Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
2011
Editorial Board of the RMC series
Marian Andronache
National College Sf. Sava Bucharest
luna
Mihai Ba
National College Mihai Viteazul Bucharest
Mircea Becheanu
University of Bucharest
Bogdan Enescu
National College B.P. Hasdeu Buz
au
Radu Gologan Coordinator of the series
Institute of Mathematics and
University Politehnica Bucharest
lin Popescu
Ca
Institute of Mathematics
Dan Schwarz
Intuitext Company
nescu
Dinu S
erba
National College Sf. Sava Bucharest
c 2011 Societatea de S
Copyright
tiinte Matematice din Rom
ania
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any
form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
Societatea de S
tiinte Matematice din Rom
ania
Str. Academiei 14, 010014 Bucuresti, Rom
ania
http://www.rms.unibuc.ro
tel/fax: +40213124072
ISSN 20666446
, A NDREI E CKSTEIN
Contributors M ARIAN A NDRONACHE , M IHAIL B ALUN
A
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1.1. 2011 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad District Round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.2. 2011 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad Final Round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
1.3. Shortlisted problems for the 2011 Romanian NMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4. Selection tests for the 2011 BMO and IMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.5. Selection tests for the 2011 JBMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.6. 2011 Balkan Mathematical Olympiad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7. 2010 2011 Local Mathematical Competitions
1.7.1. The 2010 DANUBE Mathematical Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.7.2. The 2010 Eighth IMAR1 Mathematical Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.7.3. The 2010 Fourth S TARS OF M ATHEMATICS Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.7.4. The 2011 Fourth ROMANIAN M ASTER OF M ATHEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.7.5. The 2011 C LOCK -T OWER S CHOOL Seniors Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.6.6. The 2011 C LOCK -T OWER S CHOOL Juniors Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1 I NSTITUTE OF
iii
FOREWORD
The 18th volume of the Romanian Mathematical Contests series contains more
than 200 problems, submitted at different stages of the Romanian Mathematical Olympiad, other Romanian Contests, and some international ones. Most of them are original, but some problems from other sources were used as well during competition.
A significant part of the problems are discussed in detail, and alternative solutions
or generalizations are given. Some of the solutions belong to students and were given
while they sat the contest; we thank them all.
We thank the Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sports for constant involvement in supporting the Olympiads and the participation of our teams in international events.
Special thanks are due to the Dinu Patriciu Foundation, to WBS, and to the
Council of the District of Dambovita all sponsors of the Romanian IMO team.
The Editors
Problem 1. In a square of side length 60, 121 distinct points are given. Show that
among them there exists three points which are vertices of a triangle with an area not
exceeding 30.
Solution. Divide the square into 60 rectangles 512. By the pigeonhole principle,
there are three points among the given ones inside one of the rectangles. The area of
this triangle does not exceed half of the area of the rectangle, that is 5 12/2 = 30, as
needed.
Problem 2. Consider an isosceles trapezoid ABCD with perpendicular diagonals. The parallel from the intersection point of the diagonals meets the non-parallel
sides [BC] and [AD] at points P and R respectively. Point Q is the mirror image of
P across the midpoint of [BC]. Show that
a) QR = AD; b) QR AD.
Claudiu Popa
Solution. Let the diagonals AC and BD meet at point O and let M be the midpoint of the line segment [BC].
a) Since OM joins the midpoints of two sides of
the triangle P QR, M O RQ and OM = RQ
2 .
On the other hand, [OM ] is a median of the rightangled triangle BOC, hence OM = 12 BC =
1
2 AD. Consequently, RQ = AD.
b) Let the lines M O and AD meet at T . Then M BO = M OB = DOT .
Since OCB = T DO, it follows that OT D = BOC = 90 , so M T AD.
1
Gazeta Matematica
1
((1 + 2 + + 700) (1 + 3 + 697 + 699) = 350 697) = 35 697.
10
8th GRADE
Petre Batranetu
Solution. Let M be the midpoint of BC and let u be the angle determined by the
planes (AEF ) and (BCC ). Since triangle M EF is the projection of the triangle
AEF onto (BCC ), we have
cos u =
[BCF E]
[BCF E]
[M EF ]
=
=
=
[AEF ]
2[AEF ]
2([ABE] + [ACF ])
[BCF E]
1
[BCF E]
=
= ,
=
4([M BE] + [M CF ])
2[BCF E]
2
hence u = 60 .
Problem 4. Find all positive integers m such that
{ m} = { m + 2011}.
Alexandru Blaga
AQ
BN
DP
Solution. Denote m = AM
AB , n = BC , p = DC , q = AD , to get M N =
The given condition becomes (1 m + p)AB + (1 q + n)AD = AC = AB + AD.
Notice that vectors AB and AD have distinct directions to deduce that m = p and
n = q. On the other hand, P N = (1 p)AB (1n)AD and QM = mAB q AD,
implying P N + QM = (1 p + m)AB (1 n + q)AD = AB AD = DB, as
needed.
Problem 2. For each positive integer n consider the set An of all the numbers
obtained by choosing signs in 1 2 n; for instance, A2 = {3, 1, 1, 3}
and A3 = {6, 4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 6}. Find the cardinal of the set An .
Solution. The largest element of the set is 1 + 2 + 3 + n = n(n+1)
, while the
2
n(n+1)
smallest is 1 2 n = 2 .
The difference of any two elements of the set is even, implying that all elements
have the same parity.
and n(n+1)
, sharing the same parity
We claim that all numbers between n(n+1)
2
2
. If
with them belong to the set An and only them. Indeed, let x An , x < n(n+1)
2
(one of) its representation begins with 1, changing into +1 gives x + 2 An . Suppose that all its representations start with +1. There exists a first negative otherwise
; denote it by k:
x = 1 + 2 + + n = n(n+1)
2
x = +1 + 2 + + (k 1) k n.
Switching the signs of the summands k 1 and k we derive that x + 2 An .
+ 1 elements.
Consequently, the set An has n(n+1)
2
Solution. We claim that f (n) Z, for any integer n. Indeed, write f (f (f (x))) =
f ([x]) = [f (x)] to derive that f (n) = [f (n)] for any integer n, implying f (n) Z.
Suppose that for all a, b Z we have |f (a) f (b)| < |a b|. Then |f (n +
1) f (n)| < 1, for any integer n. Since both f (n) and f (n + 1) are integers we
derive that f (n) = f (n + 1), hence f (n) = f (0), for any integer n. It follows that
n = f (f (n)) = f (f (0)) = 0, a contradiction.
Second solution. Notice that f (0) = f (1), otherwise 0 = f (f (0)) = f (f (1)) =
1, false. If |f (0) f (1)| |0 1|, we are done; if else, from |0 1| = |f (f (0))
f (f (1))| we obtain |f (f (0)) f (f (1))| > |f (0) f (1)|. The distinct numbers f (0)
and f (1) fulfill the claim.
Problem 4. Let a be a real number with {a} + { a1 } = 1. Prove that
1
= 1,
{an } +
an
for every positive integer n, where {x} denotes the fractional part of a real number x.
Dorel Mihet
1
m m2 4
, with |m| > 2. An alternative solution can be obtained
implying a =
2
noticing that the Newton sums sn = an1 +an2 of the roots of the equation a2 ma+1 =
0 satisfy the relation sn+2 msn+1 + sn = 0, which, in fact, is an equivalent form
of s1 sn = sn+1 + sn1 .
10th GRADE
Problem 1. Prove that, if a, b, c are positive real numbers, then the equation
a + bx = cx has at most a real solution.
x
Gazeta Matematica
a x
b x
Solution. Let |x1 | = |x3 |, |x2 | = |x4 | (1) and notice that |a| = |x3 x4 | = |x1 x2 | =
|b| to derive that |x1 + x2 | = |x3 + x4 | (2). The relations (1) and (2) show that there
exists a number k C such that x2 = kx1 , x4 = kx3 or x2 = kx1 , x4 = kx3 .
In the first case we have a = kx23 = (1 + k)x1 and b = kx21 = (1 + k)x3 , so
a3 = k(1 + k)2 x21 x23 = b3 .
In the latter case we have a = kx23 = (1 + k)x1 and b = kx21 = (1 + k)x3 . It
follows that x21 x1 = x3 x23 , so x1 = x3 or a = b = 0, and furthermore x2 = x4 , hence
a = b.
Conversely, if b = a, then x1 +x2 = x3 +x4 , x1 x2 = x3 x4 , implying {x1 , x2 } =
{x3 , x4 }. If a3 = b3 , then a = b, 3 = 1. The roots satisfy the relations x1 + x2 =
(x3 + x4 ), x1 x2 = 2 x3 x4 . Both cases lead to {|x1 |, |x2 |} = { |x3 |, |x4 |}, as
needed.
Problem 4. a) Show that if a, b > 1 are distinct real numbers then
loga (loga b) > logb (loga b).
b) Let a1 > a2 > . . . > an > 1 be real numbers, n 2. Prove that
loga1 (loga1 a2 )+loga2 (loga2 a3 )+. . .+logan1 (logan1 an )+logan (logan a1 ) > 0.
Solution. a) For a < b, loga (loga b) = (loga b)(logb (loga b)) > logb (loga b)
because logb (loga b) > 0 and loga b > 1.
For a > b, the claim is reached from loga b < 1 and logb (loga b) < 0.
b) Induct on n. For n = 2,
loga1 (loga1 a2 )+loga2 (loga2 a1 ) > loga2 (loga1 a2 )+loga2 (loga2 a1 ) = loga2 1 = 0.
Assume now that the claim holds for some n and consider the numbers a1 > a2 >
. . . > an+1 > 1. Then
loga1 (loga1 a2 ) + . . . + logan (logan an+1 ) + logan+1 (logan+1 a1 ) =
= loga1 (loga1 a2 ) + . . . + logan1 (logan1 an ) + logan (logan a1 )+
+ logan (logan an+1 ) + logan+1 (logan+1 a1 ) logan (logan a1 ) >
> logan+1 (logan an+1 ) + logan+1 (logan+1 a1 ) logan (logan a1 ) =
= logan+1 (logan a1 ) logan (logan a1 ) > 0,
because logan a1 > 1 and an+1 < an .
11th GRADE
Solution. We claim that {x + y} {y} is equal to {x} or {x} 1, for any real
numbers x and y. Write x + y = [y] + [x] + {x} + {y} to get {x + y} {y} =
{{x} + {y}} {y}. Hence if {x} + {y} < 1 then {x + y} {y} = {x}, while if
2 > {x} + {y} 1 then {x + y} {y} = {x} 1, as claimed.
Apply the above result to infer that either |an+1 an | = {} or |an+1 an | =
1 {}. Set b = max{{}, 1 {}} and notice that 0 < b < 1 (for is irrational)
to derive that |xn | bn , implying lim |xn | = 0 and furthermore lim xn = 0.
n
A2 + B 2 tr(A + B)(A + B) = O2 ,
A2 + B 2 tr(A B)(A B) = O2 ,
Since g(0) = g(1) = 0, the function g is the identically null. Consequently, the
functions are fa given by fa (x) = x + a, with a R.
Thus f (x) lies between f (0) and f (1); moreover, we have |f (1) f (x)| = 1 x
and |f (x) f (0)| = x. It follows that points (0, f (0)), (x, f (x)) and (1, f (1)) are
collinear, hence f (x) = f (0) x.
12th GRADE
1
Problem 1. Show that
cos
sin
13
13
1 x2 dx is a rational number.
Gazeta Matematica
cos t
sin t
1 x2 dx.
1 (cos t)2 (cos t) 1 (sin t)2 = (sin t)2 (cos t)2 = 1.
10
0
1
a) Show that G is a group with respect to the matrix multiplication.
b) Prove that there exists no proper homomorphism from G to Z7 .
x
0
y
1
Solution. a) Consider A =
and B =
two elements of G. Then
ax ay + b
AB =
G, for ax =
0.
0
1
To end the proof, recall that matrix multiplicationis an associative
law, the group
a1 a1 b
unit is I2 G and, finally, the inverse matrix of A is
G.
0
1
a b
b) Let A =
be an element of G with a = 1. Since
0
1
ak b(ak1 + ak2 + + 1)
k
, it follows that A6 = I2 .
A =
0
1
Let f be a group homomorphism mapping G to Z7 . Notice that 0 = f (I2 ) =
(A) to derive that f (A) = 0.
Since ker(f ) = {X G | f (X) = 0}
f (A6 ) = 6f
constant function.
Nicoale Bourbacut
11
1
2n+1
2k1
2n+1
n+1
2
k=1
k
2n
k
2n+1
1
2n+1
2n
2n
k
2k 1
f
f
+
2n
2n+1
k=1
k=1
to derive that
2
1
k
= an .
n
f
2
2n
n
an+1
k=1
k1 k
,
, and a division of
2p 2p
k1
k
1
0, p , , p , c, p , , 1 .
