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Contents
1.0 Kinematics...........................................................................................10
Formulas.............................................................................................10
2.0 Force....................................................................................................10
Tension...................................................................................................10
The Normal Force and Friction................................................................11
Drag Force..............................................................................................11
Formulas.............................................................................................12
4.0 Statics.................................................................................................12
4.2 Equilibrium.......................................................................................12
4.3 Torque..............................................................................................12
4.4 Principle of Moments........................................................................12
4.4 Centre of Gravity/Centre of Mass.....................................................12
4.6 Stability............................................................................................13
Formulas.............................................................................................13
5.0 Energy.................................................................................................13
5.3 Work.................................................................................................13
5.4 Kinetic Energy..................................................................................14
5.5 Potential Energy...............................................................................14
Gravitational Potential Energy............................................................14
5.6 Conservative Forces.........................................................................14
5.7 Conservation of Total Energy............................................................14
5.8 Power...............................................................................................14
Mechanical Efficiency..........................................................................14
Formulas.............................................................................................15
7.0 Simple Harmonic Motion.......................................................................0
7.2 Hookes Law.......................................................................................0
Energy in Hookes Law Deformation.....................................................0
7.3 Simple Harmonic Motion....................................................................0
Relationship Between Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion....1
2
10.5 Elasticity...........................................................................................8
Stress-Strain Curves..............................................................................8
11.0 Pressure...............................................................................................9
11.3 Pressure...........................................................................................9
Solids....................................................................................................9
Gases....................................................................................................9
Liquids...................................................................................................9
11.3 Density.............................................................................................9
11.4 Pascals Principle.............................................................................10
12.0 Buoyancy...........................................................................................11
12.2 The Buoyant Force.........................................................................11
Archimedes Principle..........................................................................11
14.0 Fluid Dynamics of Non-Viscous Fluids...............................................12
14.2 Definition of Key Terms...................................................................12
14.3 The equation of Continuity.............................................................12
Volume Flow Rate................................................................................12
Continuity of Flow...............................................................................12
14.4 Bernoullis Equation.......................................................................12
Bernoullis Principle and Incompressible Fluid Flow............................12
Energy Density....................................................................................13
Pressure and Velocity..........................................................................13
Applications of Bernoullis Equation....................................................13
15.0 Fluid Dynamics of Viscous Fluids.......................................................15
15.2 Viscosity.........................................................................................15
Poiseuilles Law....................................................................................15
Key Concepts..........................................................................................15
17.0 Temperature and the Zeroth Law......................................................17
17.2 Thermal Equilibrium.......................................................................17
19.0 Phase and Temperature Change........................................................18
19.2 Phase Change................................................................................18
Phase Diagrams..................................................................................18
4
Power Sources.............................................................................38
10
1.0 Kinematics
Formulas
v=
x
t
v av =
a=
v
t
v f v i =2 ax
v f =v i+a t
d
t
2
1
d=v i t + a t 2
2
2.0 Force
11
Tension
12
Friction force (f) - the force which prevents the block from sliding
down the slope
Normal Force (N) - perpendicular to the surface of contact
Critical Angle (c) - angle at which the box will slide
max maximum coefficient of friction
coefficients calculated form from f = N are known as the coefficient
of kinetic and static friction
the coefficient of kinetic friction is always smaller than the
coefficient of static friction
normal reaction force of the surface is not necessarily equal to the
weight force of the block
normal and friction forces are reaction forces they are the result of
action-reaction pairs between atoms on the surface and atoms on
the block. These forces are electrostatic in character.
