Moss Reproduction

How they Reproduce

Like all bryophytes mosses, have two forms of reproduction, Asexual or vegetative reproduction
and sexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction

At regular intervals depending on species and weather condition, mosses produce small sexual structures
known as archegonium (female structure that produces egg cells), orantheridium (male structure that
produces sperm cells). These can occur on different parts of the same plant but more often on different
plants.

Antheridia s
by modifie

The male plant sometimes has a visible rosette at the shoot tip, which contain a mass ofantheridia among
protective hairs or surrounded by modified leaves. In many moss plants a microscope is needed to see the
antheridia or archegonia.
When the antheridia are ripe the antherozoids are released, these antherozoids or sperm cells then swim by
means of two threadlike tails and are attracted chemically to the archegonium, where fertilisation occurs to
form a zygote. The formation of the zygote begins the second phase of the moss life cycle where the zygote
develops into asporophyte (spore-plant).
The sporophyte begins to grow by cell division out of the top of the archegonium on the female gametophyte
plant. At which point it's a parasite on the gametophyte plant, although it may produce some of its own food
by photosynthesis in the early stages of growth
.
The sporophyte consists of three structures, a foot which anchors it to the gametophyte and helps to transfer
water and nutrients from the gametophyte, a long erect stalk called aseta, and a pod-like capsule at the end
where spores are produced.
A capsule may contain from four, to more than a million, spores, depending on the species. In most mosses,
the mouth of the capsule is covered by a lid-like operculum, which falls off when the spores are mature. A
membranous hood, the calyptra, which is also discarded at maturity, further protects the operculum.
A tiny tooth-like structure around the mouth of the capsule, which consists of one or two rows of teeth,
controls the release of the spores. These structures called the peristomeremain closed during wet conditions
and preventing the release of the spore. In dry conditions, they open to allowing the discharging of the
spores and improve their chances of the spore being dispersed some distance.

ature Moss

If spore falls onto a damp area of ground, it may germinate into a branching, threadlike
filamentous protonema. Buds from the protonema then grow into leafy male or female gametophytes,
completing the life cycle.

oss Ca
Asexual Reproduction

As mentioned above mosses can also reproduce asexually or other words vegetatively. They
are able to do this by a number of different methods, much the same as Liverworts.
One method occurs when the stem of a large clump of moss dies back, resulting the clump
becoming individual plants. Another method occurs when bits of the stem or even a single
leaf from the moss plant are accidentally broken off these bits can then regenerate to form a
new plant.
Some mosses produce specialised structures called brood bodies, which can take on many
different forms depending on the species, and are often used to indicate the species of the
moss plant.
...

Female cats are seasonally polyestrous, which means they may have many periods of heat over the
course of a year, the season beginning in spring and ending in late autumn. Heat periods occur
about every two weeks and last about 4 to 7 days. [161] Multiple males will be attracted to a female in
heat. The males will fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female rejects
the male, but eventually the female allows the male to mate. The female utters a loud yowl as the
male pulls out of her because a male cat's penishas a band of about 120150 backwardspointing penile spines, which are about 1 mm long;[162] upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake
the walls of the female's vagina, which is a trigger for ovulation. This act also occurs to clear the
vagina of other sperm in the context of a second (or more) mating, thus giving the later males a
larger chance of conception.[citation needed]
After mating, the female washes her vulva thoroughly. If a male attempts to mate with her at this
point, the female will attack him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the female is finished grooming,
the cycle will repeat.[161]
Because ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating, females may not be impregnated by
the first male with which they mate.[163]Furthermore, cats are superfecund; that is, a female may mate
with more than one male when she is in heat, with the result that different kittens in a litter may have
different fathers.[161]

A newborn kitten

At 124 hours after conception, the morula forms. At 148 hours, early blastocysts form. At 1012
days, implantation occurs.[164][165]

The gestation period for cats is between 64 and 67 days, with an average of 66 days. [166] The size of
a litter usually is three to five kittens, with the first litter usually smaller than subsequent litters.
Kittens are weaned between six and seven weeks old, and cats normally reach sexual maturity at 5
10 months (females) and to 57 months (males), although this can vary depending on breed.
[161]