2
2
2
12
7th GRADE
Problem 1. Find all positive integers r with the property that there exists positive
prime numbers p and q so that p2 + pq + q 2 = r2 .
Aurel Barsan
2
Dan Nedeianu
Solution. From xy > ab follows that xb > ya, hence xbya 1. In the same way,
at bz 1. Multiplying the first inequality by t, the second one by y and adding the
two relations yields bxt byz t + y, that is b t + y.
In the same way, a x + z. These two inequalities lead to the conclusion.
Second solution. If d = g.c.d.(a, b), then a = da1 and b = db1 , with a1 , b1 N ,
(a1 , b1 ) = 1 and xy > ab11 . It follows that b1 x a1 y = u 1 and a1 t b1 z = v 1,
with u, v N. The first relation gives b1 xz a1 yz = uz, and the second gives
a1 xt b1 zx = vx. Adding these relations yields a1 = uz + vx z + x. In the same
way, b1 = ut + vy t + y. Since ab a1 b1 , the conclusion is proven.
13
14
15
Cristian Lazar
Gabriel Popa
16
Problem 3. Let V ABC be a regular pyramid with the base ABC having center
O. Denote I and H the incenter and the orthocenter of the triangle V BC and suppose
that AH = 3OI. Find the measure of the angle made by a lateral edge of the pyramid
with the plane of the base.
Mircea Fianu
Solution. Denote M the midpoint of the edge [BC]. Since triangle V BC is isosceles with V B = V C, the points V, H, I and M are collinear.
From ACOB and ACOV follows AC(BOV ), hence V BAC, which, together with V BCH leads to V B(ACH), whence AHV B. In the same way
AHV C, therefore AH(V BC), so AHV M .
Denote I the projection of O onto the
plane (V BC); then I belongs to V M and
OI AH. This leads to
MO
1
OI
=
= ,
AH
MA
3
hence AH = 3OI . This shows that OI
equals the distance from O to (V BC), therefore I = I .
From OI(V BC) and I = incenter of the triangle V BC follows that O has equal
distances to the lines V B and BC.
Denote J the projection of O onto the line V B. Then OJ = OM , hence the right
triangles OJB and OM B are congruent.
This leads to m( (V B, (ABC))) = m(V BO) = m(M BO) = 30 .
Problem 4. A positive integer will be called typical if the sum of its decimal digits
is a multiple of 2011.
a) Show that there are infinitely many typical numbers, each having at least 2011
multiples which are also typical numbers.
b) Does there exist a positive integer such that each of its multiples is typical?
***
17
We notice that each positive integer A has a multiple of the form 99 . . . 900 . . . 0.
Indeed, if the decimal expansion of 1/A has a period of p digits and the initial nonperiodical part has q digits, then A1 = B
C , where C = 99 . . . 900 . . . 0 has p digits 9
and q digits 0.
Suppose now that n is a positive integer. Take a multiple of n of the form m =
99 . . . 900 . . . 0, with p nines and q zeros and consider the multiple of n
M = (10p+1 1)m = 10p+1 m m = 99 . . . 98900 . . . 0100 . . . 0,
with p 1 nines at the beginning. Then the sums of the digits of these numbers are
s(M ) = s(m) + 9, so they cannot be both multiples of 2011.
9th GRADE
Romeo Raicu
a2i =
i=1
because
n
i=1
n
i=1
b2i +
n
i=1
2ibi +
n
i=1
i2
n
i=1
i2 =
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6
Problem 2. Let n be a positive integer. Prove that every integer between 1 and n!
can be written as the sum of at most n distinct positive divisors of n!.
***
18
Problem 3. Given an integer n > 0, prove that at least one of the numbers [2n 2],
[2n+1 2], . . . , [22n 2] is even ([a] denotes the integral part of the real number a).
Radu Gologan
Solution. Suppose, by contradiction, that all the numbers are odd. Then there
exists a positive integer a such that
(1)
Continuing in the same way we arrive at 2n+1 a 1 < 22n 2 < 2n+1 a, whence
(2)
19
90
= 180 90
2
2
1
A C
+
= 90 B
=
2
2
2
= P BIa .
So the quadrilateral BEIa P is cyclic and, since BP Ia = 90 , BECIa .
This leads to BA1 CI, where I is the incenter of triangle ABC. In the same
way CA1 BI, therefore BICA1 is a parallelogram.
Analogously AIBC1 is a parallelogram, hence AC1 A1 C is also a parallelogram,
that is the segments [AA1 ] and [CC1 ] have the same midpoint. In the same way,
segments [BB1 ] and [AA1 ] have the same midpoint, whence the conclusion.
10th GRADE
20
Solution. If n is odd, then 1, 1, 1 are three complex roots of order n of the unity,
adding up to 1.
On the other hand, if x, y, z C, xn = y n = z n = 1 and x + y + z = 1,
then |x| = |y| = |z|, hence x
+ y + z = 1/x + 1/y + 1/z = 1, which leads to
xy + xz + yz = xyz.
Replacing z = 1 x y gives (x + y)(1 x)(1 y) = 0, whence one of the
numbers x, y, z is 1 and the other two are opposite.
In the case n = odd, there are no opposite roots, so the final answer is: n = even.
Problem 3. Let a, b, c be three positive real numbers. Prove that the function
ax
bx
cx
f : R R, f (x) = x
+
+
is increasing on [0, ) and
b + cx
ax + cx
a x + bx
decreasing on (, 0].
Solution. We use straightforward computation: if x y are real numbers, then
ay (bx + cx ) ax (by + cy )
f (y) f (x) =
(bx + cx )(by + cy )
cyc
1
1
y x
x y
=
(a b a b )
(bx + cx )(by + cy ) (ax + cx )(ay + cy )
cyc
=
ax bx ayx byx
cyc
so f (y) f (x) can be written as a sum of products of the form (ap bp )(aq bq )
multiplied with positive coefficients, where p = y x 0 and all the q-s have the
same sign as x, y.
We finish now by noticing that
a q
0 if q 0
a p
(ap bp )(aq bq ) = bp+q
1
1
0 if q 0
b
b
hence f (y) f (x) 0 if y x 0 and f (y) f (x) 0 if 0 y x.
21
Problem 4. a) Show that, for every positive integer n, there exists uniquely deter
n
n
2 n
Problem 1. Call a row of a matrix in Mn (C) permutable if, for any permutation
of its entries, the value of the determinant does not change. Prove that any matrix that
has two permutable rows is singular.
Marian Andronache
22
Solution. We shall use the following results which can be viewed as generalizations of the theorems of Rolle and Lagrange.
Lemma 1. If a function u : [, ] R has left and right finite derivatives at any
point in [, ] andi u() = u(), then there is c [, ] such that us (c) 0.
Proof. It is obvious that u is continous on [, ], so it has a global minimum which
belongs to the interior of the interval or coincides with on of the extremities; this point
can be chosen as c.
Lemma 2. If a function u : [, ] R has right and left finite derivatives at
each point in the interval [, ], then there is c [, ] such that u() u()
( )us (c).
x. The function v satisfies
Proof. Define v : [, ] R, v(x) = u(x) u()u()
Dorel Mihet
23
Solution. Suppose that such a function f exists. Injectivity of g implies the injectivity of the continuous function f , which in turn is strictly monotone. As g is
increasing we conclude that f is increasing and k is an odd number. Moreover, f is
not surjective.
Denote by f [k] = f f ... f (k times f ). Because f (R) is an interval with
(, 0) = g(R) = f (f k1 (R)) f (R), we deduce f is bounded from above.
Let m R be such that f (x) < m, x R. Then f [k1] (x) < m, for all
x R, so g(x) = f (f [k1] (x)) > f (m), for all x R, in contradiction with
g(R) = (, 0).
Problem 4. Let A, B M2 (C) such that A2 + B 2 = 2AB. Prove AB = BA
and tr A = tr B.
Nicolae Bourbacut
Solution. a) We firstly prove that (AB BA)2 = 0. Define the quadratic function
g by f (x) = det(A2 + B 2 + x(AB BA)) = det(A2 + B 2 ) + mx + x2 det(AB
BA). As f (i) = det((A + iB)(A iB)), f (i) = det((A iB)(A + iB)), so
f (i) = f (i), we get m = 0. Moreover, from f (0) = det(A2 + B 2 ) = det(2AB)
and f (2) = det(2BA) = det(2AB) = f (0), we deduce that f is constant and
det(AB BA) = 0. The characteristic equation for AB BA (tr(AB) = tr(BA))
gives then immediately (AB BA)2 = 0. As AB BA = (A B)2 by hypothesis,
we obtain 0 = (AB BA)2 = (A B)4 . As the matrices are of order two we must
have (A B)2 = O2 , so AB = BA.
b) From (A B)2 = O2 and 2 det(A B) = det(A B), the characteristic
equation for A B gives (tr(A) tr(B))(A B) = O2 , which finishes the solution.
12th GRADE
24
Let a A, a = 0. The ring A being finite, there exists p < q, such that ap = aq .
By succesive multiplications with aqp , aq = a(k+1)qkp , k 1. Take k N , such
that r = (k + 1)q kp > 2q. Multiplication by ar2q gives arq = a2(rq) . Let
b = arq . As b2 = b, we get bn+1 = b, so bn+1 + b = 0, that is b {0, 1}.
Compute
t1
f (t) dt =
t0
lim
t2
t1
f (t) dt = =
tn
f (t) dt.
tn1
n
.
1
1
1
+
+ +
f (t1 ) f (t2 )
f (tn )
Viorel Vajaitu
x
1
Solution. Define F : [0, 1] [0, I], by F (x) = 0 f (t) dt, where I = 0 f (t) dt.
As f is pozitive, F is strictly increasing, so one-to-one. Because F is continuous,
F (0) = 0 and F (1) = I, F is surjective also and F 1 (kI/n) = tk , k = 0, 1, , n,
n 2.
25
k=1
n
k=1
k=1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
=
=
=
1
xn
n
f (tk )
n
f (F (kI/n))
n
F (F 1 (kI/n))
=
As (F
1
n
(F 1 ) (kI/n).
k=1
) is continous
1
1
=
n xn
lim
(F 1 ) (Ix) dx =
1
1 1
1
F (Ix) = .
I
I
0
Let x0 R, x = x0 . Then
F (x) =
f (t) dt.
0
F (x) F (x0 )
(x x0 ) + F (x0 ).
x x0
(x0 )
As F has right and left finite derivatives in x0 , the function x F (x)F
, x = x0 ,
xx0
is bounded around x0 , so lim F (x) = F (x0 ). So G is continuous.
xx0
Let us show that G has finite right and left derivatives in x0 R, Gs (x0 ) 0 and
Gd (x0 ) 0. Let x > x0 . Because limxx0 f (x) f (t) f (x), x0 < t x, we get
x
1
f (t) dt f (x),
lim f (x)
xx0
x x0 x 0
so
1
x x0
G(x) G(x0 )
= lim
lim
xx0
xx0
x x0
lim
xx0
Consequently
x0
1
F (x) F (x0 )
x x0
x x0
f (t) dt
x0
26
G(x) G(x0 )
= Fs (x0 ) lim f (x) 0.
xx0
xx0
x x0
In conclusion, 0 Gs (x) < and < Gd (x) 0, for any real x, therefore
Analogously, lim
lim
0
1
G(x ) G(x /2)
= Gs (x) 0,
and
lim
0
1
G(x + ) G(x + /2)
= Gd (x) 0,
x R,
x R.
Let us show that G is constant. Consider a < b, such that G(a) = G(b).
If G(a) < G(b), consider > (G(a) G(b))/(b a). The function H : [a, b]
R, H(x) = G(x) + x, is continuous, H(a) < H(b) and
lim
0
2
2
2
x R.
So, for ay real x, there is (x) > 0, such that H(x + ) < H(x + /2), 0 < < (x).
Let c [a, b], such that H(c) = min {H(x) : a x b}. Because H(a) < H(b),
we have a c < b. Consider a number < min(b c, (c)). Then
H(c) H(c + ) < H(c + /2) < < H(c + /2n ) < H(c),
(the last inequality is a consequence of the continuity of H), which is a contradiction.
If G(a) > G(b), proceed analogously: consider < (G(a) G(b))/(b a).
In this case the corresponding continuous function H(x) = G(x) + x, satisfies
H(a) > H(b) and
lim
0
2
2
2
x R.
That is, for any real x, there exists (x) > 0, such that H(x ) < H(x /2),
0 < < (x). Let c [a, b], such that H(c) = min {H(x) : a x b}. Because
H(a) > H(b), we get a < c b. Fix a real positive number < min(c a, (c)).
Then
H(c) H(c ) < H(c /2) < < H(c /2n ) < H(c),
which is a contradiction.