Drag Force
forces that occur when solid objects move through gases and liquids
liquid that an object moves through exerts a force apposite to the
direction of the object = drag
moving through air = air resistance
magnitude of drag force moving through air can be modelled as
being proportional to the square of the speed
k = constant proportionality determined by the shape of the object
and density of air (see formula)
13
14
Formulas
F=m a
f =N tan
W =mg
f max= max N
f =mg sin
max =tan c
N=mg cos
f (drag)=k v 2
4.0 Statics
4.2 Equilibrium
4.3 Torque
4.6 Stability
Formulas
T =F d
5.3 Work
Fsin
Fcos
17
Important to include the final and initial kinetic and potential energy
Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy and vice-versa
Friction does not remove energy but it does convert it into forms
which depend on the microscopic behaviour of the system = usually
treated as a dissipative force
Dissipative force removes mechanical energy form the system
under consideration
Conservative forces do not change the amount of mechanical
energy in the system
Mechanical energy kinetic + potential energy
5.8 Power
Mechanical Efficiency
Efficiency = work out/work in = work output/energy used
18
19
Formulas
W =Fd
P=
W
t
W =Fdcos
P=Fv
KE f =KE f +W
work output
energy used
work out
nefficiency =
work =
1
2
KE= m v
2
PE gravitational =mgh
KE + PE=0
KE+ PE=constant
20
Spring the further you stretch it, the harder it pulls back, and vice
versa
Natural Position the position the spring will sit in if no force is
applied (also called equilibrium positon)
For springs the magnitude of the restoring force is proportional
to the displacement of the spring from equilibrium position
F=kx
k spring constant
x displacement from equilibrium position
negative sign indicates the restoring force is always towards
equilibrium position
1
PE= k x 2
2
f=
x = amplitude of oscillation ( A)
1
2 1
2
Etotal= k A = m v max
2
2
v max =
k
A
m
23
T =2 pi
m
k
24
8.0 Waves
x = =f
t T
v wave=
25
I=
Intensity how much power per unit area and is measured in watts
per square meter (W m-2)
P
A
A = area which it is spread
c sound =
c = speed of sound
B = bulk modulus
= density of medium
increases with stiffness of medium
decreases with increasing density
I
Io
Io 10-12Wm-2
Middle Ear
Inner Ear
29
F
A
F
tensile stress
A
=
=
tensile strain L
L0
31
10.5 Elasticity
Stress-Strain Curves
Ratio of stress to strain for materials is constant over a certain
range and depends on type of material
Elastic region stress/strain relationship linear, this range the
material will return to its original shape, any shape changes are
reversible
32
33
11.0 Pressure
11.3 Pressure
P=
P = pressure
F = force applied normal to the area
A = area
Pressure is a scalar quantity
Unit pascal (PA) = Nm2
Solids
Exerts pressure on whatever it rests on
Pressure depends on weight and surface area is acts on
Solid stationary on surface, downwards pressure = weight divided
by surface area of contact
Gases
Gases exert pressure when the collide with surfaces
Pressure depends on the average magnitude of these collision
forces and on the number of collisions per second
Average force per collision will depend on how fast the molecules
are moving on average (determined by temp) and the density and
speed will determine how often collisions occur
Pressure exerted by a gas is the same in all directions
Liquids
Higher density of a liquid means additional pressure at the bottom
of a liquid sample due to the weight of liquid above that point is
significant
Liquid exerts a downwards force as well as a sidewards force on the
container
11.3 Density
Fluid density:
m
V
34
m = mass
V = volume
Depends on the solid or liquid composition but not on how much
there is
Solids/liquids distinct density, depends on average length of
intermolecular bonds
Gases density depends on size of container
35
12.0 Buoyancy
12.2 The Buoyant Force
Archimedes Principle
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid that the object
displaces
buoyancy is the upward force exerted on an object that is fully or
partially, submerged in a fluid resulting from the increase in
pressure with depth.