Females can have two to three litters per year, so may produce up to 150 kittens in their breeding

span of around ten years.[161]

Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks of age, [167] when they are ready to leave their
mother. They can be surgicallysterilized (spayed or castrated) as early as 7 weeks to limit unwanted
reproduction.[168] This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior, such as
aggression, territory marking (spraying urine) in males and yowling (calling) in females. Traditionally,
this surgery was performed at around six to nine months of age, but it is increasingly being
performed prior to puberty, at about three to six months.[169] In the US, about 80% of household cats
are neutered.[170]
.........................

E. coli reproduces by two means: cell division, and the transfer of

genetic material through a sex pilus (conjugation).

E.coli cell division

Photo from a Public Domain, Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons

Escherichia coli, when undergoing cellular division, is using a

means of asexual reproduction because there is no transfer of
genetic material; the bacterium is merely making an exact copy of
itself (watch out for the attack of the Clones!). This is the most

prevalent form of reproduction for E. coli. The individual bacterium

begins this process by elongation of the cell, followed by almost
exact replication of thegenome so there are
two identical copies. Mutations and mistakes may happen during
genetic replication, but normally these occur in small numbers and
don't have a large effect on the bacterium. A septum is
formed, and the cell equally divides the cellular components and
one copy of the parental genome gets placed in each side of the
cell. The cell divides, leaving two copies of the original bacterium
called daughter cells.

E. coli life cycle

Photo from a Public Domain, Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons

E. coli also undergo a process with direct cell to cell contact

known asconjugation by which genetic material is transferred
between two

E. coli using a Sex Pilus

Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. Used with
Permission

bacterial cells via a

specialized type of fimbriae
called sex pili (also known
as conjugate fimbriae). This
is NOT sexual reproduction
because there is no fusion of
gametes present. is more
infrequent than cell division,
but it allows for a means of
genetic diversity between
bacteria, and the possibility of
beneficial adaptations such
asantibiotic resistance.
E. coli that contain an
fertility factor (F+) know as
aplasmid undergo conjugation
by first copying its genome.
This bacterium is called
the donor. It then releasing
an enzyme that

contains a "mating signal", showing that it is ready for genetic

transfer. This mating enzyme attracts a bacteria that doesn't
contain the fertility factor (F-). This bacterium is the recipient. The
donor E. coli bacterium connects the sex pilus to the recipient
bacterium, and injects the plasmid. Once the pilus is disconnected,
the transfer stops.
Conifers are monoecious plants that produce both male and female cones, each making the
necessary gametes used for fertilization.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE[ EDIT ]

Describe the life cycle of a gymnosperm

KEY POINTS[ EDIT ]

Male cones give rise to microspores, which produce pollen grains, while
female cones give rise to megaspores, which produce ovules.

The pollen tube develops from the pollen grain to initiate fertilization; the pollen
grain divides into two sperm cells by mitosis; one of the sperm cells unites with the egg cell
during fertilization.
Once the ovule is fertilized, a diploid sporophyte is produced, which gives rise
to the embryo enclosed in a seed coat of tissue from the parent plant.
Fetilization and seed development can take years; the seed that is formed is made
up of three tissues: the seed coat, the gametophyte, and the embryo.
TERMS[ EDIT ]

microspore
a small spore, as contrasted to the larger megaspore, which develops into male
gametophytes

monoecious
having the male (stamen) and female (carpel) reproductive organs on the same plant
rather than on separate plants

megaspore
the larger spore of a heterosporous plant, typically producing a female gametophyte

.......................

