
Cobaltite
Marcasite
Sulphides
Hanksite
Noselite
Sulpho-salts
Hauymte
Pyrite
Sulphur
Kaimte
TANTALUM
Columbite
Samarskite
Fergusonite
TantaLte
Altaitc
Krennente
Calaverfte
Melonite
Sylvawte
ColoradoHe
Nagyagite
Tellunte
Hessite
Petzite
Tetradymite
Yttrotantahte
TELLURIUM
Selen-tellurium
520
APPENDICES
THALLIUM
Loranditc
Crookesite
THORIUM
Aeschynite
Monazite
Uraninitc
Yttnalitc
Pyrochlore
Thorite
TIN
Canfieldite
Cassiterite
Stannitc
TITANIUM
Anatase
Astrophylhte
Brookite
Rut ilc
Ilmenite
Perovskite
Schorlomfle
Pseudobrookite
Titanite
TUNGSTEN
Ferberite
Stohsile
Huebnerite
Polycrase
Scheehte
Autunite
Gummite
Carnotite
Torbernite
Wolframite
URANIUM
Uranimte
Uranophanc
VANADIUM
Carnotite
DescJoizite
Patronite
Roscoelite
Vanadinite
YTTRIUM
Allanite
Samarskite
Yttrialite
Fergusonite
GadoJinite
Xenotime
Yttrotantalite
Calamine
Goslarite
Troostite
Fowlerite
Franklinite
Hydrozincite
Smithsonite
Willemite
Wurtzite
Gahnite
Sphalerite
Zincite
ZINC
ZIRCONIUM
Baddeleyite
Zircon
APPENDICES
521
YIELDING WATER IN CLOSED TUBE
Alunite
Dufremte
Dumortiente
Opal
Piedmontite
Analcite
Epidote
Phaimacohte
Annabergite
Epsomite
Garni en te
Allanite
Apophyllite
Atacamite
Pharmacosiderite
Phlogopite
Prehnite
Gaylussite
Gibbsite
Autunite
Axuute
Azunte
Psilomelane
Glauconite
Pyrophylhte
Goethite
Skorodite
Bauxite
Gypsum
Serpentine
Biotite
Kainite
Staurolite
Borax
Kaohnite
Steatite
Brochantite
Kiesente
Struvite
Lazuhte
Torbernite
Brucite
LeadhiUite
Tourmaline
Calamme
Lepidohte
Cancrmite
Libethenite
Topaz
Trona
micas
Brittle
Carnalbte
Limonite
Chlontes
Malachite
Turquoise
Vanscite
Chondrodite
Mangamte
Vesuvianite
Chrysocolla
Viviamte
Chrysotile
Margante
Meerschaum
Colemamte
Micas
Wavelhte
Cordiente
Mirabihte
Zeolites
Datoiite
Muscovite
Zmnwaldite
Diaspore
Olivemte
Zoisite
Wad
Dioptase
IIL
LIST
OF MINERALS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO

THEIR CRYSTALLIZATION
AMORPHOUS
(probably colloidal)
Bauxite
Limonite
Skorodite
Chrysocolla
Opal
Turquoise
Garmente
Psilomelane
Wad
Glauconite
Pyrolusite (?)
ISOMETRIC
Arsenolite (?)
Lasurite
Senarmontite
Boraate above 265
Leucite above 500
Uraninite
a-Cristobaiite
(?)
APPENDICES
522
HEXOCTAIIEDRAL CLASS
(HOLOHEDRAI)
PENTAGONAL ICOSITKTK ATI K ORAL CLASS

Cuprite
Rylvite
PSEUDO-ISOM KTRTC
Perovskite
Leucite
Analcite
HEXAGONAL
Breithauptitc
Carnotite (?)
Hanksite
Covellite
Niccolite
Pyrrhotite (?)
Molybdenite
Tridymite
DIHEXAGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS

Cancrinite
Beryl
DIHEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS

Greenockite
(HOLCMIEMIMOKPHIC)
Wurtzile
Zincitc
HEXAGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS

Apatite
Mimetite
Pyromorphite
(HEMIHEDSAL)
Vanadinite
APPENDICES
523
HEXAGONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS

Nephelite
HEXAGONAL TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS

jS
Quartz
DITRIGONAL- SCALENOHEDRAL CLASS (HEMIHEDRAL)

Corundum
Selenium
Antimony
Graphite
Sidente
Arsenic
Hematite
Bismuth
Indosmme
Brucite
Magnesite
Tellunum
Calcite
Millente
Tetradymite
Chabazite
Rhodochrositc
Alumte
Smithsomte
DITR1GONAL PYRAMIDAL CLASS

Tourmaline
Ice
Soda-niter
(?)
(HEMIHEDRAL-HEMIMOBPHIC)
Proustite
TRIGONAL TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS
Pyrargynte
(TETARTOHEDRAL)
Cinnabar
Quartz
TRIGONAL RHOMBOHEDRAL CLASS
(TETARTOHEDRAL)
Ankente
Phenacite
Willemite
Dioptase
Troostite
Dolomite
Ilmemte
TETRAGONAL
a Cnstobakte
(?)
DITETRAGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL CLASS
(HOLOHEDRAL)
Phosgenite
Plattnente
Rutile
Pohanite
Xenotime
Cassitente
Thorite
Zircon
Hausmanmte
Torbernite
Anatase
Apophyllite
Braunite
Vesuvianite
TETRAGONAL SCALENOHEDRAL CLASS

Chalcopyrite
(HEMIHEDRAL)
APPENDICES
524
TETRAGONAL BIPYRAM1DAL CLASS

ManaJite
OKAI)
MIIII
Wcrnonte
Wulfemlc
Scapolitc
Scheelitc
Meiomte
(Hi
Mizzonite
ORTHORHOMBIC
Acanthite
Dumorticnlo
Anthophylhle (?)
Boracite below 263
Enslatitc
Bronzite
Gcdntc
Serpentine (>)
St rat
(?)
Hypcrsthcne
(?)
Samnrhkile
(?)
(?)
it
c (i)
Tantalite
Brookite
Jamcsomtc
<*
Chrysotile (?)
Kaohnite
Thomsorute
Columbitc
Meerschaum
Domeykite
Porovskite
Dufrenite
PyrophylHlc
(?)
(?)
(?)
Trulyniitc
Vans<itt*
Vilrotantahie
(?)
ORTHORHOMBTC B1PYKAM1OA1-
CM-ASS (ric.nnn IIRAI)
Andalusite
Cordiente
Sillirnnnit
Anhydnle
Danbuntc
Skoroclitc*
Anglesitc
Diaspora
Dyskrasite
Aragonile
Arsenopyri 1 e
Atacamite
Autumte
Bante
Slituroht e
Kn argi to
SU'phnnile
S bn t e
Kiyahte
Htromcy<Ttte
1 1
Forsterile
Ht ront iunit c
Sulphur
BeryUonite
Glducodot
Gocthitc
Bismuthmite
Libelhenite
Bournonitc
Brochantite
Brookite
IJthiophilite
Topu
Lollingfte
a Truly mite
Manganite
Triphylite
Carnallite
Marcasile
Natrohte
Niter
Wavellilc*
Olivcnlte
Zoisitc
Celestite
Cenassite
Chalcocite
Chrysoberyl
Tcphroit e
Thcnardil c
Valcntint'te
Withcrilc
Olivine
ORTHORHOMBIC B1SPHENOIDAL CLASS