Fbuoyant =mf g= f V f g
Fnet =mgf V f g=obj V obj g f V f g
36
V A x
=
= Av
t
t
Continuity of Flow
When no fluid is gained or lost, volume flow rate is constant along
pipe or channel
Conservation of mass amount of material entering one end of
the pipe must be the same as the amount coming out the other end
Also same amount per unit time
Fixed mass = fixed volume, therefore constant volume flow rate
Continuity equation:
A 1 v 1= A2 v 2
37
Energy Density
pressure = force per unit area
1 Pa = 1 Jm-3
Pressure can be thought of as energy per unit volume
1 2
v
Kinetic energy per unit volume = 2
gh
1 2 1 2
v v =P1 P 2
2 2 2 1
38
v = 2 gh
s ho
h
2g
v o =
Plaque Deposits and Aneurysms
Plaque deposits = narrowed blood vessels
Aneurysm = widened blood vessels
Stenosis case of narrowing
- Blood velocity must be increased
- Therefore decrease in pressure
- May result in further narrowing
- When artery is narrowed, flow will become more turbulent
(possibly damaging artery wall)
Aneurysm localised, balloon-like bulge in an artery
- Radius increases, velocity decreases
- Pressure increases
39
x /L v
=
t
L
L = fluid depth
v = constant speed
some fluids shear strain is proportional to the shear strain rate,
and the proportionality constant is the fluid viscosity
F
v
=
A
L
Poiseuilles Law
flow of viscous fluid along a pipe, requires a pressure difference to
overcome the viscosity
the narrower the pipe, the larger the required pressure difference
the longer the pipe, the larger the required pressure difference
higher viscosity = higher pressure difference
Poiseuilles Law volume flow rate for a fluid of viscosity, , through
a cylindrical pipe of length, l, and radius, r, when the pressure
difference between the ends is P is:
=
P r 4
8 l
40
Key Concepts
41
42
Solid definite shape and volume, not free to move only vibrate
Liquid fixed volume (at particular pressure and temp) but shape
dependent on container, molecules are further apart than solid state
Gas molecules are far apart on average, shape and volume fixed
by container
Vaporisation liquid to gas
Condensation gas to liquid
Melting solid to liquid
Freezing liquid to solid
Sublimation solid to gas
Deposition gas to solid
Phase Diagrams
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid
and vapour phases are in equilibrium, depends on pressure
- If the vapour pressure of the gas phase is lower than the
saturation vapour pressure, then molecules can continue to
break away from the liquid and join the gas phase
Vapour pressure the vapour pressure of a substance is the gas
pressure created by the solid or liquid phase, and is a consequence
of the faster molecules breaking away from the liquid or solid
Thermodynamic equilibrium rate at which the molecules leave
the liquid and the rate at which they re-join it are the same
Saturation vapour pressure - depends only on temperature
critical temperature - vapour density and liquid density are equal
at this temperature (high temp)
above critical temp is called a super critical fluid as the liquid
phase does not exist and there is no distinction or phase boundary
between liquid and gas
triple point - solid, liquid and gas phases are all in thermodynamic
equilibrium
triple point occurs at a unique temp not affected by volume of
number of molecules
below triple point, solid, liquid and gas cannot co-exist in
equilibrium, instead vapour co-exists with the solid phase, provided
volume is large enough
43
Specific Heat
temperature is the measure of the average kinetic (thermal) energy
of the molecules in a substance
Q =mc T
46
Q
T = rate of heat transfer by conduction
k = thermal conductivity
d = thickness
A = cross sectional area of medium/material in contact
T = temperature difference between surfaces seperated by
thickness d
k
coefficient of conduction heat transfer = d
47
21.3 Convection
Q
=h convection A T
t
21.4 Radiation
= surface emissivity
= Stefan Boltzmann Constant 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4
A = surface area
T = absolute temperature
is between zero and one
Q
Q
Q
net =
surface
t
t
t environment
Q
=h radiation A T
t net
b
T
T = absolute temperature
b = is a constant, 2.9 x 10-3mK
Q
t =htissue A(Tcore - TSkin)
= hclothing A(Tskin - Touter surface of clothing)
= hsurface A(Touter surface of clothing - Tsurroundings)
= htotal A(Tcore - Tsurroundings)
49
U=Q-W
n=
W
W
=
E-U W-Q
51
Key Concepts
53
|F 1 on 2|=|F2 on 1|=k
|q1 q2|
r
q = magnitude of charges
r = distance separating charges
k = experimentally determined constant of proportionality
1
9
2 2
k=
=9 x 10 N m C
4 o
o
Electric field strength from a point source falls with distance squared
54
E=
B
q
F=k
E=
Qq
2
r
Magnitude of electric field:
F
q
And for a point charge Q we therefore have:
55
E=k
Q
2
r
The direction of the field is the same as the direction that the force
would be on a positive charge radially outward from the source
charge if positive, towards the source charge if it is negative
Vector field:
56
Field Lines:
57
58
The net electric field at any point in space can be found by the
vector sum of the fields at that point due to all the charges present
At each point in space, the resultant electric field vector is the sum
of the electric field vector that would be created by the lone positive
charge and that we would get from just the negative charge
Key Concepts
Coulombs Law the law that describes the force between two
charges. The force is proportional to the product of the magnitudes
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them
Field a numerical quantity associated with each point in space. A
field can be scalar (as in the case of a temperature field) or vector
(like velocity or electricity field)
Electric Field (E) The vector field produced by electric charge.
