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Sage Publications, Inc.
American Educational Research Association

Characteristics of Entering Teacher Candidates
Author(s): Susan M. Brookhart and Donald J. Freeman
Source: Review of Educational Research, Vol. 62, No. 1 (Spring, 1992), pp. 37-60
Published by: American Educational Research Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1170715
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Review of Educational Research

Spring 1992, Vol. 62, No. 1, pp. 37-60
Characteristicsof Entering TeacherCandidates

Susan M. Brookhart
Duquesne University
Donald J. Freeman
Arizona State University
Characteristics
of enteringteachercandidates,definedas studentsenrolledin their
first educationcourse,havebeenthefocus of 44 studieslocatedfor thisreview.Four
majorcategoriesof variableshave beenstudied:(a) demographicsand high-school
background;(b) motivationto teach and careerexpectations;(c) confidenceand
optimismor anxietyandconcernsaboutteaching;and (d)perceptionsof therolesand
of teachers.Mostof theresearchemployeda surveymethodology.This
responsibilities
articlepresentsa descriptivesynthesisof findingsfrom thesestudies.Theprincipleof
thematicconsistencywithempiricalvariability-thatis, thatthegeneralconclusionsof
thestudieshavebeensimilareventhoughthedatahaveshowndifferences
fromstudyto
study-is advancedto organizea discussionof whatis knownaboutenteringteacher
candidatesand suggestionsfor futureresearchin thisfield.
Few would question the basic tenet that teachers should have a thorough understanding of their students-their learning styles, their prior knowledge, their cultural
backgrounds, and their interests. But what about the teachers themselves? What
knowledge, beliefs, motivations, and experiential backgrounds do those who teach
bring to their roles as teachers? And what impact do these attributes have on their
performance in the classroom? Research into preservice and in-service teacher
characteristics has a long history (Schalock, 1979). Most research on learning to teach
has focused on the student teaching level (Borko, 1989). This review centers on
studies of teacher attributes at the earliest stage of professional development. As
teacher educators, we were interested in the characteristics that are already established by the time teacher candidates enter their teacher preparation programs.
What knowledge, skills, and beliefs do entry level students already possess? Which of
these attributes should teacher educators reinforce, and which should they try to
alter?
For this review, entering teacher candidates were defined as students enrolled in
their first teacher preparation course. This was typically either an introduction to
education and/or early field experience course or an introductory educational psychology course. Two basic questions guided the analysis of the research literature.
First, what characteristics of entering teacher candidates have been studied, and
what has been learned? Second, what research methods have been used in these
investigations, and how might these methods be improved? Analyses prompted by
the first question should inform those who teach professional education courses or
direct professional field experiences. Teacher educators can look to this review for a
better understanding of the students they teach and a perspective on the knowledge,
skills, and beliefs appropriate for instruction. Teacher educators can also examine the
results from a theoretical perspective. For example, those who subscribe to
Vygotsky's (1978) social constructivist perspective can gain a better sense of the
37
Brookhart and Freeman
personalunderstandingsand misconceptionsthat teachercandidatesbringto their

professionaleducationprogramsand the waysin whichthese conceptionsshouldbe
changed. Those who subscribeto a behavioristorientationcan acquirea better
of entrylevelsof knowledgeandskilldevelopmentandthe competenunderstanding
cies that are in most need of attention.
Analyses promptedby the second questionshould informthose conductingresearchon teachereducation.Whatis the natureof the researchthathasbeen done to
date?Whatmethodshavebeen used?Havefindingsbeen consistentacrosssamples
and over time? Is more researchaboutenteringteachercandidatesneeded, and, if
so, what kind?The goal of this reviewwas to organizethe extantliteratureso that
futureresearchin thisfieldwill be ableto replicatestudieswhereappropriate,avoid
redundancy,and move in directionsthat are likelyto providemore comprehensive
of the studentswho enterteacherpreparationprograms.
anddeeperunderstandings
A researchagendafor enteringteachercandidatesis one partof the broaderstudy
of researchon teachereducation(Lanier& Little, 1986).Researchon characteristics
of enteringteachercandidatesshouldaimto answerquestionsof simpledescription,
contributeto theory about learningto teach, and help improveteachereducation
programs.Who are enteringteachercandidates?How do theylearnto teach?What
studiesand experiencesshouldteachereducationpresentto them?This reviewof
studiesof enteringteachercandidatesyieldspartialanswersto these questionsand
identifiesareas that remainto be investigated.
Methodology
The search for empirical studies that satisfied the goals of this review began with an
ERIC search, crossing preservice teachers and attitudes. The list of studies generated
by this process was then reduced to those studies that met two criteria: (a) The
sample was clearly defined as entering teacher candidates (i.e., the students were
identified as taking their first education course or an introductory psychology course
required of all teacher candidates or the like); (b) the variables investigated were not
subject-specific. Some studies, for example, described teacher candidates' attitudes
toward science or toward special education. These were discarded because they did
not fit the purposes of this inquiry. The bibliographies of qualifying studies and a
journal-by-journal search of studies published in 1990 were then used to locate other
empirical studies meeting these same criteria. In all, 44 studies focusing on the goals
of this review were located.
Next, each study was coded according to the review's two guiding questions. For
the question of what variables have been studied and what has been found, four
categories of variables were identified: (a) demographic and background variables
(gender, age, high-school experiences, etc.); (b) reasons for choosing teaching and
career plans and expectations; (c) confidence, self-assurance, or optimism about
teaching (or the converse: anxiety and concerns about teaching); and (d) perceptions
of the roles and responsibilities of teachers, orientations to teaching, or beliefs about
teaching. All of the variables reported as primary findings in this set of 44 studies fell
in one or more of these categories.
For the second question, about the nature of the research, studies were grouped
into two categories: published or unpublished. Published studies included articles in
journals; unpublished studies included documents on ERIC microfiche, papers
presented at conferences, and reports from universities. The set of 44 studies in38
Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

