Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
The following primer is an attempt by this student to take applicable radiation information,
and data found in many sources, coalesce the information in a logical, and repetitive nature,
for each type of radiation. By doing this, I hope that learning how radiation interacts with
matter, (as our body is made up of matter), will help me to have a better understanding of what
β+ (4) Gamma γ and X rays, (5) Neutron, ɴ (6) Proton, ᴘ . Other particles and rays will not be
covered, as they are outside the scope of this course. For each type of radiation, the following
The Alpha particle. Credit for the discovery of the alpha (α) particle was given to Sir Ernest
Rutherford. One of Rutherford's now famous experiments, involved a radioactive alpha emitter
(radium) in which the particles were focused on a leaf of gold foil. His assistants then watched
the phosphorescent screens, which were placed at various positions around the foil. As the
particles passed through the foil, scatter angles were determined as well as those that simply
passed through. Rutherford was surprised when some of the α particles even bounced back 180
degrees towards the alpha source. Using the information obtained from this experiment,
Rutherford announced his model for the atom. In 1908 Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize
α particle is ejected from the nucleus in order to obtain a more stable nuclei. Some examples of
Ra223 Rn219 + 2
4
He++ (5.7164 MeV)
Note: The energy of the emitted alpha is characteristic of the nuclide that emits it. For
example, U238 emits a 4.197 MeV alpha. This is true for most nuclides that are alpha emitters.
Also, these values listed are the actual α particle Ke, (kinetic energy) and does not include
the recoil energy, of the nucleus that emitted it.
The alpha particle is a direct ionizing radiation that consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. It is
++
essentially a helium atom without its two electrons. (Notice that's how those two signs got
there). It is emitted by the nucleus of an unstable and usually large atom as it decays to a more
stable state. The alpha particle rest mass is 4.00153 amu. In kg's that would simply be:
Now that we know the mass, the Ke, and the charge (+2) of the α particle, we can now go to
work on figuring out how this particle interacts with matter. Let's start by figuring out the
m = mass in kg.
we also know that Radium's alpha has 5.7164 MeV's of energy when emitted. So let's convert
Ke = 1/2 mv2
8 1.66033 𝑥 10 7 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Since the speed of light is = 2.99793 x 10 m/sec, then, αspeed = = .05538
2.99792 𝑥 10 8 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
about 5.5 % of the speed of light for this MeV alpha. This is slow compared to the other
radiations that we will discuss later. However, because of the slow speed and +2 charge of the
alpha particle, it is indeed, a very ionizing radiation. As the alpha particle passes through a
material, it either excites the atoms or removes electrons from the orbits of atoms it passes near.
In this way the alpha is causing direct ionization in its surroundings by creating ion-pairs. (The
ejected electron e-, and the now positively charged atom). In the case of water, which makes up
much of our bodies, the ion pairs produced are H20+ and e-. See figure 1 for a visualization for
If the alpha particle does not get close enough to strip an electron
from the atom, it still causes the atom to go to an excited state
through coulomb interactions. These types of reactions are called
ionization and excitation. Energy is lost by the alpha and gained
by the atom. These same reactions were going on during
Rutherford's scattering experiment, but with gold taking the place
of water.
K q1q2
Pe = where: Pe = electrostatic force in joules (Relative to each other)
𝑟
q1 = charge of the first particle ( coulombs )
q2 = charge of the second particle ( coulombs )
k = 9.0 x 109 N-m2/C2 ( Boltzmann constant )
r = distance between the particles ( meters )
As I stated earlier, some of the alpha particles that hit the gold foil bounced back at almost 180o
toward the source. This raises the question, did the alpha particle actually collide head on with a
nucleus of the gold, or did the Coulomb force repel the alpha? We can use the equation in figure
1, but to find this out, we will need some more information. For an actual collision to occur, the
two nuclei would have to come in contact. So, we need to first find the radii of the two nuclei
Now we have enough information to answer the question, but first let's sketch this out to make
Au
α
nucleus
particle
radius of Au
radius of the alpha particle
K q1 q2
So: Pe =
𝑟
= 23.61 MeV
* (The 1.6 x 10-19 is the c in the 79 and 2 it converts the unit charge to coulombs.)