The electric field vector is defined as the Coulomb force per unit
charge that a test charge would experience if placed at that point
in space, and its magnitude is the same as the magnitude of the
Coulomb force that would be exerted on a +1 C test charge. The
direction of the electric field vector is in the same direction as the
Coulomb force on a positive test charge. The electric field is
measured in units of NC-1 (or equivalently in volts-per-meter, Vm-1).
59
V=
60
Q=W elec
W elect =F x
W elect =qE x
U =qE x
V =E x
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
When a heart is beating normally an electrical signal is generated
and travels through the heart muscle
Electrical signal causes contraction of the heart muscles and is
ultimately responsible for the synchronised beating of the heart
A typical heart muscle cell has a potential difference of around
90mV and this exists between the inside and outside of the cell
membrane, with the outside of the cell being positive. This is called
the resting potential and a cell with this potential difference is
called polarised.
When the transport of ions from one side of the membrane to their
other changes the sign of this potential difference, the cell becomes
depolarised and contracts
Before the wave of electrical activity that
causes contraction passes through, the cells
are all polarised. A nerve cell sends a signal
to these cells to cause them to become
permeable to the charges that are sitting on
the surface.
The net result is that the charge distribution
looks like a line of separated positive and
negative charges that sweep down the heart
This travelling electrical signal can be modelled as an electric dipole
(a separation of positive and negative charge) that changes strength
and size with time. This dipole creates an electrical potential
throughout the body cavity.
Electrodes placed on the skin can measure this electrical potential
(ECG)
Key Concepts
62
63
26.0 Capacitance
26.1 Introduction
Picture charged plates carrying the same magnitude charge but with
opposite signs separated by some distance
Energy stored in this configuration & and electric field exits as well
as a potential difference between the plates
Capacitance is a measure of the capacity of the circuit element to
store charge
Circuit elements may be designed specifically to store charge capacitors
E=
V =Ed
Q
A
= o
V
d
Capacitance:
|Q|
|V|
C=
C=
A
A
= r o
d
d
o
r=
= vacuum
Relative permittivity:
o
Regardless of the capacitor shape, C always = Q/V
|w|=| U |=|VQ|
U=
Key Concepts
65
66
I=
Q=q nV
t=
I=
l = distance to travel
v = velocity
current is therefore:
Q |q|nV
=
=|q|n v
t
v
v = velocity
n = density of conduction electrons (N/V; N = number particles)
V = volume
q = charge of carrier
current is related to the number density of charge carriers and how
fast they travel on average
drift velocity speed of the charge carrier movement
power supply gives the electrons energy to move
AC alternating current
DC direct current
R=
V
I
V = potential difference between the ends of the object
I = current flowing through object
R opposition to flow of electrical current through an object, causes
electrical energy to be converted to heat
Resistor object that does the above. Measured in ohms
Non-ohmic I is not proportional to V
l
A
27.9 Wires
70
71
P=
Q
t
U =QV
P=
P=VI =
V
=I 2 R
R
73
Membrane
signals sent along nerve cells are electrical
signals between cells are chemical
membrane of cell formed from two layers of phospholipid molecules
phospholipid biolayers good insulators, conductance per unit area is:
1x10-13 -1 m-2
cell membrane can maintain a separation of positive and negative
charges has a capacitance (1x10-2Fm-2)
resting membrane potential when nerve cell is inactive, an
electrical potential gradient emits across membrane, 70-90mV
action potential nerve cell becomes active, polarity of the charge
across membrane changes
outside of the cell is positive with respect
to interior
force on an ion will depend on the equilibrium potential for the ion
(Eion) and the membrane potential:
I ion =Gion ( V m Eion )
74
which
can
along
velocity at
a signal
move
such a cell
depends
on the
Key Concepts
Electromotive force (emf)( ) The work done per unit charge by nonelectrical forces. It is given the symbol and is measured in volts. The
source of the energy can be electrochemical reactions, magnetic, thermal
or radiant energy.