cluded 40 studies dated between 1975 and 1990 and four published studies dated
between 1960 and 1970. No ERIC documents that met the criteria for this review
were located for years prior to 1975. Studies were also identified as to the kind of
methodology employed, number of entering teacher candidates sampled, and
number of universities represented.
Table 1 presents the number of studies categorized by design, date, and publication
status. The four categories of variables to be discussed cut across research classifications. There are, for example, studies about motives for entering teaching or about
orientation to teaching of all study types.
Results
Generalizability
Forty-one of the 44 studies considered in this review were conducted at a single
institution as part of an institutional research effort. The issue of generalizability was
therefore a major consideration in our efforts to describe what has been learned from
this set of studies. When research questions are applied to descriptive institutional
research, the results can be instructive if one keeps in mind that each study represents
one institution and that it is only in review and comparison with other studies that
tentative generalizations can be made. Our identification of these generalizations
was guided by the principle of thematic consistency with empirical variability. If the
findings of various studies have been similar (thematic consistency), despite notable
differences across institutions (empirical variability), the theme will be cited as a
tentative generalization. These generalizations are tentative rather than definitive
because none of the 44 studies have featured a representative sample of universities.
Observed differences across institutions may reflect true differences in the profiles of
students who enter teacher education programs at different universities. To the
extent that this is true, institutional differences may be more important than similarities. Table 2 therefore provides a summary of both the tentative generalizations
and ranges of findings derived from this set of 44 studies.
As noted above, the key variables in the 44 studies considered in this review are
clustered into four general categories: (a) demographic background, (b) motivation
for entering teaching, (c) confidence/anxiety, and (d) beliefs about teaching. All four
categories of variables were investigated in both published and unpublished studies.
TABLE 1
Numberof studiesreviewed,by design,date, and publicationstatus
Design
Time
Enteringonly
Enteringplus
other cohorts
Total
1960-1970
Published
1975-1990
Published
Unpublished
Total
13
19
14
21
30
14
44
39
TABLE 2
Themes and variations on characteristicsof entering teacher candidates (ETC)
Theme (and sources)
ETC are predominantly White females (all studies)
ETC are typically of lower socioeconomic status than other college students (Book & Freeman,
1986; Folsom & Lucy, 1970; Marks & Gregory, 1975; McIntire & Pratt, 1985; Pigge &
Marso, 1986; West & Brousseau, 1987)
The primary motivations for entering teaching are altruistic and service oriented (Andrew,
1983; Bontempo & Digman, 1985; Book et al., 1983, 1985; Book & Freeman, 1986; Fox,
1961; Frusher & Newton, 1987; Jantzen, 1981; Joseph & Green, 1986; McIntire & Pratt,
1985; Otis-Wilborn, Sears, & Marshall, 1988; Pigge & Marso, 1988b; Richards, 1960; Strickland et al., 1986; West & Brousseau, 1987; Wood, 1978)
ETC have a high level of confidence in their teaching abilities (Book & Freeman, 1986;
Brookhart et al., 1990; Knight et al., 1988; Kalaian & Freeman, 1989; Pigge & Marso, 1986,
1987; Weinstein, 1989, 1990)
ETC report more anxieties/concerns about subject matter than about relations with pupils
(Evans & Tribble, 1986; Marso & Pigge, 1989; Pigge & Marso, 1986, 1987, 1988b)
ETC view the nurturing and interpersonal aspects of a teacher's role as more important than
the academic aspects (Book et al., 1983; Freeman et al., 1989; Marks & Gregory, 1975;
Strickland et al., 1986; Weinstein, 1989, 1990)
ETC view teaching as dispensing information (Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1985; FeimanNemser et al., 1989; Hollingsworth, 1989; Jacobs, 1968; McDiarmid, 1990; Skipper &
Quantz, 1987)
All except confidence/anxietywere investigatedin the older workspublishedbetween 1960 and 1970. Table 3 presentsa list of key variablesorganizedby study.
The majorfindingsof thisbodyof researchwillbe summarizedforeachof the four
categoriesof variables.Eachsummarywill presentpromisingfindingsderivedfrom
one or more of the 44 studiesand will describetentativegeneralizationsthat have
held across at least three studies. Subgroupcomparisons(e.g., elementaryvs.
secondarycandidates)and contradictoryfindingswill be cited as appropriate.
Demographics and High-School Background
Demographicinformationwascollectedin all studies,usuallywithstraightforward

multiple-choicequestions about gender, ethnicity, high-schoolbackground,and
socioeconomicstatus. The purposeof includingthese variablesin the studies reviewed was most often to providedescriptionof the sampleor to providesorting
variablesfor further analyses. This review considersthe cluster of demographic
variablesfirst for the same reason: to describe the samples of entering teacher
candidateswho were the subjectsof this body of research.
Genderandethnicity.Althoughthe studiesreviewedconfirmthatenteringteacher
candidatesare typicallyWhite and female, they also reporta widervariationthan
mightbe suggestedby a White-and-femalestereotype.The institutionfrom which
the samplewasdrawnmaymakea sizabledifference.Acrossthe 44 studies,entering
teacher candidatesamplesrangedfrom 75% to 80% female at three universities
(Joseph& Green, 1986;Pigge& Marso,1988b;West& Brousseau,1987)to 52%at
another(Evans & Tribble,1986). Whereasthe percentagesof males were almost
alwayshigher in samples of secondarycandidatesthan in samplesof elementary
candidates(e.g., Book & Freeman,1986;Knight,Duke, & Palcic,1988),Evansand
Tribble(1986) had a 48% male samplefor both elementaryand secondarycandidates.
Samplesalso demonstratesignificantvariationin ethnicity.WestandBrousseau's
(1987) samplewas 96% Caucasian.Frusherand Newton (1987) reporteda sample
thatwas20%non-White.MarksandGregory's(1975)sample,witha differentlist of
ethnic choices, included75% who reportedbeing of Europeanethnicorigin. One
studysuggeststhateducationmajorsaremorelikelyto be bothCaucasianandfemale
than noneducationmajors(Book, Freeman,& Brousseau,1985).
High-schoolbackground.Book et al. (1985) comparedenteringteacher candidates and noneducationmajorsand found that these two groupshad comparable
high-schoolgradepointaveragesandacademicbackgroundsas measuredby yearsof
course workin variousacademicsubjects.In contrast,secondaryeducationcandidates had more yearsof courseworkin scienceand mathematics,on average,than
theirelementarycounterparts(Book & Freeman,1986).Reportedyearsof academic
courseworkin highschooldifferacrossteacherpreparationinstitutions(Brookhart,
Miller, Loadman, & Whordley,1990). Pigge and Marso (1988a) found that, at
Bowling Green State University,enteringteacher candidateswho transferredto
educationfromotherprogramswithinthe universityweremoreacademicallyable, as
measuredby standardizedtests, than transferstudentsfrom other universities.
FolsomandLucy(1970)foundthatenteringteachercandidatesandnoneducation
majorsdifferedin what they liked abouthigh school. Educationmajorsreporteda
higherinterestin high-schoolphysicaleducationclasses, and noneducationmajors
reporteda higherinterestin high-schoolscienceclasses.Educationstudentsreported
41
TABLE 3
Characteristicsand key variablesfor 44 studies, grouped by publication status, date, and design (One-ti
Design
Ent
Enteringonly
1960-1970
Published
Study
Folsom& Lucy
(1970)
Fox (1961)
Method University
Survey U.Me.
n*
Survey
N.II1.U.
173
Richards(1960)
Survey
Ohio State
530
251
Key
variables
Background,
cf.noned.
Motivationto
teach
Motivationto
teach
Study
Jacobs (1968)
Met
Surv
1975-1990
Published
Andrew(1983)
Writing U.NewHamp
Book et al.
(1983)
Survey
Mich.State
473
Book et al.
Survey
Mich.State
258
Survey
Mich.State
352
Ng
(1985)
Book &
Freeman
(1986)
Brousseauet al.
(1988)
Background, Evans & Tribble
motivation,
(1986)@
beliefs
about
teaching
Background, Hollingsworth
motivation
(1989)
Background, Marso& Pigge
motivation,
(1989)
confidence
Motivation
Sur
Sur
Cas
st
Sur
Brousseau&
Freeman
(1988)+
Freemanet al.
(1989)
Jantzen
(1981)#
Joseph &
Green (1986)
Marks&
Lemlech
(1987)
McDiarmid
(1990)
Weinstein
(1989)
Weinstein
(1990)
Wood (1978)
Survey
Mich.State
896
Beliefs about
teaching
Pigge & Marso