Our alpha particle only has 5.7164 MeV, so there is no way that an actual collision could have
Ionizing radiation, like the alpha, is rated by the intensity to which it creates the ion-pairs.
This is called the ionizing power, and is proportional to the number of ion-pairs formed per
centimeter of travel. The following formula gives a good approximation of the ionizing
𝑚 𝑧2
I= where: I = is the ionizing power (factor)
𝐾𝑒
m = mass of the particle
(Note: This equation is for comparison only. So as long as you use the same units for each direct
ionizing radiation type, you will have a good comparison between the different types by its
ionizing capabilities. )
6.64466 𝑥 10 −27 𝑘𝑔 ( 2 )2
I= = 2.902 x 10-14
9.1587 𝑥 10 −13 𝑗
Let's now look at the penetrating power for the alpha. Because the relatively slow speed of
the alpha particle, and its plus two charge, it is not a very good penetrator. The range of an alpha
is finite; it is dependent on the number of atoms the particle encounters when it travels through a
medium. We can analyze this for penetration of human skin by a simple thumb rule equation as
follows:
𝐸𝛼
Rα = gcm-2 Where: Rα = the range of the material in mater.
1000
Eα = the energy of the alpha in MeV.
5.7164
So, for our alpha; Rα = = 5.7164 x 10-3 gcm-2 then ,you divide by the density of the
1000
material of interest. Skin density is about the same as that for water which is 1.0g/cm3
you can see that even though the ionizing power is high its penetration is very low. After the
alpha slows to the same energies as its surrounding, it becomes a simple atom of helium. (After it
steals two electrons) See table one, next page, for densities of some common materials.
Density
( g/cm3 )
Material
Lead 11.3
Iron 7.8
Gold 19.3
You may ask then, why are we even concerned about alpha particles? Alpha's are not much
of a threat to us externally and are easily shielded (paper or clothing is enough). That is true as
long as the particles stay outside of the body. It's when it gets inside are bodies that it becomes
the real threat. For example, Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that can be taken into
the lungs in our homes and even outside to some extent. Because Radon is an inert gas, it should
not be a problem either. This is because, by being inert, as you breathe it in, you also exhale it
right back out. However, if it should decay while in your lungs, its decay products are not gasses
and are still radioactive. I am sure, that internal hazards with alpha producing nuclides will be
Becquerel. He was working with the particle in 1896, and the particle was even called a
"Becquerel ray" for some time before the particles were renamed as beta particles. β- Particles
are electrons that are emitted from the nucleus of unstable radioactive atoms. It has a negative 1
charge and is much lighter than the alpha. The rest mass for the beta is only 9.109 x 10-31 kg.
Some examples of radioactive atoms that emit beta particles are as follows:
60 60
27 Co 28 Ni + β- (1.6 MeV)
90
38 Sr 39 Y 90 + β- (.564 Mev)
As you can see in each of the above reactions the Z number, (number of protons) goes up by
one, and the A number, (number of nucleons) stays the same. This is because a neutron has
changed into a proton and an electron is ejected from the nucleus becoming a beta particle. Also,
the above Mev listings are an average β- energy for the nuclide. Unlike alpha, the beta is emitted
across a spectrum of energies from low to Emax for a particular nuclide with the majority being
emitted about at the 1/3 point. If the spectrum is graphed it looks like graph 1.
