Ag 530-F

530F1
GENETICS AND HEREDITY

AG 530 - F
UNIT OBJECTIVE
After completion of this unit, students should be able to select livestock using the results of performance
and progeny testing and based on their genetic makeup. Students should also be able to identify the
different systems of breeding livestock and select the method that would best fit the student's particular
farming operation. This knowledge will be demonstrated by completion of assignment sheets, laboratory
exercises and a unit test with a minimum of 85 percent accuracy.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES AND COMPETENCIES
After completion of this unit, the student should be able to:
1.
Match terms associated with selecting and breeding livestock to the correct definitions.
2.
Select from a list hereditary characteristics that are determined by genes.
3.
Describe how heritability should affect selection of breeding stock.
4.
Match the types of livestock to the correct number of chromosome pairs.
5.
Describe in a short paragraph how the genetic makeup of an animal is determined.
6.
Distinguish between dominant, recessive and incomplete dominant genes.
7.
Distinguish between a simple gene inheritance and multiple gene inheritance.
8.
Describe how the sex of the offspring is determined.
9.
Distinguish between performance testing and progeny testing.
10.
Match the different systems of breeding livestock to the correct definitions.
11.
Estimate all possible gene combinations when given the matings using the checkerboard
procedure.
12.
Observe mitosis and meiosis.
13.
Study sex-linked traits.
14.
Predict inheritance.
15.
Study the influence of chance on inheritance.
16.
Breed fruit flies to study genetics.
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AG 530 - F
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
I.
II.
Suggested activities for instructor

A.
Make transparencies and necessary copies of materials.
B.
Provide students with objectives and discuss.
C.
Provide students with information and discuss.
D.
Provide students with assignment and laboratory sheets.
E.
Develop information on dihybrid crosses for more interested students.
F.
Arrange a field trip to allow students an opportunity to see the different livestock
breeding programs.
G.
Obtain sale catalog from production sales for student to study pedigrees.
H.
Take pictures of different hereditary characteristics which may result from

selective breeding.
I.
Discuss and demonstrate assignment sheets and laboratory exercises.
J.
Review and give test.
K.
Reteach and retest if necessary.
Instructional materials
A.
Objective sheet
B.
Suggested activities
C.
Information sheets
D.
Transparency masters
E.
1.
TM 1--Sex Determination
2.
TM 2--Inheritance of Color
Assignment sheet
1.
F.
AS 1--Estimate Possible Gene Combinations Using the Checkerboard

Procedure
Answers to assignment sheet
530F3
III.
G.
Instructor notes for laboratory exercises
H.
Laboratory exercises
1.
LE 1--Mitosis and Meiosis
2.
LE 2--Sex-linked Traits
3.
LE 3--Predicting Inheritance
4.
LE 4--Influence of Chance on Inheritance
5.
LE 5--Breeding Fruit Flies to Study Genetics
I.
Answers to laboratory exercises
J.
Test
K.
Answers to test
Unit references
A.
Agricultural Education Curriculum, College of Agriculture, University of

Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, 1989.
B.
Campbell, John R., Lasley, John F. The Science of Animals That Serve Mankind.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.
C.
Ensminger, M.E., Animal Science. The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc.,
Danville, Illinois, 1962.
D.
Ensminger, M.E., Animal Science. The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc.,
Danville, Illinois, 1977.
E.
Ensminger, M.E., Beef Cattle Science. The Interstate Printers and Publishers,
Inc., Danville, Illinois, 1968.
F.
Ensminger, M.E., Stockman's Handbook. The Interstate Printers and Publishers,

Inc., Danville, Illinois, 1962.
G.
Otto, James H., Towle, Albert, Modern Biology, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Publishers, New York, 1985.
H.
Slesnick, Irwin L., et. al., Biology, Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview,
Illinois, 1985.
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AG 530 - F
INFORMATION SHEET
I.
Terms and definitions

A.
Gene--Complex molecule that determines hereditary characteristics of living
animals; located at definite places on the chromosomes
B.
Chromosome--Thread-like structure which exists in pairs and carries genes
C.
Mutation--Random changes that take place in a gene

(Note: These are very rare and may be harmful.)
D.
Mitosis--Division of a body cell into two duplicate body cells
E.
Meiosis--Division of a sex cell producing a cell or cells containing only one of

each gene and chromosome pair
F.
Genetics--Branch of biology that deals with the heredity and variation of

organisms
G.
Gamete--Mature germ cell, egg or sperm
H.
Fertilization--Union of the egg and sperm
I.
Zygote--Fertilized egg
(Note: In the zygote the genes and chromosomes are restored to pairs.)
J.
Homozygous--Animal that is pure for a certain gene such as the polled gene
K.
Heterozygous--Animal that is a carrier of a pair of unlike genes
L.
Phenotype--The outward appearance of the animal

(Note: Individuals of the same phenotype look alike, but may not breed alike.)
M.
Genotype--Genetic make-up of the animal

(Note: Individuals of the same genotype breed alike.)
N.
Lethal gene--Genetic factor that causes death of the young during prenatal life,
at birth or soon after
(Note: These may be discovered and therefore removed by test mating,
especially a bull to his daughters.)
O.
F1--Symbol which represents the first cross from a mating
P.
F2--Symbol which represents second cross from a mating
Q.
Heritability--Percentage of differences in a trait that can be explained by

inheritance as opposed to environment
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R.
II.
III.
Dwarfism--Inherited characteristic of cattle resulting in small, deformed animals

(Note: Dwarf carrier calves cannot be distinguished from non-dwarf carrier
calves. A purebred breeder would therefore want to get rid of all offspring and
parents known to carry the dwarf characteristic.)
Some hereditary characteristics determined by genes

A.
Body size
B.
Color of hair coat
C.
Eye color
D.
Length of leg
E.
Dwarfism
F.
Ability to fatten
Heritability--Some characteristics in animals are highly heritable while others are not;
selection of breeding stock should be weighted towards those factors which have a high
heritability
Example:
Length of hogs has a 60% heritability while litter size has only a 5-15%
heritability
(Note: Specific heritability percentages for individual traits are provided in the Selection
and Evaluation unit for each livestock species in AG 140.)
IV.
Chromosome pairs of different species

A.
Cattle--30 pairs
B.
Swine--19 pairs
C.
Sheep--27 pairs
D.
Chickens--39 pairs
E.
Humans--23 pairs
F.
Horses--32 pairs
(Note: With all possible combinations in chromosome pairs and genes, each
parent of the livestock species can transmit over one billion different samples of
inheritance. Therefore, no two animals within a given breed are exactly alike
except identical twins.)
V.
Genetic makeup
A.
Determined by the union of two cells, one from each parent
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B.
Each cell contains one chromosome from each pair in the parent or 1/2 the total
number of chromosomes
(Note: These two germ cells indicate whether a calf will be polled instead of
horned, black instead of white, a bull instead of a heifer.)
VI.
Genes
A.
Dominant--Genes that have the ability to cover up or mask the presence of one
member of a set of genes in the F1 generation
Examples:
Pure polled; white face in Herefords; drop ears in swine
(Note: Dominance is usually designated by a capital letter.)