(1987)
Survey
Mich.State
286
Survey
CA Univs.
1476
Background,
beliefs
Motivation
Skipper& Quantz Sur

(1987)
Survey
NE I1l.U.
234
Survey
U.S.C.
Ng
Writing Mich.State
Ng
Survey
Rutgers
113
Survey
Rutgers
38
Survey
SUNY-Old
Westbury
52
Survey
U.S.Fla.
95
Survey
W.Va.U.
356
Survey
Duquesne U.
MoreheadSt.
Ohio State
467
1975-1990
Unpublished
Anderson
(1987)
Bontempo &
Digman
(1985)
Brookhartet al.
(1990)
Sur
Background,
motivation
Values,
concerns
Beliefs about
teaching
Optimism,
beliefs
Optimism,
beliefs
Motivationto
teach
Careerplans,
beliefs
Motivation,
beliefs
Galluzzo (1983)
Surv
Iowa State U.
(1982)
Surv
Background, Kalaian&
Freeman(1989)
confidence,
beliefs
about
teaching
Surv
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Design
Enteringonly
En
1975-1990
Unpublished
Study
Method
University
n*
Butleret al.
(1981)
Byers(1984)
Survey
MemphisSt.
490
Survey
Mich.State
884
Feiman-Nemser Case
& Buchmann
study
Mich.State
Writing Mich.State
91
Key
variables
Beliefs about
teaching
Background,
career
plans
Beliefs about
teaching
(1985)
Feiman-Nemser
et al. (1989)
Frusher&
Newton
(1987)
Marks&
Gregory
(1975)
Mclntire&
Pratt(1985)
326
Survey
Northeastern
State U.,
OK
IndianaU.
Beliefs about
teaching
Background,
motivation
226
Background
Survey
U.Me.Orono
102
Background,
motivation
Survey
Study
Me
Kalaian&
Freeman(1990)
Knightet al.
(1988)
Sur
Sur
Otis-Wilbornet
al. (1988)
Cas
st
Stricklandet al.
(1986)
Sur
to teach
Pigge & Marso

(1986)
Survey
BowlingGreen
260
Pigge & Marso

(1988a)
Pigge & Marso
(1988b)
West &
Brousseau
(1987)
Survey
BowlingGreen
547
Survey
BowlingGreen
563
Survey
Mich.State
1019
Background,
anxiety,
beliefs
about
teaching
Background
Background,
motivation
Background,
motivation,
confidence,
beliefs
Ng =Not given.
Survey = Paper-and-pencil
methodology,includingsurveys,questionnaires,standardizedinventories
Writing= Primarydata source was studentessays, papers, and other writtenassignments.
* n is samplesize for enteringteachercandidates,excludes
samplesize of comparisongroups,if any
+ Brousseau& Freeman(1988) comparedenteringteachercandidates'beliefs
with those of teachere
# Jantzen(1981)comparedcohortsof enteringteachercandidates;he did not use
teachercan
@ Evans& Tribble(1986)onlycollecteddatafromenteringteachercandidates,but entering
theyhadcomparisond

feeling they worked harder for their high-school grades than did noneducation
students.
Entering teacher candidates report a high level of involvement in extracurricular
and school spirit activities when they were in high school, including a lot of interactions with children (Marks & Gregory, 1975; West & Brousseau, 1987). In one study,
82% of the entering teacher candidates reported they had done baby-sitting, 42%
had taught groups of children, and 39% had taught piano lessons or provided other
forms of individual instruction while in high school (West & Brousseau, 1987).
Elementary entering teacher candidates report more precollege experiences with
children than do secondary entering teacher candidates (Book & Freeman, 1986).
Noneducation majors report similar levels of activity for their high-school years
except in the areas of tutoring and working with handicapped children (Book et al.,
1985), where they have less experience than entering teacher candidates.
Socioeconomic status. Entering teacher candidates are likely to come from homes
with a combined annual income that is, on average, less than that for noneducation
majors (Book et al., 1985). Reported educational levels of parents have differed
across studies of entering teacher candidates. In two studies, about two-thirds of both
mothers and fathers had no college degree (McIntire & Pratt, 1985; Pigge & Marso,
1986). In another study, most parents did study beyond high school, and 57% of the
fathers had at least a bachelor's degree (West & Brousseau, 1987). One study, done
10 years before these three, reported about one-half of the mothers and 35% of the
fathers had less than a high-school diploma (Marks & Gregory, 1975). Folsom and
Lucy (1970) found fathers of entering teacher candidates had lower occupational
levels than fathers of noneducation majors and that education majors reported fewer
books in their homes than noneducation majors. Because these studies differed by
date as well as institution, it is not possible to state reasons for the reported differences. Nevertheless, the general theme is that entering teacher candidates typically
come from homes where socioeconomic status is not as high as that of college
students in general.
Motivation for Teaching, Career Plans and Expectations
Motives for choosing a teaching career. The reasons entering teacher candidates
cite for their decisions to enroll in teacher preparation programs and, ultimately, to
become teachers form a much studied cluster of variables. More than one-third of the
44 studies reviewed investigated in some way the question of why students chose
teaching as a career. Most frequently, these variables were measured with survey
items asking for rank ordering or for choose-all-that-apply responses to a list of
reasons. Despite differences in phrasing or content for different survey instruments,
the consistent pattern has been that altruistic, service-oriented goals and other
intrinsic sources of motivation are the primary reasons entering teacher candidates
report for why they chose careers in teaching. This pattern is also reported in other
studies that focus on reasons practicing classroom teachers give for their career
choice (see, e.g., Lortie, 1975).
The research literature that addresses the question of motivation to teach dates
back before 1960. With data collected in 1958 at Ohio State University, Richards
(1960) found the primary reason for entering careers in teaching was satisfaction
other than paycheck, helping others, and helping children. The second most frequently chosen reason was good preparation for family life. With a 30% male sample,
46