We thus proved that G is constant. Taking into account G(0) = 0, we get G(x) =
0, for any realx .
JUNIORS
1. Prove that if n and p are integers, 1 < p < n, then the number
(2p + 1)n3 + 6n(12 + 22 + 32 + ... + p2 )
can be written as the sum of 2p + 1 different perfect cubes.
2. Given an equilateral triangle ABC and the points M [BC], N [AC],
P [AB] such that BM = M C, 3AN = N C and 2BP = AP , find the measure of
N M P .
3. In a triangle ABC it is known that A = 120 , C = 20 , (AD is the
bisector of BAC (where D (BC)) and the point E is taken so that E (AC)
and [BD] [CE]. Find the measure of EBC.
4. The convex quadrilateral ABCD has [AB] [BC], m(DCB) < 90 and
m(DCB) + m(DAB) = 180 . The point E is taken on the segment (DC) such
that DA + DC = 2DE. Prove that BE DC.
5. The convex pentagon ABCDE has m(A) = m(C) = 90 , AB = 3,
BC = 5, CD = 10, DE = 8 and the reflection of C about BD is on the line AE.
The line M A is perpendicular on the plane of the pentagon and M A = 6. Find the
measure of the angle of the lines M E and AB.
6. The parallelogram ABCD has center O, AD = DB and BA > BC. The
point V is outside the plane (ABC) such that V D (ABC). Point T is the foot
of the perpendicular from D onto AB and E, F, G are the feet of the bisectors of the
angles V DA, V DB, V DC respectively (where E V A, F V B, G CV ).
Prove that:
27
28
i) EF (ABC);
ii) m(((V AB), (ABC))) = 45 if and only if V D = DT ;
iii) if V D = DT , then tan(((GEF ), (ABC))) = 12 if and only if
BA
BC
= 65 .
7. Find all the perfect squares whose product of their decimal digits is a prime.
8. Given a prime number p, p 3 and d a square free number (that is ds prime
decomposition contains no repeated factors), find the number of the elements of the
set
n
Ap = x = n d +
{n d} | n N ,
p
where {a} denotes the fractional part of the real number a.
9. Prove that, if x, y > 0, then 0 <
x
y
1
< 1.
+
2 2
x + y4
y + x4
x y +1
zS
29
7. Given in the plane equilateral triangles ABC and BDE, with C (BD)
and A, E are on different sides of the line BD. Denote M, N ,P the midpoints of
the segments (AB), (CD), (BE) respectively. Find the measures of the angles of the
triangle M N P .
PUTNAM SENIORS
1. Find all polynomials P, Q with real coefficients, such that, for infinitely many
positive integers n, P (1)P (2) . . . P (n) = Q(n!).
2. The sequence (an )n1 of real numbers is such that the sequence (xn )n1 defined by xn = max{an , an+1 , an+2 } is convergent and the sequence (yn )n1 defined
by yn = an+1 an has limit 0. Prove that the sequence (an )n is convergent.
3. Let A be a n n matrix with complex entries.
a) Prove that there exists a nn matrix with complex entries B such that AB = 0n
and rank A + rank B = n.
b) If 1 < rank A < n, prove that there exists a n n matrix with complex entries
C such that AC = 0n , CA = 0n and rank A + rank C = n.
4. Let f : R R be a continuous function such that, on each non degenerated
interval I, the function reaches its maximum or its minimum in an interior point of I.
Prove that f is a constant.
5. Let f : R R be a function with the property: |f (x)f (y)| | sin xsin y|,
for each x, y R.
a) Prove that there exists an unique c R such that f (c) = c.
b) Consider the sequence (xn )nN with x0 = 0 and xn+1 = f (xn ) for every
n N. Prove that lim xn = c.
n
30
f (x) dx =
0
xf (x) dx = 0.
0
1
0
ee dx
e(e2 3)
.
2
Contributors
Gheorghe Molea, Dan Nedeianu, Petre Batranetu, Cosmin Manea & Dragos Petrica, Dan Nedeianu, Alexandru Blaga, Aurel Barsan, Cecilia Deaconescu & Dumitru
Dobre, Dan Nedeianu, Catalin Cristea, Dinu Teodorescu, Dorel Mihet, Cecilia Deaconescu & Dumitru Dobre, Aurel Barsan, Marian Ionescu, Nicolae Bourbacut, Dan
Nedeianu, Ovidiu Furdui, Cristinel Mortici, Vasile Pop, Radu Gologan, Nicolae Bourbacut, ***, Nelu Chichirim, Cezar Lupu, Dan Marinescu, Dorel Mihet, Dorel Mihet,
Dan Nedeianu.
Problem 1. Determine all real-valued functions f on the set of real numbers satisfying the condition
2f (x) = f (x + y) + f (x + 2y)
for all real numbers x and all non-negative real numbers y.
SEEMOUS 2011 Short List
Solution. If x is a real number, let {x} = x x denote the fractional part of
x. Given an integer number m 3, there exists a positive integer number n such
31
32
AND
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that {n} < 1/m, for the set {{k} : k = 0, 1, 2, 3, } is dense in the closed unit
interval [0, 1]. Consequently,
kn = kn + k{n} = kn + k{n} = kn,
k = 1, 2, , m,
,
.
nk+1 nk =
The length of this interval is less than 1, so nk+1 nk = n for some positive integer
k
n and all indices k. Hence, nk = n0 + kn, so nk /k n. On the other hand,
k
nk /k r/, so = r/n wich contradicts irrationality of .
Problem 3. Let ABC be a triangle such that AB < AC. The perpendicular
bisector of the side BC meets the side AC at the point D, and the (interior) bisectrix of
the angle ADB meets the circumcircle ABC at the point E. Prove that the (interior)
bisectrix of the angle AEB and the line through the incentres of the triangles ADE
and BDE are perpendicular.
Solution. The lines BC and DE are parallel, so the angles BED and DAE are
equal. Then so are the angles AED and DBE. Let I and J be the incentres of the
triangles ADE and BDE, respectively. It follows that the triangles DIE and DJB
are similar, so DI/DE = DJ/DB. Since the angles IDJ and EDB are equal, the
triangles DIJ and DEB are similar, so the angles DIJ and DEB are equal. Let the
line BE meet the line IJ at the point F . Notice that the quadrangle DIEF is cyclic
to deduce that the angles EF I and EDI are both equal to one half of the angle ACB.
Consequently, the line IJ is parallel to the exterior bisectrix of the angle AEB. The
conclusion follows.
Problem 4. Given an integer number n 2, evaluate the sum
(sgn )n() ,
Sn
AND
33
IMO
where Sn is the set of all n-element permutations, and () is the number of disjoint
cycles in the standard decomposition of .
SEEMOUS 2011 Short List
Sn
n 3,
where f2 (x) = x(x 1). To establish the recurrence formula, consider the decomposition of a permutation in Sn into disjoint cycles,
= ( ) ( )(n)
or = ( ) ( n ) ( ),
or
= ( ) ( n
) ( ).
Clearly, sgn = sgn and ( ) = () 1 in the former case, and sgn = sgn
and ( ) = () in the latter.
Conversely, any given permutation in Sn1 extends to a unique permutation
in Sn which fixes n (the first case above), and to exactly n 1 permutations in Sn
which do not fix n for the latter can be inserted in precisely n 1 ways into (the
second case above). The conclusion follows.
SECOND SELECTION TEST
Problem 5. A square with side length is contained in a unit square whose centre
is not interior to the former. Show that 1/2.
Marius Cavachi
Solution. Proof from The Book. Notice that there is a line through the centre of
the unit square separating the square with side length and a standard quarter of the
unit square (i. e., a square with side length 1/2 and one vertex at the centre of the unit
34
AND
IMO
square). To conclude, apply the celebrated theorem of Erdos stating that the sum of
the side lengths of two squares packed into a unit square does not exceed 1.
Solution 1. The square with side length is the intersection of two strips, S and
S , of breadth . Since the centre O of the unit square is not interior to the square
with side length , it is not interior to at least one of the two strips, say S. Clearly, the
distance from O to the farthest component of the boundary of S is at least .
Suppose, if possible, that > 1/2. Then the line meets the boundary of the
unit square at precisely two points, X and Y , situated on consecutive sides. Let A
denote the vertex of the unit square shared by those sides, and let M and N denote
their midpoints. Without loss of generality, we may (and will) assume that the circular labelling around the boundary of the unit square is M , X, A, Y , N . Since
dist (O, ) > 1/2, the line t, parallel to and tangent to the quarter M N of the
incircle of the unit square, meets the segments M X and N Y : the former at X , and
the latter at Y . Clearly, X Y > XY . Finally, to reach a contradiction, let T
denote the point of contact of t and the quarter M N of the incircle of the unit square,
and write successively:
1 = 1/2 + 1/2 = M A + AN = (M X + X A) + (AY + Y N )
= M X + (X A + AY ) + Y N = X Y + (X A + AY )
> 2 X Y > 2 XY 2.
Solution 2. Begin by noticing that if the vertices M , N , P , Q of a rectangle lie
on the boundary of a triangle ABC ( M AB, N AC and P, Q BC), then
M N/BC + M Q/AA = AM/AB + BM/AB = 1, where A is the perpendicular
foot dropped from the vertex A onto BC.
Hence if a triangle ABC, whose internal angles at B and C are not obtuse, contains a square with side length with a pair of opposite sides parallel to BC, then
1/BC + 1/AA 1/, where A is the perpendicular foot dropped from the vertex
A onto BC : extend the farthest side of the square, which is parallel to BC, to meet
the sides AB and AC at M and N , respectively, drop the perpendicular feet M and
N from M and N , respectively, onto the side BC, notice that min (M N, M M )
and apply the above result.
Back to the problem, let O be the centre of the unit square and let A, B, C, D
be a circular labelling of its vertices around the boundary. Draw a line d through O,
parallel to a pair of opposite sides of the square with side length . The latter lies in
AND
IMO
35
()
Let O be the perpendicular foot dropped from O onto the side AB, and let EO =
(1 + x) 1 + x2
1+x
AE
=
and AA = AE sin =
,
EF =
cos
2x
2 1 + x2
Solution. The lines Ai Ai+1 and Xi Xi+1 are parallel, for they are both antiparallel to the line Ti Ti+1 . Hence the triangles A0 A1 A2 and X0 X1 X2 are homologus: the
three lines Ai Xi are concurrent at the homology centre which lies on the homology
line. The latter passes through the incentres of the two triangles: one is the circumcentre of the triangle T0 T1 T2 and the other the orthocentre. The conclusion follows.
Problem 7. Given a positive integer number n, determine the maximum number
of edges a simple graph on n vertices may have in order that it contain no cycles of
even length.
American Mathematical Monthly
36
AND
IMO
To show that a simple graph on n vertices with no cycles of even length has at most
3(n 1)/2 edges, let G be one such with a maximal edge-set E. By maximality, G is
connected. Let T be a spanning tree (that is, a maximal connected acyclic subgraph)
of G, and let E denote the edge-set of T ; it is well-known that |E | = n 1. The
end-points of any edge e in E \ E are joined by a unique simple path in T . Since
T is acyclic, if e and e are distinct edges in E \ E , then the edges the corresponding
paths in T , and , may share form a path; and since G has no cycles of even length,
the paths and are actually edge-disjoint otherwise, at least one of the cycles
+ e, + e and + e + + e (mod 2) would have an even length. It follows
that the total length of the cycles + e, e E \ E , does not exceed |E|. There
are |E \ E | = |E| |E | = |E| n + 1 such cycles, each of length at least 3, so
3(|E| n + 1) |E|; that is, |E| 3(n 1)/2.
Problem 8. Show that:
a) There are infinitely many positive integer numbers n such that there exists a
square equal to the sum of the squares of n consecutive positive integer numbers. (For
instance, 2 and 11 are such: 52 = 32 + 42 and 772 = 182 + 192 + + 282 .)
b) If n is a positive integer number which is not a perfect square and if x0 is an
integer number such that x20 + (x0 + 1)2 + + (x0 + n 1)2 is a perfect square,
then there are infinitely many positive integer numbers x such that x2 + (x + 1)2 +
+ (x + n 1)2 is a perfect square.
Solution. a) We must show that there are infinitely many positive integer numbers
n such that the equation y 2 = x2 + (x + 1)2 + + (x + n 1)2 has positive integral
solutions. To this end, rewrite the equation in the form
y 2 = n((x + (n 1)/2)2 + (n2 1)/12).
(1)
We show that if n is a square greater than 25 not divisible by 2 or 3, then (1) has a
positive but finite number of solutions in positive integers x and y. Since n is a perfect
square, the expression in the outmost parantheses in (1) must be a perfect square z 2 ,
i. e., there is a positive integer z such that
z 2 (x + (n 1)/2)2 = (n2 1)/12.