B.
Recessive--Genes that are covered up or masked in the F1 generation

Example:
Horned; erect ears in swine
(Note: Recessive genes are usually designated by a small letter.)

C.
Incomplete dominant--Genes that are neither completely dominant nor recessive

and which only contribute to a certain characteristic
Example:
VII.
Crossing a red and white Shorthorn results in a roan color

which is a combination of red and white hairs. Neither
characteristic completely masks or is masked by the other
Gene inheritance
A.
Simple--One pair of genes determines the inheritance of a particular factor
B.
Multiple--Several pairs of genes determine the inheritance of a particular factor

Examples:
Genes affecting meat production, milk and butterfat

production and growth rate
(Note: Growth rate is hard to identify and is controlled by several genes.)

VIII.
Sex determination (Transparency 1)

A.
A female egg contains an X chromosome
B.
A male sperm contains either an X or Y chromosome
C.
Egg and sperm unite randomly to form zygote

1.
If egg and sperm contain like chromosomes (X and X), a female is

conceived
2.
If egg and sperm contain unlike chromosomes (X and Y), a male is

conceived
(Note: The male sperm therefore determines the sex of the offspring.)
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IX.
Production testing
(Note: Production testing is the practice of evaluating and selecting animals on the basis
of progeny and performance testing. This is done on characteristics of economic
importance.)
A.
Performance testing--Practice of evaluating and selecting animals on the basis of

their individual merit or performance
(Note: This test applies to the measurement of an animal's ability to grow,
convert feed to grain, produce and wean a calf, or yield a high-quality carcass.
In order for this test to be of value, the animal should be compared to the
performance of other animals of the same age being fed and handled under
similar conditions.)
B.
Progeny testing--Practice of selecting animals on the basis of the merit of their

progeny (offspring)
(Note: In order for this type of test to be of value, several offspring should be
evaluated. This test takes much longer than performance testing, but is a better
indication of performance.)
X.
Systems of breeding
A.
Purebred--Member of a breed; animals which possess a common ancestry and

distinctive characteristics and are either registered or eligible for registry in
the herd book of that breed
B.
Inbreeding--System of breeding in which closely related animals are mated

Example:
Brother x sister, sire x daughter, son x dam
(Note: Scientists divide inbreeding into various categories according to the

closeness of the relationship of the animals mated and the purpose of the
mating.)
C.
Outcrossing--Mating of animals that are members of the same breed but which
show no relationship close up in the pedigree
D.
Grading up--System of breeding in which purebred sires of a given pure breed

are mated to native or grade females
E.
Crossbreeding--Mating animals of different breeds

Example:
Hereford x Angus, Simmental x Angus, Hampshire x Suffolk,

Duroc x Chester White
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XI.
Checkerboard system showing gene combinations (Transparency 2)

A.
B.
Cross a pure, polled (PP) bull with horned (pp) cows

1.
Mating:
2.
F1 :
PP x pp
Genotype--Pp
Phenotype--polled
Cross F1 males (Pp) with F1 females (Pp)

1.
Mating:
2.
F2
Pp x Pp
Genotypic ratio--1 PP:2Pp:1pp

Phenotypic ratio--3 polled: 1 horned
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TM 1
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TM 2
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AG 530 - F
ASSIGNMENT SHEET #1--ESTIMATE POSSIBLE GENE COMBINATIONS
USING THE CHECKERBOARD PROCEDURE
Name_______________________________________
Score____________________________________
Calculate each possible gene combination from the following matings. When completed, turn in to
instructor for evaluation.
1.
In Angus cattle, black hair color (B) is dominant over red hair color (b). What will be the
gene combinations of the offspring from the following matings?
a.
BB male x BB female
What will the F1 genotype ratio be?______________________

What will be F1 phenotypic ratio be?_____________________
b.
Bb male x bb female

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c.
Bb male x BB female

d.
bb male x bb female

2.
Suppose you mated a polled cow (PP) to a horned bull (pp). What will be the offspring's
gene combinations?

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3.
Suppose you mated a polled bull carrying a recessive gene for horns (Pp) to a like cow.
What would be the gene combination of the offspring?

4.
Suppose you made a cross of a bull carrying tall genes (DD) to a cow carrying dwarf
genes (dd). What would be the F1 gene combination of the offspring? (use
checkerboard)
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5.
Mate a bull that carries a dominant gene for tall and a recessive gene for dwarf (Dd) to a
heifer with like genes. What would be the possible gene combinations of the offspring?
(Use the checkerboard)
How many animals would be pure for tall? _______________________

How many animals would be tall with a recessive gene for
dwarf?_____________________________________________________
How many animals would be dwarf? ____________________________
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AG 530 - F
ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENT SHEET
Assignment Sheet #1
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530F17

AG 530 - F
INSTRUCTOR NOTES FOR LABORATORY EXERCISES
Lab #1
The principle of mitosis is the same for both plant and animal cells.
Mitosis insures genetic continuity and identity of the daughter cells.
Part I:
Point out to the students that interphase was once considered a "resting period", but this is not accurate
because of the activity in this phase.
Part II:
The differences between plant and animal mitosis are only those of detail.
In diagrams showing stages of mitosis, have students mark those phases where there are definite differences
in the details of mitosis from that of the plant cells.
Part III:
The diagram provided emphasizes the reduction of the chromosomes to half their original number.
Part IV:
Sperm formation (spermatogenesis) is identical, except that the primary spermatocyte divides to form two
secondary spermatocytes. Thus, no polar bodies are formed and four sperms result.
Lab #2
Solution preparation:
In order to prepare a solution of a given percentage, use the number of grams of material equal to the
percentage and add enough solvent to equal 100 ml. For example, a 10% sodium hydroxide solution is
prepared by dissolving 10 g of sodium hydroxide in 90 ml water.
To reduce the concentration of an existing solution, pour the required percentage number of milliliters of
the solution into a graduated cylinder. Add enough distilled water to bring the total volume in milliliters to
equal the percentage of the original solution. For example, to reduce 95% alcohol to 80%, pour 80 ml of
95% alcohol into a graduated cylinder. Add enough distilled water to bring the volume to 95 ml. You now
have 95 ml of 80% alcohol.
530F18
Hydrochloric acid, 20%