Fox (1961) found the four top reasons chosen for entering teaching were a desire to
work with children or adolescents (esp. among females), a desire to impart knowledge, the opportunity to continue one's own education, and service to society.
In more recent studies, human service reasons, helping and serving others, and
working with people continue to head the list of motivations entering teacher candidates report for their decision to seek careers in teaching (Andrew, 1983; Bontempo
& Digman, 1985; Book, Byers, & Freeman, 1983; Book, Freeman, & Brousseau,
1985; Book & Freeman, 1986; Freeman, Martin, Brousseau, & West, 1989; Frusher
& Newton, 1987; Iowa State, 1982; Jantzen, 1981; Joseph & Green, 1986; McIntire
& Pratt, 1985; Pigge & Marso, 1988b; Wood, 1978). Jantzen (1981) summarized
survey data collected from 1946 through 1979 on entering teacher candidates in the
California university system. Interest in children was not only the reason chosen first
in every survey but also the reason chosen more often by the 1979 sample than in any
earlier survey. The rank order of reasons changed over the years, and it changed in
different ways for men and women. One result that did not change over the years was
the tendency of women to decide earlier than men that they would be teachers.
Book and Freeman (1986) found reasons to teach differed according to level;
elementary entering teacher candidates were more child centered in their motivations for teaching than secondary candidates, who were more subject centered.
Secondary candidates were also more likely than elementary candidates to cite the
influence of a former teacher. McIntire and Pratt (1985) found no difference in
motivations between those entering teacher candidates who chose to continue in
teacher training and those who left the program after the first course: Working with
children and service were primary motives for both groups.
The only study of this characteristic that did not employ a survey methodology
addressed the question of motivation for a select group of 17 high-ability recruits who
participated in a special program at an unspecified institution. Interviews of these
academically able candidates elicited a wide range of motivations, including: working
with children, combining an interest in psychology with subject-matter interests, the
successful recruitment efforts of the program, and teaching as a springboard to
another career (something to do "for a while").
Career plans and expectations. There is substantial variation across studies in
reported times when candidates decided to pursue a teaching career. Book et al.
(1983) found that almost all students reported knowing, before graduating from high
school, that they would go to college, but only about 40% knew at that time that they
would pursue careers in teaching. In contrast, 70% of entering teacher candidates in
another sample decided to be teachers before high-school graduation (Pigge &
Marso, 1986). In the latter study, those who decided to become teachers after
entering college were more academically able but less positive in their attitudes
toward teaching than those who decided before entering college.
The results of a study by Book and Freeman (1986) indicate that entering teacher
candidates expect the field experience components of teacher preparation and onthe-job experience to provide the best preparation for teaching. Elementary candidates are more likely than secondary candidates to believe that education courses will
have a significant influence on their professional preparation. Among those entering
secondary education programs, females have higher expectations for education
course work than males (Kalaian & Freeman, 1989).
Many entering teacher candidates do not plan to teach for the entire length of their
careers. West and Brousseau (1987) reported that 94% of the entering teacher
47
candidatesin theirsampleplannedto workat least 5 yearsin teachingbut that only

57% plannedto teach for 10 yearsor more. Anderson(1987) found that entering
teachercandidatesreporteda slight decreasein their desire to pursuea teaching
careerafterearlyfield experience.Freemanet al. (1989)foundthat overalllevel of
commitmentto teachingcareersis highandis not relatedto academicabilityamong
enteringteachercandidates.
Confidence, Self-Assurance, and Optimism/Anxiety, Problems, and Concerns
Entrylevelsof self-confidencein teachinghavebeen investigatedin severalways.

A clusterof relatedvariablesfoundin variousstudiesincludesconfidence,optimism,
expectationsfor one's successor ability,and comparisonratingsof self relativeto
otherteachers.Anothergroupof studieslooks at ratingsof anxietyaboutteaching,
perceivedproblemsin teachingand their importance,and teacherconcerns.The
discussionbelowwilladdresseachclusterseparately.Thesecondgroupof variablesis
intuitivelythe converseof the first,buteachvariablehasbeen definedandmeasured
in a differentway, to addressdifferentresearchquestions,and the resultsare not
neatly or directlycomparable.
Confidence, self-assurance, and optimism. Self-confidence in teaching ability has
been measuredby scaled variablesin several different instruments.The scaled

variableshavebeen amenableto analysesby gender,changeovertime, andcorrelation with other variables.Using an instrumentthat askedcandidatesto rate their
confidencein executingdistinctlydifferentteachingfunctions,KalaianandFreeman
(1990)foundthat self-confidencein teachingis a unidimensionaltraitamongentering teachercandidates.
No matterhowit is measured,confidencein teachingis generallyhighforentering
teacher candidates.Book and Freeman(1986) reportedsecondarymale teacher
candidateshad especiallyhigh self-confidence,even abovethe generallyhigh level
for all students.Kalaianand Freeman(1990)foundthat femalesenteredsecondary
teacherpreparationprogramswith a lowerlevel of self-confidencein teachingthan
males and a higher level of expectationfor what they would gain from teacher
preparation.These differencescontinueduntil graduation(Kalaian& Freeman,
1989). Knightet al. (1988), using a differentscale, found that males and females
enteredteacherpreparationwithalreadypositiveattitudes,thatmenhadhigherselfconfidenceratingsoverall,butthatwomenmadegreatergainsfromprogramentryto
exit. Thereis some evidencethatthe self-confidenceratingsvaryas a functionof age
or institution.In one study, confidenceratingsof freshman-levelenteringteacher
candidateswere significantlylower than the same ratingsfrom a universitythat
startedits programin the junioryear (Brookhartet al., 1990).
Weinstein(1989)foundthatenteringteachercandidatestendto identifyas importantqualitiesforteachersthe samecharacteristics
theylistas theirownstrengths.She
used the label, unrealisticoptimism,to describethe highlevelsof confidenceamong
entry-levelcandidates.Shefoundthatenteringteachercandidatesratethemselvesas
above averagefor nearlyall teachingskillsbut that their ratingsdecreaseafter the
introductorycourse (Weinstein,1990). Weinsteinhypothesizedthat this might be
because the course allowedstudentsto comparethemselveswith other entering
teachercandidateswho were equallytalented.
Anxietyandconcerns.PiggeandMarso(1986, 1987, 1988b;Marso& Pigge, 1989)
conducteda seriesof studiesof enteringteachercandidates.These studiesincluded
48