Epsomite
ORTHORHOMBIC PYRAMIDAL CLASS

Bertrandite
Prehnite
Caiamme
Stephanite
Struvlte
525
MflNOCLINIC DOMATIC CLASS (HEMIHEDRAL)

Scolecite
526
APPENDICES
TRJCLINIC
Aenigmatite
Fremontite
Amblygomte
Melacon 1 e
1
Montchrasite
1 'u rq u
TRICLINIC PINACOTDAL CLASS

Labradorit e
MicrorJinc
Aenigmatite
Babingtonite
Albite
Bustarnite
Andesine
Anemousite
Bytownite
Oligcx hisc
Celsian (?)
Chalcanthite
Orthotlase
Anorthite
Anorthociase
Aximt e
Fowlente
Kya.ni t e
Rhodonite
(?)
REFERENCE BOOKS
IV.
GENERAL TEVTS
Handbuch der Mmeralogie, by Dr
(2
Carl Hintze
Veit
& Comp
Leipzig, 1897
volumes)
John Wiley & Sons,
System ot Mineralogy (6th edition), by E S Dana
New York,
2d Appendix, 1909
ist Appendix, 1899
3d Appendix, 1916
1892
Stone
Useful Minerals of the United States, by S Sanford and
Geological Survey
Bulletin
No
624
Washington,
D C
1917
DETERMINATIVE TABLES
Determinative Mineralogy with Tables, for the Determination of Minerals by
Means of Their Chemical and Physical Characters, by J. V Lewis John Wiley
&
Sons, New York, 1913

of Determinative Mineralogy (i6th edition),
Penfield
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1906
Manual
Tables for the Determination of Minerals, by
McGraw-Hill Book Co
New York,
by Geo J Brush and S L
Kraus and
F Hunt.
1911
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Crystallography,
McGraw-Hill Book Co New York, 1913*

McGraw-Hill Book Co, New
S Bayley
by T L Walker
Elementary Crystallography, by
York, 1910
Essentials of Crystallography,
by
Kraus, George Wahr,
Ann Harbor, Mith
1906
Grundnss der Knstallographie, by Dr
G Lmck
Verlag von Gustav Fischer,
Jena, 1913
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Optical Properties of Crystals,
by P Groth
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1910

Physikabsche Krystallographie (4th
Leipng, 1905
Rock Minerals (2d
edition),
edition),
by P Groth
by Jos P Iddmgs.
Hill
Book Co
New
John Wiley
Wemschenk. Translated by
Jackson
John
Wilhelm Engelmann,
1911
Petrographic Methods, by
Translated by
&
Sons,
Clark.
New
York,
McGraw-
York, 1912
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Handbuch der Mmeralchemie, 4 volumes,
edited
Dresden and Leipzig, 1912

Chemische Krystallographie, by P. Groth
by C Doelter
Theodor Stein-
kopff,
1908, 1910
The Data
of
Geochemistry,
by F
Clarke
Survey, Washington, 1916.
527
Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, 1906,

Bulletin
No
616
U. S Geological
REFERENCES
528
ORIGIN AND ASSOCIATIONS

Economic Geology (4th edition), by Hcmru h Ries
The Examination of Prospects, by C G (iunihcr
York, 1912
New
York,
MUJraw-Hill Book Co
New
Mum ford, Chicago, 1903

C Farnngton. A
Gems and Minerals, by
The Nature of Ore Deposits (ad edition), by Or R, Beik
TrunbUted by W. H.
Weed McGraw-Hill Book Co New York, 191 1
The Non-Metallic Minerals, by G P Merrill, John Wiley & Sons New York, 1910.
Mineral Deposits, by
Lmdgrcn McGraw-Hill Book Co New York, 1913.
,
ALTERATIONS
A treatise on Metamorphism, by
graph, Vol 47, 1904,
Treatise
C.
Washington,
Van
I),
on Rocks, Rock-weathering,
MacmiUan Co
New
York, 1906
Hibe.
U. 8. Geological Survey, Mono-
C.
and
Soils,
by
I*
Merrill
The
GENERAL INDEX
Acid arsenates, 292
Acid phosphates, 279, 292
Acid silicates, metasihcates, 397
orthosihcates, 343
Acids, silicic, 300
Albite twinning, 419
Alkali amphiboles, 390
Alkali feldspars, 413
Alkali micas, 353
Alkali pyroxenes, 375
Alteration of minerals, 30
Alteration pseudomorphs, 31
Alum
Arsenates, anhydrous, basic, 274

normal, 261
hydrated, 281
286
basic, 274,
normal, 281
Arsenic group, 49
Arsenic, tests for, 483
Arsenides, 68, 77
metallic, 77, 100
Arsenohte-claudetite group, 151
Atmospheric water, deposits from, 20
Atomic weights, 6
group, 246, 251
Alummates, 195
Aluminium, tests
Bante group, 238

Barium,
483
Alummosilicic acids, 301
for,
Analyses, calculation
of,
records, of, 6
microchemical, 13
wet, 4
Andalusite group, 319
Basic hydrated arsenates, 286

Basic hydrated phosphates, 286
Basic metasihcates, 393
Basic orthosihcates, 319
Anhydrous arsenates, 261

basic, 274
Anhydrous carbonates, 212
Basic phosphates, 274

Basic
basic, 231
Anhydrous metasihcates, 359

orthosihcates, 302
tnmetasihcates, 408
Anhydrous phosphates, 261
basic,
274
Anhydrous sulphates, 236

Antimomdes, 68, 77
metallic, 77, zoo
Antimony,
tests for,
483
Apatite group, 266
Aragomte group, 223

Arrow-head twin, 248
Arsenates, 261
anhydrous, 261
483
Basic anhydrous phosphates, 274

Basic carbonates, 231
Analysis, blowpipe, 12, 467
polysihcates, 426
tests for,
Basic arsenates, 274