20 parts conc. hydrochloric acid
16 parts water
Carefully pour acid into water. Never pour water into the acid.
Part III:
The pipe cleaners should soak for an hour previous to use. They should remain in the solutions until you
are ready to use them, for some may turn brown if they dry out. It is important that the brom thymol blue
be a weak solution and in its transition color, which is blue green. Dilute about as much powdered brom
thymol blue as will stick to half a wet toothpick in 500 ml of hot tap water. If the solution is not in its bluegreen transition color, it may be adjusted as follows: Dilute a few drops of the 1% base about 10-fold, and
a few drops of the 10% acid about 100-fold. Add a drop of the dilute base to the indicator solution. It
should turn a deep blue. If it does not transmit light, it is too concentrated and should be diluted. Next add
a few drops of the dilute acid one drop at a time until the indicator turns the blue-green color. If you go
past this point, add a drop of the acid. If the indicator seems to go directly from blue to yellow and back,
the acid and base solutions are too strong and should be diluted further. It is essential that the indicator be
in its transition color when supplied to the students.
Four test tubes should be filled with the indicator and labeled, representing the "cytoplasm" of four cells.
The pipe cleaner "chromosomes" should be distributed to the cells as directed in the procedure for the
student, and the solutions observed for any change in color.
Instruct the students to use forceps to remove and handle the pipe cleaners.
Part IV:
The teacher should carefully dispose of the solutions in the test tubes.
Lab #3
Part I:
With complete dominance, whenever two individuals for a single trait are crossed, the same ratio is
obtained.
Part VI:
Randomly distribute ears of corn having the 1:1 or 3:1 ratio of color. These may be obtained from several
biological supply houses.
Lab #4
The times for the rounds should be approximately 1-2 minutes in duration. The students should remove the
beans as quickly as possible from the boxes.
Part III:
The probability of a 7 being rolled is greater than for any other number. As you get further away from 7
(either higher or lower) the probability of rolling that number gets smaller. Therefore, 2 and 12 have the
lowest probability.
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Lab #5
Stocks of flies should be ordered about five weeks before they will be used. This is so that they may be
recultured to increase the number of flies. Both old stocks for initial observation and new stocks for
crosses will be required.
Materials
Ether is highly explosive and its vapors are dangerous. For these reasons we strongly recommend that you
use a commercial, non-ether preparation that will anesthetize and immobilize the fruit flies. This type of
non-ether preparation is available from biological supply houses.
Schedule:
Day 1
Have students practice handling the flies and make the F1 cross
Day 7
Discard the F1 parents and observe the F1 larvae
Day 14
Transfer six F1 adults to a fresh vial
Day 21
Record the F1 offspring and discard the F1 adults in the fresh vial used to
make the F2 generation
Day 28
Record and discard the F2 offspring
Part I:
Step 3:
Over-anesthetized and dead fruit flies have wings that stick out at right angles to their
bodies.
Step 7:
You may want the students to save the mixed fruit flies for observation by other classes.
If so, have the students place the flies in the vials as they recover. If the flies are not to be
used again have the students place the anesthetized flies in the oil morgue. The oil
morgue humanely disposes of the flies.
Part II:
Generally it is easier and more accurate for the teacher to collect the virgin flies.
Step 7:
The reciprocal cross of vestigial wing males and wild type females may give skewed
results due to the males' handicaps in courtship behavior.
530F20

AG 530 - F
LABORATORY EXERCISE #1--MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Name_______________________________________
Score____________________________________
Selection from Modern Biology, Biology Investigations, Teacher's Edition, by James H. Otto, Albert Towle,
W. David Otto, and Myra E. Madnick. Copyright 1977 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Reprinted by
permission of the publisher.
Materials needed
Prepared slides of onion root tip
Microscope
Prepared slide of whitefish blastula
Colored pencils
Biology textbook
Part I: Mitosis in Plant Cells
In this part, you will observe the phases of cell division known as mitosis. The genetic materials are
replicated and distributed through the process of mitosis.
Observe the stages of mitosis by examining the cells of an onion root tip with the microscope. The phases
of mitosis are: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Interphase is the phase when a cell is
preparing for mitosis.
Observe the onion root tip under low power of your microscope. Locate an area of the root tip where
mitotic changes can be observed. These changes are best observed in the region between the tip of the root
and where the cells are beginning to elongate. Turn to high power to observe the cells more closely. How
many stages can you locate? Refer to a biology text to help you identify the phases.
a.
What role does the spindle play in the dividing cell?______________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
b.
Where does the cellulose wall form in the mother cell?____________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
c.
What is its function?_______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
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d.
How can you differentiate prophase from metaphase?_____________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
e.
What occurs during interphase?______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
In the diagram, label each of the phases of mitosis. Also identify the: nucleus, nucleolus, spindle,
chromatid, cell plate.
Part II: Mitosis in Animal Cells

In this part, you will observe the mitotic phases in animal cells. You will observe certain structures that
were not present during mitosis in plant cells.
Locate as many phases of mitosis as you can in the prepared slide of the whitefish blastula.
a.
How do the poles of the spindle differ from those of the onion root tip?_______________________
________________________________________________________________________________
b.
Compare the separation of daughter cells with that of the plant cell wall.______________________
________________________________________________________________________________
c.
Are there any structures in the animal cell that were not present in the plant cell?_______________
d.
Are there any mitotic structures present in both the plant and animal cells?____________________
530F22
In the space provided, draw an animal cell in each stage of mitosis. Identify structures that differ from
plant cell mitosis.
Part III: Chromosome Changes During Meiosis

Meiosis is a process that occurs only in the reproductive cells. This process allows for the reduction in
chromosome number during the spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Simplified diagrams of egg and sperm formation are given. Use these diagrams to indicate changes that
occur during meiosis. Refer to the information sheet and/or a biology textbook to help you identify the
stages.
530F23
Draw 2 pairs of chromosomes (use a different color for each) in the first stage of egg formation, the
primary oocyte. Mark one chromosome of each pair A and one B.
a.
What happens in the second cell during oogenesis?_______________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
Show this in the space provided.
b.
What are the chromosomes called following this division?_________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
The chromosomes form pairs, separate, and move toward opposite poles. The primary oocyte divides,
forming a secondary oocyte and the first polar body. Follow these steps in the diagram. Identify the
chromosomes as A and B and use colored pencils to illustrate changes.
c.
What has occurred during this phase?__________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
d.
What happens when the chromatids separate during the division of the secondary oocyte?________
________________________________________________________________________________
e.
What is the chromosome number of the ootid and second polar body?________________________
f.
What happens to the ootid?__________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
Fill in the chromosomes of the egg cell and the 3 polar bodies.
g.
What is the function of the polar bodies in reproduction?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Show the chromosome changes for sperm formation just as you did in egg formation.
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Part IV: Summary

a.
List the stages of mitosis.___________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
b.
What is the significance of the mitotic process?__________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
c.
How does mitosis in plant cells differ from mitosis in animal cells?__________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
d.
What structures are present in both plant and animal cells?_________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
e.
In what cells does meiosis occur?_____________________________________________________
f.
How would you define meiosis?______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
g.
What is the significance of meiosis?___________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
h.
During which stages of the reproductive process does meiosis occur?________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
i.
What would occur if there were no reduction of chromosome number?_______________________