Graph 1.
we did for the alpha particle. But, first let's discuss relativistic effects. For the alpha, its slow
speed allows us to use the 1/2 mv2 formula for determining its velocity. For the beta however,
the velocity at high MeV values will be approaching the speed of light, in fact, some beta
particles will exceed the speed of light in water (we will pick on that phenomena later on). So
let's select one of the betas above, say the Iodine 131. Then, we will have to use a little Einstein
𝑚 𝑐2
E=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
𝑚𝑐2
- 𝑣2 = 𝑥 𝑐 2 -𝑐 2
𝐸
much greater for the beta. We can also see from this equation that as:
𝑚𝑐2
lim𝐸→∞ 𝑥 𝑐2 − 𝑐 2
𝐸
Let's now take a look at how the beta interacts with matter. It's a little more complicated than
with alpha particles but still easy. β- Particles are also a direct ionizing radiation and cause
ionization and excitation in much the same way as the alpha does. The ionizing power of our
beta is as follows:
𝑚𝑧2
I=
𝑘𝑒
From this we can see the ionizing power is orders of magnitude smaller than the alpha, and as
you might expect, the betas range in meters is greater through any medium.
Now let's take a look at a sketch of how the β- particle interacts with an atom. See figure 2.
Ejected electron
,e-
β-
nucleus
one charge and the β- moves on with less energy. The beta
process will continue until the beta has depleted its energy
state with a plus one charge thus creating an ion pair. even
This word means breaking radiation in German. This interaction is an inelastic form of
scattering, and usually occurs in the vicinity of a heavy nucleus (like lead). Basically this is a
coulomb reaction in which a beta particle is slowed down, or braked, near the nucleus which
causes a X- ray to be emitted. This phenomenon is seen when any electron is accelerated or
decelerated. The X- ray's energy is taken from the beta's so as energy is conserved. This reaction
is of a practical concern when dealing with shielding for the β-. If say, just lead was used for
shielding the β- would be stopped, but the X-rays which are far more penetrating might become a
problem. So, generally lighter materials are used first, such as, plastic, aluminum, or Perspex to
stop the beta, then heavy shielding such as lead is used to stop any Bremsstralung X-rays. See
heavy
nucleus
look at the range of our beta particle in air. The thumb rule formula for this is as follows:
𝐸𝛽
Rβ = gcm-2
2
Where: Rβ = range of beta in a medium
Eβ = energy of the beta
2 = constant for high energy beta
.606 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Rβ = = .303gcm-2, and the density for air from table 1 is .001293 gcm-3
2
.303𝑔𝑐𝑚 −2
Rβ = = 234.8 cm≈ 8 feet
.001293 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −3
There are other interactions to consider but are beyond the scope of this paper such as
electron capture and elastic beta scattering. But let's get back to something I stated earlier. And
that was betas emitted in water travel faster than a photon which has the speed of light. If any of
you have had or will have the chance to see this effect in person it is really a sight to behold. It is
called Cherenkov radiation, (Named after the discoverer). When a beta is emitted in water, the
angular velocity is greater than that of light, its effect is that the beta polarizes the water
molecules, and causes emissions of light in the violet to blue spectrum. Wow, it is pretty, and no
picture does it justice. I was an operator at Arkansas Nuclear One and went to check on
something in the spent fuel pool area. I decided I wanted to see this effect for myself and turned
off the lights. (It was legal in those days, no IAEA cameras) I will never forget it. Some detectors
have even been made to read these electromagnetic emissions to find the activity of the emitter.
Villard, a French physicist who recognized them as different from X-rays in 1900. (X-rays, were
discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1896). It wasn't until 1914 that Rutherford showed that
gamma rays were a form of light with a much shorter wavelength than X-rays.
Gamma rays are high energy photons that are emitted from the nucleus of unstable atoms
as the nuclide tries to achieve a more stable state. X-rays on the other hand are created by β/e-
changing sate or being accelerated. The energy of the gamma emitted is a function of its
wavelength and the emitting nuclide. The gamma is much different than the two particles
discussed earlier. First, gammas are not a direct ionizing form of radiation as charged particles
are. The gamma must first interact with atoms in some way to cause the atom to release a direct
ionizing radiation, or, the gamma must be transformed into matter which is then direct ionizing
radiation. As such, gammas and X-rays are considered indirect ionizing radiation. Secondly, the
gammas are not finite, as charged particles are. This means that they do not have limited range or
life time. The chance for a reaction with matter is probabilistic, a gamma created by, say, the
uranium decay chain may very well leave the planet. Also the gamma has no charge and
essentially has no rest mass. Thirdly, they travel at the speed of light and obey the same rules.