measures of teacher concerns following Fuller's (1969) developmental model of
concerns. Fuller's theory holds that teacher concerns develop in stages that progress
from concern with self to concern with impact. During student teaching and their
initial year or two in the profession, teachers tend to be concerned about their
adequacy as teachers, their ability to maintain discipline, and being liked by students.
It is not until the final stage that teachers' primary concern is student achievement
(Coates & Thoresen, 1976; Fuller, 1969). More recent research on in-service teachers
and student teachers gives evidence for self-concerns among beginning teachers but
suggests that impact on student achievement is an overarching concern among
teachers at all levels of professional development (e.g., George, 1978; Reeves &
Kazelskis, 1985).
Pigge and Marso (1986) found that entering teacher candidates were most anxious
about whether or not they would find teaching satisfying, whether students would
follow their instructions, and whether or not they had sufficient skills in lesson
preparation, the ability to control a class, and the ability to recall knowledge in front
of a class. Candidates were least anxious about how happy they would be teaching,
dealing with background differences between themselves and their pupils, answering
pupils' questions, and lack of rapport with pupils. Anxiety was related to father's
educational level: the less formal education the father had, the higher the candidate's
anxiety ratings (Pigge & Marso, 1986). In another study, Pigge and Marso (1987)
examined changes in anxiety and confidence ratings over time by gender and level.
They found the changes were dramatic but inconsistent and difficult to interpret and
concluded that the entering teacher candidates were a heterogeneous group.
Evans and Tribble (1986) compared the rank order of teaching problems as
perceived by entering teacher candidates with those suggested by a synthesis of
findings from 83 studies of beginning teachers (Veenman, 1984). The rank order of
problems differed. Veenman's review found beginning teachers stress problems with
discipline, assessing pupils' work, and parents. In Evans and Tribble's (1986) study,
entering teacher candidates stressed problems of subject matter and knowledge. In
the same study, females surpassed males on a rating of teaching efficacy (Evans &
Tribble, 1986)-the reverse of what would be expected from the confidence findings
above, where males generally reported being more confident than females.
Results from the two strands of inquiry, confidence and anxiety, generally reinforce each other but are sometimes contradictory. When asked, entering teacher
candidates report being very confident and self-assured. But they also report being
concerned about how they will perform as teachers.
Perceptions of the Roles and Responsibilities of Teachers
Teachers' conceptions of the teaching and learning processes and their beliefs
about students, classrooms, and subject matter will have an important influence on
what they do in the classroom (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Katz & Raths, 1985; Nespor,
1987; Porter & Brophy, 1987). Porter and Freeman (1986) contend that orientations
to teaching determine the professional knowledge and pedagogical skills teachers use
in their teaching. Knowledge and skills that are inconsistent with teachers' beliefs are
not used. Cuban (1984) argues that most changes stemming from school improvement efforts have come about because teachers have changed their beliefs about
what will work best in their classrooms for their students. Fenstermacher (1979)
argues that any efforts to change teaching practices must consider teacher beliefs
from the beginning.
49
Brookhartand Freeman
Although entering teacher candidates' general disposition toward teaching is
positive (Marso & Pigge, 1989), most entering teacher education candidates tend to
emphasize the value of interpersonal aspects of teaching and minimize the importance of the academic goals of schooling (Book et al., 1983; Weinstein, 1990). This
finding, coupled with reports of extensive nurturing and caretaking experiences like
baby-sitting, led Book and her colleagues to fear,
The viewof teachingas an extendedformof parenting,aboutwhichthereis littleto
learnotherthanthroughinstinctsandone'sownexperienceas a childin the network,
may be the nemesis which diminishespreserviceteachers'valuingof pedagogy
coursesand professionalattitudes.(p. 10)
Nevertheless, there is at least some evidence that entering teacher candidates have
a more balanced point of view. In a 1986 study by Strickland, Page, Page, and Hawk,
entering teacher candidates reported that pedagogy, subject-matter knowledge, and
concern for children were all important qualities for effective teachers to have.
Likewise, Bontempo and Digman (1985) found that entering teacher candidates
believe teachers should have positive attitudes toward their students but that the
purpose behind such attitudes is educational.
Feiman-Nemser, McDiarmid, Melnick, and Parker (1989) analyzed entering
teacher candidates' essays at the beginning and at the end of their introductory
education course. They found that, at first, beliefs about teaching were straightforward: Teachers teach; students learn. Teaching was perceived as telling. Essays from
the end of the course indicated students realized that teaching was more complicated
than that and presented evidence that they had begun to think about the relationship
between teaching and learning. By the end of the term, students had become aware
of complex classroom-level issues, but they did not yet write about broader educational issues. Hollingsworth (1989) found that entry beliefs about teaching and
learning affect the cognitive change that occurs during teacher preparation. She
suggested that these beliefs should be used to inform field placement and supervision
as well as classroom experience in teacher preparation.
McDiarmid (1990) analyzed student work and concluded that entering teacher
candidates believe young children do not understand much and cannot handle
complicated ideas. He also found that some entry-level students resisted changing
these beliefs. In a similar vein, Feiman-Nemser and Buchmann (1985) presented case
study evidence illustrating that older students may continue to rely on their personal
experiences despite efforts to persuade them to adopt other forms of pedagogical
thinking. Kalaian and Freeman (1989) likewise found that many beliefs about instruction do not change from program entry to exit, although the design of their study
did not permit the conclusion that student resistance is the cause. Brousseau and
Freeman (1988) presented evidence that efforts to change teacher candidates' beliefs
are not likely to be an explicit component of the teacher education curriculum.
Faculty were more likely to reinforce beliefs candidates already held at the time they
entered their teacher education programs than to challenge beliefs in areas in which
they and their students did not agree. In addition, the faculty did not always agree
among themselves on what desirable beliefs about teaching were.
Some studies have found changes in beliefs about teaching during teacher education. In one of the older studies in the review, Jacobs (1968) reported that candidates
enter teacher education programs with a rigid and formalized idea of what education
is but that they change during the program until, at student teaching, their scores
50
reflect more liberal and democraticideas about education. Skipperand Quantz

(1987)found that enteringeducationmajors,as comparedwithliberalarts majors,
weresignificantlymoretraditionalandless progressivein theireducationalviews.By
the timeof collegegraduation,educationmajorshadmadeupthe difference,moving
furtherin the progressivedirectionon the scale than did the liberal arts majors.
Two themes emerge from these studies. Enteringteacher candidatesview the
nurturingand interpersonalaspectsof a teacher'srole as more importantthan the
academic aspects, and entering teacher candidatesview teaching as dispensing
information.Thereis contradictoryevidenceaboutchangesin beliefsaboutteaching
duringthe course of teachereducation.
The Natureof the Research
Research Designs
None of the researchdesignsin this set of 44 studieswere experimental.Rather,

