F321 Chemistry Notes

F321
Isotopes - Atoms of the same element - same number of protons and electrons
- same chemical reactions (speed varies) Physical properties such as melting
point and density varies
(Relative atomic mass x Abundance) + (repeat) / 100
+ Protons relative mass 1
Neutrons relative mass 1
- Electrons 1/2000th the mass of a proton
Relative Atomic Mass is the weighted mean mass of an atom of an
element compared with 1/12 of the mass of an atom of Carbon 12
Relative Isotopic Mass is the mass of an atom of an isotope compared with1/12
of the mass of an atom of Carbon 12

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Equations
Mole the amount of any substance containing as many particles as there are
carbon atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope
Number of moles = Mass / Atomic Molecular Mass
Empirical Formula simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element
present in a compound
Mass / Atomic Mass = Moles / smallest number = Ratio
Molar mass Number of atoms of each element in a molecule
Molecular Mass / Empirical = Number of molecules
Molecular Formula Number of atoms of each element in a molecule

Avogadro's Law for any gas the number of particles is always the same
Volume of gas (cm3) / 24 (24000) = Number of moles
Concentration x Volume [cm3/1000] = Number of moles
1 Mole is equivalent to 6.023 x 10^23 (Avogadro's number) units of any
substance.

Acids
Acid + Metal > Salt + Hydrogen
Acid + Metal Oxide > Salt + Water
Acid + Carbonate > Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Neutralisation H+(aq) + OH-(aq) > H2O (l)
Acid + Alkali > Salt + Water
Salt - The H+ ion in an acid has been replaced by a metal ion
Acids - HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 Alkalis (soluble base) - metal oxides, metal
hydroxides, ammonia Finding x in hydrated solutions

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Mass of solution - mass after heated - Use empirical formula method

Redox / Disproportionation
Oxidation The number of electrons an element uses to bond to other atoms
Uncombined elements - Ca, He, O2, Cl2 - Oxidation number of 0
Combined oxygen - H2O, CO2 - Oxidation number of -2
Combined hydrogen - HCl - Oxidation number = +1
Ions Li+ = +1, Ca2+ = +2, Cl- = -1 Oxidation number = depends on charge
of ion

Metals generally lose electrons and have an increase in oxidation number

to form positive ions - oxidised Non-metals generally gain electrons and have
a decrease in oxidation number to form negative ions - reduced
Oxidation Involves Loss Reduction Involves Gain of electrons
Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number
Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number

Electron Structure
An atomic orbital is a space within an atom that can hold up to two electrons
with an opposite spin S-Orbital 2e- P-Orbital 6e- D-Orbital 10 e- F-Orbital
14 eDegenerate Orbitals (P, D, F)
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one
mole of electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms to form a mole of 1+ ions
X(g) > X(g) + eDepends on -

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Atomic Radius (smaller nuclear attraction)

Electron Shielding (inner electrons repel outer)

Nuclear Charge (attraction increases)
Lowest available energy needs to be filled up first (Chromium & Copper are
exceptions) - In the case of degenerate orbitals, the electrons are filled in singly
with a parallel spin, then pairing starts - Hund's rule - Half full or completely
full configuration is more stable
1st shell < 2nd shell < 3rd shell < 4th shell
s<p<d<f
1s2 < 2s2 < 2p6 < 3s2 < 3p6 < 4s2 < 3d10 < 4s6 <5s2 <4d10 < 5p2

Bonding and Structure

Ionic bonding A metal with a non-metal, held together by electrostatic forces Covalent
bonding Two non-metals, bonded together by a shared pair of electrons Co-ordinate (dative) bond A
covalent bond, (shared pair of electrons), both electrons come from the same atom

Ionic bonding
NaCl MgO Al2O3 Metal+Non-metal
Positive and negative ions have strong electrostatic forces of attraction
High melting and boiling point

Conducts electricity when melted or dissolved in water as particles are

now free to move
Crystalline solids at room temperatureMost are soluble in water as ions
can separate
Hard but brittle, not malleable
Bigger the charges the stronger the bonding
Covalent bonding
H2 CH4 CO
2 Non-metal+ non- metal
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Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules strong electrical forces of attraction, weak intermolecular forces
Low melting and boiling point
Does not conduct electricity as there are no ions, does in water (electrolysis)
Soluble in non-polar solutions