Life cycle and Reproduction

Different species of amoebae reproduce differently. For example, some species
produces spores as a means of reproduction. In the case of Amoeba
proteus, it reproduces asexually through binary fission (A. proteus can be called
immortal, as it does not die due to natural death on its own, due to binary
fission). To prepare for reproduction, A. proteus starts with withdrawing its
pseudopodia to make a more spherical shape. Mitosis occurs in the nucleus and
the cytoplasm is pinched in the center of the original cell to form two (daughter)
cells. The cell division results in two identical cells, or clones, because A.
proteus reproduces asexually and so it simply copies its genetic information into
the second cell. There is no genetic recombination nor crossing over of
homologous chromosomes. The nucleus holds the key to survival and
reproduction, as with many organisms. For example, if a segment of the amoeba
was sliced off, producing two parts, the segment containing the nucleus would

recover and continue to function normally, while the segment without

(cytoplasm and possibly organelles) would shrivel up and die. The video below
shows an animation of binary fission in amoebae.
This entire process may last anywhere from 30 minutes to an hour.
Under some circumstances (i.e. when the environment is nutrient/prey
defficient), A. proteus may reproduce by multiple fission, where more than two
daughter cells are produced. The process begins in the same way as binary
fission does. A fully grown amoeba retracts its pseudopodia, making the cell
into a more spherical shape. The cell then secretes a hardening layer (a wall)
around the cell, forming a cyst. This cyst is able to survive much harsher
conditions than the original cell. Now, inside the cyst, mitosis occurs many
times, producing more than 2 daughter cells. When the cyst wall ruptures (when
favourable conditions are met), these daughter cells are then released.
The diagram below shows diagrams of A. proteus undergoing both binary fission
and multiple fission. Typically, binary fission is the method A. proteus uses to
reproduce.

Outlining the process of binary (see left) and multiple (see right) fission. This process occurs in 30 minutes to 1 hour,
under ideal conditions (24 degrees C)

1. Vegetative reproduction:
The vegetative reproduction takes place by means of budding. This method
of reproduction takes place in favourable conditions when the yeast cells grow
in sugar solution. From each yeast cell one or more small outgrowths are
given out, which gradually enlarge in size, detached from the mother cells and
act as independent individuals.
The nucleus of the mother cells divides amitotically and transfers to the
daughter cell. Several other outgrowths develop from the newly formed
outgrowths, and sometimes the chains of the cells are seen. Very soon the
yeast cells are detached from each other and act as new independent
individuals.

2. Asexual reproduction:
This type of reproduction probably takes place in adverse conditions,
especially when there is scarcity of nutrients and abundance of oxygen. The
yeast cell enlarges in size and called the ascus. The nuclues of the ascus
divides twice producing four nuclei. Now around each nucleus the cytoplasm
deposits and the four ascospores are formed. Sometimes eight ascospores
may also be produced.
Each ascospore is surrounded by a thick wall. These spores are perennating
bodies. They remain dormant in adverse conditions. On the approach of
favourable conditions they germinate. The ascus wall bursts and the
ascospores liberate in the atmosphere. They are dispersed by wind from

one place to another. On getting suitable media and appropriate weather

conditions the ascospores germinate and the new individuals are formed by
budding.
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3. Sexual reproduction:
The sexual reproduction takes place very rarely in some of the species of
yeasts. This takes place by conjugation. Two individuals come close to each
other and the beak-like outgrowths are given out from them. These outgrowths
fuse with each other. The nuclei of both individuals come in these beaks, the
wall of contact dissolves and ultimately the nuclei fuse with each other giving

rise to a zygote, which soon converts into an ascus. The diploid nucleus (2n)
of asucs divides thrice producing eight nuclei. The first division is reductional
to bring haploid (n) condition again.

Around each nucleus the cytoplasm is deposited, they become walled and
called the ascospores. On bursting the wall of ascus the ascospores are
liberated. On getting suitable conditions they germinate and the new
individuals are produced by budding.

Related Articles:

.....................
PIG

Have a high reproductive potential

Some individuals sexually mature as early as 6 months of age

Litter size averages 6 piglets, but ranges from 3-8 piglets

Females can give birth twice in one year.

.................