the researchwas almost alwaysdescriptivein natureand typicallysampledintact
universityclasseson a one-timebasis.Twobasicdesignshavebeen used to describe
the characteristicsof enteringteacher candidates.In 30 of the 44 studies in this
review,enteringteachercandidateswerethe targetpopulation,studiedin theirown
right.The designsof these studieswereeitherone-shotcase studies;one groupprepost designs, with measurestaken at the beginningand end of the first education
course;or staticgroupcomparisons.In three of the studiesin this subset, entering
candidateswere comparedwith noneducationmajors;in a fourthstudy,they were
comparedwith teachereducationfaculty.
Fourteen of the 44 studies comparedentry-levelcandidateswith students or
teachersat more advancedlevels of professionaldevelopmenteither as a cohort
comparisonwithstudentteachers,exit-levelcandidates,or experiencedteachers(or
some combinationof severalof these cohorts)or as a true longitudinalstudy that
followedthe samestudentsthroughtheirteachertraining.In eithercase, the purpose
was to measurechangeand developmentduringteachereducationon the variables
understudy. One study (Jantzen,1981)presenteddata collectedover manyyears.
Here, the purposewasto investigatehistorical,ratherthandevelopmental,changes.
Sample Size
Table 3 describesthe basic designs of each of the 44 studiesin this review, the
universityor universitiesfrom which the sample was drawn, and the numberof
enteringcandidatesin each sample.As this summarysuggests,comparativelylarge
of the researchin thisfield. The samplesize forthe 37
samplesizes are characteristic
surveystudiesthat reportedthis statisticrangedfrom 19 to 1,476, with a medianof
313. Samplesizesforthe threecase studyreportswere2, 14, and 17, respectively.Of
the threestudiesin whichstudentwrittenworkwasanalyzed,one hada samplesize of
91 people, one considereda sampleof 248 papers(with more than one paperper
student), and one did not reportthe sample size.
The size of the samplesin studiesemployinga surveymethodologywasaugmented
by two factors:high-returnrates and student interest. One common problemin
surveyresearchis low-returnrate. However,becausemost of the surveysof entering
teachercandidateswereconductedin classor as take-homeassignments,returnrates
were atypicallyhigh in this set of studies.These rates rangedfrom 57% (Marks&
Gregory,1975)to 87% (Bontempo& Digman, 1985)in those studiesin whichthis
51
statisticwas reported. A second commonweaknessof surveyresearchis lack of

participantinterest or involvementin the topic being surveyed.In this body of
research,the centralfocusof the surveywasthe participantsthemselves-their own
careers,abilities,andperceptions.Thus,thereis reasonto believethatinterestlevels
were high and that studentsgaveseriousconsiderationto each questionratherthan
To the extent that this is true, these condimarkingtheir responseslackadaisically.
tions will have also enhancedthe stabilityand validityof the findings.
MajorShortcomingsof the Research
The currentresearchliteratureon enteringteachercandidateshas four major
limitations.Thisresearchis too dependenton surveymethodologyandalmostalways
limitedto a singleinstitutionalcontext(see Table3). It is also atheoreticalandoften
fails to considerdifferencesthat are likelyto exist amongsubpopulationsof teacher
candidates(e.g., those seeking elementaryvs. secondarycertificates).
Overemphasis on Survey Methodology
Thirty-eightof the 44 studiesconsideredin thisreviewused a surveyquestionnaire

or paper-and-pencilinstrument.Only three case studies have been conductedto
date, and only three researchershave analyzedstudents'writtenwork.In all likelihood, this overemphasison surveymethodologyhas shapedthe rangeandnatureof
variablesthat have been consideredas well as the resultsthat have been generated
fromthis bodyof research.It is smallwonder,for example,thatstudiesto date have
repeatedlyfocused on a limitedrange of demographiccharacteristics,candidates'
reasonsfor choosingteachingas a career, and self-confidenceor concernsabout
teaching. Variablesin each of these categoriescan be readilyassessed with selfdesignedpaper-and-pencilinstruments.
The overemphasison surveymethodologyis problematicforstudiesof candidates'
perceptionsand beliefs aboutteaching.It is reasonableto questionwhethersurvey
items can capturewhat an enteringteachercandidatereallythinksteachingis and
howhe or she thinksstudentslearn.One canalsoquestionwhethersurveymethodology can adequatelydepict the misconceptionsand inappropriatebeliefs that may
characterizeenteringteachercandidates'orientationsto teaching.Orientationsto
teachingaredifficultto measureandsubjectto sociallydesirableresponses(Porter&
Freeman,1986).
Morequalitativeresearch-for example,morecase studies-is needed, especially
in the areaof beliefsaboutteaching.It wouldbe helpfulto explorestudents'written
workmorefully.Thisis a promisingandveryaccessiblesourceof studentthoughts,
becausestudentsareusedto writingtheirthoughtson paperin collegeclasses.There
is also a clearneed for observationalstudiesof enteringteachercandidates'behavior
in early field experiencesettings. Studiesof this type should yield importantdata
about candidates'relationshipswith childrenand the relationsbetweenentry-level
orientationsto teachingand classroomactions. Only one of the 44 studiesin this
reviewfeaturedclassroomobservation(Hollingsworth,1989).
Single Institution Designs
Althougha varietyof typesof universitiesis representedin thisresearch,41 of the

44 studiessampledenteringteachercandidatesfrom only one teacherpreparation
institution.The data for two of the three cross-institutional
studieswere collected
52
priorto 1980 (Jacobs, 1968;Jantzen, 1981);only one cross-institutional

studywas
completedmore recently (Brookhartet al., 1990). As noted in the introduction,
addressingbroad researchquestionswith institutionalresearchdata from a single
universityraises importantissues regardingthe generalizabilityof findings. This
limitationis furtherconfoundedby the factthatmorethan40%of the studiesin this
field have been completed at one of two universities:MichiganState University
(30%) or BowlingGreen State University(11%). Althoughvariousresearchersat
these two institutionshave done pioneeringworkin this field, it is evidentthat the
MichiganState and BowlingGreen studentpopulationsare overrepresentedin the
researchliterature.Thereis anobviousneedto extendthisworkto otherinstitutions.
A profiledrawnfrom a reviewof the literaturethat lookedjust at modalresponses
and not at empiricalvariationwould look very much like the student population
enteringMichiganState'steacherpreparationprograms.
The principleof thematicconsistencywith empiricalvariabilityis the tool used in
this review to address the issue of generalizabilityin synthesizingfindingsfrom
differentstudies(see Table2). Applicationof this principleyieldsa differentkindof
profile from that generatedby summariesand reviewsthat emphasizemodal responses. Considerationof the natureand amountof variabilityof findingsacross
differentinstitutionalcontextsprovidesthe shadingfor the generalizedprofileand
thus yields a more complete picture.
Inadequate Distinction Among Subpopulations
Manyof the studiesin this field have portrayedenteringteachercandidatesas a