Gas at room temperature

Giant covalent lattice
Diamond, silicon, graphite

Each carbon shares electrons with four other carbon atoms to form a 3D
tetrahedral lattice - strong covalent bonds Graphite - 3D hexagonal layered
structure
High melting and boiling point
Does not conduct electricity as elect rons are not free to move Does
conduct electricity because delocalised electrons carry the charge of an
electric current
Insoluble in all solvents
Solid at room temperature
Lattice can absorb external forces giving hardness Graphite - weak interlayer
forces make overall structure soft and brittle
Metallic bonding
Metal atoms
Electrostatic attractive forces between the delocalized electrons gathered in an
"electron sea", and the positively charged metal ions.
High melting
and boiling point
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Most are soluble in water as ions can separate

Insoluble
Solid at room temperature
Malleability and ductility result from layers of atoms sliding over each other
Silvery surface that may be easily tarnished. Alloys are a mixture not
compound.

Electronegativity
Electro-negativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons
Linear 180

Trigonal 120
Tetrahedral 109.5
Trigonal Pyramid 107 1 lone pair
Non-linear 104.5 2 lone pairs
Trigonal by-pyramid 120
Octahedral 90
Lone pairs have a bigger repulsion, which makes the bond angles smaller
Lone + Lone > Lone + Bond > Bond + Bond
Polar covalent
2.55 C --- F 3.98
+ --|----> e.g. - NH3 HCl
Good conductors in molten state - ions a free

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High melting and boiling points

Soluble in Water

Non-polar
H2, Cl2 H2O CCl4
(Dipole moments cancel each other out)
Poor conductors - no mobile electrons or ions
Low melting and boiling points - weak molecular forces
Insoluble in Water
The smaller the atom, the larger the electronegativity - less shielding and small
radius

Ionic bonding ------- Polar covalent ------- Non-polar covalent

Full charges ------- Partial charges ------- Electronically symmetrical
Polar covalent - Intermolecular forces of attraction need to be overcome
Non-polar covalent - Weak intermolecular forcers and temporary dipoles
Wan der Waals forces are attractive forces between induced dipoles in
neighbouring molecules.

At any moment oscillations produce and instantaneous dipole. This induces

further dipoles on neighbouring molecules. The small induced dipoles attract
one another causing weak intermolecular forces.
Van der Waals are weak forces but as you go down the group the element
will have a higher boiling point because the van der Waals forces get stronger
due to size of atom. This explains why boiling points of noble gases increase
down the group
Hydrogen Bonding Permanent dipole-dipole attraction between an electron
deficient hydrogen atom on one molecule and a lone pair of electrons on a
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highly electronegative
atom on
a different
molecule.
Ice is less dense than water - because the H bonds form a 3D crystalline
structure, which is less closely packed.
Water is the only hydride with H-bonding - high melting and boiling point as
strength of intermolecular forces increases.

Atomic Radius Half the distance between two atomic nuclei - in a covalent
or metallic lattice
Across a period Increase in nuclear charge, reduction in radius, higher
attractive force
Down a group Addition of electron shells, more shielding effect, increase in
radius, lesser attractive forces

Group 2
Alkali Earth Metals
Beryllium (Be)
Magnesium (Mg)
Calcium (Ca)
Strontium (Sr)
Barium (Ba)
Radium (Ra)
2M + O2 > 2MO M + H2O > MO + H2 M + 2H2O > M(OH)2 + H2
Low densities High melting / boiling points Colourless states Oxidises Going
down the group
More reactive
More alkaline
More soluble

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More shells
Atomic radius increase
1st ionisation energy decreases
Group 7 Halogens
Fluorine (F)
Chlorine (Cl)
Bromine (Br)
Iodine (I)
Astatine (At)

Cl2 + 2Br- > 2Cl- + Br2

orange in water and cyclohexane

Cl2 + 2I- > 2Cl- + I2

brown in water and purple in cyclohexane

Br2 + 2I- > 2Br- + I2

brown in water and purple in cyclohexane

Ag+ + Cl- > AgCl white precipitate dissolves in dilute ammonia

Ag+ + Br- > AgBr
Ag+ + I- > AgI

cream precipitate dissolves in concentrated ammonia

yellow precipitate does not dissolve

Going down the group Less reactive

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