(2)
AND
37
IMO
(3)
(4)
Clearly, u is odd if n is even, so that (n 1)(u 1) is even. We now use the identity
Thus, if x, y are given by (6), they satisfy (3), so that Tn (x) is a perfect square.
Further, since x0 (n 1)/2 and y0 > (n 1)/2, it follows that y y0 u > 0 and
x y0 v u(n 1)/2 + (n 1)(u 1)/2 = y0 v (n 1)/2 y0 (n 1)/2 > 0.
This ends the proof.
Remark. Write Tn (x) = n(x + (n 1)/2)2 + (n 1)n(n + 1)/12 to derive a)
from b). To this end, notice that if (n + 1)/12 is a perfect square, say n = 12m2 1,
then (1) has the obvious solution x = 6m2 + m + 1 and y = m(12m2 1), so b)
applies to show that (1) has infinitely many solutions in positive integers.
38
AND
IMO
()
Solution. We shall prove that the circles ADO and BCO meet again at the incentre I of the triangle ABO, so the line IO is the radical line of the circles ADO and
BCO. Noticing further that the lines AP and BC are the radical lines of the pairs of
2 The
AND
39
IMO
circles (ABC, ADO) and (ABC, BCO), respectively, it follows that the lines AP ,
BC and IO are concurrent (at point Q), whence the conclusion.
To show that the point I lies on the circle ADO, notice that
1
1
1
AIO = 90 + ABO = 90 + ABD = 90 + (180 2ADB)
2
2
2
= 180 ADB = 180 ADO.
Similarly, the point I lies on the circle BCO, for
1
1
1
BIO = 90 + BAO = 90 + BAC = 90 + (180 2ACB)
2
2
2
= 180 ACB = 180 BCO.
40
AND
IMO
Next, apply the Menelaus theorem to get EC/EB = 4 = F A/F B and deduce
thereby that the lines AC and EF are parallel. The quadrangle AF ED is therefore a
trapezium; it is cyclic if and only if AF = DE.
Express the two in terms of a, b and c. Recall that F A/F B = 4 to obtain AF =
4c/5. Next, apply Stewarts theorem in triangle BCD to get DE 2 = b2 /2 4a2 /25.
By the preceding, the quadrangle AF ED is cyclic if and only if 25b2 8a2 = 32c2 .
Finally, let N be the midpoint of the side BC and let the lines AN and EF meet
at P . Notice that EN = a/2 a/5 = 3a/10, and the triangles AN C and P N E are
similar, to obtain N P = 3ma /5, so
N A N P = 3m2a /5 = 3(2(b2 + c2 ) a2 )/20 = a2 /4 = N B N C.
The conclusion follows.
FIFTH SELECTION TEST
Problem 12. Show that there are infinitely many positive integer numbers n such
that n2 + 1 has two positive divisors whose difference is n.
Solution. Define the sequence (ak )k0 by a0 = 1, a1 = 2 and ak+2 ak = a2k+1 +
1, k = 0, 1, 2, , and check inductively that the ak are all positive integer numbers,
the nk = ak+1 ak form a strictly increasing sequence of positive integer numbers,
and ak and ak+1 both divide n2k + 1.
AND
41
IMO
1
= 1,
xi + 1
1
n
+1
x
+
1
(n
1)
i
so
n
i=1
j=i
yi
yi
.
1
(n
1)
j=i yj + yi
y
+
y
i=1
i
j=i j
zi
.
(1 a)zi + az
t
, t < az/(a 1), is convex, to
(1 a)t + az
n
1
zi
zi
n
n
i=1
=
n
.
n
(1 a)zi + az
(n 1)a + 1
(1 a) n1 i=1 zi + az
42
AND
IMO
Clearly, equality holds if and only if the zi are all equal; tracing back, this is the
case if and only if the xi are all equal to n 1.
Remark. Since the inequality in the statement can be rewritten as
n
i=1
n
xi
+1
x
+1
xi + 1
1
i=1 i
n
,
xi + 1 x
xi
i +1
+1
x +1
i=1 i
x2
(x + 1)
( 1)x+1 + ( + 1)x ( + 1)x ( 1) .
x 0,
and
g (x) = ( + 1) ( 1)x + x1 1
g (x) = (2 1)x2 (x + 1) > 0,
x > 0.
AND
IMO
43
Solution. Assume without loss of generality that is horizontal and does not pass
through any vertex of the arrangement of lines in L.
First, we shall bound the total number of edges of the upper parts of all faces
intersected by , that is, those parts that lie above . The boundary of the upper part
of such a face K consits of two convex chains of edges, the left and right chain, and a
portion of . If the upper part of K is bounded, then the left and right chains meet at
the topmost vertex of K. Otherwise, the last (topmost) edges of these chains are halflines. The edges belonging to the left (respectively, right) chain, with the exception of
the topmost edge, are called the left (respectively, right) edges of K.
We claim that every line in L contains at most one left edge. Suppose, if possible,
that some line in L has two portions e and e that are left edges of K and K , respectively, where e is above e. Then the line supporting the topmost edge of the left chain
of K would cross K , contradicting the fact that K is a face of the arrangement of
lines in L. Hence, the total number of left (respectively, right) edges of the upper parts
of the faces intersected by is at most |L|. Taking into account the topmost edges
of the chains, the total number of edges of the upper parts of the faces intersected by
is at most 4|L|. The same argument applies verbatim for the lower parts of these
faces. Consequently, the total number of edges of the faces intersected by is at most
8|L| 2|L| = 6|L|; the second term is due to the fact that the edges crossed by are
counted twice: once in the upper parts and once in the lower parts.
SIXTH SELECTION TEST
Problem 15. Given a positive integer number k, define the function f on the set
of all positive integer numbers to itself by
1,
if n k + 1,
f (n) =
f (f (n 1)) + f (n f (n 1)), if n > k + 1.
Show that preimage of every positive integer number under f is a finite non-empty set
of consecutive positive integer numbers.
44
AND
IMO
Solution. Let p = 5q + 1, q 2, and write 4p = 5(4q + 1) 1. Form a 5by-(4q + 1) matrix consisting of ones only except for a single entry. Such a matrix
has exactly 4p ones. A submatrix comprising r rows, 1 r 5, and s columns,
1 s 4q + 1, contains rs or rs 1 ones. In the former case, rs = 2p implies
r p or s p, because p is prime; in the latter, rs 1 = 2p implies rs = 2p + 1, so
r = 2p + 1 or s = 2p + 1, because 2p + 1 is prime. Both cases contradict the size of
the matrix, so no submatrix contains exactly 2p ones.
Next, write 4p + 2 = 5(4q + 1) + 1. Now form a 5-by-(4q + 1) matrix consisting
of ones only except for one column that contains only a single one. Such a matrix
has exactly 4p + 2 ones. A submatrix comprising r rows, 1 r 5, and s all-one
columns, 0 s 4q + 1, contains rs or rs + 1 ones. In the former case, rs = 2p + 1
implies r = 2p+1 or s = 2p+1 because 2p+1 is prime; in the latter, rs+1 = 2p+1,
so either r p or s p since p is prime. Again, this contradicts the size of the matrix
and the conclusion follws.
Problem 17. The incircle of a triangle ABC touches the sides BC, CA, AB at
points D, E, F , respectively. Let X be a point on the incircle, different from the points
D, E, F . The lines XD and EF , XE and F D, XF and DE meet at points J, K, L,
respectively. Let further M , N , P be points on the sides BC, CA, AB, respectively,
such that the lines AM , BN , CP be concurrent. Prove that the lines JM , KN and
LP are concurrent.
Dinu Serbanescu
AND
IMO
45
Without loss of generality, we may assume that X lies on the arc F D of the incircle
that does not contain E. Consequently, K lies on the side F D, while L and J lie on
the respective extensions of the sides DE and EF .
Consider the cyclic quadrangle DEF X : The diagonals meet at K, and the extensions of the opposite sides meet at L and J, respectively, so the line LJ is the polar
of K with respect to the incircle in what follows, all polar lines are considered with
respect to the incircle. Since the line F D is the polar of B, and K lies on the line F D,
it follows that B lies on the line LJ. Similarly, C lies on the line JK, and A lies on
the line KL. Consequently, the lines AQ and CS meet at K.
Projectively, the lines F D and LJ meet at some point T . Notice that T lies on the
polar lines of B and K to deduce that the line BK is the polar of T , so the cross-ratio
(T F KD) is harmonic. Let further the lines BK and P M meet at U . Read from
B, the cross-ratio (RP U M ) equals (T F KD), so it is harmonic; that is, U is the
harmonic conjugate of R relative to M and N . Consequently, the points Q, R and S
46
AND
IMO
= 1.
QP U M SN
To this end, write
QN
UP
SM
= N A sin(N AQ), QP
= P B sin(P BU ), U M
= M C sin(M CS), SN
= P A sin(P AQ),
= M B sin(M BU ),
= N C sin(N CS)
QP U M SN
NC PA MB
sin(N AQ) sin(P BU ) sin(M CS)
.
sin(P AQ) sin(M BU ) sin(N CS)
Finally, notice that the lines in both triples
(AM, BN, CP )
and
are concurrent (the former by hypothesis, and the latter concur at K) to infer that the
products in the parantheses above both equal 1 and thereby conclude the proof.
Remark. Clearly, the problem is of projective character: all we need is a tritangent
conic and two pairs of suitably perspective triangles:
Let ABC be a triangle and let be a conic tangent at points D, E, F to the lines
BC, CA, AB, respectively. Let further J, K, L be points on the lines EF , F D, DE,
respectively, and let M , N , P be points on the lines BC, CA, AB, respectively. If
triangles JKL and DEF are perspective from some point on , and triangles M N P
and ABC are perspective, then triangles JKL and M N P are perspective.
The proof goes along the same lines.
Problem 1. Call a positive integer balanced if the number of its distinct prime
factors is equal to the number of its digits in the decimal representation; for example,
the number 385 = 5 7 11 is balanced, while 275 = 52 11 is not. Prove that there
exist only a finite number of balanced numbers.
Solution. Let p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, . . . be the sequence of primes. Any
balanced number a with n digits satisfies a p1 p2 pn . Since p1 p2 p11 =
2 3 5 29 31 => 1011 and pk > 10, for any k > 11, it follows that there are no
balanced numbers having more than 10 digits.
Problem 2. Consider a convex pentagon A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 so that the rays (Ai Ai+1
and (Ai+3 Ai+2 meet at Bi+4 , for each i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 indices are considered
modulo 5. Show that
4
4
Ai Bi+3 =
Ai Bi+2 .
i=0
i=0
as claimed.
47
48
Remark. The claim holds for any n-gon with n 5 sides, within the given conditions.
Problem 3. Let n be a positive integer and let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
be real numbers. Prove that there exists a number i, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, such that
n
j=1
|xi xj |
n
j=1
|xi yj |.
k=1
|x1 xk | +
n
k=1
|xn xk |
n
k=1
|x1 yk | +
n
k=1
|xn yk |.
Solution. i) Split the 8 persons in two groups of 4. Set any pair of persons in each
group to speak a different language for a total of 6 + 6 = 12 languages, each spoken
by 2 persons, each person speaking 3 languages.
49
Problem 6. Determine
a) the smallest number
b) the biggest number
n 3 of non-negative integers x1 , x2 , ... , xn , having the sum 2011 and satisfying:
x1 | x2 x3 | , x2 | x3 x4 | , ... , xn2 | xn1 xn | , xn1 | xn x1 |
and xn | x1 x2 | .
Solution. Let x1 , x2 , ... , xn non-negative integers satisfying the conditions from
the statement. Let us imagine them as being arranged on a circle, in this order. We
denote with M the biggest of the numbers x1 , ... , xn . Without loss of generality, we
may suppose that x1 = M . Obviously M = 0. From x1 | x2 x3 | and the choice
of x1 it follows that {x2 , x3 } = {M, 0}. Therefore any M is followed by an M and
a 0 on the circle, either in the succession M M 0 or the succession M 0 M .
By induction after the last M known on the circle, we find that on the circle there are
only the numbers 0 and M . Moreover
there are no the neighboring zeros (or else the number preceding them would
also be a 0 and, inductively, all the numbers on the circle would be zeros, which
contradicts the fact that their sum is 2011)
there are no three consecutive M -s. Since 2011 is prime and x1 +x2 +...+xn =
kM , where k is the number of the M -s, we find that M = 1 and k = 2011.
a) The smallest value of n is obtained when the number of zeros is the smallest
possible. Out of three consecutive numbers on the circle, at least one is 0, therefore we
have at least 1006 zeros, which means at least 3017 numbers. A possible configuration
fulfilling the conditions of the statement is x3k = 0, k = 1, 2, ..., 1005, x3017 = 0,
and the rest of the xj = 1.
50
b) The biggest n is obtained when the number of zeros is the largest possible.