homogeneousgroupof individuals.Yet, readilyidentifiablesubgroupingsof candidates may differin importantwaysfrom one another(e.g., malesvs. females, elementary vs. secondarycandidates,subcategoriesof secondarymajors, postbaccalaureatevs. traditionalstudents). Gendercontrastshave been largelylimitedto
studies of reasons for choosing a career in teaching and self-confidence.They
typicallyshow that males have higherlevels of self-confidence(e.g., Knightet al.,
1988)andthatfemaleshavemorechild-centeredmotivationsto teach(e.g., Jantzen,
1981;Joseph & Green, 1986). Contrastsof elementaryand secondarycandidates
(e.g., Book & Freeman,1986;Pigge & Marso,1987;Marso& Pigge, 1989)provide
evidence that the two subgroupsdiffer in a numberof importantways, including
motivationsfor choosingcareersin teachingand educationalbeliefs.
Given the potentialsignificanceof subgroupdifferencesand the ease with which
these statisticalcontrastscan be conducted, it is evident that all future survey
researchin this field shouldfeaturesubgroupcomparisons.To the extent that this
adviceis followed,this researchwill providea bettersense thanthe currentbody of
literatureof (a) the significanceof institutionaldifferencesand (b) the extent to
whichfindingsfromone institutionare likelyto generalizeto another.Imagine,for
example, that this researchconsistentlyshows that males and females entering
teachereducationprogramsdifferacrossone set of variablesyet are similaracross
othervariables.Findingsfroma studydone at an institutionthatis 80%femalemay
still generalizeto one thatis 60%femaleacrossthe latter,but not the former,set of
variables. Cornfieldand Tukey (1956) used the analogy of buildinga bridge to
describe this principlefor generalizingresults to populationsother than the one
sampled.
53
Brookhartand Freeman
Absenceof Theoreticalor HistoricalContexts
The final majorconceptualweaknessof researchin this field is that it has been
atheoreticaland ahistorical.Studiesof enteringteachercandidateshave typically
been drivenbyconvenienceof measurementandnot bytheory.Considerthe workon
candidates'self-confidenceor concerns.Fuller's(1969) developmentaltheory, describedearlier,has been generallyacceptedby teachereducators,particularlythose
responsibleforthe designof studentteachingandotherfield-basedexperiences.Yet
it has playeda role in the designof studiesof enteringteachercandidates'anxieties/
self-confidenceat only one institution(Marso& Pigge, 1989;Pigge& Marso,1986,
1987, 1988b).
Given the increasingpopularityof Vygotsky's(1978) social constructivisttheory
and the clearcontrastbetweenthis theoryandbehaviorism,it is also surprisingthat
only one of the 44 studieshas inquiredabout the ways in whichenteringteacher
candidates'thoughtsand beliefs supportone of these theoreticalpositions (Hollingsworth,1989). Likewise,only 2 of the 44 studieshave been drivenby effortsto
identifymisconceptionsabout teachingand learningthat candidatesbringto their
teachereducationprograms,as suggestedby constructivisttheory(Feiman-Nemser
et al., 1989;McDiarmid,1990).In ourview, thereis a clearneed for moreresearch
that (a) contraststhe waysin whichenteringteachercandidates'predispositionsand
beliefs alignwith constructivistor behavioristconceptionsof learningand teaching
and(b) identifiesmisconceptionsaboutteachingandlearningthatteachereducators
should striveto alter.
With only one exception (Jantzen, 1981), this body of researchhas also been
ahistorical.Withthe dramaticchangesin employmentopportunitiesfromthe 1960s
throughthe 1980s,characterizedby sharpdecreasesin the numberof availablejobs
in teachingandincreasedopportunitiesforwomenand minoritiesto pursuecareers
in other fields, there is reason to believe that the profiles of entering teacher
candidateshave changedin significantways over time. Jantzen'sanalysisof data
collected from 1946 through1979, for example,suggeststhat duringthis 33-year
intervalcandidates'choice of careersin teachingwas increasinglymotivatedby the
desire to work with children.There is a clear need for researchthat generates
descriptionsof trendsratherthan staticprofilesof enteringteachercandidates.
Guidelines for Future Research
TechnicalImprovements
In additionto the conceptuallimitationsof this research,technicalshortcomings
were commonamongthe 44 studiesconsideredin this review.Most of the survey
studiesdidnot addressthe issuesof instrumentvalidityandreliability,evenwhenthe
surveyinstrumentwas includedin the reportfor readerreview.In futureresearch,
instrumentqualityevidence shouldbe presented.
Refinementsin scalingprocedureswould also enhancethe usefulnessof survey
data. Enteringteacher candidatesfeel stronglyabout their responsesto certain
questions.Forexample,almostallsaytheyareeagerto workwithchildren.Likewise,
nearlyall wouldratetheirconfidencein developinginterpersonalrelationshipswith
studentsat 4 or 5 on a 5-pointscale.Responsevariabilityis smallest,therefore,on the
itemsthataremostimportantto the respondents.Researchmightprofitablybe done
on differentwaysto writeitemsto stimulatemorevariedresponsesandon alternative
methods of scalingor scoringitems. In addition,a good validitystudy, anchoring
54
scale points to observed behaviors,could transforma self-reportchecklist (e.g.,

"Howconfidentareyou thatyou can accomplishthe followingteachingtasks?")into
a more sophisticatedinstrument.
Greater Depth of Understanding
In the precedingsection,a need for morequalitativeresearchwasidentified.At a

more generallevel, we wouldurge researchersto pressfor greaterdepth of understandingregardlessof the methodologytheyuse. Forexample,the messagefromthe
researchon motivationsfor pursuingteachingcareersis clear.Altruismanda desire
to workwithchildrenarethe primaryreasonspeopleenterteaching.The messageis
clearenoughthat no moreresearchto establishthis fact is needed. Futureresearch
shouldthereforeaddressdeeperand more informativequestions.How do entering
teachercandidatesmakethe connectionbetweena love of childrenandmorespecific
sourcesof satisfactionthey expect to derive from teaching?Or do they? How can
teachereducatorscapitalizeon this source of studentmotivationsin the design of
teacher educationprograms?Field experiencesconnect candidatesdirectlywith
childrenandthusinspirehighexpectations-can candidates'courseworkbe aligned
with servicemotivationsas well? How do the classroomactionsof those who enter
teachereducationprogramswith a strongdesire to workwith childrendifferfrom
those of candidateswho do not expressthis desire?
Anotherconsistentfindingsuggeststhatenteringteachercandidatesareconfident
in their abilitiesand optimisticaboutthe successthey will have as teachers.Future
researchin this areashouldthereforebe redirectedto addressthe basicquestionof
how muchconfidenceis optimalfor successin teaching.Does the optimallevelvary
acrossdifferentstagesof professionaldevelopment?Can it everbe too high?Some
have arguedthat entrylevelsof self-confidenceare unrealisticallyhigh (e.g., Weinstein, 1989).Othershavesuggestedthat, if a beginningteacherentersthe classroom
full of altruisticmotivesandhighexpectationsfor successandthese expectationsare
not fulfilled,frustrationand burnoutmayfollow(Joseph& Green, 1986). If this is
true, there is a clearneed for researchthat addressesthe questionof when and how
teachereducatorsshouldseek to moderatea candidate'sself-imageas well as when
andhowtheyshouldseek to bolsterself-confidence.Teachereducatorswillalsoneed
to resolvethe ironyinherentin wantingteachersto buildthe self-confidenceof their
pupilsandyet questioningwhethercandidatesaretoo sureof themselveswhenthey
expressconfidencein their own vocationalchoice.
Futureresearchon enteringteachercandidates'confidenceshouldalso be done in
coordinationwith programevaluationefforts. Typicalteachereducationprogram
follow-upasksteachersto ratethe levelsof theirabilitiesto performvariousteaching
functionsand interpretshigh ratingsas good programoutcomes (e.g., Ayers &
Berney, 1989;Loadman,Brookhart,& Freeman,1990). The precedingdiscussion
suggests there may be reason to question the validity of these conclusions-for
example,if similarratingswerehighat programentry.Regardlessof the resolutionof
thisissue, the interpretationof follow-updatashouldbe informedby an understandenteringteachercandidateshavealreadyestablishedby the
ing of the characteristics
time they enter their teacher educationprograms.This researchshould use subpopulationcomparisonsand longitudinaldesigns, matchingentry and follow-up
samples, and coordinatingentry and follow-upmeasures.
55
Therearealsoa numberof promisingresearchagendasforfuturestudiesrelatedto