Basic anhydrous arsenates, 274
Basic anhydrous carbonates, 231
silicates,
metasihcates, 393
orthosihcates, 319
Basic sulphates, 243

Basic sulpho-salts, 124
Basic vanadates, 288
Baveno twinning, 411

Beads, 476
borax, 476
microcosmic
salt,
477
Bellows, 468
Bismuth, tests for, 484

Blende group, 87
Blowpipe tests for aluminium, 483

antimony, 483
arsenic, 483
banum, 483
529
GENERAL INDBX
530
tests for bismuth,
Blowpipe
484
Bondn/a, 21
boron, 484
bromine, 484
Routes, 20<?, tod

Borax beads, 47<)
cadmium, 484
Boron, tests
calcium, 485
Brittle micas, 4^0
carbonates, 485
Bromides,
chlorine, 485
Bromine, tests
4S;
for,
$4
48 1
for,
chromium, 485
Cadmium,
cobalt, 483
fluorine,
iron,
Calcium, tests
,152
for,
487
lead, 488
Caliche, JQ>
lithium, 488
Carbonates, 212
anhydrous,
magnesium, 488
manganese, 488
<?
21
Jt
normal, at a
btwit, aî
mercury, 489
molybdenum, 489
hydrous, 234
489
Carbonates, tests
nitric acid,
48
Calculation of analysts, 4
Calculation of formulas, (*, to
487
nickel,
484
Cak ite-aragonite group, Jta

Calcium nut us,
486
gold, 486
iodine,
tests for,
Calute group*
columbium, 485
copper, 486
Carbon group,
489
485
for,
,47
oxygen, 490
Carlsbad twinning, 410, 4*0
phosphoric acid, 490
(Yrargyrite group,
potassium, 490
ChaUotite group, 84
selenium, 490
Charcoal, use of,
silicon,
silver,
tf
47,$
490
Chemical Hubatatuvs an mi
491
sodium, 491
tt?st
strontium, 491
Chlorine,
sulphur, 491
Chlorite group, 4^^
for,
485
tantalum, 491
Chromatea, 253
Chromitcs, IQS
tellurium, 491
thallium, 492
tin,
Chromium, twts
492
for,
485
titanium, 499
Cinnabar group,
tungsten, 492
Claasification of minerals, 15
t)7
uranium, 493
Clay ironstone, 154
vanadium, 493
zmc, 494
Closed tube,
467
Blowpipe apparatus, 469

Blowpipe flame, 470
oxidizing,
of,
Cockscomb twin,
zirconium, 494
Blowpipes, 468
Blowpipe analysis*
ue
471
Cobalt, tents for, 48$
470
reducing, 470
Blowpipe reagents, 469
MO
Colored beads, 476, 477

Colored flames, 477
Columbates, 293
Columbium, test for, 485

Combined water, n
Composition of minerals, 4
Composttlonof waterof Atlantic Ocean,
GENERAL INDEX
Composition of water of Borax Like,
Dead
Sea, 23
I*
Goodenough Lake,
Uike tteisk, 2^
23
blowpipe, 470
colored, 477
oudumg, 470
480
Copper, tests
lames
candle, 470
Contact minerals, 2?
test,
Feldspar group, 408

1'erntcs, ig$
Great Sail Lake, 21
Copper
531
for,
480
Corundum group,
152
reducing, 470
Datolite group, 4*4

Decomposition, of rocks, 20
Kluoncles, 1^4, 130, 142
Muorme, tests for, 486

formation of minerals, 17
Formulas, cak ulation of, 6, ID
of minerals, 30
Deposits from atmospheric water, 20

hot springs, 22
lakes, 22
magmatie water, 23
Galena group, 78
Garnet group, 308
Ge-nthite, 400
(Jeotles,
29
Glan/, group, roo
Gold group,
springs, Ji
Dctet tion of nlkahes, 470

Detection of alkaline cart 1m, 470
Detection of elements by flame colors,
>3
(Sold, tests for,
486
Gossan, 104, 185
Guide to descriptions
of minerals,
478
Determinative mineralogy* 467
1
Diantimonicles, 100
Diareenides, too
'
Dia[K)re group, i8g

Differentiates, 25
Dike, 28
100
Disulp>hidea, 68, 100

Ditcllurides, 100
Dolomitic limestone, 220

Double carbonates with sulphates, 252
Double chlorides, 142

Double chlorides with sulphates, 351
Double sulphates, 251
with carbonates, 251
with chlorides, 351
Double
fluorides,
springs, dqwsits from, 22

Hydrutcd arsenates, 281
2Q2
Imau, 286
normal, i8 1
ACi<i,
Hydratod carbonates, 234

Hytlnited phosphates, 281
Dioxides, 158
Diselenideft,
Honestonc, 16$
Hot
149
acid, 292
basic, 286
normal, 281
Hydrated silicates, 441

Hydratcd sulphates, 246
Hydroxides, tjg
Impregnations, 20
Iodides, 134
Iodine, tests for, 487
Iron, tests for, 487
Druse, 21, 38
Dyskrasite group, 77
to mineral descriptions, 407
with metallic luster, 407

with nonmetallic luster, 501
Kclogite, 3QX
Klbow twin,
Key
172, 173, 3x7
Elements, 36
Lake George diamonds, 164
Epidote group, 326
Lakes, composition of water
Epsonite group, 246, 249
deposits from, 20
of,
95
495
GENERAL INDKX
532
Lead, tests for, 488
Limestone, 216
dolomitic, 229
Lists of minerals according to composition,
513
according to crystallisation,
List of reference books, 527
Monotlinii pyrmenes, 3<>7

Monoselemdes, 77
Monosulphides, (H, (Q, 77
Monotellu rules, ;;
Monoxides, 140
"jar
Nelsomte, jog
Ncphelm? group,
Lithium, tests for, 488

Lithium-iron micas, 352
Lithographic stone, 216
Nickel, tests for, 4t>

Nitrates, 20 >
Nitric utul, tests for, 480
Magmatic water, 23
Magnesium - calcium
Non-me tills, 37
-
iron
amphiboles,
384
Magnesium-calciunviron pyroxenes, 370
Magnesium-iron micas, 349
Magnesium tests for, 488
Manebach twinning, 411

Manganese,
tests for,
488
Manganites, 195
Marble, 216
Marcasite group, xoq
Mechanical pseudomorphs, 32
Melantente group, 246, 249
Mercury, tests for, 489
Metallic antimomdes, 77, too
Metallic arsenides, 77, 100
Ocrurromc, of minerals, S
til water
Ocean, umiposition
deposits from, ut
(hktone, i6>
Ohvenite Krwtp, ^77
Olivine group, ôa
Oolitic* ore,
Open
154
tube, use of, 47*
Orgarm
secretittns, .*o
Origin of minerals,
Orthorhombit amphiholes, ^S^, ^