Since there can be no neighboring zeros, we have at most 2011 zeros. This happens if
we place alternatively 0 and 1 on the circle, configuration that satisfies the conditions
from the statement. Thus, the biggest value of n is 4022.
Problem 7. We consider an n n (n N, n 2) square divided into n2 unit
squares. Determine all the values of k N for which we can write a real number in
each of the unit squares such that the sum of the n2 numbers is a positive number,
while the sum of the numbers from the unit squares of any k k square is a negative
number.
Solution. We will prove that the desired numbers k are those that are not factors
of n.
If k | n that we can tile the n n square with k k squares and the total sum
should simultaneously be positive and negative.
If k | n then n = kq + r, where 0 < r < k. We fill the unit squares with a
(to be chosen conveniently later on) in the positions (ik, jk) with i, j = 1, ..., q and
with 1 in the other positions. Every k k square contains exactly one unit square
of the form (ik, jk), therefore the sum in every k k square is a + k 2 1. The
total
is q 2 a +n2 q 2 . We will choose a arbitrarily from the non-empty interval
sum
n2
1 q2 , 1 k2 .
Remark: For the case k | n there are many other ways of choosing the numbers
from the unit squares. Another choice is to fill all the unit squares of the columns jk,
j = 1, ..., q, with a convenient a and the other ones with 1.
Problem 8. a) Prove that if the sum of the non-zero digits a1 , a2 , ... , an is a
multiple of 27, then it is possible to permute these digits in order to obtain an n-digit
number that is a multiple of 27.
b) Prove that if the non-zero digits a1 , a2 , ... , an have the property that every ndigit number obtained by permuting these digits is a multiple of 27, then the sum of
these digits is a multiple of 27.
Andrei Eckstein
.
Solution. a) Obviously n 3. If n = 3 then a1 = a2 = a3 = 9 and 999 .. 27.
Suppose n 4. Having the sum of its digits a multiple of 9, each of the numbers
formed with the digits a1 , a2 , ... , an is a multiple of 9, therefore division with 27
will yield one of the remainders 0, 9 or 18.
51
n2 cifre
M
Then M (n1)a1 +(n2)a2 +...+an1 r (n1)+(n2)+...+2+1
n(n 1)
0 (mod 3). Therefore, in this case, a1 a2 ...an and a1 + a2 + ... + an
r
2
give the same remainder at the division by 27.
If not all of the digits a1 , a2 , ... , an have the same reminder when divided by
3, then we choose three of them such that their sum is not a multiple of 3. Let a, b, c
be these three digits. Then the numbers x = ...abc, y = ...bca and z = ...cab give
different reminders at the division by 27. Indeed, x y = abc bca = 108a 81b
9(a+b+c) = M27 9(a+b+c) = M27 . Since the possible reminders at the division
by 27 are only 0, 9 and 18, it follows that (exactly) one of the numbers x, y, z is a
multiple of 27.
b) The differece between two numbers obtained one from the other by swapping
two neighboring digits a and b is 9(a b) 10k and needs to be a multiple of 27. We
obtain that each of the digits a1 , ..., an has to give the same remainder when divided
by 3. From here one continues as by a) in order to show that, in this case, the numbers
a1 a2 ...an and a1 + a2 + ... + an give the same remainder when divided by 27.
of the acute triangle ABC is 60 , and
Problem 9. The measure of the angle A
HI = HB, where I and H are the incenter and the orthocenter of the triangle ABC.
Find the measure of the angle B.
52
Problem 10. It is said that a positive integer n > 1 has the property (p) if in its
prime factorization
j
1
n = p
1 ... pj
at least one of the prime factors p1 , ... , pj has the exponent equal to 2.
a) Find the largest number k for which there exist k consecutive positive integers
that do not have the property (p).
b) Prove that there is an infinite number of positive integers n such that n, n + 1
and n + 2 have the property (p).
Dorel Mihet
Solution. a) Among any 8 consecutive integers there exists one of the form 8j + 4.
This number has the property (p) because the factor 2 from its prime factorization has
the exponent 2. Therefore there can be at most 7 consecutive positive integers that do
not have the property (p). Since none of the numbers 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 has
the property (p), the largest k is k = 7.
b) Since the numbers 98 = 2 72 , 99 = 32 11, and 100 = 22 52 have the property
(p), so will the numbers 98 + (7 3 2)3 k, 99 + (7 3 2)3 k, and 100 + (7 3 2)3 k.
Alternative solution. By the Chinese remainder theorem, there exist an infinite number of solutions for the system of simultaneous congruences: n 4 (mod 8), n
8 (mod 27), n 23 (mod 125). Then n, n + 1, and n + 2 all have the property
(p) because the factor 2, 3, and 5, respectively, has the exponent 2 in their prime
factorizations.
Problem 11. Find all the finite sets A of real positive numbers having at least two
elements, with the property that a2 + b2 A for every a, b A with a = b.
Solution. If a1 < a2 < ... < an are the elements of A, then a21 + a22 , a21 + a23 ,
a21 + a2n , a22 + a2n ,..., a2n1 + a2n belong to A, and a21 + a22 < a21 + a23 < ... < a21 + a2n <
a22 + a2n < ... < a2n1 + a2n , which implies that 2n 3 n; hence A has at most 3
elements.
53
54
m
m
, x m+1 +1 = ... = xn =
.
2
m+1
m+1
In conclusion, the smallest value of n for which the equation has solutions is
n = m + 1 if m is odd and n = m + 2 if m is even.
Problem 14. For every positive integer n let (n) denote the number of its positive
n
factors. Determine all n N that satisfy the equality (n) = .
3
n
Solution. If n N satisfies the condition (n) = , then 3 | n. Put n = 3k,
3
n
k
=
is a factor of n. Even if all the positive numbers
k N. If k is even then
2
6
n
n n
n
smaller than are factors of n and the numbers , , ..., are also factors of n, we
6
5 4
1
n
n
have = (n) + 5. Hence n 30. Checking the numbers 6, 12, 18, 24 and 30
3
6
we find that 18 and 24 satisfy the desired condition.
In the case when k is odd we can proceed similarly, obtaining n = 9, or, alternatively, we can use the fact that a number having an odd number of positive factors is a
m2
. We
perfect square. If n = m2 , then n has at most m + 1 factors, hence m + 1
3
obtain that m 3 and the conclusion.
In conclusion, the problem admits three solutions: 9, 18 and 24.
Alternative solution: Since 3 | n, it follows that n has a prime factorization of
j
1
the form n = 3a p
1 ... pj and the number of his positive factors is (n) =
n
j
1
(a + 1)(1 + 1)...(j + 1). The condition (n) = leads to 3a1 p
1 ... pj =
3
i
i
(a + 1)(1 + 1)...(j + 1). Since p
i + 1, in order for n to satisfy the
i 2
equation from the statement, it is necessary that a + 1 3a1 , hence a = 1 or a = 2.
i
i
If in the prime factorization of n there is a prime pi > 3, then p
2i +2
i >4
n
and the equality (n) =
can not take place. If a = 1 then n = 3 2m and the
3
n
equality (n) = reduces to 2(m + 1) = 2m . We find m = 3 (for m 4 we have
3
2m > 2m + 2), hence n = 24.
Similarly, if a = 2 then n = 32 2m and from 3(m + 1) = 3 2m we obtain
m {0, 1}, i.e. n {9, 18}.
Problem 15. Let ABC be a triangle with circumcenter O. The points P and Q
55
are interior points of the sides CA and AB respectively. Let K, L and M be the
midpoints of the segments BP , CQ and P Q, respectively, and let be the circle
passing through K, L and M . Suppose that the line P Q is tangent to the circle .
Prove that OP = OQ.
Sergei Berlov, Russia, IMO 2009
56
For n 4, we denote by j the smallest index for which xj > 0. Then, replacing xj by 0 and xj+2 by xj+2 + xj , increases the value of the sum by xj xj+3 .
Using this remark it is easy to see that if x1 x2 + x2 x3 + ... + xn1 xn = 1005
1006, then at most three of the terms can be non-zero. We obtain (x1 , ..., xn )
{(0, ..., 0, k, 1005, 1006k, 0, ..., 0) | k = 0, 1, ..., 1006}{(0, ..., 0, k, 1006, 1005
k, 0, ..., 0) | k = 0, 1, ..., 1005}, where the group of the three non-zero components
can be located anywhere.
Problem 17. Show that there is an infinite number of positive integers t such that
none of the equations x2 + y 6 = t, x2 + y 6 = t + 1, x2 y 6 = t, x2 y 6 = t + 1
has solutions (x, y) Z Z.
Dorel Mihet
Solution. If x is a positive integer, then either x12 0 (mod 13) or x12 1 (mod
13), hence x6 is congruent with 1, 0 or 1 modulo 13. Therefore, if t is congruent
with 6 (mod 13), then x6 + t is congruent with 5, 6 or 7 (mod 13), while x6 + t + 1
is congruent with 6, 7 or 8 (mod 13).
On the other hand, perfect squares are congruent with 0, 1, 4, 9, 3, 12 or 10 (mod
13). Therefore a perfect square can not be equal to a number of the form x6 + t or
x6 + t + 1 if t 6 (mod 13). In conclusion, all the numbers that are congruent with
6 modulo 13 have the required property.
Solution. The points E, K, H, G are on the circle of diameter GE, so the angles
EHK and EGK are equal.
57
58
Solution. The inequality is clear if xyz = 0, in which case equality holds if and
only if x = y = z = 0.
Henceforth assume xyz = 0 and rewrite the inequality as
(2y + 1)2
(2z + 1)2
(2x + 1)2
+
+
3.
2
2
2x + 1
2y + 1
2z 2 + 1
Notice that (exactly) one of the products xy, yz, zx is positive, say yz > 0, to get
(2y + 1)2
(2z + 1)2
2(y + z + 1)2
+
2y 2 + 1
2z 2 + 1
y2 + z2 + 1
2(x 1)2
= 2
x 2yz + 1
2(x 1)2
.
x2 + 1
(by Jensen)
(for x + y + z = 0)
(for yz > 0)
3
=
0,
2x2 + 1
x2 + 1
(2x2 + 1)(x2 + 1)
x R,
59
(2y + 1)2
(2z + 1)2
(2x + 1)2
+
+
,
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ y2 + z2 ) + 1
3 (x + y + z ) + 1
3 (x + y + z ) + 1
2x2 + 1
(2x + 1)2
4
2
2
2
3 (x + y + z ) + 1
()
and the like. Unless x = 1/2, in which case equality holds trivially, use again the
condition x + y + z = 0 to transform () into the equivalent and obvious inequality
(yz)2 0, which yields the equality case y = z. This proves the required inequality
and shows that equality holds if and only if the variables all vanish simultaneously or
two equal 1/2 and the third equals 1.
Problem 3. Let S be a finite set of positive integer numbers which has the following property: if x is a member of S, then so are all positive divisors of x. Call a
subset T of S good (respectively, bad ) if it is non-empty and, whenever x and y are
members of T , and x < y, the ratio y/x is (respectively, is not) a power of a prime
number; agree that a singleton (one-element) subset is both good and bad. Show that
a maximal good subset of S has as many elements as a minimal partition of S into bad
subsets.
Bulgaria
Solution. Notice first that a bad subset of S contains at most one element from a
good one, to deduce that a partition of S into bad subsets has at least as many members
as a maximal good subset.
Notice further that the elements of a good subset of S must be among the terms
a geometric sequence whose ratio is a prime: if x < y < z are elements of a good
subset of S, then y = xp and z = yq = xp q for some primes p and q and some
positive integers and , so p = q for z/x to be a power of a prime.
Next, let P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, } denote the set of all primes, let
m = max {expp x : x S and p P },
60
where expp x is the exponent of the prime p in the canonical decomposition of x, and
notice that a maximal good subset of S must be of the form {a, ap, , apm } for
some prime p and some positive integer a which is not divisible by p. Consequently,
a maximal good subset of S has m + 1 elements, so a partition of S into bad subsets
has at least m + 1 members.
Finally, notice by maximality of m that the sets
expp x k (mod m + 1)}, k = 0, 1, , m,
Sk = {x : x S and
pP
Solution. Unless otherwise stated, throughout the proof indices take on values
from 0 to 5 and are reduced modulo 6. Label the vertices of the hexagon in circular
order, A0 , A1 , , A5 , and let the lines of support of the alternate sides Ai Ai+1 and
Ai+2 Ai+3 meet at Bi . To show that the area of at least one of the triangles B0 B2 B4 ,
B1 B3 B5 is greater than or equal to 3/2, it is sufficient to prove that the total area of
the six triangles Ai+1 Bi Ai+2 is at least 1:
5
i=0
To begin with, reflect each Bi through the midpoint of the segment Ai+1 Ai+2
to get the points Bi . We shall prove that the six triangles Ai+1 Bi Ai+2 cover the
hexagon. To this end, reflect A2i+1 through the midpoint of the segment A2i A2i+2
to get the points A2i+1 , i = 0, 1, 2. The hexagon splits into three parallelograms,
A2i A2i+1 A2i+2 A2i+1 , i = 0, 1, 2, and a (possibly degenerate) triangle, A1 A3 A5 .