________________________________________________________________________________
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Part V: Investigations On Your Own

1.
Examine different types of animal and plant cells and observe the phases of mitosis. Many
prepared slides are available for this type of observation.
2.
What happens when the sperm and egg cells produced in oogenesis and spermatogenesis meet?
The union of the two cells is called fertilization. Illustrate the chromosome makeup of these cells
by using colored pencils to fill in the diagram provided. When the zygote (fertilized egg) divides,
body cells are formed. Fill in the chromosomes of the body cells.
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AG 530 - F
LABORATORY EXERCISE #2--SEX-LINKED TRAITS
Name_______________________________________
Score____________________________________
Selection from Modern Biology, Biology Investigations, Teachers Edition, by James H. Otto, Albert
Towle, W. David Otto, and Myra E. Madnick. Copyright 1977 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Materials needed
2 pennies
Adhesive tape
Forceps
4 test tubes (15 cm)
2 untreated white pipe cleaners
4 pipe cleaners soaked in 10% hydrochloric acid solution
2 pipe cleaners soaked in 1% sodium hydroxide solution
Weak brom thymol blue solution
Part I: How is Sex Determined?
Each human body cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. One of these pairs is different in the male and
female.
a.
What is this 23rd pair of chromosomes called?__________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
Examine the genotype in the figure.
Figure 1
b.
What is the genotype of the female?___________________________________________________
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c.
Following meiosis, how many different sex chromosomes will be in the eggs?_________________
d.
What difference may be seen in the genotype of the male?_________________________________
e.
What is the possibility of chromosomes in sperms following meiosis?________________________
Now let's demonstrate the probability involved in sex determination. Tape an "X" on one side of a penny,
and on the other side, tape a "Y". On another penny, tape an "X" on both sides. Now, flip both coins and
let them land.
f.
What "chromosomes" appear?_______________________________________________________
Continue the flips for at least 30 times. Record the chromosome combination that appears each time in the
table.
g.
What is the approximate ratio of genotypes obtained from flipping the pennies?________________
Figure 2
Now diagram the inheritance of sex chromosomes in the Punnett square.
Figure 3
h.
What is the probability that the offspring will be male?____________________________________
i.
Female?_________________________________________________________________________
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j.
Which gamete actually determines the sex of the offspring?

______________________________________________________________________________
k.
Why is it impossible to predict accurately the sex of offspring?_____________________________
Part II: Color Blindness - A Sex-Linked Trait

When a gene is carried on a sex chromosome, it is said to be sex-linked. In humans, the genes controlling
color vision are located on the X chromosome. The X chromosome carrying a gene for normal vision is
represented XC, while Xc represents a gene for color blindness. Study the following table before
diagramming the inheritance of color blindness in humans.
Use the Punnett square to determine the color vision ability of the offspring of a couple whose genotypes
are XcY and XCXc.
Figure 4
a.
What percent of the females are color blind?____________________________________________
b.
What is their genotype?_____________________________________________________________
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c.
What percent of the males are color blind?______________________________________________
d.
How is it possible that some male offspring have normal vision when the male parent is color
blind?
________________________________________________________________________________
Part III: A Model of Sex Linkage
In this part, you will use pipe cleaners to represent sex-linked chromosomes and test tubes to represent
body cells. Obtain 4 pipe cleaners that have soaked for an hour in a 10% hydrochloric acid solution, 2 pipe
cleaners soaked for an hour in a 1% sodium hydroxide solution, and 2 untreated pipe cleaners. Bend 2
untreated cleaners into a cane shape to represent the Y chromosome. Those soaked in the hydrochloric acid
solution will represent the XC chromosome, while those soaked in the sodium hydroxide solution represent
the Xc chromosome. Number the test tube "cells" 1 through 4. Fill each tube two thirds full of brom
thymol blue solution. This model demonstrates the masking of the genes when a dominant and recessive
gene are present in the same cell. The color which appears in the test tube cells indicates the phenotype.
The solution turns yellow in the presence of acid (hydrochloric). Distribute the variously treated
"chromosomes" as shown:
Figure 5
Set up two acid "chromosomes" in tube 1; an acid and a base in tube 2; an acid and an untreated cleaner in
tube 3; and a base and an untreated cleaner in tube 4. Observe any color change in the tubes. Record your
observations and conclusions in the following table:
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Part IV: Summary

a.
Why is sex determination considered a matter of chance?__________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b.
Explain why males more often exhibit sex-linked traits than females._________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c.
In the demonstration using pipe cleaners, what percent of the males would be color blind?________
d.
females?_________________________________________________________________________
e.
If the male had been color blind and the female a carrier, what percent of the females would be
color blind?_____________________________________________________________________
f.
What percent of the males would be color blind?_________________________________________
Part V: Investigations On Your Own

Hemophilia is a sex-linked trait of humans inherited in the same manner as color blindness. Because it
often results in death, it is said to be lethal. Prepare a report on this sex-linked disease and other sex-linked
traits not studied in this investigation. Include in your report an analysis of where it occurs in populations
and the consequences of it being inherited.
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AG 530 - F
LABORATORY EXERCISE #3--PREDICTING INHERITANCE
Name_______________________________________
Score____________________________________
Selection from Modern Biology, Biology Investigations, Teachers Ediction, by James H. Otto, Albert
Materials needed
Genetic corn showing a 1:1 ratio of purple-nonpurple
Genetic corn showing a 3:1 ratio of purple-nonpurple
Straight pins
Part I: Predicting Ratios in a Monohybrid Cross
In this part, you will diagram the inheritance of a single trait. Flower position on pea plants is the trait to be
studied here.
The parent plants crossed by Mendel are shown in the diagram. Axial flowers grow along the stem.
Terminal flowers develop only at the tip of the stem. Mendel found in pea plants that axial (A) flower
position is dominant to terminal (a) flower position. Examine the genotypes of each parent.
a.
Which parent is homozygous for the dominant trait?______________________________________
b.
the recessive trait?_________________________________________________________________
c.
What gene will be contained in the gamete of the male parent?______________________________
d.
the female parent?_________________________________________________________________
Diagram the cross in the F1 Punnett square.

e.
What genes were inherited by the F1 offspring?__________________________________________
f.
When planted, what will be the position of the flowers produced by the F1 plants?______________
530F32
g.
How is the Principle of Unit Characters demonstrated?____________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
h.
of dominance?____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
In the Punnett square, cross the F1 offspring with themselves to obtain the F2 generation.
i.
Why is this called a monohybrid cross?________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
j.
What ratio do you predict for phenotype among the F2 offspring?____________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
k.
What is the predicted ratio of genotype among the F2 offspring?_____________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
l.
When complete dominance is involved, would the predicted ratios obtained in this cross hold true
for any monohybrid cross?_________________________________________________________
Part II: What Ratios Are Obtained in a Dihybrid Cross?