Creating Pacific Octopuses

For Enteroctopus dofleini, reproduction is the
ultimate purpose in life. Once this task is completed, it
will die.
Before a courtship can begin between two octopuses,
they first need to find each other. It is believed that a
male will sense chemical attractants produced by a
female and then search for her.
During courtship both octopuses use their sense of
sight to determine attraction. Males are looking for a
large female. Larger diploid females produce more
haploid eggs, by meiosis If more eggs are fertilized, it
gives the male a greater probability to pass on his genes.
Similarly, females are looking for a male with a large
ligula. The ligula is a portion of the
males hectocotylus and is located at the end of his arm.
It contains erectile tissue and will become larger with
attraction. To turn the lady on, the male will flash
intricate skin displays with hischromatophores. He will
use her response to judge her willingness and readiness
to mate. Both males and females may have more than
one mate.
Sexual interactions occur between the Pacific
octopuses in two positions: side by side or with the male
on top. The male then ejects a haploid spermatophore,
which was created by meiosis, from his ligula and
transfers it into his hectocotyluss groove. Shockingly, the
Pacific octopus's spermatophores are about three feet

long and contain up to seven billion sperm! The

spermatophore then proceeds to travel down the ciliated
groove of his hectocotylus, while the male places his arm
into the females mantle. He places the spermatophore
into the females oviduct with his ligula. It is unknown
how the male is able to find her oviduct, but it is
believed she secretes chemicals to help him in this
process. The males ligula is also believed to be able to
remove previous males spermatophores from within the
female. During this sexual encounter, the males heart
skips a beat and the females respiration rate increases.
The Pacific octopus takes about an hour to pass a single
spermatophore and the entire mating process, not
including courtship, takes about three to four hours, on

average.
The female stores the sperm within her their body,
until she is ready to lay the eggs. When eggs travel out of
the female's body, they travel past the contained sperm
and become fertilized. About 20,000 to 100,000 eggs,

each the size of a grain of rice, will be laid. She places

these eggs along the wall of a chosen den. It will take
her a couple of days to lay all of them. The peak time of
year for egg-laying, or spawning, is from April-May near
Alaska and from May-July near Japan. It takes about 150230 days, about 6 or 7 months, for the eggs to hatch. She
will rarely leave the eggs during the entire incubation
period. During this time, the female will touch the eggs
with her arms and aerate them with her siphon. She does
this to keep them clean and free of fungi, bacteria and
algae. After they hatch, she will blow them out of the
den and into the open ocean. (This can be viewed in the
video above. I recommend watching at minute three.)
Upon hatching, the offspring immediately swim to the
ocean's surface. They will then experience a planktonic
stage for about 30-90 days. Many of the octopuses die
during this stage of life. More information about this can
be found here.
The final stage of both the mating process and the
octopuss life cycle is senescence. Both male and female
Pacific octopuses experience this dementia-like state of
being. Males will experience this alone, very soon after
mating. Females, on the other hand, will lay eggs and
faithfully tend to them while going through senescence.
During senescence, the octopuses refuse to eat and
will lose a lot of weight. The octopuses' bodies will begin

to metabolize
muscle
because they do not store body fat. One can lose up to
50% of its body weight. Also, males tend to move around
in the open water without a purpose. They do not hunt or
forage, and rarely return to their dens. This makes them
easy prey. The last sign of senescence is the appearance
of white lesions on the skin. These lesions will not heal
because all of the octopuss healing processes cease
during senescence. Infections are often a deadly side
effect.
The octopus experiences senescence until death,
which usually arises from starvation or predation. The
females die almost immediately after the young hatch.
...................

Steps associated with viral reproduction

1. Attachment, sometimes called absorption: The virus attaches to
receptors on the host cell wall.

2. Penetration: The n ucleic acid of the virus moves through the plasma
membrane and into the cytoplasm of the host cell. The capsid of a
phage, a bacterial virus, remains on the outside. In contrast, many
viruses that infect animal cells enter the host cell intact.
3. Replication: The viral genome contains all the information necessary to
produce new viruses. Once inside the host cell, the virus induces the
host cell to synthesize the necessary components for its replication.
4. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into
new viruses.
5. Release: Assembled viruses are released from the cell and can now
infect other cells, and the process begins again.
............