Orthorhomlie pyroxenes, #*$
Orthomlirates, iO
anhytirourt, ,*oj
30 a
Metalloids, 37
Metals, 52
Metaxnorphism, 24
acid,
117
contact, 2$
dynamic, 26
Metasihcates, 359
anhydrous, 359
normal, 359
Oxides, 146
Oxidi/vd me
Oxychloruies, 144
Oxidijsing flame,
470
4jo
393
acid, 397
Metasomatism, 24, a$
Mica group, 348
Oxygen, testa
Mica twinning, 344, 427, 430
Partial pseudomorphft, 31
Microchemic&l analysis, 13
Microcosmic salt beads, 477
Millente group, 94
Mineral names, 36
Molybdates, 253, 254
Molybdenum, tests for, 489
Pennine twinning, 4*g, 430
basic,
Monoantimomdes, 77
Monoarsenides, 77
Monoclinic anpkiboles, 382, 384
of,
Paramorpha,
for,
,v
Pencline twinning, 430

Phosphates, a6i
anhydrous, 361
acid
279
basic, 274
hydrated, 281
acid, 292
bask, 286
GENERAL INDEX
Phosphoric acid, tests
for,
490
hydrated, 441
Silicates,
Placer, 20
Silica group,
Platinum-iron group, 63
Silicates,
Pneumatolysis,
17,
158
hydrated, 441
Silicic acids,
25
533
300
Pncumatolytic products, 25
Silicon, tests for,
Polysihcates, anh>drous, 426
Silver, testb for,
Potash-barium feldspars, 416
Soapbtonc, 401
PoUssium,
tests for,
boda-hmc
490
Precipitation, 18, 20
Socialite
irorn atmospheric water,
20
from magmas, 25
from ocean, 22
490
491
feldspars,
417
group, 330
Sodium, tebtb
for,
Solidification of
491
magmas, 25
Solubility of minerals,
from solutions, 18
from springs, Jt
in water, 18, 19
in
carbonated water, 20
no
Primary minerals, 17
Spearhead twin,
Pseudomorphs, 30
Sphalerite group, 87
alteration, 31
Spinel group, 195
chemical, 32
Spinel twinning, 196
mechanical, 32
Springs, deposits from, 21

Stalactite, 21, 216
partial, 41
Pseudowollastomt e, 369
Stalagmite, 216
Pyrargyrite group, xi;

Pyritc group, 101
Stibnitc group, 72
Strontium, tests for, 401
Sulphantimonates, 116, 122
Sulphantimonites, no, 117
Quartette, 165
Sulpharsenates, no,
Record
of analyses, 6
Reducing ilame, 470

Reduction tests, 482
Rhombic
section,
2*2.2
Sulpharsenites, 116, 117
Sulphates, 236
anhydrous, 236
420
Rutile group, i6S
basic, 243
normal, 236
hydrated, 240
Sandstone, 165
Sulphdiantimomtes,
Scapolite group, 423
Sulphdiarsenitcs, 122
Scheehte group, 254
Sulphides, 68
of metalloids, 6g
Screens, 477, 47
Secondary enrichment, 33, 34

Selemdes, 68, 6(>
of the metalloids,
6t>
of the metak, 77, too
Serpentine group, 397
basic, 124
ortho, 117
Sulphur, tests for, 49X

Swallow-tail twin, 247
158
Silicates,
n^, 129
Sulpho-aalts, 116
Sulphur group, 47
Sesquioxides, 151
Silica,
of metals, 77, 100

Sulpho-ferrites,
300
Sylvamte group, 113
anhydrous,
metasthcates, 350
Synthesis, 15
orthosilicates, 302
trimctasilicates,
408
polysihcates, 426
Tantalates, 293
Tantalum,
tests for,
491
GENERAL INDHX
534
Table of atomic weights,
Vanadatvs,
V.in.idium, tests for, 493
Tellurides, 68, 69
of metalloids, 69
Vadose water, Jt
of metals, 77, 100
Veins, 21, 24, 2 7, 28
Tellurium, tests for, 491

Tests with cobalt solution, 480
Verd-tintique, ^99
Visor-t\\in, r<>o
Vitriol group, .'49
with HC1, 482

with HKSO<, 481
Vi\ unite group,
with magnesium nbbon, 482

with metallic zinc, 482
with
Na 8 CO
480
Tetradymite group, 75
Tetrahednte group, 126
Thallium, tests
492
for,
&i
e gnnip, 273
atmosphcru
\V,iter,
ticposits from, 20
\VattT, (drlxmatmi, stiluhilit}

in,
Water, lomhint'tl,
Water, lakes ami
Titanatcs, 461
Water, magmatu, j^
492
for,
Water
tf
<u win,
cumptît ion
rystalli/ution,
Water, solubility of minerals
Triclmic amphiboles, 383, 393
Water, vati*se,
Tnclimc pyroxenes, 365, 380

Tnmetasihcates, 408
Weathering,
Tungstates, 253, 254
Willcfflite
for,
492
in, 18,
;i
,jj
Whetstone, 105
group, ,406
Wolframite group, 358
Wollastonite subgroup, 368
WurUite group, 90
Ultramarine, 343
Uranates, 203
Uramte group, 288

Uranium,
tests for,
Zeolite group,
493
Ximm group,
Vanadates, 261
normal, 261
445
Xinc, tets for,
Xirionium,
Zone
404
,<i<
tent 8 for,
of, j \
1 1
Titano-silicates, 461
Tungsten, tests
nnmr.iK
Tin, tests for, 492
Titanium, tests
tif
20
494
of secondary enrichment,
33
i<),
jo
INDEX OF MINERALS
Tht
italicized figures are tho
numbers of the page* on which the principal descriptions appear*
w,
Athroite, 436
At mite, 305, ???, 506, 507
Ac tinohU 382, jA'rt, 500, 507
Annabcrgitc, 281, sti^
Adulana, 414
Anoxmtc,
Anhydrite, 338,
Ankente, 2^0, 504
Acginne, 36$,
^5
5,04,
Acmgmatitc, 38$, 393
Anthracite, 4$
Anthophylhtc, 382,
AntiKontc, 308, 428
Agate, 164
Agmluntc, 78
Alabandihs 87, yo t 500
Alabaster, 248
Albite, 301, 408, 400, 4^3)
730,
?<??,
26 1, 266,
^0,511,
<M>
4*8, 4*9
498, 500, 501, 502,
Argcntitc, 31, 78, 7^, 497
Ante, 04
Arsenic, 40, $a, 407
Arscnohtc, 111, 152, 511
501
Alum, 246) 351