In horses, black coats and trotting gait are dominant while the recessive alleles are white and pacing gait.
If the male is homozygous for both dominant traits:
a.
What is the genotype of the male?____________________________________________________
b.
What genes are present in the sperms?_________________________________________________
c.
If the female is recessive for both traits, what genes are present in the eggs?___________________
530F33
d.
What is the genotype of the F1 generation?_____________________________________________
e.
What is the phenotype of the F1 generation?____________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
Assuming a male and female are produced in the F1, use these as parents to produce the F2 generation.
530F34
Diagram the possible inheritance of the offspring from such a cross in the Punnett square and list the ratio
of phenotypes.
h.
Are the ratios obtained from these offspring predictable? __________________________________

Explain.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Part III: How is Incomplete Dominance Shown in a Plant and Animal?

In inheritance involving incomplete dominance, both alleles in a gene pair exert an equal influence on a
trait.
When a snapdragon plant bearing red flowers is crossed with a snapdragon plant bearing white flowers,
plants bearing pink snapdragons are produced.
a.
If the male parent is homozygous for red snapdragons, what kind of gene will be present in the
sperms?________________________________________________________________________________
b.
If the female is homozygous for white, what kind of gene will be present in each egg?___________
530F35
c.
What is the genotype of the F1?______________________________________________________
Cross two plants producing pink snapdragons to obtain the F2 generation.

d.
Indicate the ratios of colors in the snapdragon flowers produced.____________________________
Part IV: How Do Genetic Traits Appear in Corn?

The color of corn grains (purple or nonpurple) is an inherited characteristic that is easily observed. When
pure strains of corn producing purple grains are crossed with pure strains of corn producing nonpurple
grains, all of the offspring have purple grains.
Determine what kind of cross produced your ear of corn by counting the number of purple and yellow
kernels. Use a straight pin to mark your starting row. Record your count of each row in the table. Do not
pick the kernels from the ear.
a.
What percent of the seeds were purple?________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
b.
Nonpurple?______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
c.
What is the ratio of purple to nonpurple seeds?__________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
530F36
d.
Based on the ratios, what are the genotypes of the parents crossed to obtain your ear of corn?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
e.
Explain any evidence of purple color in the nonpurple grains._______________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Part V: Summary
a.
Briefly define each of Mendel's Law and Principles that have been demonstrated in the crosses
you have completed in this investigation.
Principle of Dominance___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Principle of Unit Characters________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Law of Independent Assortment_____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Can you answer the following questions?

b.
In a cross of two individuals heterozygous for a single trait, what genotype and phenotype ratios
would be obtained?________________________________________________________________
c.
What phenotype ratio is obtained when individuals heterozygous for two traits are crossed?
______________________________________________________________________________
d.
Explain if the Law of Independent Assortment would apply if the genes for coat color and gait in
horses were carried on the same chromosomes.__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
e.
On the basis of your results, explain how genetic principles yield predictable results.____________
______________________________________________________________________________
530F37
Part VI: Investigations On Your Own

Obtain an ear of corn showing a 9:3:3:1 ratio (purple-smooth-yellow-shrunken seeds) and determine the
genotypes of the parents by counting the characteristics inherited on your ear of corn. Classify and record
your count of the seeds. Summarize your findings by determining the genotype and phenotype ratios.
Outline a cross of the F1 and F2 generations which were used to produce the ratios as you have determined
them.
530F38

AG 530 - F
LABORATORY EXERCISE #4--INFLUENCE OF CHANCE ON INHERITANCE
Name_______________________________________
Score____________________________________
Selection from Modern Biology, Biology Investigations, Teachers Ediction, by James H. Otto, Albert
Materials needed
2 boxes (bottom half of half-gallon milk carton)
100 red beans
100 white beans
Part I: Demonstrating Chance
The class should be divided into pairs for this study. Each pair of investigators should have two boxes of
beans. Each box contains a mixture of 50 red beans and 50 white beans.
a.
If each box represents a set of genes from one parent, what could each bean represent?
______________________________________________________________________________
In a series of rounds that will be timed by your teacher, take one bean from each box and lay the pairs in
rows: red-red, red-white and white-white.
b.
Why must a bean be chosen from each box?____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
After each round, count the beans in each row and record the selected combinations in the table.
c.
How many combinations are possible using two kinds of beans?____________________________
d.
What accounts for the variation in offspring represented by the pairs of genes?_________________
______________________________________________________________________________
530F39
Part II: Summary

Summarize your observations by calculating the ratios for each type of gene pair using the following
procedure:
1.
Add the total of your 3 rows and divide the sum by 4. (The 4 represents the reduction that occurs
in the formation of eggs and sperm during meiosis.)
2.
Divide the quotient into the total for each row.
3.
The number obtained expresses a ratio. A sample calculation is given.

Sample Calculation
a.
(1)
37 + 86 + 41 = 164
164 / 4 = 41
(2)
37 / 41 = 0.9
86 / 41 = 2.1
41 / 41 = 1.0
(3)
Ratio .9 red-red; 2.1 red-white; 1.0 white-white; or 1:2:1
Express the ratio in whole numbers._________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
b.
Why is it necessary to have so many beans in each box?_________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
c.
Why is it necessary to select so many pairs?___________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
d.
What are the chances of selecting the same color in a gene pair?___________________________
e.
What are the chances of selecting a different color?_____________________________________
f.
Explain the importance of using two different colors.____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
g.
What genetic principles are demonstrated by this study?_________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
530F40
h.
How does chance selection of genes, as demonstrated with beans, provide the basis for variation in
organisms?_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Part III: Investigations On Your Own

Roll dice for 100 times and keep a tabulation of the sum of the numbers which appear on the dice. Plot the
tabulations on a sheet of graph paper. Determine the probability of rolling dice to achieve a 2, 3, 4, or 5,
etc. Write up your results and include a discussion of how a little knowledge of probability is useful in the
study of genetics.
530F41