Notice first that each parallelogram A2i A2i+1 A2i+2 A2i+1 is covered by the pair of
triangles (A2i B2i+5
A2i+1 , A2i+1 B2i
A2i+2 ), i = 0, 1, 2. The proof is completed
by showing that at least one of these pairs contains a triangle that covers the trian
A2i A2i+5 and
gle A1 A3 A5 . To this end, it is sufficient to prove that A2i B2i+5
61
A2j+2 A2j+3 for some indices i, j {0, 1, 2}. To establish the first
A2j+2 B2j
inequality, notice that
= A2i+1 B2i+5 ,
A2i B2i+5
to get
A0 B5
A1 B5
=
A4 A5
A5 B 3
2
A2i B2i+5
i=0
Similarly,
and
A2i A2i+5
i = 0, 1, 2,
A3 B1
A2 A3
=
,
A0 A1
A0 B 5
= 1.
2
A2j+2 B2j
= 1,
A
A
j=0 2j+2 2j+3
Solution 2. With reference to Solution 1, suppose, if possible, that the six tri
fail to cover the hexagon A0 A1 A5 . Then some point X of
angles Ai Ai+1 Bi+5
the hexagon falls outside each of those triangles. Up to an affine transformation, we
may (and will) assume that the triangles B0 B2 B4 and B1 B3 B5 are both equilateral,
so the hexagon is equiangular. We may further assume that the angle XA0 A1 does
not exceed 60 . Since X is not covered by the triangle A0 A1 B5 , the angle XA1 A0
exceeds 60 , so XA0 > XA1 and the angle XA1 A2 is less than 60 . Next, the triangle A1 A2 B0 does not cover X, so the angle XA2 A1 exceeds 60 , XA1 > XA2
and the angle XA2 A3 is less than 60 . Continuing, we obtain XAi > XAi+1 , i =
0, 1, , 5, and thereby reach the contradiction XA0 > XA1 > > XA5 > XA0 .
Solution 3. In the setting of Solution 2 the triangles B0 B2 B4 and B1 B3 B5 are
both equilateral etc. let ai denote the length of the segment Ai Ai+1 , let 0 and 1
62
3 2
A0 A =
(a1 + a23 + a25 )
area A2i+1 B2i A2i+2 =
4
i=0,1,2
3
3
(a1 + a3 + a5 )2 =
(20 1 )2 .
12
12
3
(20 1 )2 + (21 0 )2
A0 + A1 2A
12
3 2
3 2
2
2
0 + 1 + 4(0 1 )
0 + 21
=
12
12
1
= (A0 + A1 ) .
3
Consequently, A0 + A1 3A and the conclusion follows.
Solution 4. With reference again to the notation and conventions in Solution 1, let
r = B2i B2i+2 /B2i+3 B2i+5 denote the ratio of similarity of the triangles B0 B2 B4
and B3 B5 B1 , let ri = Ai+1 Ai+2 /Bi2 Bi+2 denote the ratio of similarity of the
triangles Ai+1 Bi Ai+2 and Bi2 Bi Bi+2 , and notice that rr2i = 1 r2i1 r2i+1
and r2i+1 = r(1r2i r2i+2 ) to obtain r0 +r2 +r4 = 21/r and r1 +r3 +r5 = 2r.
As already noticed in Solution 3, these relations show that the given configuration
is geometrically possible and non-degenerate if and only if 1/2 < r < 2.
Now let A0 and A1 respectively denote the areas of the triangles B0 B2 B4 and
B1 B3 B5 and recall that the hexagon A0 A1 A5 has unit area, to write
2
1
1
1
1
2
= 1 (r02 + r22 + r42 ) 1 (r0 + r2 + r4 )2 = 1
,
A0
3
3
r
1
1
1
2
= 1 (r12 + r32 + r52 ) 1 (r1 + r3 + r5 )2 = 1 (2 r) ,
A1
3
3
and thereby conclude that A0 3/2 if 1 r < 2, and A1 3/2 if 1/2 < r 1.
Problem 1. Determine all integer numbers n 3 such that the regular n-gon can
be decomposed into isosceles triangles by noncrossing diagonals.
Solution. The required numbers are of the form n = 2r (2s + 1), where r and s are
nonnegative integer numbers which do not vanish simultaneously. Clearly, any such
n works.
To establish the converse, let K be a regular n-gon, n 4, which can be decomposed into isosceles triangles by noncrossing diagonals. Begin by noticing that each
edge e of K must be an edge of a unique isosceles triangle Te in the decomposition.
Two cases are possible: either e is opposite the apex of Te or e and one of the adjacent
edges of K are the edges of Te issuing from the apex. (Since n 4, Te cannot be
equilateral, so the apex is well defined.)
If n is even, no vertex of K lies on the perpendicular bisector of an edge of K, so
the first case is ruled out. Consequently, the decomposition must contain exactly one
of the two bracelets of n/2 isosceles triangles clipped off by short diagonals joining
consecutive vertices of K of likewise parity. These short diagonals are the edges of
a regular n/2-gon which is also decomposed into isosceles triangles by noncrossing
diagonals and the conclusion follows by induction.
If n is odd, then K has a unique edge e opposite the apex of Te : Since n is odd
and each short diagonal clips off two edges of K, at least one such e exists. The apex
of Te lies on the perpendicular bisector of e, so it must be the vertex of K opposite
e. Uniqueness of e should now be clear: were there another such e , the interiors of
Te and Te would overlap. Consequently, e is unique and K splits into Te and two
63
64
polygons L and L which are reflections of one another in the perpendicular bisector
of e.
To complete the proof, it is sufficient to show that the number of vertices of L
is one plus a power of 2. Begin by noticing that L inherits by restriction a decomposition into isosceles triangles by noncrossing diagonals. Let x0 , . . . , xm be
a circular labelling of the vertices of L around the boundary, where x0 is the vertex of K opposite e and xm is a vertex of e. Since dist(xi , xj ) < dist(x0 , xm ) if
{i, j} = {0, m}, it follows that x0 xm is an edge of an isosceles triangle with apex
at some xk , 0 < k < m. Notice that dist(x0 , xi ) < dist(xi , xm ) if 0 < i < m/2
and dist(x0 , xi ) > dist(xi , xm ) if m/2 < i < m, to deduce that m must be even,
k = m/2, and L splits into an isosceles triangle, x0 xm/2 xm , and two polygons,
x0 xm/2 and xm/2 xm , which are reflections of one another in the perpendicular bisector of the segment x0 xm . Now we are essentially back in the situation that
arose above. Repeat the same argument verbatim to infer that m/2 must be even and
so on all the way down to conclude that m must be a power of 2.
Problem 2. Given a triangle ABC, let A , B and C be the perpendicular feet
dropped from the centroid G of the triangle ABC on the sides BC, CA and AB,
respectively. Reflect A , B and C through G to A , B and C , respectively. Prove
that the lines AA , BB and CC are concurrent.
Solution. Let A0 be the perpendicular foot dropped from A on the line BC, let
A1 be the midpoint of the side BC, and let A2 be the point where the line AA meets
the line BC; define the points Bi and Ci , i = 0, 1, 2, similarly. We shall prove that
(AA0 , AA2 ), (BB0 , BB2 ) and (CC0 , CC2 ) are pairs of isotomic lines; that is, A0
and A2 are reflections of one another through A1 and the like. It will then follow that
the lines AA = AA2 , BB = BB2 and CC = CC2 are concurrent at the isotomic
conjugate of the orthocentre of the triangle ABC.
Clearly, it is sufficient to show the lines AA0 and AA2 isotomic. To this end,
notice first that A A1 /A0 A1 = 1/3. On the other hand, Menelaus theorem applied to
triangle GA A1 and transversal AA A2 yields A1 A2 /A A2 = 3/4, so A A1 /A2 A1 =
1/3. Consequently, A0 and A2 are indeed reflections of one another through A1 .
Problem 3. All sides and diagonals of a convex n-gon, n 3, are coloured one
of two colours. Show that there exist (n + 1)/3 pairwise disjoint monochromatic
65
segments. (Two segments are disjoint if they do not share an endpoint or an interior
point.)
Solution. If all sides are monochromatic, then the assertion is clearly true. Otherwise, delete a vertex incident with two sides of different colours together with its
neighbours, delete all sides and diagonals incident with these three vertices and apply
induction.
Problem 4. Given a prime number p congruent to 3 modulo 4, show that w2p +
x2p + y 2p = z 2p for no integer numbers w, x, y, z whose product is not divisible by
p.
Solution. Suppose there are four such numbers. Without loss of generality, we
may (and will) assume that they are jointly coprime: (w, x, y, z) = 1. Reduction modulo 4 shows that z and exactly one of the
numbers w, x, y, say y, must be odd. Write
p1 2(pk1) 2k
2
2p
2p
2p
2p
2
2k
2(p1)
to
z
pz
z
y
w +x = z y = z y
k=1
deduce that the second factor above is congruent to 3 modulo 4 and infer thereby that
in its decomposition into prime factors some prime q 3 (mod 4) occurs with an odd
exponent. Since 1 is a quadratic non-residue modulo q, it follows that w and x are
both divisible by q, and in the decomposition of w2p + x2p into prime factors, q occurs
with an even exponent. Hence z 2 y 2 is divisible by q, and therefore so is pz 2(p1) .
Notice that p = q (for q divides w, but p does not by assumption) to deduce that z is
divisible by q. Then so is y. Consequently, w, x, y, z all share the common factor q,
in contradiction with their joint coprimality.
Problem 5. Given an integer number n 3, determine the real numbers x1 , x2 ,
, xn minimising (n 1)(x21 + x22 + . . . + x2n ) + nx1 x2 xn , subject to xk 0,
k = 1, 2, . . . , n, and x1 + x2 + + xn = n.
Solution. The minimum is n2 and is achieved when all xk = 1 or when exactly
one of the xk is 0 and other ones are all n/(n 1). Notice that if some xk = 0, then
the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality hints at an educated guess of the minimum; the guess
is further supported by the fact that the same value is achieved when all xk = 1.
Let f (x1 , x2 , , xn ) = (n 1)(x21 + x22 + . . . + x2n ) + nx1 x2 xn . Assuming
0 x1 x2 xn , we first show that
f (x1 , x2 , , xn ) f (x1 , (x2 + xn )/2, x3 , , xn1 , (x2 + xn )/2).
66
1/(n1)
on the closed interval 1 x n/(n 1). To this end, recall the guess made in the
beginning, to evaluate
g(x) n2 = n(n (n 1)x)(x 1)2
n2
k=1
xk1 + xk2 + + 1 0,
Problem 1. Show that a sequence (n )nN of plus and minus ones is periodic
with period a power of 2, if and only if n = (1)P (n) , n N, where P is an
integer-valued polynomial with rational coefficients.
Solution. A polynomial P of degree at most k with complex coefficients is integervalued if and only if
P =
k
j=0
k
aj
X
=
X(X 1) (X j + 1),
aj
j
j!
j=0
where the aj are all integer numbers, so its coefficients are rational.
We show that for such a P , the sequence ((1)P (n) )nN is periodic with period
2r , where r = min {s : 2s > k}. To this end, it suffices to show that if j < 2s and m is
m+2s
integer, then m
mod 2. These are the coefficients of X j in the expansions
j
j
s
s
m
m+2s
, respectively. The congruence (1 + X)2 1 + X 2
of (1 + X) and (1 + X)
s
s
mod 2 follows easily by induction on s. Hence (1 + X)m+2 = (1 + X)m 1 + X 2
mod 2. Since j is less than 2s , it is immediate that the coefficients of X j in (1 + X)m
s
and (1 + X)m+2 have the same parity.
Conversely, let 0 , , 2r 1 be arbitrary integers, and let 0 , , 2r 1 be the
solution to the lower triangular system of linear equations
r
2
1
i=0
j
= j ,
i
i
j = 0, , 2r 1.
67
68
Since the coefficient of j in the j-th equation is 1, the i are all integers. The
polynomial
r
r
2
2
1
1
i
X
X(X 1) (X i + 1)
i
=
i!
i
i=0
i=0
r
2
1
k=0
r
2
1
k=0
r
2
1
k=0
ak
X j
kj
j=k
1
1
(1)k+1 ak
(X j) r
k!
(2 k 1)!
(1)
k+1
0j<k
X
X k1
.
ak
k
2r k 1
k<j2r 1
(X j)
69
Problem 2. Given a triangle ABC, let D be the point where the incircle of the
triangle ABC touches the side BC. A circle through the vertices B and C is tangent
at point E to the incircle of the triangle ABC. Show that the line DE passes through
the excentre of the triangle ABC corresponding to the vertex A.