Since we talked about wave length, let's take a look at the spectrum of electromagnetic energy to
get a feel of where the X and γ rays fit in. see figure 4 on the next page:
As we can see in figure 4, the gammas are on the far left of the figure and have very short
wavelength. The relationship between energy, velocity, frequency, and wavelength can be found
by the following:
Ephoton = hv
Where: Ephoton = energy in joules
27
60
Co 28
60
Ni* + β- + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 1.17 MeV
28
60
Ni * + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 1.33 MeV
25
61
Mn 26
61
Fe + β- + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 628 KeV
79
198
Au 80
198
Hg + β- + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 411 KeV
Let's pick one of the emitters above for our gamma and work with the energy equation. Because
the Cobalt 60 emits two gammas of different energies let's take that one for our discussion and
work.
𝑐
Ephton = to solve this we first have to convert the Mev to joules
𝜆
So: (1.17 x 106 eV) (1.60219 x 10−19 j/eV) = 1.8746 x 10−13 j
−13
6.63 𝑥 10 −34 𝑗 ∗𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2.99792 𝑥 10 8 𝑚 / sec )
1.8746 x 10 j=
𝜆
( 6.63 𝑥 10 −34 𝑗 ∗sec )( 2.99792 x 10 8 m/ sec )
λ=
1.8746 𝑥 10 −13 𝑗
λ = 1.06 x 10−12 m
As you can see by looking at figure 4, this solution falls within the gamma range very nicely.
This formula also works for X-rays and can be used to determine the wave length of the X-ray
emission, as electrons make quantum shifts. For example, take a look at the energy level diagram
P .02
O .07
N .59
M 2.8
L 11
K 69
This diagram represents the Tungsten atom with its corresponding electron shells and the
energy for each level. The KeV listed is the energy required to remove an electron from its
specific quantum level. In an X-ray machine high energy electrons (aka beta particles), are fired
at the Tungsten and some of these will "knock out" a K level electron. When this happens an
electron will fall from the outer shells to fill the "hole" and emit an X-ray. So let's look at this
and figure out where this will be on our spectrum. Use the equation: Ephoton = Ei - Ef Where: Ei is
the initial energy of the electron in the outer shell. And Ef is the final energy in the K shell. So:
( 68.93 x 103 Kev )(1.60219 x 10−19 j/eV ) = 1.104 x 10−14 j now using the energy formula:
that in an X-ray machine, that bremsstralung radiation is also created in the same way as
described in the beta section. So next time you get an X-ray you will know what's going on.
Ok, let's get to work on gamma and X-ray interactions with matter. The first one to discuss
is also the most common of interactions for low energy gammas. (I am going to quit saying "and
* The photoelectric effect occurs when a gamma strikes an atom and its energy is totally
absorbed by an electron, causing the electron to be ejected and thus leaving an ion-pair. The
electron energy is then that of the gamma minus the binding energy, E = hv - Be. (See the energy
diagram). And of course the electron then interacts as a beta does. The energy balance that
applies is as follows:
Eγ = Ee + Ea + Eb
Where: Eγ = gamma energy
Ee = energy of ejected electron
Ea = Ke of the recoiling atom (this is a very small amount and can be ignored)
So that E = ∆ Be. ( Just as the example we calculated using the energy diagram). See figure 5 on
At this point you might be wondering if all this gamma and X- ray emission will ever stop.
