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Part –A (2-Marks)
4. Telegraph network?
Ans:
The transmission rate (in bits/second) at which information would be transmitted
over a telegraph circuit was limited to the operator who could enter a sequence of
symbols. To increase the rate at which information could be transmitted over a
single telegraph circuit was achieved by multiplexing, where the symbols from
several operators are combined together onto the same communication channel. One
such type of multiplexing is the Baudot multiplexing system, which could interleave
character from several telegraph operators into a single transmission line. This led to
the practice of representing alphanumeric characters by group of binary digits as in
ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Baudot system
also eventually led to the development of teletype terminal, which provided a
keyboard for entering character information, and could be used to transmit and
receive digital information.
5. Telephone network?
Ans:
In 1878 telephone sw itches w ere introduced to allow hum an operator to interconnect
telephone users on dem and, because providing dedicated lines betw een eachwpair as very
of users
costly. A s N (N -1)/2 transm ission lines are required if dedicated lines betw
are deployed
een each
pair of N users.
Part –B (5-Marks)
When we consider the network from a service/architecture view point, it contains the
following key elements or functions
1. Digital transmission is the foundation for telegraphy, that enables two digits to be
sent, "dot" and "dash" in case of Morse code, or "zero" and "one" in case of Baudot
or ASCII code. Transmission media can be radio, copper wire or smoke signals.
2. A Framing method which indicates the beginning and end of message and for
taking the sequence of dots/dashes or zero's/one's and grouping them into character,
and in turn, meaningful messages.
3. A system for specifying the destination address of messages needed. A routing
procedure which determines the path that a message follow across a network of
telegraph stations interconnected be digital transmission lines.
Circuit Switching
Message Switching
The line becomes free again for other messages, while the process
is being
continued in some other nodes. Due to the mode of action, this
method is also known as store-and-forward technology where the
message hops from node to node to its final destination. Each node
stores the full message, checks for errors and forwards it.
In this switching technique, more devices can share the network
bandwidth, as
compared with circuit switching technique. Temporary storage of
message reduces traffic congestion to some extent. Higher priority
can be given to urgent messages, so that the low priority
messages are delayed while the urgent ones are forwarded faster.
Through broadcast addresses one message can be sent to several
users. Last of all, since the destination host need not be active
when the message is sent, message switching techniques improve
global communications.
However, since the message blocks may be quite large in size,
considerable
amount of storage space is required at each node to buffer the
messages. A message
might occupy the buffers for minutes, thus blocking the internodal
traffic.
Basic idea:
• Each network node receives and stores the message
• Determines the next leg of the route, and
• Queues the message to go out on that link.
Advantages:
• Line efficiency is greater (sharing of links).
• Data rate conversion is possible.
• Even under heavy traffic, packets are accepted, possibly with a
greater delay in
delivery.
• Message priorities can be used, to satisfy the requirements, if
any.
Packet Switching
Ans: The telegram services was in reality when Samuel. B.Morse demonstrated it
practically in 1837, where the text message was remitted over a long distance. In the
morse code telegraphy, the text was encoded into sequences of dots and dashes. The
short and long pulses of electrical current were used to represent each dot or dash
over a copper wire Telegraphy made use of digital transmission relying on these two
signals (dot or dash) .
In 1851 a communication channel was established network of telegraph stations,
covering various areas. In these network a message or telegram would arrive at a
telegraph station, and an operator would make routing decision based on the
destination address until the communication lone became available the operator
would store the message and the forward the message to the next appropriate station.
This method is called as store and forward technique and would be repeated at each
intermediate station until the message arrived at the destination station. And this
approach is called and message switching and was discussed earlier.
When we consider the network from a service/architecture view point it contains the
following key elements or functions.
1. Digital transmission is the foundation for telegraphy that enables two digital
to be sent, “dot” and “dash” in case of morse code or “zero” and “one” in
case of Baudot or ASCII code. Transmission media can be radio, copper wire
or smoke signals.
2. A Framing method which indicates the beginning and nd of message and for
taking the sequence of dots/dashes or zero/one and grouping them into
character and in turn meaningful.
3. A system for specifying the destination address of message needed. A
routing procedure which determines the path that a message follow across a
network of telegraphy stations interconnected be digital transmission lines.
When we consider the network from a service/architecture view point, it contains the
following key elements or functions
1. Digital transmission is the foundation for telegraphy, that enables two digits to be
sent, "dot" and "dash" in case of Morse code, or "zero" and "one" in case of Baudot
or ASCII code. Transmission media can be radio, copper wire or smoke signals.