Earth/ground In electrical circuits, voltages are typically measured
relative to a point that is considered to have zero potential, known as the
ground or earth. This is often a direct physical connection to the earth.
Circuit Generally, a closed path through which current can flow, is
composed of some combination of conductors and other components such
as capacitors, resistors or batteries.
Circuit element a single component of an electrical circuit, such as a
resistor or capacitor.
Direct current (DC) Electric current that flows in one direction only.
Alternating Current (AC) Electric current that reverses direction
periodically, usually many times a second.
Charge Carrier A particle carrying an electric charge which is free to
move in response to an electric field, such as an electron or ion.
Electrical Resistance (R) The opposition to flow of an electric current
through a material. Electrical resistance causes electrical energy to be
75
76
V capacitor + V resistor =0
V = potential drops
Potential difference across the capacitor is related to C & q
q=C V capacitor
q
IR=0
C
I=
77
q
q
=
t RC
t
I ( t )=I o e
= characteristic time
In this circuit, voltage across capacitor is the same as the voltage
across the resistor (Kirchoffs Law)
The discharging capacitor, the voltage, current and charge are all
exponentially decaying with time
Voltage across the resistor series w. capacitor is also decaying
q ( t )=q f 1e
=RC
q f =C
With time, the charge on the plates gets closer and closer to a final
value
Current flowing around the circuit must drop off to zero again when
the capacitor is fully charged, and voltage across resistor gets less
and less
78
I ( t )=I o e
Key Concepts
RC Circuit A circuit containing a combination of capacitors (C) and
resistors (R).
RC time constant () The characteristic time of an RC circuit. In a time
equal to one time constant, an initially uncharged capacitor will charge to
63% of its maximum charge and voltage and current flowing through the
capacitor will drop to 37% of initial value.
79
80
29.3 Reflection
29.4 Refraction
n=
c
v
v = speed of light wave in the material
82
Snells Law
Snells Law relates angle of
incidence and angle of
refraction for wave propagation
at the boundary between
isotropic media
Ratio of the sines of the angle
= ratio of the wave speed in
the media = inversely related
to the refractive indices
sin 1 v1 n2
= =
sin 2 v2 n1
n2
n1
84
Lens and cornea act together to focus incoming light onto the
retina (image formation)
Retina made mainly of collagen
Sclera rest of the outer surface of the eye (fibrous white part)
Anterior chamber immediately behind the cornea n filled with a
watery salt solution (aqueous humour)
Aqueous humour constantly replaced and important for
supplying nourishment to the cornea and lens, neither of which are
connected to blood supply
Lens collection of transparent cells suspended in place by
suspensory ligaments connected to the ciliary muscle
Ciliary muscle allows focusing of the eye
Iris slightly infront of lens, connects
to the sclera and ciliary body, made
up of pigmented, fibrous part known
as the stroma
Pupil gap in iris through which light
passes
Pupil appears larger than it is due to
magnification by the cornea
Expansion and contraction of pupil is
involuntary and occurs in response to
light
Vitreous humour fills bulk of the
eye, gelatinous, transparent material
(refractive index close to water)
Retina covers back surface of the
eye, tissue thin membrane. Contains
the light sensitive cells that allow us to see, there are two types:
85
86
Colour Science
87
Zero energy level past which the electron is no longer bound but
becomes free
89
90
c = 3x108ms-1
The
Electron Volt
gravity not normally an important factor in atomic physics
use electrostatic potential energy instead of gravity
electron volt (eV) an electron volt is the electrostatic potential
energy of an electron when it is moved through a potential
difference of 1V
modified Plancks Constant: =6.58x10-16eVs
91
92
Alpha Decay
Unstable nuclei become more stable by ejecting two neutrons and
two protons in an asymmetric spontaneous fission process
Emitted particle bound together as a highly stable particle
4
+2
Denoted or 2 He , as identical to the nucleus of a helium atom
A
Z
4
X A4
Z2Y + 2
Beta Decay
Three separate processes:
- - decay
- + decay
- electron capture
daughter nucleus often still unstable and decay followed rapidly