The answer is yes but the electrons are the vehicle through which that will happen, and not the
* Compton scattering. This effect occurs mainly for mid energy level gammas. As it interacts
with an atom, only part of the gammas energy is given to the electron. This occurs because the
energy of the gamma is sufficiently large to exceed the binding energy of the electron and still
have energy and momentum to continue on at reduced energy and wavelength. The electron will
be ejected and the gamma will be scattered. The reduced energy gamma will then probably be
absorbed in a photoelectric effect event. Take a look at figure 6 to visualize this reaction.
excitation. The scattered gamma moves off at angle θ with a reduced wavelength and lower
energy. (If the electron was not one in the outer shell then an electron from the outer shell will
drop down with the emission of a low energy photon, just as with the photoelectric effect)
The following equation apples to the scattering angle of the ejected electron and gamma:
λ2 - λ1 = ( 1 - cos θ )
𝑚𝑐
Where: λ2 = the final wavelength in meters
λ1 = the initial wavelength in meters
h = planks constant
m = mass in kg
c = speed of light
The main point that I wanted to make by giving this equation is that the angle of incidence
determines how much energy is given to the electron from the gamma. This makes analyzing by
pulse height counters a little confusing due to all the different gamma energies, the lower energy
gamma will now move off and be captured in a photoelectrc effect or another compton.
the nucleus of an atom ( the higher the Z, the more likely the probability of pair production ). In
the electromagnetic field surrounding the nucleus, the gamma converts all of its energy to the
production of an electron-positron pair. The mass of both particles, the electron and positron, are
9.109 x 1031 kg each. Using the formula: E = m𝑐 2 the γ must have >1.022 MeV to meet this
requirement. In the case of our two gammas, the 1.17 MeV and the 1.33 MeV, both have the
potential for pair production. Any additional energy will be carried off equally by the electron
and positron as kinetic energy. We haven't talked about the positron yet, I will cover this particle
in a later discussion. But, the positron is a direct ionizing particle, just as the free electron is,
until the positron gets annihilated by another oppositely charged electron. There are other
interactions to consider, such as coherent "Rayleigh scattering" and gamma fission, but they are
We now know the three major interactions that occur with gamma and X-rays in materials.
This matter could be our bodies so we had better consider ways to shield against it. I hate to
think of all those electrons and positrons flying around in the cells of my body. So, let's talk
about the attenuation of X and gamma rays. To start, let's consider a piece of lead shielding
between a point source and you. Gammas start out with an initial intensity (this can be dose rate,
count rate, energy, and so on.), and hit the shield. As we learned above the gammas can,
(depending on their energy), either go on through, create a photo electron, Compton scatter, or
If we described the probability that any one of the interactions above would occur, we would
want to find the cross section of absorption for each of the processes. The symbol for cross
atoms for the three interactions. The next thing we need to know is how many atoms are packed
into that shield, for this we must know the atom density. The equation for this is as follows:
𝜌𝑁𝐴𝑣
N= Where: N = atom density in atoms/cm3
𝑀
ρ = density in g/cm3
We now have the information we need to determine the gamma attenuation for our 1.3 Mev
gamma, the 1/2 thickness formula, the 1/10 thickness formula, the linear attenuation coefficient,
some work, but if I can get through this, anyone can. So stay with me. A gamma point source
emits gammas at 1.3 MeV at our lead shield at some intensity say: gammas / m2/sec. Obviously,
IO If
γ Pb
Nσ γ Detector
dt
the gammas pass into the shield, some are absorbed by the lead atoms. The amount of the
absorption is a function of Nσtotal and the thickness of the shield. Let me go over that again, from
the equations we talked about above, the intensity is reduced by the N, (atom density) x σtotal
(the total cross section for absorption) and the thickness. Ah-ooh, I smell a differential equation
coming. Now, think about if we added a little bit of thickness, (dt, change in thickness to the
shield) yes that's right, the amount of gamma making it through would drop a little. Or, if we
were to put this in terms of an equation, it would look like the following:
dI = -NσtotalI dt
The negative sign comes from the fact that the change is negative, or reduced by the factors. The
equation in this form really does not help us very much. Differential equations in this form just
tell a story and are not good for plugging and chugging out answers. Most of the books or
internet papers I have looked at concerning this matter either skip this part, or leave out parts, or
just flat get it wrong. And, maybe I do too, but I do not think so. First, I want to let you in on
little secret before we go any further. (Most of you may have all ready known, but I did not)
Nσtotal = µ (the linear attenuation coefficient) I just wanted to show you where "µ" came from.
