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STUDY NOTES ON GUNMETAL AND ITS MELTING PROCESS

Bronze is basically an alloy of Copper and Tin. Tin changes the colour of copper, a small %
turns copper yellow, when at 30% tin it becomes almost white. The % of tin also effects the
workable properties of bronze.
@ 5% Tin it can be cold worked, i.e. Bronze coinage.
@ 12% Tin it ceases to be malleable.
@ 20% Tin it is very brittle and called bell metal.
@ 18% Tin it is at its strongest.
@ 10% Tin it is called Gunmetal, as was used in ordnance, it casts well with a fine
grain structure.
Most modern gunmetal (BS. 1400 LG alloys) contains some Zinc and Lead which improve
the castability and act chemically in the alloy.
Metal

Melting Point deg.C

Boiling Point deg.C

Copper
Tin
Zinc
Lead

1083
232
419
327

2595
2270
960
1740

Molten copper absorbs oxygen and hydrogen from the atmosphere. Liquid copper oxidizes
freely and this oxide dissolves forming a solution with the liquid un-oxidized copper. When
the copper freezes the copper oxide comes out of solution and into suspension throughout
the casting, making it weak. Dissolved hydrogen in the melt is ejected from solution upon
freezing and can combine with the oxygen in copper oxide producing, copper and water
(steam), causing defects within the casting.
Molten tin oxidizes but doesnt go into solution with the copper, the tin oxide rising to the top
as scum.
When zinc is added into the alloy the zinc tends to de-oxidize the copper, by oxidizing itself
in preference to copper and converting copper oxide back into copper. The zinc oxide is
insoluble in copper and floats to the top. Zinc also evaporates at these temperatures so
volatilization losses can occur. Manganese, Silicon and Phosphorus also act as deoxidizers in copper much like zinc does (phosphorus being the strongest deoxidizer.) These
elements are also constituents in other types of bronze and are named accordingly.
Copper and tin mix perfectly when molten together. But on solidification Tin can rise in the
casting, so more tin can be at the top than the bottom. When lead is present in the alloy
and freezing takes place too slowly lead will liquate out, or flake out. Slow freezing also
produces a coarse grain or crystal structure in the alloy

So in the melting / pouring process oxidization needs to be minimized and impurities

removed. Covering the melt in charcoal grains or dust (dust may get into the cast during
pouring) to some extent stops oxidization which burns on top of the melt, using oxygen
before it reaches the metal. A flux is used to slag of impurities, some fluxes are:
Salamoniac
= Ammonium Chloride
Pearl ash
= Potassium Carbonate
Cream of tartar
= Potassium Hydrogen Tartrate
Common salt
= Sodium Chloride
Borax
= Sodium Tetraborate
Powdered glass
= # (Bad for crucibles)
Proprietary cover fluxes, fluxes, coveralls and de-oxidizers are probably most convenient.
Crucibles are made from graphite, clay graphite, silicon carbide. Clay graphite crucibles
are fragile when cold but are quite strong when hot and a bit plastic with it. Silicon carbide
has better resistance to thermal shock and doesnt absorb moisture. Good fitting crucible
tools are needed to prevent damage. Crucibles should be warmed up evenly the opening
downwards (to red hot) before going into a hot furnace. The charge can also be heated.
Charcoal or cardboard should be placed between the crucible and its stand to stop them
sticking together and also between the stand and furnace base. Completely emptying
crucibles between melts will eliminate the chance of solidified metal creating cracks through
expansion. Dross and oxides left in the crucible should be scraped of gently while still hot.
Metal tools: dross rake / scraper / ladle, plunger, lift tongs, pole, pouring shank, pouring
ladle, ingot moulds, etc. are coated / dipped / dressed with a refractory and warmed / prewarmed as necessary before use to dry them. This coating and warming stops the melt
freezing to the tools and helps prevent thermal shock to crucibles.
The metal should be melted in short a time as possible and not held in its molten state any
longer than necessary. Care must be taken not to materially exceed the melting
temperature of the alloy, yet the best pouring temperature will probably need some
superheat. Agitation of the melt should be kept to a minimum and the slag that forms left
intact as much as possible, to minimize atmospheric contamination before the crucible is
removed from the furnace.
A working method could be, a cover flux is added towards the beginning of the melt, as the
solid metal turns liquid more solid can be added as required, dont jam solid metal into
crucibles the expansion can crack them. With the slag left in tact as much as possible.
Remove the crucible from the furnace and place on a refractory block that is inside the ring
of the pouring shank (on the foundry floor), the melt skimmed and a warmed deoxidizer
plunged through the melt. As the casting is being poured any dross is held back.
Gunmetal looses its strength rapidly from 200 deg. C onwards, at about 500 deg. C larger
pieces could be broken up before melting.
If additional alloying is to take place (starting with the highest melting point metal), the
addition should be heated, then carefully added to the covered & fluxed melt in the crucible,
a bit at a time so preventing freezing, and cautiously but continuously stirred/poled in to mix

the metals. Stirring sticks/poles should be of green wood e.g. oak or beech, copper or
quartz!. Iron will contaminate the bronze.
Alloys such as phosphor bronze and gunmetal solidify or freeze over a fairly wide range of
temperature, 100-180 deg.C and are long freezing alloys as opposed to short, so they flow
and pour more easily. During solidification a pasty state is reached where the metal doesnt
flow freely, so feeding and shrinkage problems can occur. This can be avoided with good
design and casting technique. Good practice is to avoid variations in wall thickness and
use the minimum wall thickness practicable. Sections of up to 9mm thick can be cast
without porosity, with good practice. Sections of 10 to 19mm, porosity may exist, above
19mm things become progressively more difficult. Castings in lead free gunmetal and
phosphor bronze are not easy without porosity.
Oxy-acetylene welding and brazing is satisfactory for tin bronzes and gunmetal, but not for
lead bronzes. Lead being the problem. Generally joints have less resistance to corrosion.
The effects of the atmosphere on the natural patina of a bronze depend on its environment.
The normal bronze patina in a clean rural setting. A darker tarnish in polluted urban areas
due to sulphur compounds, (high sulphur dioxide levels e.g. By a chimney, being a rather
corrosive sighting. In a marine setting a green colour develops.
Industrially gunmetal is sometimes used because of its corrosion resistance to chemical
solutions like some non-oxidizing acids and alkaline solutions. Substances such as sodium
hydroxide, sulfuric acid, acetic, formic, oxalic, citric, tannic acids, though the performance
varies depending on concentrations.
Gunmetal is attacked by Nitric acid (rapidly) and hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen sulphide,
Ammoniacle compounds and ammonia gases are avoided.
There are many copper casting alloys listed under various standards. They can be broken
down into various group names: High conductivity coppers (HCC)
Brasses (SCB, DCB, DZR,)
High tensile brasses (HTB)
Phosphor bronzes (PB)
Tin bronzes (CT)
Gunmetals (Leaded)(LG)
Lead bronzes (LB)
Aluminium bronzes (AB)
Cupro-nickles (CN)
Manganese bronzes (HTB)
Silicon brass (HTB)
Gunmetals (no longer listed)(G)
Silicon bronze
In the gunmetal / lead bronze groups the lead content varies from 3% for LG4 to 20% for
LB5.

The above notes should not be used too form a specification or technique.