by gamma emission or another decay process
93
94
- Decay
beta minus
neutron decays, proton created, accompanied by emission of a
- particle and an antineutrino ( v )
e
- just an electron
process mediated by a weak nuclear force
+ v
+ +e
n p
X Z+1AY + 10 + v
+ Decay
beta plus
conversion of proton to neutron
energy is required for process
only happens inside nucleus
a proton in nucleus decays, creating a neutron, a + particle and a
neutrino
+ - antiparticle of an electron, also positron, e+
++v e
0
+ n + e
energy+ p
A
Z
X Z1Y + +1 + v e
Electron Capture
reverse of - Decay
nuclear proton captures an orbiting electron and transforms into a
neutron
95
Z1A Y + v e
A
Z X +e
Gamma Decay
nucleus in an excited state can transition to a lower-energy state by
emitting a photon
photons emitted in this process are much more energy than their
counter parts in atomic transitions due to much greater energies
involved in holding nucleus together
gamma radiation high energy photons ()
A
Z
X Z X + (+ + )
Am
Z
excited state)
Any number of photons may be emitted due to a chain of deexcitations occurring as a single excited nucleus decays to its
lowest-energy transfiguration
| |
A= N
Half Life
N ( t )=N 0 e t
A ( t ) =A 0 et
( 1et )
97
Half-life (T1/2) the length of time it takes for half the number of a
sample of identical unstable nuclei to decay
T 1=
2
ln 2
98
Bremsstrahlung
Fast moving electron travels
through a material, interaction
with the electric fields produced
by local nuclei in the material can
deflect the electron from its straight
line path
Amounts in an acceleration of the
electron = force has been exerted on
the electron, work done on it = kinetic
energy will change
Generally their deflection will slow the
electron down and thus it will continue
to lose kinetic energy as it travels through the material
This electron emits the energy it loses as a photon (eg. Emits
electromagnetic radiation)
This type of radiation is known as Bremsstrahlung
There is a maximum amount of energy an electron can lose,
determined by initial kinetic energy of the electron
Electrons are accelerated by a large potential difference
Max KE is a function of the electric field, fixed only by applied
voltage
KE=qV
If all this energy is given up at once, then the photon will have this
much energy:
h f max=qV
99
f max=
min =
qV
h
h = Plancks constant
minimum wavelength is:
hc
qV
characteristic x-rays produced by an x-ray tube depend on the type
of metal in the target which the accelerated electrons strike
accelerating voltage will determine which characteristic x-rays may
be generated
X-ray Tubes
Crookes Tube
evacuated glass tube and electronic setup
contains gas at low pressure and has two built in electrodes
anode- positive
cathode negative
when voltage applied is high enough, sp,e of the gas ionises
positive ions accelerate towards cathode and when they strike,
liberate electrons
electrons created accelerate towards anode
if anode is not blocking the path of e-, then these e- will overshoot
and collide with glass end of tube (target)
with sufficiently high enough voltage between electrodes, these
electrons will produce x-rays
Thermionic Tube
heated filament use d to
produced electrons
filament is heated to a point
where e- gain enough energy to
leave the metal and form a cloud
or space charge around filament
electric field is used to
accelerate these e- towards a
target material (commonly
tungsten) which also acts as an anode
100
Key Concepts
Ionising radiation particles or electromagnetic waves which have
sufficient energy to ionise atoms and molecules
X-rays a type of ionising electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
from about 0.01nm to around 10nm. The low energy end of the x-ray
spectrum overlaps with the extreme ultraviolet
Bremsstrahlung the continuum x-ray radiation produced by the
breaking of fast-moving electrons when they interact with matter
Characteristic rays the x-ray photons produced by electronic
transitions to tightly bound inner shell orbitals. Transition occurs after the
removal of an inner shell electron, usually by the collision of an externally
produced fast electron. Photon energies produced are characteristic of the
target atom
Annihilation process in which a particle meets its antiparticle and both
particles cease to exist, their mass energy being converted to gamma