And, starting from scratch, as I did, is all ways a good idea in my opinion. Ok, back to our
equation. Any time you start with a differential and want to change it back to "normal" you just
take the integral. In this case, we are going to have to take definite integrals on both sides of the
equation. It has to be definite integrals because we do not want to deal with any constants. I am
going to start this on the next page so the equations are not split up. ( Don't have to keep
𝑑𝐼
= -µ dt Dividing both sides by I
𝐼
𝐼𝑓 𝑑𝐼 𝑡
𝐼𝑜 𝐼
= 0
−µ 𝑑 𝑡 Taking definite integrals both sides, defined areas
𝐼𝑓 𝑡
𝐼𝑜
ln 𝐼 = -µ 0
𝑑𝑡 Rule: constants can move
𝐼𝑓
ln = -µ t Rule of logs on left side,
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑓
= 𝑒 −µ 𝑡 Removing logs both sides
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑜 e
-µ t
Multiply through by Io, complete.
This equation is also the basis for the half and 1/10 layer calculations as well as working with
dose rates.
layer formulas derived, and finish up with our Pb 208 example. First the 1/2 layer formula:
If = Io e-µ t We are after the thickness of Pb which will reduce the gamma ray
1 𝐼𝑓 -u t
=e Dividing both sides by I and putting in our desired ratio.
2 𝐼𝑜
this just means that Io is being cut in half.
1
= e-µ t By taking the natural log both sides
2
1
ln 2 = ln e-µ t
- .693 = - µ t Result after taking the logs both sides.
−.693
= t1/2 Renaming the t to reflect the half value thickness.
−µ
Dividing by minus µ
.693
= t1/2 multiplying the left side by -1/-1, complete
µ
For the 1/10 layer formula just use 1/10 as the ratio for If / Io
1 𝐼𝑓 -µ t
=e
10 𝐼𝑜
-2.3o3 = -µ t1/ 10
2.303
= t1/ 10
µ
Remember that: Nσtotal = µ, let's go ahead and multiply my figures out for Pb208 with our
So, for our shield using Pb 208, and our 1.33 MeV gamma calculations.
.693
= t1/2
µ
.693
= .968 cm = 9.68 mm of Pb 208
.7157𝑐𝑚 −1
This agrees very well for the lead 1/2 value listed for Pb206 in Martin and Harbison P.69.( I am
sure that the t1/2 layer values listed in table 8.1 are on the conservative side), but still, starting
from the subatomic level and coming out with a very close answer is pretty cool.
Other equations related to the intensity formula, I gave you are as follows:
Ok , I kept my promise as stated earlier in the text that you can solve a lot of problems by
under sanding the base formula we worked through above. (Note: All of the base information for
working with these formulas, for all the nuclides, can be found by going to www. nist.gov/,
National Institute of Standards And Technology. I have listed this on the webliography).
Anderson, who gave the positron its name. The theoretical anti-electron was predicted by Paul
The positron or β+ can be produced in several ways. For nuclide decay, an over abundance of
protons in the proton / neutron ratio will cause a proton to become a neutron, with the emission
of a β+ particle. The chart of the nuclides list 33 nuclides that can undergo both β+ and β- decay.
Another source that we covered in gamma interaction is pair production. Production is also
possible by accelerators and gamma Tungsten machines etc. Below are some examples of β+
22 22
11 Na 10 Ne + β+ @ .546 MeV
35 35
18 Ar 17 Cl + β+ @ 4.943 MeV
β+
When positrons are born they will interact with matter in much the same way that betas do,
except that the charge is plus one. Once again ionization and excitation occur until the kinetic
energy is expended. This happens very quickly, as short as a few picoseconds, once the positron
has become thermalized with its surroundings it will get close to an environmental electron
within a few 100 nanometers and both will annihilate each other. The annihilation will occur at
its rest mass of. 9.109 x 10-31kg with the electron (same rest mass) and form two .511 MeV
gammas leaving in opposite directions of each other.( E = mc2 ). Because of the short lived
period for which they exist,( very finite), no special shielding for the β+ is required, only the
emitted gammas are of concern and those are dealt with in the previous section.