Alunite, 243* 344,
Araenopyri te,
W, 50^ 5
or ,
; 11,
49 7
Asbestos, 386, 398
Amalgam, 53, tf?, 50*

Amazomte, 41^
Atatamite, 144, 504

Augite,
mica, 350
365,
3?o,
374,
500,
501,
504, 506, 507
Amblygonite, 274, 503, 506, 507, 5oo>
Autumte,
503
Aventurme, 164
<?>
ipA,
508,500. 510,512
Ailophams 404
Amber
507,
Arfvedsonitc, 383, 300, jj>2
rf<5
Almunditc, 30^ ?/2

Afatomte, 331
^,
w,
504,
<?i2
Apophylhte, i<?, ,/./?, ^07, 508, 512

Aquamarine, 361
Aragomtc, 21, 26, p, 212, 333, 505, 506,
504, 506
7<^
ô?, 507
Antimony, 49,51, 500,501

Apatite,
AlgodomU', 78
Altalte,
?o6
Anorthitc, 301, 408, 40^, 417, 418
Agdlmatolitu, 406
Allopalladjum,
^n
Anorthtu lasc, 413, 418
Atginnc-augitc, l?j
Allanite, 326,
508, >to,
5<^>j
,508, 512
428
Axinite,
j^,
506, 507, 509, 510, 512,
Azunte, 231,^^,504
Amethyst, 164
Oriental, 156
Amphiboloids, 363
Babingtonite, 365, 380^ 506
Amphiboles, 363
Baddeleyitc, 167
Anakite, 446, 4$
Baltimonte, 398
413
Anataae, 167, 176, 500, 501, 504, 506
Barbierite, 408,
Andalusite, 310, 390, 506, 507, 508, 512
Baricalcite, 223, 231
Andesme, 4i74/<?
Andradite, 309, 312
Anemousite, 408, 418
Bartte,
Angleeite, 238, 140, 505, 508, 509, 5*o,
238,^?,
Barium orthodase, 4x6

Barytocalcite, 931
5"
Bauxite, 186, 502, 503, 5x2
535
503,
INDEX OF MINERALS
536
Carbonado, 39
Beaumontite, 447
Beryl, 359, 507, 509, 511, $12
Carnalhtc, //j,
Beryllomte, 263, 512
CurnegiciU>
<yoo,
1
//A
Carnclun, 164
506
Biotite, 349, 500, 501, 504, 50$,
508,
^4. o,
(\irnotite, 2X8, j
Bismuth, 49, 50, 500
Cassitente,
Bismuthimte, 72, ?/, 497
if>7,
501,
Blende, 87
Bloodstone, 164
Blue beryl, 361

Bobiente, 281
Bog
iron,
Ccrargvntv, in.
185
Boracite, 207, 210, 506, 507, 509, 510, 512
,<?
Si*
Borax, 207, 209, 221, 511
Orussitts ^.M j-7,
Bormte, 129, 130, 497
(Ceylon
U'
tt* t
100, /y^
Bort, 39
Boumomte,
Brandisite,
ji>
ethnic anthitv, 240,
Bortz, 39
Clmltwlonv, 150, //>;

C'haicmhc, ,V;, ^07
117, 120, 497
426
Braumte, 204, 497, 498
("haltotrhhitf,
Brazilian chrysolite, 436
C'haltopvnte, ttd,
Brazilian emerald,
Chalk,
436
Brazilian pebble, 164
(*hathamitcs
Chert,
if>5
Jt>,
407
?f,
to.S
xMo
Breithauptite, 94, P5 499
ChiuHtolttc, 33 r
Brittle micas,
Chile saltjwU'r,
426
J^
Brazilian sapphire,
436
I.J.H
jto^
Brochantite, 243 245, 504
Chloanthitf, iot
BrQggente, 298
Chlorupatitts JA^>
Bromargynte, 137
Chlonwtrolitc, ,ws,
Bromhte, 231
Chloriti*,
4^
^7
407
/<*V,
4^
4S.
l<?f*
Bronzite, 305, 505, 507
Brookite, 167, 176, 498, 499,
So,
sor,
Chlromt'luitt% 377
Chlrophanc 140
502, 5<>3> 504) 5Q6
Brown clay ironstone, 185

Brown hematite, 183
Chlorapmcl, 106
Brucite, 2, 12, 181, 506, 510, 511
Chomlrotiitts 3,p, ,?n 5of
Brushite, 292
Brucklandite, 329
Chrome diopside, j;a

Chrome pmcl 1^7
Bustamite, 365, 380, 508
Chromite, 190, ios
Bytowmte, 417, 418
Chryaoberyl,
ChlorophylliUs 4$)
501;, si
Ma,
*)'.
$ot>>
^>
507,
4oH, so
^^,
Chryaocolla, 4^;, 50^, 504. $<*
Cabrente, 281
Cacholong, 180
Chrysolite,
51 j
Sto
?J
Chrysolite, Brazilian, 436
Cairngorm stone, 164
Chryaoprase, 164
Calamine, 396, 505, 506, 510, 512
Chrysotile, 398, 505, 506, soy, 511
Calavente, 114, 497, 499, 500

Calcite, 4, 19,
**,
3,
3*>
3>
Cinnabar, 22, $
a, 213*
2*4> 504, 505, 507, 508, 509, sic,
$n
Citrine, 164
Claudetitc, 151,
Cahformte, 433, 434, 512
Clausthahte, 79,
Cancrimte, 315, 507, 508, 510, 512
Clay, 405
^,
497
INDEX OF MINKHALS
537
Cleveitc, 298
Dufremte, 274, 275, 498, 504
Clmochlore, 420, 430
IXtfrenoybite, 122
Clmohumitc, 332
Dumortieritc, ??#, ^04, 512
Clmosoibitc,
Clmtomte,
])yskrasite
1st)
Cobdltitc, ioi,
Colenumte,
s^
50$,
/;?<>,
/oft,
207,
77, 7$,
407
Edenitc, 388
512
2r)<S',
Columbitc, 2p?, 497, 408, 400
Klcctrum, 50
Coloradoitc, 07
KleolUc, ?/;
Comptomte, 455
Emerald, ^61
Kmewld,
Cookeite, 3<n
Copper, 31, v, 5*i Mi
Copper
pyrites,
W)
Emery,
/ ?/
Enbtatite, ^5, sos, S07.
4<A
152, /?>% 497*
5 ot > SX>,
507*508. 500,510,511,512
Covelhte, 96, 407
Outotahtc, r^V
?w
Kpidote, 3J6,
Kpsomite, 246, 249,
Erythnte, 281,
50 j
J.V>,
512
^%
500,
505,
7.7,
500, Sio
Kssomtc,
^04
Gratoittt,aif 3,502, 503
Cryolite, 3, /v?> 508,
15-;, is<>
Emirate, n6, 122, /2?, 407
CorundophylHte, *po
Crocidohtc, 383, 30 r,
Brazilian, 4^6
Kmerald, Oriental, 156
Cordicnte, ;*V, 509, $10, ;i2
Corundum,
500
Dysluite, 196
$ob,
511
j; i
30(),
Kucryptite, 313
5H
Eukante, 79
Cryophyllite, 353
CumatoHtcs 370
Fahlunite, 439
Cummingtomte, 382, ?.S>, <J07