radiation. Reverse process is pair production
Electron Neutrino (ve) an elementary particle produced in some
nuclear processes that travels at close speed of light and has zero charge.
101
The mass is not known, but the upper limit of the possible mass range is
very small
Antimatter most fundamental particles have an antiparticle equivalent
with the same mass and opposite charge. When a particle and its
antiparticle meet, annihilation occurs.
Alpha Decay the emission of a helium-4 particle from a larger, unstable
nucleus, leaving a daughter nucleus that has two fewer protons and two
fewer electrons
Beta Decay one of three different processes that result in a change in
nuclear composition but not nucleon number. A neutron is converted into
a proton and vice versa, with the accompanying created of a positron, or
the creational/loss of an electron and the production of a neutrino or
antineutrino
Gamma Decay a nucleus in an excited state can emit energy as a
photon of electromagnetic radiation, known as a gamma photon
Half-life (T1/2) The time taken for half the unstable particles in a pure
sample to decay. Also the time taken for the activity of a sample to halve
Activity the measure of rate of decay of a radioactive sample. SI unit for
activity is Becquerel (Bq), with 1 Bq equivalent to one decay per second
Decay Constant () for an exponential decay process, the rate at
which the quantity decreases, is proportional to the quantity, with the
constant of proportionality being the decay constant
Exponential A quantity is said to change exponentially when the rate of
change of that quantity if proportional to the original value of that
quantity
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materials but does not increase the energy that each of these
photons has
Hence, if the frequency of the light is above the cut-off frequency,
then increasing intensity of the incident light will increase the
number of photoelectrons emitted
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends solely on the
frequency of the incident light and not at all on the intensity of this
light
Cut-off frequency below none of the photons absorbed will be
able to provide bound electrons with enough energy to escape the
binding potential
Case of high energy radiation:
- Have sufficient energy to liberate electrons from inner atomic
orbitals
- When photoelectrons are emitted from inner atomic orbitals,
resulting vacancy quickly filled by an out shell electron
- This results in the emission of the energy difference between
these two shells as another (x-ray) photon
- This resulting photon can be emitted in any direction and has less
energy than the original incident radiation (attenuation occurs
thus energy of incident beam has now been reduced)
Pair Production
Sufficiently high-energy gamma-ray photons may spontaneously
convert into an electron-positron pair
Energy of photon converted into matter and antimatter
Minimum photon energy necessary for the pair production
Only photons with frequency >2.5x1020 Hz will be able to produce
electron-positron pairs
All conservation laws must be satisfied
Reverse of this process in particle-antiparticle annihilation
Energy of an incoming beam of gamma radiation will be attenuated
if pair production occurs
Positron produced in this process will ultimately undergo annihilation
with an electron within the medium and this will produce two
photons (these will have less energy than original gamma photon)
Process of pair production act to reduce the energy of a beam of
electromagnetic radiation
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Compton Effect
Interaction between
electromagnetic radiation and
matter in which photons display
their particle like nature
High energy photon is scattered
rather than absorbed by a particle
When an incoming photon is
incident on a nearly free electron
which is more or less at rest,
energy is transferred from the
photon to the electron
Electron gains kinetic energy and
moves off in the same direction
A lower-energy, longer-wavelength photon results
Change in wavelength is related to the angle at which the photon is
scattered
When Compton scattering occurs, incoming photon loses energy to
the scattering electrons = attenuation
36.4 Particles
Neutrons
Uncharged, interact predominantly with nuclei in attenuating
materials in the following ways:
- Elastic collisions: kinetic energy conserving collision with