enteringteachercandidates'orientationsto teaching.Researchin thisareais likelyto
have importanttheoreticalas well as practicalimplications.Here, there are at least
two basicquestionsthat shouldbe addressed.First,how do enteringteachercandidates' orientationsand beliefs influence their interpretationsof the professional
knowledgebasepresentedin teachereducationcoursesor theiractionsas teachersin
classroomsettings?Second, can those orientationsto teachingthat are shown to
foster inappropriateteachingbehaviorsbe modified?If so, how? The researchto
datesuggeststhatteachereducationprogramshavelittleimpacton entry-levelbeliefs
aboutteaching(e.g., Kalaian& Freeman,1989;McDiarmid,1990).Furtherresearch
mightprofitablyfocuson identifyingwhichbeliefsthatareknownto be importantfor
effectiveinstructionare teachableand whichare not. Teachereducationprograms
could then be explicitly designed to foster appropriateteachable beliefs (cf.,
Brousseau& Freeman,1988)and to includemeasuresof inappropriate,nonteachable beliefs as part of the data consideredfor programadmissionsdecisions(see
Porter& Freeman,1986).
Future Directions
Applicationof the followingguidelines should enhance both the quality and

significanceof future researchon characteristicsof enteringteachercandidates:
* Increasethe use of qualitativemethodologies,particularlyin studiesof orientations to teaching.
* Use cross-institutionaldesigns wheneverpossible, especially in studies with
surveymethodologies.
* Increasethe use of researchdesignsthatseek to identifyhistoricaltrendsrather
than static profilesof enteringteachercandidates.
* Includesubpopulationcomparisonsin data analyseswheneverappropriate.
* Report instrumentreliabilityand validity evidence and take direct steps to
improveinstruments'technicalqualities.
* Coordinateresearchon entering teacher candidateswith teacher education
programevaluation.
* Design theoreticallydrivenstudiesand use theoreticalframeworksto interpret
institutionalevaluationdata if used for researchpurposes.
* Ask questions that will provide a deeper understandingof motivationsfor
pursuingcareersin teachingand candidates'self-confidence.
* Investigatethe relationsbetweenorientationsto teaching,learningto teach, and
classroomperformance.
* Examinethe issue of whetheror not appropriateorientationsto teachingcan be
modifiedduringteachereducation,and, if so, how.
Futureresearchon the characteristics
of enteringteachercandidatesshouldserve
practicalpurposesfor teachereducationprogramdesignandtheoreticalpurposesof
understandingthe processof learningto teach.These areimportantandcompelling
goals. Researchto date has contributedsevenmajorthemesand institutionalvariations (Table2). Any one of these themes could form the basis for a programof
research.Therefore,insteadof dismissingthis body of researchfor its majorshortcomings,we suggestviewingit as a useful, if imperfect,beginningfor more theoreticallygroundedand technicallysound work to come.
56

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empiricalworksreviewed.
Authors
SUSANM. BROOKHARTis AssistantProfessor,Schoolof Education,DuquesneUniversity,

Pittsburgh,PA 15282.Shespecializesin researchon teachereducationandschool-university
collaboration.
DONALDJ. FREEMANis AssociateDean, Collegeof Education,ArizonaStateUniversity,
Tempe, AZ 85287. He specializesin researchon teachereducationand teaching.
60

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American Educational Research Association

Review of Educational Research

Characteristicsof Entering TeacherCandidates

Brookhart and Freeman

personalunderstandingsand misconceptionsthat teachercandidatesbringto their

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

Demographicinformationwascollectedin all studies,usuallywithstraightforward

Pigge & Marso

Skipper& Quantz Sur

Pigge & Marso

Pigge & Marso

Brookhart and Freeman

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

Brookhart and Freeman

candidatesin theirsampleplannedto workat least 5 yearsin teachingbut that only

Entrylevelsof self-confidencein teachinghavebeen investigatedin severalways.

been measuredby scaled variablesin several different instruments.The scaled

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

reflect more liberal and democraticideas about education. Skipperand Quantz

None of the researchdesignsin this set of 44 studieswere experimental.Rather,

Brookhart and Freeman

statisticwas reported. A second commonweaknessof surveyresearchis lack of

Thirty-eightof the 44 studiesconsideredin thisreviewused a surveyquestionnaire

Althougha varietyof typesof universitiesis representedin thisresearch,41 of the

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

priorto 1980 (Jacobs, 1968;Jantzen, 1981);only one cross-institutional

Manyof the studiesin this field have portrayedenteringteachercandidatesas a

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

scale points to observed behaviors,could transforma self-reportchecklist (e.g.,

In the precedingsection,a need for morequalitativeresearchwasidentified.At a

Brookhart and Freeman

Therearealsoa numberof promisingresearchagendasforfuturestudiesrelatedto

Applicationof the followingguidelines should enhance both the quality and

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

Brookhart and Freeman

Itasca, IL: Peacock.

*Fox, R. B. (1961). Factorsinfluencingthe careerchoiceof prospectiveteachers.Journalof

teachingprofession.Paperpresentedat the EducationalResearchSymposium,Alva, OK.

at the AnnualMeetingof theAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,Montreal.(ERIC

(TeacherEducationEvaluationReportNo. 4.). Ames, IA: IowaState UniversityResearch

*Jantzen,J. M. (1981).Whycollegestudentschooseto teach:A longitudinalstudy.Journalof

*Joseph,P. B., & Green,N. (1986).Perspectiveson reasonsforbecomingteachers.Journalof

MI: MichiganState University.

* Kalaian, H. A., & Freeman, D. J. (1990, April). Is self-confidence in teaching a multidimen-

sional or unidimensionaltrait?Paperpresentedat the Annual Meetingof the American

UT: Utah State University.(ERIC DocumentReproductionServiceNo. ED 292 773)

Loadman,W. E., Brookhart,S. M., & Freeman,D. J. (1990).Developinga nationaldatabase

Characteristicsof Entering Teacher Candidates

Brookhart and Freeman

SUSANM. BROOKHARTis AssistantProfessor,Schoolof Education,DuquesneUniversity,

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