AG 530 - F
LABORATORY EXERCISE #5--BREEDING FRUIT FLIES
TO STUDY GENETICS
Name_______________________________________
Score____________________________________
Slesnick, Irwin L., Biology Laboratory Manual, Scott, Foresman and Company, 1985. Reprinted by
permission of Scott, Foresman and Company.
Introduction
The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is especially good for genetic research. This is because the flies are
small, feed on an inexpensive yeast cell media, and have a short life cycle. Due to these three factors a
large population of fruit flies can be raised quickly and inexpensively in a small area. The fruit fly goes
through a full generation, from the birth of parents to the birth of offspring, in just ten to fourteen days.
This quick maturation enables the results of breeding experiments to be quickly seen. In this laboratory,
you will make crosses of fruit flies to study the resulting offspring.
Materials needed
Living Drosophila cultures (Wild wing type and vestigial wing type)
Anesthetic
Instant Drosophila medium (Commercial preparation)
Two small vials with plastic-foam plugs (4" x 1 1/2")
Forceps
Old culture of "mixed-strain" fruit flies
Re-anesthetizer (Consists of a petri dish, gauze or cotton balls and tape)
Artist's paint brush
Stereoscopic microscope
White index card
Labels or masking tape
Morgue consisting of a jar of oil (vegetable or motor oil)
Part I: Anesthetizing and Observing the Fruit Flies
1.
Obtain a culture of the mixed fruit flies. Gently tap the bottom of the culture vial on a book to
force the flies to the bottom as shown in a.
530F42
2.
Add the anesthetic to the wick supplied with the anesthetic. Insert the wick into the culture vial
just below the plastic foam plug as shown in b.
3.
Lay the culture vial on its side in the groove of an open book as shown in c, so that the flies do not
get stuck in the medium as they become immobilized. Within four minutes all flies should
become anesthetized and immobile.
4.
Transfer the flies to a white index card as shown in d. Examine the flies under the stereoscopic
microscope. Use the paint brush to move the flies around on the card.
530F43
5.
If the flies start to recover from the anesthetic use the re-anesthetizer to re-anesthetize the flies.
Do this by placing a few drops of the anesthetic on the gauze attached with tape to the bottom of
the petri dish which will serve as a re-anesthetizer. Place the dish over the recovering flies until
the flies are immobilized once again. Refer to e showing the set-up of the petri dish reanesthetizer.
6.
Sort your flies according to their sex. Notice in figure f that the male fruit flies have a sex comb, a
dark, blunt-shaped abdomen, and five bands compared to the female's lack of a sex comb, and
pointed abdomen with seven bands. In addition, the female is generally larger than the male fruit
fly. Besides the sex differences, what other distinct difference do you notice?
a.______________________________________________________________________________
530F44
Draw the difference that you observe on the wingless fruit fly in figure g below.
7.
Dispose of the fruit flies when you are finished observing them according to instructions given by
your teacher.
Part II: Performing the Parental F1 Cross

1.
Flies from the stock vials of wild wing type and vestigial wing type contain both males and
females. In performing a cross the females that are used must be virgins. To be assured of using
females that are virgins, the females must be collected before they are twelve-hours-old. This is
because female fruit flies are capable of mating with the males only after they are twelve-hoursold. What problems would occur in genetic experimentation if day-old females taken from stock
vials containing males and females were used in genetic crosses?
a.______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2.
Anesthetize flies from the stock vials of the wild wing and the vestigial wing fruit flies. Select
three wild winged males and three vestigial winged females.
3.
Place the six future parents on a cardboard wedge made from an index card as shown in h. Place
the wedge on its side in a fresh vial of media until the flies recover. Keep the wedge in the vial
throughout the reproductive cycle as a substance on which the larvae can form pupae. Place the
vial in an open book as shown in i until the flies recover.
530F45
4.
Stick a label on your vial with the following information:

Genetic cross:________________________________________
Date:_______________________________________________
Your name:__________________________________________
5.
Incubate the flies at about 25-28 degrees Celsius. On about day seven, remove the parent flies
from the vial. Dispose of the parent flies as instructed by your teacher. Depending mostly on
temperature, the adult flies of the F1 generation should emerge in about 10 to 14 days. While you
are waiting for the F1 flies to emerge, use the stereoscopic microscope to examine the stages in the
life cycle of the fruit fly. Record your observations over the 10-14 day life cycle in Table I below.
6.
After 50 adult flies hatch in the vial, carefully anesthetize them following steps 1-5 in Part I.
Then, select any three females and any three males. Place the six flies in a fresh vial of media as
you did with the parents of this generation in illustrations h and i. Label the vial. The offspring
that result from this cross will the F2 generation.
530F46
7.
Re-anesthetize the remaining F1 adults. Count and sort the flies from the F1 parental cross
according to sex and wing type. Record the data in Table II. Dispose of the fruit flies as directed
by your teacher. Complete the Punnett Square next to Table II showing the expected results from
the parental cross. Remember to include in your count the six F1 flies used in the cross in step 6.
Part III: Observing and Interpreting the Results of the F1 Cross

1.
When the larvae are seen in the vials of the F1 cross (in about seven days) remove the six adults
and dispose of them in the manner instructed by your teacher.
530F47
2.
After more than 50 flies have emerged from the vial (in about 15 days from the date of the cross)
anesthetize, count and sort the flies according to sex and wing type. Dispose of the counted flies
as directed by your teacher. Record the data you collect in Table III. Complete the Punnett Square
next to Table III showing the expected results from the F1 cross. The F1 cross results in the F2
generation of fruit flies.
Part IV: Analysis

1.
List two differences in body structures that enable you to distinguish male from female fruit
flies.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2.
Explain whether it would be necessary to use virgin females for an F2 cross._______________

____________________________________________________________________________
3.
Explain how genetic dominance was shown in the F1 generation.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
530F48
4.
For what reasons are parents removed from culture vials on about the seventh day after the
larvae appear?________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5.
What are the genotypic differences between the F1 flies and the wild type parent flies?_______
____________________________________________________________________________
6.
How do the F2 wild type flies compare genetically with the original parent wild type flies?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7.
How do the results of the F1 cross illustrate the Law of Segregation?_____________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8.
What percentage of the F2 flies did you expect to have vestigial wings?___________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9.
Considering the total number of F2 flies counted, how many should have had vestigial wings?
____________________________________________________________________________
10.
What percentage should have had wild type wings?___________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
11.
How many of the total should have had wild type wings?______________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
12.
How would you explain the difference between expected and actual results in the F2
generation?___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
530F49

AG 530 - F
ANSWERS TO LABORATORY EXERCISES
Lab #1
Part I:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
The chromosomes migrate along the spindles.

Across the center or the equatorial plate
To separate the 2 daughter cells
Prophase: formation of asters, disintegration of nucleolus, moving of chromatids to the equator.
Metaphase: chromatids line up at equator.
A period of growth and other activities (not part of cell division)
Part II:
a.
b.
c.
d.
A centriole is present at the poles of the spindle in the animal cell.

Animal cells pinch in two; plant cells form a cell wall between daughter cells.
Centrioles
Chromosomes and spindle fibers
Part III:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
The chromosomes replicate, but do not separate.