another particle
- Non-elastic collision: neutron interacts with a nucleus and is
re-emitted with a different (normally reduced) kinetic energy
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Ions
Protons, alpha particles and heavy nuclei
Capture of electrons energetic incoming ion captures one or
more electrons from the absorption material and becomes a neutral
atom. In this process, the ion loses kinetic energy and ionises the
surrounding material. This occurs for low energy radiation
Collision with electrons energetic incoming ion collides with
atoms of absorbing material. Surrounding material is ionised and the
atoms of the absorbing material may be lifted into excited atomic
states. Energy to ionise or excite surrounding material comes from
the incoming ion, therefore the incoming ion loses kinetic energy.
Nuclear collision incoming ion collides directly with the nucleus
of an atom in the absorbing material. Occurs only when incoming
ion is at very high energy. Processes such as fission/spallation may
be induced.
Electrons/Positrons
Annihilation positrons may collide with electrons and be
annihilated
Collisions with atomic electrons energetic and incoming
electrons may collide with and eject electrons from various atomic
shells, in the atoms of absorbing material
Bremsstrahlung the deceleration of energetic electrons and the
subsequent emission of lost kinetic energy as electromagnetic
radiation
Cerenkov radiation electromagnetic radiation emitted when
electrons travel through a material at speeds greater than the speed
of light through that material. This effect may produce ultraviolet
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X-rays affect the film in much the same way as visible light does;
silver halide salts are converted to metallic silver by incident
photons
Used for detection of x-rays in medical diagnostics
To improve the sensitivity of the film and reduce exposure needed,
film is often coated on both sides with a fluorescent material that
increases the effect of x-rays on the film
Sometimes a layer of lead is used under the photographic emulsion
to backscatter the x-rays through the film a second time
Key Concepts
Photoelectric Effect The process in which electrons are emitted from a
material when electromagnetic radiation is incident on the surface
Compton Effect a process in which a photon is scattered off an electron
such that it undergoes a change in direction and a corresponding
reduction in frequency
Photon Momentum while photons have zero rest-mass, they do carry
momentum
p=
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E
m
E energy lost from radiation beam
m mass of material beam is entering
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Dose Equivalent
dose equivalent expression for the dose in terms of its biological
effect
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) quantifies the damage
produced by each kind of radiation in biological tissue, varies from
one kind of radiation to another
distance travelled by a particular kind of radiation is dependent on
the rate at which that type of radiation deposits energy in matter
electrically charged particles interact strongly via the electroc field
and this deposit their energy relatively quickly
larger particles will also lose energy rapidly because they are more
likely to collide with particles of the material through which they are
travelling
alpha particle has twice the charge of the beta particle and is also
much larger
thus, energetic alpha particles will deposit their kinetic energy more
rapidly over smaller distances than beta particles with the same
initial energy
similarly beta particles will deposit their kinetic energy more rapidly
and over a smaller distance than gamma ray photons with the same
initial energy
alpha particle range is less than that of beta, gamma or x-rays
results in radiation depositing its energy in a smaller area
greater concentration of ionisation and cell damage results in
greater (adverse) biological effect, and thus a larger value of RBE
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38.3 CT Scan
Computed tomography
Produces cross-sectional images
Projection of 3D structure onto a 2D film
Computer used to reconstruct a picture
from the transmission data
Scan involves an effective radiation dose
of about 2-10mSv
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