2. A Framing method which indicates the beginning and end of message and for
taking the sequence of dots/dashes or zero's/one's and grouping them into character,
and in turn, meaningful messages.
3. A system for specifying the destination address of messages needed. A routing
procedure which determines the path that a message follow across a network of
telegraph stations interconnected be digital transmission lines.
The telephone switch consists of a patch cord panel and a human operator as shown in figure. A
telephone call has 3 phases. The first phase is setup phase, which is used for establishing a
connection from source to the destination address by connecting the circuit in the telephone office
(central office) through the operator when a connection is requested. The second phase is
information transfer phase, where the users converse with each other. When the users are
done with their conversation, they "hang-up" their telephones, which generates a signal
indicating that the call is complete. At this point, the third phase connection release is
entered and the various telephone lines involved in the connection are then made available
for new connections. With the invention of the strowger switch, the patch panel switches
and operators were replaced by automated electromechanical switches that could take a
signal that contained the destination telephone number and automatically establish a
circuit to the desired telephone.
Telephone networks are connection-oriented as they require setting up of a connection
before the actual transfer of information can take place. This type of setting up network
that involves dedicated end-to-end connection is called circuit switching. Here the
routing decision is made when the path is set up in switching and transmission equipment
across the network. Once a call has been set up, information flows continuously across each
switch and transmission line along the path. No additional address information is required
after the call is setup.
At present stage digital technology has replaced the analog technology, even than the
digital transmission system had to interface to the existing analog switches upon arrival of
an analog switch, the digital signal would be reconverted to digital form for transmission in
the next hop.,
Signalling network was introduced to carry messages between the computers that
controlled switches for setting and releasing the connections. The signalling network provided
a major application in todays cellular telephone radio connectivity even as they move
from an area or cell covered by one antenna to an adjacent cell covered by a different
antenna.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE TELEPHONE NETWORK
1. Transmission system for transfer of voice signal, analog or digital depending on the
format of voice signal.
2. Telephone switches to transfer from an incoming transmission line to an output
transmission line, switch can be analog or digital depending on the attached
transmission system.
3. A telephone numbering system to identify telephone users or stations.
4. Method for allowing users to indicate to the network that they require a
connection, to specify the desired telephone number, and to indicate the
termination of a call.
5. A system inside the network, for performing a routing decision that identifies a path
in the network, based on a request for a voice connection, and a network signalling
system to distribute signaling messages to computers that control switches to
establish the desired path between two telephones.
Control Process
Waiting for
client's
Data Transfer connection
Process request
FTP FTP
CLIENT SERVER
(a)
Control
Connection
Established
• Then the client FTP request for the connection and then the connection
between the server and FTP client will be established.
2. DATA CONNECTION
The "Data Connection" used "Port number 20" at the server. The "data connection" is used
for transfer of file between the server and the client.
The FTP session creates a data connection in the following way :
(/) After the control connection has been established, the FTP client opens a port (may be
of any port number from 1023 to 65,545) and waits for the server to be connected to
that newly opened port for data transfer.
FTP CLIENT (b) FTP SERVER
Figure FTP Data Connection
(ii) Next, the FTP client sends the number of newly opened port for data transfer to the
FTP server.
(Hi) Then, the FTP server receives the port number sent by the FTP client through control
connection, Then, FTP server connects to the particular client's port number using its
port number 20. This connection is called as data connection.
Part –C (15-Marks)
Ans:
1.10 KEY FACTORS IN COMMUNICATION NETWORK EVOLUTION
The traditional three factors that influence the evolution of communication network from
telegraphy to the emerging integrated service networks are: technology, regulation and
market. To these we add standards, a set of technical specifications followed by
manufacturers or service providers, as a fourth factor. Telecommunication service can
succeed if all the three basic conditions were satisfied.
Role of Technology
Technology plays a vital role in determining what can be built. The technology has
improved dramatically which results in the improvement in the capabilities and is
accompanied by reduction in costs. Hence many systems are simple, feasible and cost
effective.
The capabilities of a given technology can be traced over a period of time and found to
form an S shaped curve as shown in figure. During the initial phase the capabilities of the
technology improve dramatically, but gets saturate after they approach fundamental
limitations.
The advances in core technologies in the form of higher transmission, storage and
processing capabilities are enablers of bigger and more complex systems. These enables
the implementation and development of more intelligent, software based algorithms to
control and manage networks of increasingly larger scale.
Role of Regulation
Traditional Communication services like telegraphy and telephony have been
government regulated. Because of the high cost in deploying the requisite infrastructure
and importance of controlling communications, government often choose to operate
communication network as monopolies. Telecommunication will probably never be
entirely free of government regulation. Regulation play a role in addressing the issue of
which information should be available to people over a communication network.