Cuprite, a, 32, /^, 49 8 4W S* 5o
Fairy stones,
Cuprotungstite, 254
Fanmtmitr, I*M
Cymatohte, 379
Cyprine, 434
Fassaite, 374
n8
liaise topa/, J(>4
Kiyalite,
2,
302, y>
507
Feldspars, 408
Ferbente, s$N, 501
l)amourite, 3^7
Danburite, 31^, 320,
w, 506,
Datohte, j?^, 505* 507* 5o
509, 5x2
5*o, 512
Fergiwmitc, 293, 498

Fibrohte, ?3?, 322
Fl&hesd'timour, 174
Belessite, 432
180
Delvauxite, 276
Flint, 165,
Demantoul, 3x2
Flos fern, 223
Diallage, 374
Fluorapattte, 266
Diamond,
Huorfte, z?v, 504, SOS* 506, S07
?;, 505, 506, <;i2
Diaspore, i#g, /pw, JoO, 507, 509, 512
Dichroite,
Fool's gold, 104
Diopsidc, 365, 370,
#*,
505, 507, 508,
Fotttente, 302,
,?o ?,
Fowlerite, 365, ^Vi,
510, 512
Dioptasc,
500,
510,511,512
jw, 504
507
$o<>, soft
Franklmite, 190, 195, 196,
jrpp,
497>
48|
4QQ
Dipyr, 434
Disthene, 319, jpj
Frernontite, 274
Dog-tooth spur, 214, 215
FuthUe, 357
Dolomite, **p, 504, 505. 508, 509, 512
Domeykitc,
Dry-bont
7^?,
497
ore, 221
GadoHnite, 334,
Gahnite, 196
#5
500,
s5
506, 507
INDEX OF MINKI5ALS
538
Galena, 32, 79, 81, 407
Garnet, 308, 312, 501,
iihrous,
50".
510, 512
Garniente, 400, 504,
$oto
Gaylussite, 234, 235,
s<*),
511
5^
Gcdnte,382, #3, 507,

Gcnthite, 400
Gcrsdorflitc, 101
Gibbsitc, i&?, 50^,
58 W,
-Jio,
-/A
<ju
sou,
Gigantohtc, 439
Girasol, 180
Glaiw, 100
Glauberite, 2jrf, 507, 508,
Glauber
salt,
<jo),
511
VV
Hornsttmt', 16^
246
Morsi*
Glauiodot, 101
Ili'sb
on*,
Glauconilc, 442, 504, 506
Glaucophane, 383,
Gocthitc,
2,
w,
37,
4,
Hulnuritc, .Â
504, 5*o
4<,A 400.
/$/?
$00,
jtf,
408,
^j
flumitv,
501, 502, 50*
Gold, 19, 52, 53,
S04, 5o;, soS, {t
Hussikitc*. ^fto
499
Gold amalgam, 53
Golden beryl, 361
<n ^17
Hv.uinth,
',
So
5<, 501
Graphite, 37, 44, 479,

Graphitite, 45
Greenahte, 44 ?
Greenockite, 90, gi, 499>
505
S<>3
itt
Greenovitc, 465
Grecnsand, 442
500,
Grossularite, 300, ?/
Grttnente, 382, .^7, 507* 51
Guano, 268
Gypsite, 248
Gypsum,
18,
10,
at,
*4T> 5>4 505, SO/
a*,
So
3^1
SOP, 51
*4'
at6
r,
304
llmmitc, aj, 4<
Hahte, 17* 3*i
J'J^.
S4> 5>S S^> So,
Halloysite, 404
Infuwdul earth,
lodyritf, 137
jtf
Hancockite,*326
lolite,
Hanksite, 251,^5^509,511
Iridium, 52, 63, 66, 501
Harmotomc, 445, 449,
505, 508, 509, 512
Iridogmmc, ^7, 500
Hauerite, 101
Iron, 52, 63, 6$, 497
Hausmannite, 304, 498

Hatiymte, 339, 340, 341, 5x0
Haydemte, 457
Iron-platinum, 6$
Hedenbcrgite, 365,
JacobsUe, 196
&z
JM, 377
Heliotrope, 164
Hematite,
17,
499) 503
Jdeite, 365,
37,
x S x,
* S 2,
i$3> 498,
,377,
507, 51 a
Jalpdte, 78
Jamesonit*,
iw, 497
504,
INDEX OF MINERAL
Jasper, 165
539
Malocolite, 372
Mtinganapatite, 268
Jeffersonite, 373
Mdngiinitc,
Kamite, 2$r, 507,
509, 911
<?o8,
/<;/, 4Q.H,
499
Man^nopcctolitr, 370
Kahnite, 251
?n
Kahophthte,
Kdolimte, 40*,
Marbles 216
A SW,
4<>
506, 508, 500,
my, 407
Martabite, 101,
Marganto, ??j 507, 509, ;ri
510, <;u
Kaolin, 404
Marit&litc,
Katofonte, 388, 390, 39 r
Martitc, i?4
Kiescntc,
Korvnitt*, 101
Masonite, 428
Meerschaum, 397,
KottmKitc, 281
Meumite,
Kraurite,
Molaconite,
Jtjft,
27<>
Kreittomtc,
r/<>,
MeUntentc,
14
Kunxite, 370
Mercury,
Kyamtc, 419, ,w?,
*?to,
/or,
511
407, 501
vs
346, 240, *.?/> 506, 511
62
52, 53
Meroxcne, 349,
512
./- ?
Melamte, 309,
igft
Krennente,
^Jj
,??f>
Labratloritf, 417, ;/V, 504, 507
Metacmnabaritc, 97, too, 497