Solution. Let I be the incentre of the triangle ABC, let IA be the excentre corresponding to the vertex A, and notice that the vertices B and C both lie on the circle of
diametre IIA . The line DIA meets again the latter circle at point K, and the lines BC
and IK meet at point L (unless AB = AC in which case the conclusion is obvious).
Notice that the line BC is the radical axis of the circles BEC and BIC to deduce that
LB LC = LI LK. On the other hand, LI LK = LD2 , for K is the perpendicular
foot dropped from the right-angled vertex D of the triangle DIL. Consequently, the
point L is the radical centre of the following three circles: the incircle of the triangle
ABC, the circle BEC, and the circle BIC. Since the common tangent at E of the
first two circles is their radical axis, it must pass through L. It follows that E is the
reflection of D across the line IL, so the lines DE and IL are perpendicular and we
are done.
Problem 3. Given an integer number n 2, a positive real number A, and n +
1 distinct points in the plane, X0 , X1 , , Xn , show that the number of triangles
70
Solution. Suppose that for some integer n 2, there exist n + 1 distinct points
in the plane, X0 , X1 , , Xn , such that the number of triangles X0 Xi Xj of area A
be greater than 4n n. Choose the minimal such n, notice that n 4, and let G be
the graph whose vertices are X1 , , Xn and whose edges are the Xi Xj such that
most 4 n, and we would be left with a configuration of n distinct points such that the
4 n points Xj such that the triangle X0 Xi Xj has area A. These points lie on two
parallel lines to the line X0 Xi . One of these linear sets of points, say Si , contains at
least 12 4 n points. Notice that at least n/2 of the Si are pairwise distinct. Without
loss of generality, we may (and will) assume that the first n/2 of the Si are among
these. Finally, recall that n 4, so n n/2, and consider the points Xj on the first
n
|Si |
n S1 Sn
i=1
1
n
,
n 4 n
2
2
1i<j n
|Si Sj |
2r
.
r
r
Nr
2
2r
r
Nr =
Solution. We first show that
by proving that
K(n, r) =
r
2(n + r)
2n
n
2r
r
71
=
2(n + r + 1) n
r+1
2(n + r + 1) n + 1
r
2n + 1
1
2n 2r
2r + 1 r
=
r
n+r+1 n
n+1
1
2n 2r
= 2K(n, 1)K(0, r).
n+1 n
r
1
n by taking S =
2
{(x, y) D | x > n/2}. To find the bound asked, we need look at the diagonals of
the tableau!
Solution. It is easy to find a weaker bound of |S| = n
u
u-1
u-2
3
2
1
u-2
u-1
74
k=n+1
1
(k 1)) = (5u2 (8n + 9)u + 2(n + 1)(n + 2)). Thus the maximal value for
2
4n + 7
8n + 9
, thus at =
, for which
|Su | is obtained at the nearest integer to
10
5
3
|S | =
n(n + 1) .
5
R EMARKS . The set D is a product poset of chains, also seen as being a graded
poset with elements appearing in its Hasse diagram on levels by their rank; the rank
being precisely the sum of the coordinates (as some justification).3
Problem 2. Let ABCD be a square, and the points M [BC], N [CD],
P [DA], such that
(AB, AM ) = x, (BC, M N ) = 2x, (CD, N P ) = 3x.
i) Show that, for any x [0, /8], such a configuration uniquely exists, and P
ranges over the entire segment [DA];
ii) Determine the number of angles x [0, /8] for which (DA, P B) = 4x.
Solution. i) Assume AB = 1, and denote t = tan x. Since
2 tan
8
1 = tan =
2
4
1 tan
8
Now BM = t, hence M takes once and only once all values of interval [0, 21],
2t
, therefore N takes all values of the interval
while CN = (1 t) tan 2x =
1+t
it follows tan
3 Actually
it is a rank-unimodal and rank-symmetric poset; a seminal result is de Bruijn-TengbergenKruyswijk theorem. In common algebraic-combinatorial jargon, the set S is sum-free, or (S + S) S =
(Minkowski sumset notation).
75
1 t t(3 t2 )
2t
tan 3x =
1
0,
1+t
1 + t 1 3t2
(t2 + 2t 1)(t2 + 1)
1 t t(3 t2 )
=
1
2
4
(t + 1)(3t2 1)
4t(1 t2 )
1 26t + t
4t(1 t)(t2 + 1)
(t + 2t 1)(t2 2t 1)
=
1
(3t2 1)(t2 2t 1)
4t(1 t2 )
t2 + 2t 1
(7t4 10t3 2t + 1).
=
4t(1 t2 )(3t2 1)
=
7x3 ) (3x3 + 1), thus decreasing on [0, 2 1], while 56 < 136( 2 1), hence the
polynomial considered above has just one root 0 < 0.3447 < 0.4142 2 1,
corresponding to just one angle 0 < 0.3319 < 0.3927 /8.5
4 An
alternative proof uses the fact that such a configuration, with P A, can occur if (and only if)
x = /8 (hence P cannot bypass A for angles 0 x /8). Limit cases are P D for x = 0 and
P A for x = /8, so by continuity P ranges over the entire segment [DA]. The monotony of the
variation of M , N and P must be argued by stronger methods than just continuity.
5 For angle x (, /8) the line P Q does not meet anymore the segment (AB), going beyond B,
since Q does not vary monotonically. This phenomenon, I humbly reckon, can only be fathomed through
analytic methods.
76
Denote f (c)
= 2c3 2c2 + ( 2 3)c 2. As (x y)(f (x)
f (y))
2
2
1
1
3
= (x y)2
x + y + (x y)2 + ( 2 9) 0, f is increasing;
2
3
2
3
and as f (1) = ( + 1)( 3) > 0, it follows f (c) > 0. Therefore the minimal value
1
for k is reached when ab = 0, for a = 0, whence k b2 + c2 3 (b + c)2 3 =
2
3
1 2
3> .
2
2
The issue of the extremal points, leading to equality when k = 3/2, will better be
addressed within the next alternative solution.
77
= 1 (2a + kbc)
L
= 1 (2b + kca)
b
L = 1 (2c + kab)
c
Equaling the partial derivatives to zero forbids = 0. Then, from pairwise equalities, we get
(a b)(2 kc) = (b c)(2 ka) = (c a)(2 kb) = 0.
(k + 2) k 1 + 2
< 3 for k < 2, since it is equivalent to (k 2)3 < 0. As k needs
k
be at most K 3/2, these points are critical, but not global maxima (in fact they turn
to be global minima).6
(k + 2) k 1 + 2
the record, for the values k3 + 3k2 8 0 we also have
2(k + 3),
k
2
k3 + 3k2 8
since it turns to be equivalent to 2
0. Let 1.3553 be the unique real root
k 2(k + 3) + 4
of k3 + 3k2 8 = 0, with (1, 3/2). Then for k (, 3/2) we have the points on the border being
local maxima, the other being global minima, with point (1, 1, 1) as unique global maximum.
6 For
78
Putting it all together, the largest admissible value for K turns to be 3/2, with the
maximum value a+b+c = 3 being reached only at points (3/2, 3/2, 0), (3/2, 0, 3/2),
(0, 3/2, 3/2) and (1, 1, 1). For 0 k < 3/2 the unique maximum is reached at
(1, 1, 1). Notice the importance of examining the values on the border; without that,
the other critical interior points found but (1, 1, 1) (which works for any k) achieve
a larger value than 3 for a + b + c only starting with k > 2, so would induce the
erroneous bound K = 2.
Alternative Solution. The fact the value 3 for a + b + c is reached for k = 3/2
both at a = b = c = 1, and at a = b = 3/2 and c = 0 et al., suggests this is a
Schur-type inequality. Indeed, assume 0 k 3/2 and a > 3.
Then
2
>k + 3 =
a + kabc
2 3kabc
a +
a
k 2 k 2 9abc
a +
a +
=
1
a
3
3
k 2 2k
1
a +
ab
3
3
2k 2 k 2
=
1
a +
a + 2 ab
3
3
2k 2 k 2
a + ( a)
=
1
3
3
2k
k 2
1
1
+
( a)
3
3
3
k+3 2
( a)
=
9
>k+3
2
2
9abc
a ( a) +
since inequality
a + 2 ab is in turn equivalent to
a
a2 b +
ab2 , at last
a(a
9abc 2 ( ab) ( a), then
a3 + 3abc
2
1
a by Cauchy-Schwarz.
b)(ac) 0, a basic form of Schur; while
a2
3
Problem 4. Let a, b, c be given positive integers. Prove there exists some positive
integer N such that
a | N bc + b + c
b | N ca + c + a
79
c | N ab + a + b
if and only if, denoting d = gcd(a, b, c) and a = dx, b = dy, c = dz, the positive
integers x, y, z are pairwise co-prime, and also gcd(d, xyz) | x + y + z.
Solution. The necessity of having x, y, z be pairwise co-prime is proved by say,
assuming gcd(x, y) > 1.
Then a | N bc+b+c becomes x | dN yz+y+z, and so we must have gcd(x, y) | z,
absurd, since under this assumption it then follows gcd(x, y) | gcd(x, y, z) = 1.
On the other hand, if the co-primality condition holds, consider the integers
xyz
x < 2xyz
x < <
xy xyz
x.
These
xy integer numbers will yield different remainders modulo
xy, since if
ixyz
x jxyz
x (mod
xy), then also
xy | |i j|xyz, whence
i = j, since we have 0 |i j| <
xy and gcd(xyz, xy) = 1. Therefore
there will exist some (unique) 1 t
xy such that
xy | txyz
x, i.e.
txyz x = C xy for some positive integer C, therefore txyz = C xy + x,
so x | Cyz + y + z et al. We found a suitable value C for the triplet x, y, z (for similar
relations with the ones sought for a, b, c). Then all the other suitable values must be
of the form C = C + Mxyz, since we need have xyz | (C C) xy, while
gcd(xyz, xy) = 1.
Now the time has come to analyze the last condition. In order to have a | N bc +
b+c, and the similar others, equivalent to x | dN yz +y +z et al., we need have dN =
C + M xyz for some non-negative integer M . Denote e = gcd(d, xyz); then e | d,
so e | C + M xyz. But then we also must have e | xyz | (C + M xyz) xy + x,
hence e |
x.
Conversely, if e |
x, so e | C
xy.
d
Since clearly gcd(e, xy) = 1, this means e | C. Therefore we need have N =
e
xyz
d xyz
C xyz 1
C
+M
, and since clearly gcd
,
= 1, take M
e
e
e e
e
e
C
xyz
C + M xyz
d
divides
+M
. Take now N =
(of
(mod d/e), wherefore
e
e
e
d
course, N = N + Mabc also works).
xy +
80
FIRST DAY
Solution. Let
2k 2k+1
2 ,2
;
22k+1 , 22k
A=
kZ
B=
kZ
22k , 22k1
22k1 , 22k
for x A
x
f (x) =
x for x B
0
for x = 0
82
.
(pa 1)!
pa 1 pa 2
1
In every fraction on the right-hand side, p has the same maximal exponent in the
numerator as in the denominator. Therefore, the product (which is an integer) is not
divisible by p.
Now suppose that pa k. We have
pa k(k 1) (k pa + 1)
(k 1)(k 2) (k pa + 1)
=
.
(pa 1)!
k
(pa )!
The last fraction is an integer. In fraction
pa
, denominator k is not divisible by pa .
k
n
g(x + n ) = 0.
(1)
83
for g and n 1:
n1
=0
n1
h(x + n 1 ) = 0
n1
(1)
g(x + n ) g(x + n 1 ) = 0
=0
n1
n1
n1
+
(1)
g(x + n) +
1
0
=1
n1
n1
g(x) = 0
g(x + n ) (1)n1
n1
n
n
g(x + n ) = 0.
(1)
n1
(1)
=0
L EMMA 3. If n has at least two distinct prime divisors then the greatest common
n
divisor of n1 , n2 , . . . , n1
is 1.
n
Proof. Suppose to the contrary that p is a common prime divisor of n1 , . . . , n1
.
n
In particular, p | 1 = n. Let a be the exponent of p in the prime factorization of n.
Since n has at least two prime divisors, we have 1 < pa < n. Hence, pan1 and pna
n
n
n
n
are listed among 1 , . . . , n1 and thus p | pa and p | pa 1 . But then p divides
n n n1
pa pa 1 = pa 1 , which contradicts L EMMA 1.
Next we construct the polynomial f (x) when n = 1 or n is a power of a prime.
For n = 1, f (x) = 12 is such a polynomial.
If n = pa where p is a prime and a is a positive integer then let
1 x1
1 (x 1)(x 2) (x pa + 1)
=
.
f (x) =
p pa 1
p
(pa 1)!