Tetrads
The chromatids form pairs and separate from the tetrad.
Reduction-division occurs.
Haploid (n) chromosome number
Matures into an egg
They have no function and will gradually disintegrate.
530F50
Part IV:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

Insures genetic continuity
Centrioles are observed in animal cells; cell plate in plant cells
Chromosomes and spindle fibers
Reproductive cells
Reduction of chromosome number during spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Chromosome number is halved so that full complement can recur at fertilization.
Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
At fertilization there would be twice as many chromosomes in the zygote.
Lab #2
Part I:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Sex chromosomes
XX
one, an X
Y
X or Y
two X's, or an X and Y
Figure 2: Evaluated to the satisfaction of instructor.

g. 1:1
Figure 3
h.
i.
j.
k.
50%
50%
male
It is purely a matter of chance.
530F51
Part II:
Figure 4
a.
b.
c.
d.
50%
XcXc
50%
The male offspring inherited Xc from the female parent.
Part III:
Part IV:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
There is a 50% probability that a female X will be paired with a male Y chromosome.
Males are lacking a corresponding gene on the Y chromosome; therefore, whatever gene is
inherited on the female X is exhibited by the male.
50%
None
50%
50%
530F52
Lab #3
Part I:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Male
Female
A
a
e.
f.
g.
h.
A and a
Axial
The characteristic is determined by a pair of genes, one contributed by each parent.
The A gene exerted its influence in spite of the presence of gene a. Gene a was prevented from
exerting its influence.
Two individuals hybrid for a single trait are being crossed.
3 axial to 1 terminal
1AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
Yes
i.
j.
k.
l.
Part II:
a.
b.
c.
d.
BBTT
B and T
b and t
BbTt
530F53
e.
black, trotters
f.
g.
9 black-trotters
3 black-pacers
3 thite-trotters
1 white-pacers
Yes. Only if complete dominance is involved in both traits.
1 BBTT
2 BbTT
1 bbTT
2 BBTt
4 BbTt
2 bbTt
1 BBtt
2 Bbtt
1 bbtt
Yes, if both parents possess two traits that are completely dominant and both parents are hybrid for
the traits.
h.
Part III:
a.
b.
c.
r
w
rw
d.
1 red, 2 pink, 1 white
530F54
Part IV:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
50% or 75% depending on the strain. Answers will vary.

Answers will vary. 50% or 75% depending on the strain.
1:1 or 3:1, depending on the strain used.
Corn having a 1:1 ratio of purple to nonpurple seeds would be the result of a cross between a
purple hybrid (Pp) and a nonpurple parent (pp). Corn having a 3:1 ratio would be the result of a
cross between
two purple hybrids (Pp x Pp).
There is none since a gene for purple produces a completely purple seed. Purple is dominant over
nonpurple.
Part V:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
The dominant genes prevent the expression of the recessive genes.

The characteristics are determined by pairs of genes represented by symbols.
Since genes are separated independently of each other during meiosis, it is a matter of chance
which genes are present in the gametes.
The genotype ratio is 3:1 and the phenotype ratio is 1:2:1.
The phenotype ratio is 9:3:3:1.
The Law of Independent Assortment applies only when genes are located on different chromosomes.
Knowledge of dominance and recessiveness of a trait yield predictable ratios in the offspring.
Lab #4
Part I:
a.
b.
c.
d.
A gene or chromosome
To represent the gene or chromosome contributed by each parent
Three
Variation is due to the chance combination of different genes upon fertilization.
Part II:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Should approximate a 1:2:1 ratio

To ensure chance selection
Large samples are more reliable in obtaining ratios.
50:50
50:50
Each color represents one of the gene pairs.
Chance distribution and combination of genes; law of segregation.
Chance selection of genes allows for recombination of traits in the offspring, with the number of
possible combinations being directly proportional to the number of chromosomes and genes in the
cells of the organism.
Lab #5
Part I:
a.
b.
Some flies have crooked, wrinkled wings while others have normal wings
530F55
Part II:
a.
The results of the crosses between males and females would not be valid. This is because the
genotype of the male that mated with the female would be unknown if an earlier mating took place
in the vial. Thus, the mating cross would not be controlled.
Table II: Totals should show 100% wild winged phenotype

Parent genotypes vv x VV
F1 phenotypes: All wild
F1 genotypes: All Vv
Punnett Square:
Vv
vV
Vv
Vv
Part III:
Table III: Totals should show 75% wild and 25% vestigial winged phenotypes
F1 genotypes: wild Vv x wild Vv
F2 phenotypes: 3/4 wild , 1/4 vestigial
F2 genotypes: VV, Vv, vv
Punnett Square:
VV Vv
vV vv
530F56
Part IV:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Males have a sex comb, five-banded abdomen, blunt abdomen and smaller size.
No. All flies in the F1 vial will have the same genotype.
Only the wild wing phenotype appeared in the F1 generation. The vestigial wing trait was
masked.
So that the parents will not be counted in the offspring count from the cross.
The F1 flies are heterozygous even though they have a wild phenotype.
50% of the F2 wild type flies have the same genotype (VV) as the parent wild type flies and 50%
have a (Vv) genotype.
Since each fly has two alleles for a trait that segregates during gamete formation the offspring of
the F1 cross represent the random combination of these gametes to produce the 3 to 1 ratio.
1/4 or 25%
Student answer will vary depending on experimental results.
3/4 or 75%
About 3/4 of the total number of F2 flies
There could have been sources of error that entered into the experiment. For example, any of the
following could have changed the expected results: death of larvae or eggs, failure to clear parents
from vial before counting the flies, small sample size, failure to use virgin females for the crosses.
530F57

AG 530 - F
UNIT TEST
Name_______________________________________Score_____________________________________
1.
Match the terms on the right to the correct definitions.

_____a.
Mature germ cell, egg or sperm
1.
Gamete
_____b.
Fertilized egg
2.
Fertilization
_____c.
The outward appearance of the animal
3.
Zygote
_____d.
Complex molecule that determines

hereditary characteristics of living
animals; located at definite places on
the chromosomes
4.
Homozygous
5.
Heterozygous
6.
Phenotype
7.
Genotype
8.
Lethal gene
9.
Gene
_____e.
Branch of biology that deals with the

heredity and variation of organisms
_____f.
Animal that is a carrier of a pair of

unlike genes
_____g.
Thread-like structure which exists in

pairs and carries genes
_____h.
Division of a body cell into two

duplicate body cells
_____i.
Genetic makeup of the animal
_____j.
Animal that is pure for a

certain gene such as the polled gene
_____k.
_____l.
Symbol which represents the second cross

from a mating
Division of a sex cell producing a cell
or cells containing only one of each gene
and chromosome pair
_____m.
Genetic factor that causes death of the

young during prenatal life, at birth or
soon after
_____n.
Union of the egg and sperm
10.
Dwarfism
11.
Chromosome
12.
Mutation
13.
Mitosis
14.
Meiosis
15.
Genetics
16.
F1
17.
F2
18.
Heritability
530F58
2.
_____o.
Percentage of differences in a trait that can

be explained by inheritance as opposed to
environment
_____p.
Inherited characteristic of cattle resulting