experimental data that others had been working on could not be caused by gamma radiation as
they had asserted. This experiment involved the bombardment of Beryllium with alpha particles,
followed up by piece of paraffin. It was found that protons were being knocked out of the
paraffin by what the other researchers were calling high energy gamma rays. They had assumed
that because the radiation could not be detected with their detectors of the time, that it must be
gamma. (no charge). Chadwick had problems with this because the gammas would have to be in
the 50 MeV range. So by careful observation, he determined that a new particle, the Neutron,
was the cause for the protons being knocked out of the paraffin.
Neutron radiation is an indirect ionizing form. It has no charge, and therefore is very
penetrating. Its rest mass is 1.674297 x 10-27 kg and 1.008665 amu. The velocity for most given
MeV can be calculated using the 1/2 mv2 formula as we did for the alpha. For energies greater
than 50 MeV, consider the formula we used for the beta particle. The velocity for neutrons is
Fast Neutrons = E > 10 keV ( range from 10keV to 10MeV with the average at 2MeV)
Intermediate or Epithermal Neutrons = 1eV < E < 10 keV
Slow or Thermal Neutrons = E< 1eV
After the neutrons become thermal,(<.25 eV) the velocity can be calculated by using the
2𝑘𝑡
following formula : vp = where: vp = most probable velocity
𝑚
occur outside the reactor. One, was discussed above by the alpha-Beryllium reaction used in
4
Chadwick's experiment; 2 He + 49 Be 6
12
C + 01N. Also, a photo Neutron can be
generated by a high energy gamma being absorbed by a nucleus causing the spontaneous
emission of a Neutron, and there is also spontaneous fission which will generate 2-3 neutrons.
Unless you are experimenting, or just unlucky, the only place you are going to find appreciable
With that said, let's get to Neutron interactions with matter. As I stated, most Neutrons are
born at 2 MeV average, but can be emitted across a broad spectrum of energies. The neutron has
no charge, and its path through matter is dependent on its energy and the medium through which
it passes. The intensity formula for the neutron and the gamma are the same. But, the
determination of the linear attenuation coefficient is different to some degree and we will analyze
A neutron can be attenuated in several ways, but basically, it is broken down by two effects.
That is, by absorption and scattering. Below is a chart of possible interactions that will give you
a better overall feel for what can happen to a neutron as it passes through matter.
Scattering Absorption
Elastic
Inelastic
Nuclear- Charged Neutral Fission
repulsion Electromagnetic
(n,p) (n,2n)
(n,γ) (n,α) (n,F)
(n,3n)
Absorption (n,d )
etc. etc.
is implied, let's consider this notation. If a neutron, n, impinges on a target nucleus A, with the
release of particle p, and a final nucleus B, then it will be written as A(n, p)B. For example;
5
B (n ,p) 5Be. This would be classified as a (n, p) reaction with resulting emission of a proton.
* Scattering. Let's consider for are first scattering type, elastic. Elastic scattering occurs when
the incident neutron is repulsed by the nuclear forces of an atom's nucleus, and is scattered at
some angle from the original approach. See figure 7 for a visualization of this effect:
system are conserved. There is some transfer of kinetic energy from the neutron to the target
nucleus. So the loss of energy of the neutron equals the momentum gained by the nucleus. This
is sometimes called potential scattering. The other form of elastic scattering is when the neutron
is absorbed into the nucleus of the target atom and a neutron is then emitted from the excited
For inelastic scattering, the neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus, forming a compound
nucleus. The nucleus will then emit a neutron of lower energy than the incident neutron. The
excited nucleus of the target atom will then return to the ground state by gamma emission. See
charge particle ejection which is designated "charge" on the chart above. A neutron is absorbed
into the target atom. A compound nucleus is formed, followed by the ejection of an alpha, beta,
The electromagnetic interaction, also called radiative capture is where a neutron enters the
nucleus of a target atom forming a compound nucleus and a new atomic mass of A + 1. A
The neutral interaction occurs when the neutron enters the target nucleus and 2 or more
The final absorption type is fission, in which the neutron enters the target nucleus and the
splitting of the nucleus occurs, with various daughter particles and gamma emission plus two to
three neutrons. This event usually occurs only in fissile material and is not a biological concern.
