Nama : Muhammad Amin Marzuqi

Kelas : EK 3C

RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. They contain no source of power or amplification but only
attenuate or reduce the voltage or current signal passing through them. This attenuation results
in electrical energy being lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow of electrons
through it.
Symbol, Types, and Material of Resistor
The symbol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a resistor can either be a zig-zag
type line or a rectangular box. All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four
Carbon Composition Resistor Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values Film
or Cermet Resistor Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values Wirewound Resistor Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings
Semiconductor Resistor High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology There
are a large variety of fixed and variable resistor types with different construction styles
available for each group, with each one having its own particular characteristics, advantages
and disadvantages compared to the others. To include all types would make this section very
large so I shall limit it to the most commonly used, and readily available general purpose types
of resistors.

Carbon Resistors
Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors. Carbon resistors
are a cheap general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits. Their
resistive element is manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or
graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it
all together. The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the
overall resistive value of the mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the lower the
overall resistance.

Film Resistor
The generic term Film Resistor consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide
Film resistor types,which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel,

or an oxide film, such as tin-oxide,onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate. Metal

Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents,
lower noise and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications.
Metal Oxide Resistors have better high surge current capability with a much higher
temperature rating than the equivalent metal film resistors.

Wire Wound Resistor

These types of resistor are generally only available in very low ohmic high precision
values (from 0.01 to 100k) due to the gauge of the wire and number of turns possible
on the former making them ideal for use in measuring circuits and Whetstone bridge
type applications. They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than
other resistors of the same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts.
These high power resistors are moulded or pressed into an aluminium heat sink body
with fins attached to increase their overall surface area to promote heat loss and cooling.

Function of Resistors
Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within
circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels,
bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors
that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls,
in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances
that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be
used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Characteristic of Resistor

Frequency Characteristic of Resistor

Resistors have small parasitic inductance (which is regarded to be connected in serial
to the resistor in equivalent circuit) and parasitic capacitance (the capacitance between
electrodes regarded to be connected in parallel to the resistor in equivalent circuit). Thus
the higher the frequency becomes, the more the parasitic components are affected,
which leads the resistors have reactance components. You have to pay attention for
using resistors in high frequency range because impedance of resistors are affected
depending on frequency.

Temperature Rise and Heating of Resistor

Resistor is an element that converts electric energy into heat energy. It always generates
heat when the electric power is consumed and the temperature rises according to the
consumed power. To control the temperature rise of a resistor, the generated heat needs
to be dissipated efficiently. As the image below, expanding the pad pattern of the
resistor or expanding Cu foil pattern where the resistor is connected, will lead to good
heat radiation and control the temperature rise.

I-V Characteristic of Resistor

I-V characteristic curves defines the resistive element, in the sense that if we apply any
voltage value to the resistive element, the resulting current is directly obtainable from
the I-V characteristics. As a result, the power dissipated (or generated) by the resistive
element can also be determined from the I-V curve. If the voltage and current are
positive in nature, then the I-V characteristic curves will be positive in quadrant , if the
voltage and therefore the current are negative in nature then the curve will be displayed
in quadrant as shown.

Application of Resistor

Polygraph
The polygraph, or "lie detector," is really just a set of meters for recording physical
measures of the subject's psychological stress, such as sweating and quickened
heartbeat. The real-time sweat measurement works on the principle that dry skin is a
good insulator, but sweaty skin is a conductor. Of course a truthful subject may become
nervous simply because of the situation, and a practiced liar may not even break a sweat.

Fuse
A fuse is a device inserted in a circuit tollbooth-style in the same manner as an ammeter.
It is simply a piece of wire made of metals having a relatively low melting point. If too
much current passes through the fuse, it melts, opening the circuit. The purpose is to
make sure that the building's wires not carry so much current that they themselves will
get hot enough to start a fire.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is nothing more than an ammeter with an additional high-value resistor
through which the current is also forced to flow. Ohm's law relates the current through
the resistor to the voltage difference across it, so the meter can be calibrated in units of
volts based on the known value of the resistor.

The below image shows the frequency characteristics of thick film flat chip resistors in
size 0603(0.6 inch x 0.3 inch). It shows the impedance change of resistor depends on resistance.
When the resistance is low, parasitic inductance becomes dominant in the high frequency
range, which makes higher impedance . When the resistance is high, the parasitic capacitance
becomes dominant in high frequency range, which makes smaller impedance. When the
resistance is extremely small e.g. under milliohm, surface effect enables to lead the
phenomenon that parasitic inductance drops and resistance of resistive body itself increases.