Mexican ony^c, 216
Lake
Mua, 348
(leortfe iliamonds,
Ltipis la/uli,
,{4,{
Lasunte, ^.^,
,^40, ?/.? T
fc
Laumontite,
445,
104
*/5^
first order, 348

second order, 348
510
S7
S<>5,
amber, 350
S"
MuRKlmt'i 408, 409,
SfPt
La/ulite, 274, .75, 510
Lead, si>
S,i.
littodhiltittt,
Munxlme
Milky quartx, 164
tot 407
251, 252,
Lcpjclohte, 353,
Miitietite, 260, 271, 505,
?(
Lepidotnclanc% 340, 350
Mhpickel, xn
Muzonite, 423
Leptochlorites, 428, ^.p, 506
*^ 54
Molybdenite, ^5, 470, S<>
Limestone, 216
Monazite,
Limonite, ai, 32^ 33,
512
Mirabilite, 246, 511
Leucite, jfo, 512
77
P5 497
Milleritc, t)4
-505, 5o<>
w, 507,
Libethenite, 274,
4W
perthite, 415
/.Vj r
w%,
<??
505, 508, 5x0
Montebrasite, 274
499.
Monticelhte, 30, 302
503
Lintonite, 456
Montmorillonite, 404
Lithiophihte, 262, 505, ^07, 5x0
Moonstone, 415
Lithographic stone, 210
Muscovite, 354, ?tf
Ldllingite, 101, //,?,
S<>9
497
Nail-head spar, 2141 215
Lucinite, 284
Nakrite, 404
Natrohte, 446,
Magnesioferrite, 196
Magnesite, 313, ^/^, 504, 505, 509, 512
Natron, 234,
Magnetic
Naurnanmte, 78
pyrites,
Magnetite,
2,
<tf ,
25,
497
37,
190,
195,
196,
*P#, 497
Magnofernte,
Malachite, 12, 30, 31, 212, 231, 232, 504
^,55
Neotype, 223
Nepheline, 313, 314
'Nephehte, 3x3, 314,
S$
So7
So8, 510,
INDEX OF MINHKALH
640
P<rthit<, 413
Nephrite, 387
Niccohte, 04, OS* 497
jn
Niter, 206,
Nivemte, 208
Nosean, 339, 340, 341
Ochcr, 185
Ocher
rcd, i<;4
445, //,,
tins,
MHU
509,
yellow, 185
Octahedntc, 167, 176

Ohgoclase, 417, 418
Ohvemte, 274,^77,
Ohvme,
>02,
Iliosphontr,
504
302, 303, sob, 5<>7 5*
Omphacitc, 374
,
Onofnte, 97
507
Onyx, 165
Onyx, Mexican, 216
Opal) 179, 506, 507,
59>
5*
S*a
precious, 180
180
Platin indium,
common, 180
Ophicalcite, 399
Plutimim, s-J*^
Platinum u<m,
Orangeite, 3x9
IHttttnentc, t^H
Onental amethyst, 156
PIronantr t
fire,
wo,
emerald, 156
40?
topaz, 156
Polyiwhtc,
Orpiment, 7*, 503

Orthochlorite, 428, 4*0, 506, 50Q,
Orthoclase,
58,
MJ
4^>
6*7,
tlim IHW* 417,491
tahnitv, ||! 507* Si <
500
Pricdfe* 30^
52, 63
Osteolite,
Potash
IVuHc, 164
S09, 5*o> s
Osmiridium,
Osmium,
408, 409, 4*o
*,
>n
268
Prochlorkc, 4**y
Ottrebte, 428
Pr<nilitc,
no,
117, J/tf, 4')*
PKcudowalkMttmttr,
Palladium, 63, 66, 500

Panderxnite, 309
Pwlomciane,
Paragomte, 354, 358, 511
PtlWite, 44S
$00
û
iA'A\ 4tj7,
4^8, 501
Parasepiohte, 401
Parasite, 2x0
19, at,
magndic,
Pargasite, 388
Patronite, 373
Pearccit^
j,
506,500,511
Pcctolite, 364, 365, 367, 36$, 51
42$
of Ceylon, 37,
Pyropc, 309, j;/

Pyrophyliite,
Pentlandite, 87, oa, 497, 49^
Pcndot
M> wi,
Pyro!uSte, 167 17^, 407

PyromarphiUf, a0
497
Pearlspar, 229
Penninite,
s,
92, 4<J7
436
Perovslute, 461, 500, 50?, 504, 506, 509
4*
403,
S"
Pyroxenes, 363, 364
PyrrhoUte, oo,
ftf,
497
$04,
INDEX OF MINERALS
T1Q,
28, 32,
17,
',
505, 50^,
S07,
541
Siolocitc, 446, 452
^12
',
Selcnitc, 248
Selenium, 47
Scnarmontitc, i;r, 752, 50?,
;o7,
511
nulk>, 104
rost,
SeruiU', 357
164
Serpenline, 307, W^, 428, 504, ^05, $06,
smoky, 164
1508,
Rammelsbergite, 101
Realgar,
Red
SOT,
Silver, 3
t<>4
1,
pr, 506, 507, 512
Siher amalgam, 53, 6^
Rhodoihrosite, ^13, *\w, 505, 506, 507,
Sinter, siliceous, 180
Skonxhte, 281^ 2<^, 501, 506, 510

/r>7, 407
508,500,51-*
Smaltite, toi,
Rhodolite, 311
$<J, 508,
3615,
510
SiiLiragditc,
#J
Riebeckite, 383, 390,
,?<V<V,
389
Smithsonite, 213, asr, 505, 507, 510, 512
Smoky
Rock crystal, 164

RocL gynpum, ^48
Rock salt, /,?/, 281
quartz, 164
Soapstone, 402
Soda, 212, a?/, 511
Soda alum, 251
Roepperite, 30 j
&o
Socialite, 339,
Soda
Rone quart/, 164

Ru belli te, 435
508, 5x0, 512
niter, 205, 511
Specular hematite, 154

Sperryhte, 101, ioA\ 497
Ruby, 156
Ruby
Ruby
498, 499,
52, ?3,5?, >oo, 501
Rhodium, 03
Rhodonite,
505,512
Sillimanitc, 319, 320,
other, 154
Rhinestone,
w, W,
Siliceous sinter, :8o
53
<ty>
500
Sidente, 21, 32, 37, 213, zig
Rabenghmmer, 353
wlvcr, //;
Spessartitc, 309, 312
//<?
Sphalerite, ^7, 498, 499, 500, 501, ^02,
pmol, 1^7
Ruthenium, 63
Rutik, 167, 168, ///, 408, 4Q9, 500, s
S*o
503, 505, 50<>
503, 504* 505, 508, 509
Sphene, 461, 464