Rule of Market
The existence of a market of a new service success is ultimately determined by a
customer's willingness to pay, which, of course, depends on the cost, usefulness, and
appeal to the service.
Role of Standards
Standards are agreements, with industrywide, national and international scope, that allow
equipment manufactured by different vendors to be interoperable. Standards focus on
interface that specifies how equipment is physically interconnected and what procedures
are used to operate across different equipment. Standards are extremely important in
communications where the value of a network is to a large extend determined by the size
of the community that can be reached. Many standards, especially in telephony are
developed by the International Telecommunications union (ITU). Some of other standard
Institutes are Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) which is responsible for the
development of standards related to the Internet and the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802 Committee, which specializes in LAN/MAN standards.
The existence of standards enables smaller companies to enter large market such as
communication networks. Standards provide a framework that can guide the
decentralized activities of the various commercial, industrial and government
organisations involved in the development and evolution of networks.
The OSI 7 layers model has clear characteristics at each layer. Basically, layers 7 through 4 deal with
end to end communications between data source and destinations, while layers 3 to 1 deal with
communications between network devices. On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI model can
be divided into two groups: upper layers (layers 7, 6 & 5) and lower layers (layers 4, 3, 2, 1). The
upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in
software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. The lower layers of the
OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in
hardware and software. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium
(the wires, for example) and is responsible for placing data on the medium.
• Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations
• Encodes and decodes data; encrypts and decrypts data; compresses and decompresses data
• Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow control
mechanisms
• Frames packets
Information being transferred from a software application in one computer to an application in another
proceeds through the OSI layers. For example, if a software application in computer A has information
to pass to a software application in computer B, the application program in computer A needs to pass
the information to the application layer (Layer 7) of computer A, which then passes the information to
the presentation layer (Layer 6), which relays the data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on all the
way down to the physical layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer, the data is placed on the physical
network medium and is sent across the medium to computer B. The physical layer of computer B
receives the data from the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes the information up to
the data link layer (Layer 2), which relays it to the network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches
the application layer (Layer 7) of computer B. Finally, the application layer of computer B passes the
information to the recipient application program to complete the communication process. The following
diagram illustrated this process.
The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to communicate with their peer layers in
other computer systems. This control information consists of specific requests and instructions that are
exchanged between peer OSI layers. Headers and Trailers of data at each layer are the two basic
forms to carry the control information.
Headers are prepended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. Trailers are appended
to data that has been passed down from upper layers. An OSI layer is not required to attach a header
or a trailer to data from upper layers.
Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its Data, which consists of the upper layer's Header,
Trailer and Data as it proceeds through the layers. The Headers contain information that specifically
addresses layer-to-layer communication. Headers, trailers and data are relative concepts, depending
on the layer that analyzes the information unit. For example, the Transport Header (TH) contains
information that only the Transport layer sees. All other layers below the Transport layer pass the
Transport Header as part of their Data. At the network layer, an information unit consists of a Layer 3
header (NH) and data. At the data link layer, however, all the information passed down by the network
layer (the Layer 3 header and the data) is treated as data. In other words, the data portion of an
information unit at a given OSI layer potentially can contain headers, trailers, and data from all the
higher layers. This is known as encapsulation.
OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model - 2
For example, if computer A has data from a software application to send to computer B, the data is
passed to the application layer. The application layer in computer A then communicates any control
information required by the application layer in computer B by prepending a header to the data. The
resulting message unit, which includes a header, the data and maybe a trailer, is passed to the
presentation layer, which prepends its own header containing control information intended for the
presentation layer in computer B. The message unit grows in size as each layer prepends its own
header and trailer containing control information to be used by its peer layer in computer B. At the
physical layer, the entire information unit is transmitted through the network medium.
The physical layer in computer B receives the information unit and passes it to the data link layer. The
data link layer in computer B then reads the control information contained in the header prepended by
the data link layer in computer A. The header and the trailer are then removed, and the remainder of
the information unit is passed to the network layer. Each layer performs the same actions: The layer
reads the header and trailer from its peer layer, strips it off, and passes the remaining information unit
to the next higher layer. After the application layer performs these actions, the data is passed to the
recipient software application in computer B, in exactly the form in which it was transmitted by the
application in computer A.
OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model - 3
One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of the services provided by the second
layer. The services provided by adjacent layers help a given OSI layer communicate with its peer layer
in other computer systems. A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other
OSI layers: the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it and its peer layer in other networked
computer systems. The data link layer in computer A, for example, communicates with the network
layer of computer A, the physical layer of computer A and the data link layer in computer B. The
following chart illustrates this example.