In all of the above interactions the neutron is slowed down and will eventually be absorbed, or,
the neutron will break down into a proton and electron. A free neutron will decay with a half life
of about 10.3 minutes. In each case the energy will be deposited in the medium by producing
direct ionizing radiation or; produce gammas, which will then create direct ionizing radiation.
As with gamma radiation, the neutron, because of it neutral charge is a very penetrating
radiation and must create charged particles to finally dissipate their energy. Also, as I stated
above, the intensity formula for the gamma and the neutron are the same. ( If = I0 e-µ t ) The only
difference is the way that µ is determined. For neutrons we have to look for the cross section for
cm2/atom. (by the way, this is a measure called barns) For neutrons, the following cross sections
tables provided by NIST, except this time we would have to look in the neutron tables. The
neutron cross sections are very temperature dependent and if you are dealing with high
𝑇0
σ = σ0 where: σ = cross section corrected for temperature
𝑇
containing hydrogen. The reason for this is that maximum energy transfer occurs when the
neutron impacts an object of similar mass. And it can take less than 40 impacts to completely
thermalize. From a Health physics stand point, that is not a good thing, because our body is
made up of mostly water, and the thickness of our chest is just about enough to stop a neutron.
Rutherford. The reason I say generally was because the discovery was over a period of time in
which many were working with subatomic particles. But most sources give him the credit around
1919. In his experiments to transform different elements to other elements using alpha particles,
he discovered that positively charged particles were showing up on his scintillation screens. He
knew that the nucleus must contain positive charges because of the negative charge of electrons
Protons are emitted by unstable nuclides. The proton has a mass of 1.6726 x 10-27 kg or 1.0073
amu. It has a +one charge and therefore is not very penetrating. Some examples of proton
22 21
13 Al 12 Mg + P @ 1.94 Mev or 1.77 MeV...
47 46
26 Fe 25 Mn + P @ 3.81 MeV, 5.85MeV, 4.78 MeV...
It is a direct type of ionizing radiation and therefore causes ionization and excitation through
coulomb interactions. (See figure one for a visualization of the effect only replace the α with a
P.). Both elastic and inelastic scattering are possible as well as nucleus interaction. The scattering
angles are small as with the alpha, but back scattering is possible. The velocity of a proton can be
calculated using the 1/2 mv2 formula for most energies. Only cyclotron and other enhanced
energies need use relativistic velocity calculations. Let's take one of our proton energies above
Ke = 1/2 mv2 Convert Mev to joules (1.94 x 106 eV)(1.60219 x 10-19 j/eV) =
2 (3.1082 𝑥 10 −13 𝑗 )
3.1082 x 10-13j. v = = 1.9278 x 107m/sec ≈ 6.4 % C
1.6726 𝑥 10 −27 𝑘𝑔
From this we can see that the proton is less ionizing than the alpha particle, but more ionizing
The range for the proton in air can be calculated by using the thumb rule formula as follows:
𝐸𝑝 -2
Rp = gcm Where: Rp = Range of the proton in cm
40
Ep = Energy of the proton in MeV
40 = The constant for proton
1.94
Rp = = 4.85 x 10-2 gcm-2 Dividing by the density of air at STP
40
4.85 𝑥 10 −2 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −2
= = 3.76 cm in air
.0129𝑔𝑐𝑚 −3
4.85 𝑥 10 −2 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −2
For flesh = .0485 cm in flesh (water)
1𝑔𝑐𝑚 −3
Shielding considerations for the proton would include heavy materials such as lead in the one