in small, deformed animals
_____q.
Random changes that take place in a gene
_____r.
Symbol which represents the first cross from a mating
Select from the list hereditary characteristics that are determined by genes.
____a. Body size
____b. Age
____c. Color of hair coat
____d. Eye color
____e. Ability to fatten
____f.
3.
Environment
Describe how heritability should affect selection of breeding stock.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4.
Match the animals on the right to the correct number of chromosome pairs.
____a.
19 pairs
1.
Cattle
____b.
39 pairs
2.
Sheep
____c.
30 pairs
3.
Swine
____d.
23 pairs
4.
Humans
____e.
27 pairs
5.
Chickens
____f.
32 pairs
6.
Horses
530F59
5.
Describe in a short paragraph how the genetic makeup of an animal is determined.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6.
Distinguish between dominant, recessive and incomplete dominant genes. Place a "D" in the
blank if the statement indicates a dominant characteristic, an "R" in the blank if the statement
indicates a recessive characteristic, or an "I" if the statement indicates an incomplete dominant
characteristic.
____a. Genes that do not completely mask or are not completely masked by the paired gene.
____b. Genes that are covered up or masked in the F1 generation.
____c. Genes that have the ability to cover up or mask the presence of one of a set of genes in
the F1 generation.
7.
8.
Distinguish between simple gene inheritance and multiple gene inheritance. Place "SG" in the
blank if the statement indicates a simple gene inheritance or "MG" in the blank if the statement
indicates a multiple gene inheritance.
____a.
One pair of genes determine the inheritance of a particular factor.
____b.
Several pair of genes determine the inheritance of a particular factor.
Describe how the sex of the offspring is determined.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
9.
Distinguish between performance testing and progeny testing by placing "PE" if the statement
indicates performance testing or "PR" if the statement indicates progeny testing.
____a.
Bull "A" has an excellent track record in producing daughters with strong rear udder
attachment.
____b.
Bull "B" has won a number of shows because of his outstanding visual characteristics.
530F60
10.
11.
Match different systems of livestock breeding to the correct definitions.

_____a.
System of breeding in which closely

related animals are mated
1.
Crossbreeding
_____b.
Mating of animals that are members of

the same breed but which show
no relationship close up in the pedigree
2.
Purebred
_____c.
Member of a breed; animals which possess

a common ancestry and distinctive
characteristics and are either registered
or eligible for registry in the herd book
of that breed
3.
Inbreeding
4.
Grading up
5.
Outcrossing
_____d.
Mating of animals of different breeds
_____e.
System of breeding in which purebred sires

of a given pure breed are mated to native
or grade females
Estimate the possible gene combinations if you mated a polled bull (Pp) carrying a recessive gene
for horns to a horned cow (pp) carrying recessive genes for horns.
a.
How many pure polled?___________________________________________________
b.
How many polled with recessive genes for horns?_______________________________
c.
How many pure horned?___________________________________________________
530F61

AG 530 - F
ANSWERS TO TEST
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
2.
a, c, d, e
3.
Description should include the fact that some factors are more heritable than others and that
selection should be weighted towards those factors with high heritability
4.
a.
b.
c.
5.
The description should include that genetic makeup is determined by the union of two cells, one
from each parent, and that each cell contains one chromosome from each pair in the parent or 1/2
the total number of chromosomes
6.
a.
b.
7.
a.
SG
b.
MG
8.
1
3
6
9
15
5
3
5
1
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
d.
e.
f.
11
13
7
4
17
14
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
8
2
18
10
12
16
4
2
6
c.
Description should include: A female egg contains an X chromosome; A male sperm contains
either an X or Y chromosome; Egg and sperm unite randomly to form zygote: If egg and sperm
contain like chromosomes (X and X), a female is conceived; If egg and sperm contain unlike
chromosomes (X and Y), a male is conceived
9.
a.
PR
b.
PE
10.
a.
b.
c.
3
5
2
d.
e.
1
4
11.
a.
b.
c.
none
two
two

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530F1

GENETICS AND HEREDITY

Select from a list hereditary characteristics that are determined by genes.

Describe how heritability should affect selection of breeding stock.

Match the types of livestock to the correct number of chromosome pairs.

Describe in a short paragraph how the genetic makeup of an animal is determined.

Distinguish between dominant, recessive and incomplete dominant genes.

Distinguish between a simple gene inheritance and multiple gene inheritance.

Describe how the sex of the offspring is determined.

Distinguish between performance testing and progeny testing.

Match the different systems of breeding livestock to the correct definitions.

Observe mitosis and meiosis.

Study sex-linked traits.

Study the influence of chance on inheritance.

Breed fruit flies to study genetics.

GENETICS AND HEREDITY

Suggested activities for instructor

Make transparencies and necessary copies of materials.

Provide students with objectives and discuss.

Provide students with information and discuss.

Provide students with assignment and laboratory sheets.

Develop information on dihybrid crosses for more interested students.

Take pictures of different hereditary characteristics which may result from

Discuss and demonstrate assignment sheets and laboratory exercises.

Review and give test.

Reteach and retest if necessary.

AS 1--Estimate Possible Gene Combinations Using the Checkerboard

Answers to assignment sheet

Instructor notes for laboratory exercises

LE 1--Mitosis and Meiosis

LE 4--Influence of Chance on Inheritance

LE 5--Breeding Fruit Flies to Study Genetics

Answers to laboratory exercises

Agricultural Education Curriculum, College of Agriculture, University of

Ensminger, M.E., Stockman's Handbook. The Interstate Printers and Publishers,

GENETICS AND HEREDITY

Terms and definitions

Chromosome--Thread-like structure which exists in pairs and carries genes

Mutation--Random changes that take place in a gene

Mitosis--Division of a body cell into two duplicate body cells

Meiosis--Division of a sex cell producing a cell or cells containing only one of

Genetics--Branch of biology that deals with the heredity and variation of

Gamete--Mature germ cell, egg or sperm

Fertilization--Union of the egg and sperm

Heterozygous--Animal that is a carrier of a pair of unlike genes

Phenotype--The outward appearance of the animal

Genotype--Genetic make-up of the animal

F1--Symbol which represents the first cross from a mating

F2--Symbol which represents second cross from a mating

Heritability--Percentage of differences in a trait that can be explained by

Dwarfism--Inherited characteristic of cattle resulting in small, deformed animals

Some hereditary characteristics determined by genes

Color of hair coat

Chromosome pairs of different species

Determined by the union of two cells, one from each parent

Pure polled; white face in Herefords; drop ears in swine

(Note: Dominance is usually designated by a capital letter.)

Recessive--Genes that are covered up or masked in the F1 generation

Horned; erect ears in swine

(Note: Recessive genes are usually designated by a small letter.)

Incomplete dominant--Genes that are neither completely dominant nor recessive

Crossing a red and white Shorthorn results in a roan color

Simple--One pair of genes determines the inheritance of a particular factor

Multiple--Several pairs of genes determine the inheritance of a particular factor