Spinel,
2,
195, ig6> 498, 500, 501,
503, 505,
$02,
S07i So8, 509, 5^0.
5"
Hufloritc, 101
Spodumene, 365, 57*, $07, 508,
Sugenite, 164
Sahlite, 365,
50C>>
511, 512
StasHfurtite, 210
373
Staurohte, ^;, 407 505. 506
Saltpeter, ao^, *t>6
Sjimarnkite, 3v<>, 4^8,
Steatite, 397, 4<>*> 5*8, 509, $xx
490
Sanidmc, 415
Stemmarkite, 404
Sapphire, 15^
Steplmmtc,
Sapphire, Brazilian, 436
StJbnite, 22, 69, 7*1 497
Sardonyx, 165
Stilbite, 445,
45<VSO$, 506, 507, 500, S
Stotate, 254,
505, 506, 508,
Satinftpar, si6, 225,

Sauafturtte, 4â,
Mcapdite,
-w,
348
Stream
422
507* 508, 510,
sn, 513
Scheelite, 354, 507, 508, 509, $12

Schefferite,
3^5 3?3* S>4

>
tin,
/-?*/,
479
&
sn
170
Stromeyerite, 84, 86) 497, 500

Strontianile, 313, 223, 225, 505, 506, 509,
5"
Schoilomite, 300, 3x2
Sulphur, 17, ai, 3X1 3* 47, 503, $09
Schungite, 37* 4S>
Suns tone, 415
4<*
542
INDEX OF M1NKKAIJ4
Sylvamte, 113, 114* SOQ>
5*
Sylvite, 134, /3ft 508, 509, 5*
Urancx
Symplesite, 281
Unio, *
Tantahte, 293, 497, 49&
Uvaruvile,
5>
3W,
Vanothnite,
W,
Tephroite, 302, 305, 506, 508
Vtittl-untique,
Tetrahednte, 124, 126, 4Q7, 408, 400

$0$,
W,
;o8
50j
50/1
507, 50*), 510
jjo<>,
Viokn, ^7^
Vitriol, ^4()
5"
Viviamte,
Thorite, 316, jrp, 408, 501, J02, 503
Thuhtc, 326, 327

Thunngite, 432
Tiemannite, 97
Watl,
-f.V;,
504, $ot
407
/.Vo,
4<)H, 4')<)
510, 511
*/,
^04,
57t 5**
Wavellite, 380,
^,
504, 505, $06. 500,
W&gnvrite,
Tiger's-eye, 393
S*'3
5to, 51^
Tin, 52
Werneritc, 424
Tinstone, 170
White
Titamte, 464, 300, sot, $04, $05, 507,
Titanomorphite, 465
Topaz, 319, 320, 322, 507, 508, 509,
510,511,512
164
Oriental, 156
joTj,
508, 510, 51 j
Withamitc, 3*)
Witheritc, ^23, wtf, 512
Wolfachl^cs tot
Wolframite, ^54,
Wollastonite, 364, 365,
400
497.
434,
59> 5*$
501,
505,
506,
Wulfenlte, 354,
507,
385,
3^,
508,
S"
a$jr>
503, SoS
S09S"
Wurtzite,
Travertine, 2x6
382',
367,
5o8S09i5^
Wood tin, 170
Torbermte, 288, 389, 504

Touchstone, 165
Tremohte,
$fti
50 r, soa
Topazojlite, 312
508,
Willemite, j/w5
Titanohvme, 302
Tourmaline,
beryl,
Whitncyite, 78
508, 510
false,
50$,
3t>t>
Vcsuvianito, ^?j,
Thenardite, 237, $o8,*str
Thomsomte, 446, 45?,
.71,
511
Vunscitts J8i, jV;,
Tetradynute, 75, 497, 500
5*
S^>/
f,
Valentmito, 15 r, /?J, 511
j^p
2,
J/
30*),
50
Tennantite, 124, 126, 497
Tenonte,
JM8
irritt\
Talc, 401, 509, 5* *
Tellurium, 47 49
407,
SOJ, 505
$K>,
498
Xanthophyliite, 426
Xenotime rtj, 5^1
S3
5<>S
Tridymite, 158
Tnphyhte, 2 fa, 507, 510

Yellow ocher, 185
Tripohte, 180, 505, 509, 512
Yttrotantalite, 5p5, 504, 505
Trona, 234, 235, 509, 511

Troostte, jotf, 506, 507, 509
ZeollteB,
Turquoise,
^p,
504, 507, 510
445
Zeunedte, 288
Zindte, 150, 409,
Ullmanite, xox
tlraJite, 374,
3^9
T7ramte, 286, 288
S<> So
503
Zbnwaldlte, J5t, 305, $o6 507,
Zircon^ x67> 3i6

Zoisite,
Ji^
506,
s9
506, 507*
(x)

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WILLIAM SHIRLEY BAYLEY,

PBOFXBSOR OP GEOLOGY. T7NTVTBBSITY OF ILLINOIS

AND SIXTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS

APPLETON AND COMPANY

D APPLETON AND COMPANY

following pages are presented with the purpose of affording

students a comprehensive view of modern mineralogy rather than a

description are not necessarily those that are most

that occur in greatest quantity

includes those that are of

economic importance, and, in addition, those

that illustrate some principle employed in the classification of minerals.

not a reference book.

It does not pretend to furnish

discussion of the mineral

kingdom, nor a means of determining the nature of any mineral that

For more complete determinative

tables the reader is referred to

many good books

that are devoted entirely to this phase of the

the former because of

the Miller systems of notation are employed,

almost general use in the more important refer-

ence books and the latter because of

almost universal use in modern

student must be familiar with

It is thought that this familiarity

can be best acquired

In preparing the descriptive matter the author has made extensive

been made especially for this volume.

Figures copied to illustrate

special features are accredited to their authors.

mainly from the Mineral Resources of

was a more nearly normal year

trade than any that has followed

under obligation to the McGraw-Hill Book Company

for permission to reproduce

in his Elements of Crystallography,

also for the use of the original

GENERAL CHEMICAL MINERALOGY

THE COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

SULPHO-SALTS AND SULPHO-FERRITES.

VI THE CHLORIDES, BROMIDES, IODIDES, AND FLUORIDES.

XVI THE SILICATES

THE ANHYDROUS ORTHOSELICATES

PRINCIPLES OF BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS.

CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OP THE

AND Aero RADICALS,

MORE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS

GUIDE TO THE DESCRIPTIONS or MINERALS

IV LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS

Potassium fluosihcate crystals

Cross-section of symmetrical vein

4 Cross-section of vein in green porphyry

9 Geodes containing calcite

Crystal of diamond with rounded edges and faces

figures in cubic face of

14 Principal "cuts" of diamonds