84
Since f (k), . . . , f (1) and f (1), . . . , f (n k) are all integers, we conclude that
n
k f (0) is an integer for every 1 k n 1.
n
is 1.
By dint of L EMMA 3, the greatest common divisor of n1 , n2 , . . . , n1
n
Hence, there will exist some integers u1 , u2 , . . . , un1 for which u1 1 + +
n
= 1. Then
un1 n1
n1
n1
n
n
f (0) =
f (0)
f (0) =
uk
uk
k
k
k=1
k=1
is a sum of integers. This contradicts the fact that f (0) is not an integer. So such
polynomial f (x) does not exist.
Now, if for some n there exists some polynomial f (x) satisfying the problem
conditions, one may choose some integer-valued polynomial P (x) (of degree < n
1) coinciding with f (x) at points 1, . . . , n 1. The difference f1 (x) = f (x)
P (x) also satisfies the problem conditions, therefore we may restrict ourselves to the
polynomials vanishing at points 1, . . . , n 1 that are, the polynomials of the form
n1
f (x) = c i=1 (x i) for some (surely rational) constant c. Let c = p/q be its
d
have q (1)n1 (n 1)! and hence pj j (1)n1 (n 1)! for some j. Hence
n1
i=1
(mod pj j ),
85
i
i
therefore f (p
i ) is not integer, too. By the condition (i), this means that n | pi , and
hence n should be a power of a prime.
2. Now let us construct a desired polynomial f (x) for any power of a prime
n = p . We claim that the polynomial
n x
1 x1
=
f (x) =
p n1
px n
fits. Actually, consider some integer x. From the first representation, the denominator
of the irreducible form of f (x) may be 1 or p only. If p x, then the prime decomposition of the fraction n/(px) contains p with a nonnegative exponent; hence f (x) is
integer. On the other hand, if n = p | x, then the numbers x1, x2, . . . , x(n1)
contain the same exponents of primes as the numbers n 1, n 2, . . . , 1 respectively;
hence the number
n1
x1
i=1 (x i)
= n1
n1
i=1 (n i)
Solution. Let P be the meeting point of the common inner tangents to 1 and 2 .
Also, let b be the angle bisector of BAC. Since KL BC, b is also the angle
bisector of KAL.
Let H be the composition of the symmetry S with respect to b and the inversion
I of centre A and ratio AK AL (it is readily seen that S and I commute, so since
S2 = I2 = id, then also H2 = id, the identical transformation). The elements of the
configuration interchanged by H are summarized in Table I.
Let O1 and O2 be the centres of circles 1 and 2 . Since the circles 1 and 2 are
determined by their construction (in a unique way), they are interchanged by H, therefore the rays AO1 and AO2 are symmetrical with respect to b. Denote by
1 and
2
the radii of 1 and 2 . Since O1 AB = O2 AC, we have
1 /
2 = AO1 /AO2 . On
86
the other hand, from the definition of P we have O1 P/O2 P = 1 /2 = AO1 /AO2 ;
this means that AP is the angle bisector of O1 AO2 and therefore of BAC.
The limiting, degenerated, cases are when the parallel line passes through A
when P coincides with A; respectively when the parallel line is BC when P coincides with the foot A BC of the angle bisector of BAC (or any other point on
BC). By continuity, any point P on the open segment AA is obtained for some position of the parallel, therefore the locus is the open segment AA of the angle bisector
b of BAC.
point K
line KL
ray AB
point B
point C
segment BD
arc BK
arc CL
point L
circle
ray AC
point E
point D
segment EC
segment EL
segment DK
Table 1: Elements interchanged by H.
SECOND DAY
s
s
i
p
i , we write (n) for the total
i=1
i=1
Solution. Notice that we have (mn) = (m) + (n) for all positive integers
m, n ( is a completely additive arithmetic function), translating into (mn) = (m)
87
+1, +1, 1, +1, +1, +1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, +1, +1, +1, +1, 1, +1, +1, +1,
+1, +1, 1, +1, +1, +1, +1, +1, 1, +1, +1, 1, +1, +1, +1, +1, 1, 1, 1, +1.
all solutions are given by (xn , yn ), where xn +yn 6 = (5+2 6)n . Since (6y 2 ) = 1
and also (6y 2 + 1) = (x2 ) = 1, the thesis is proven.
Alternative Solution. Take any existing pair with (n) = (n + 1) = 1. Then
((2n+1)2 1) = (4n2 +4n) = (4)(n)(n+1) = 1, and also ((2n+1)2 ) =
(2n + 1)2 = 1, so we have built a larger (1, 1) pair.
ii) The equation 3x2 2y 2 = 1 (again Pell theory) has also infinitely many solu
n
k=1
has been proven false by Minoru Tanaka, who in 1980 computed that for n = 906, 151, 257 its value was
n
(k)
positive. Turan showed that if T (n) :=
0 for all large enough n, that will imply Riemanns
k
k=1
Hypothesis; however, Haselgrove proved it is negative infinitely often.
88
the same procedure for point i), we only need notice that ((2k + 1)2 ) = ((2k)2 ) = 1, and
these terms again are of different parity of their position.
9 Is this true for subsequences of all lengths = 3, 4, etc.? If no, up to which length 2?
89
Solution. Let us first prove that the points must be concyclic. Assign to each point
Xk the vector xk in a system of orthogonal coordinates whose origin is the point of
n
1
xk = 0.
mass of the configuration, thus
n
k=1
2
Then d2 (Xi , Xk ) = ||xi xk ||2 = xi
k = ||xi || 2 xi , xk +
xk , xni x
n
n
||xk ||2 , hence
d2 (Xi , Xk ) = n||xi ||2 2 xi ,
xk +
||xk ||2 = n||xi ||2 +
n
k=1
k=1
n
k=1
||x(k) ||2 =
n
k=1
k=1
k=1
for all pairs (i, j). The points are thus concyclic (lying on a circle centred at O(0, 0)).
Let now m be the least angular distance between any two points. Two points
situated at angular distance m must be adjacent on the circle. Let us connect each pair
of such two points with an edge. The graph G obtained must be regular, of degree
n
deg(Xk ) = n deg(G) = 2|E|, we must have
deg(G) = 1 or 2. If n is odd, since
k=1
90
1
N+1
..
.
(N-1)N+1
2
N+2
..
.
(N-1)N+2
...
...
..
.
N
2N
..
.
N2
...
2
5
..
.
N(N+1)/2 - 1
..
.
...
...
...
..
.
...
...
N(N+1)/2
N(N-1)/2 + 1
N(N-1)/2 + 2
..
.
..
.
N2 - 1
N2 - 2
N2
2
4
91
if two were then the stopping condition would have been fulfilled before cell labeled
k (if the cell labeled k were to be on one of these rows, then all rows would have
contained at least two black cells before, while if not, then all columns would have
contained at least two black cells before).
Now color in red all those black cells adjacent to a white cell. Since each row,
except the potential all black one, contained at least two black and one white cell, it
will now contain at least two red cells. For the potential all black row, any of the
neighbouring rows contains at least one white cell, and so the cell adjacent to it has
been colored red. In total we have therefore colored red at least 2(N 1)+1 = 2N 1
cells.
The least label of the red cells has therefore at most the value k + 1 (2N 1).
When the white cell adjacent to it will eventually be labeled, its label will be at least
k + 1, therefore their difference is at least (k + 1) (k + 1 (2N 1)) = 2N 1.
The models are kind of hard to find, due to the fact that the direct proof offers little
as to their structure (it is difficult to determine the equality case during the argument
involving the inequality with the bound, and then, even this is not sure to be prone to
being prolonged to a full labeling of the array).
The weaker fact the value M is not larger than 2N is proved by the general model
exhibited below (presented so that partial credits may be awarded).
N+1
3N+1
..
.
(2-1)N+1
..
.
2kN+1
..
.
2N+1
1
N+2
3N+2
..
.
(2-1)N+2
..
.
2kN+2
..
.
2N+2
2
...
...
..
.
...
..
.
...
..
.
...
...
2N
4N
..
.
2N
..
.
(2k+1)N
..
.
3N
N
92
7
3
8
2
1
4
6
5
9
16
8
3
10
19
7
2
1
4
11
15
6
5
12
20
22
14
13
21
25
40
30
18
9
20
33
43
29
17
8
3
10
21
34
16
7
2
1
4
11
22
28
15
6
5
12
23
35
39
27
14
13
24
36
44
46
38
26
25
37
45
49
(2n+1)2 -9
.
.
.
2n2
2n2 + 1
.
.
.
(2n+1)2 -7
(2n+1)2 -1
2n2 +2
.
.
.
(2n+1)2 -6
...
...
..
...
...
...
..
...
...
n(2n-1)+1
n(2n-1)+2
.
.
.
8
3
10
.
.
.
n(2n+1)
.
.
.
2
1
4
.
.
.
n(2n+1)+1
n(2n-1)
.
.
.
6
5
12
.
.
.
n(2+1)+2
...
...
..
...
...
...
..
...
...
(2n+1)2 -10
2n(n+1)+3
2n(n-1)+2
2n(n+1)
.
.
.
(2n+1)2 -5
(2n+1)2 -3
(2n+1)2 -11
.
.
.
2n(n+1)+2
2n(n+1)+1
.
.
.
(2n+1)2 -4
(2n+1)2
k=1
k=1
k=1
Solution. The hypothesis leads to (ij)(ai aj )ai aj 0 for every i and j, hence
0
=
n
i,j=1
n
i,j=1
=2
(i j)(ai aj )ai aj
n
ia2i
i=1
n
k=1
ka2k
n
j=1
aj
n
k=1
n
i=1
ak 2
iai
n
n
a2j
j=1
kak
k=1
n
n
i=1
a2i
n
jaj +
j=1
n
ai
i=1
n
ja2j
j=1
a2k ,
k=1
(1)
(2)
94
(3)
(4)
(5)
therefore
f (x (y 1)) = f (x (2y + 1))
(1)
(3,4)
(6)
and
(5)
(1)
(7)
95
96
Solution. Denote J the center of the circle k placed in the half-plane (AB, C and
tangent to AB, DA and BC. Denote a, respectively b the incircles of the triangles ADP
and BCP. We will firstly prove that F IJ. The point A is the center of the homothety
which transforms a into k; K is the center of the homothety with negative ratio which
transforms a into . Denote F the center of the homothety which transforms into k.
It is known that A, K and F are collinear. In the same way, F BL, hence F = F ,
so F IJ.
We prove now that E IJ. Comparing the lengths of the tangents from A, P ,
C, D to the circles k and a gives AP + DC = AD + P C. This shows that the
quadrilateral APCD has an incircle d. Let X be the center of the homothety which
transforms a into . The above reasoning, applied to the circles a, d and shows
that A, C and X are collinear. Consider now the circles a, and k. The point A is the
center of the homothety which transforms a into k and X is the center of the homothety
of the homothety which
which transforms a into , hence XA contains the center E
AC. In the same way E
BD, therefore E
= E,
transforms into k, whence E
so E IJ.
2011 times
Solution. We can assume that 1 A. Then a bB, hence there exists p B such
that a = pb. Moreover, p 2, because 1 A.
Every pair (pb, b) , with b N , is a solution: we use the partition
2n
A =
p q | n N, q N , p q
2n+1
B =
p
q | n N, q N , p q
Problem 3. A set D of n straight lines in a plane has the property that each line
of the set intersects exactly 2011 straight lines of D.
97
98
Find n.
Solution. Let d be a line from D and k be the number of the lines from D parallel
to d. Then n = 2012 + k.
Since every line a from D different from d meets 2011 lines from D, a is parallel
to n 2012 = k lines from D.
This shows that each line from D is parallel to exactly k other lines, whence the n
lines can be divided into groups of k + 1 mutually parallel lines.
So k + 1 | n, hence k + 1 | k + 2012, therefore k {0, 2010} , that is n can be
2012 or 4022.
A possible configuration for n = 2012 is made up by the supports of the sides of
a regular 2012-gon.
A possible configuration for n = 4022 is made up by 2011 parallel lines, meeting
other 2011 parallel lines.
Problem 4. The triangle ABC and the points M (BC), N (AC), P (AB)
fulfill the conditions BM P CN M AP N and BM = CN = AP .
Prove that the triangle ABC is equilateral.
Solution. We start noticing that m(P
M N ) = 180 BM
P N
M C = 180
CN
M N
MC = N
CM and, in the same way, M
NP = N
AP , so
ABC N P M.
(1)
A
B.
(2)
Suppose now, without loss of generality, that C
Then AB BC AC, whence, from (1), N P P M M N. These, toghether
B
with BM P CN M AP N and BM = CN = AP , lead to A
(3)
C.
B
C,
whence the conclusion.
Relations (2) and (3) show that A
ISSN 2066-6446