Rape is not typically something you associate with those darling duckies who bob
along the surface of the water to the delight of children and adults at the local pond.
Its a shock to discover that male ducks are the rapists of the bird world. Often, a
gang of three or four of them attacks a female duck, sometimes resulting in her injury
or death. While ducks are not the only species in the Animal Kingdom to
display aggressive sexual behavior, they are the most aggressive of bird species.
What could possibly be the reason for such behavior?
Consenting adults

Female ducks are just as interested as the next species in selecting a particularly
outstanding partner for fathering their offspring. However, when a female makes her
choice and ducks pair up, one or several males get left out of the mating opportunity.
Since male ducks dont share in the raising of their young, their programming doesnt
include protecting the mother of their children -- they only stick around until the eggs
are laid. Their real interest is in copulating with as many females as they can get
their feathers on. Competition in the insemination war is ferocious and if youre not
partnered up, any female is fair game.
Why are ducks wired so differently from the 97 percent of bird species who have
consensual sex? The answer is that males, also known as drakes, are among the 3
percent of birds with a penis. Aquatic birds (according to one theory) may need
penises to prevent their semen from being washed away.

When you think about it, if youre a bird, not having a penis makes sense. With all
that flying about, it would create drag and could easily get in harms way. For most
birds, the superior design is the joining of the individual male and female holes known
as the cloaca. Sperm passes from the male to the female during the cloacal kiss.
The need for cooperation of both parties to achieve this union has led to elaborate
courtship rituals -- the call and response of bird attraction, moving the pair closer to
the point of their mutual engagement.
Is size really important?

Ducks have enormous sex organs -- spiraling tentacles that can be as long as the drake
itself. The Argentine lake ducks phallus probably holds the record at 16 inches. If that
isnt bizarre enough, add the fact that in the fall, a drakes genitalia will disappear,
only to reappear next spring. Nobody knows why this happens.
The reason for huge penises is better understood. The classic explanation is that it
allows males to have sex without the cooperation of the female. However, a deeper
understanding is offered by Dr. Patricia Brennan, a female behavioral ecologist.
Studying these oversized phalluses led her to ask a question that no one had asked
before.
"So what does the female look like? Obviously you can't have something like that
without some place to put it in. You need a garage to park the car."
Feminine Wiles

As reported in the May 1, 2007 issue of New York Times Science, Brennan concluded
that the elaborate anatomy of female ducks had evolved in response to, and as a
countermeasure against, aggressive males.
Once they choose a male, theyre making the best possible choice, and thats the
male they want siring their offspring, she said. They dont want the guy flying in
from who knows where. It makes sense that they would develop a defense.
Females protect themselves from undesired insemination through their long and
complex oviduct (the equivalent of the vagina in birds). Brennan found that the
vaginal tubes were not straight but had all these weird structures, these pockets and
spirals. This served to impede the sperms fertilization mission; unwanted sperm
could be stored in side chambers to be ejected later. The success of this design is
proven by the fact that as many as one in three duck matings are rapes, but in nine

out of ten of these, the offending sperm is eliminated, so 97 percent of all duck
offspring are the result of the choice of the mother.
Nature versus nurture

As crazy as such extreme genital development seems, it makes sense in the context of
an evolutionary struggle to control reproductive success. When it comes tomating
rituals, birds are at the mercy of the purely physical solutions wrought by nature. We,
on the other hand, have the ability to modify our nature with our minds and hearts.
Nurture plays as significant a role as nature in our partnering. We are lucky to have
behavioral choices that some of our bird-brained friends simply dont have.
..............

Snake Mating Process

The mating process for the snake can take many different forms based on the species
and the location. However, the standard practices include a male and female who are
mature finding each other. Those that live in colder areas will only mate in the late
spring and the early summer. For those that live in tropical areas the mating can take
place all year long.
The temperatures along with the availability of food can determine if they will mate or
not.
The males will become more aggressive around the time for mating. They will fight with
each other so that they are able to get the attention of the female. She has the final
decision on who will be able to mate with her and who has to keep on moving along. He
wont give up until he knows for sure there is no chance of it occurring.
Since males and females can look so much alike, the males usually dont even have a
chance to really avoid each other. They will have to get very close in order to find out if
he has found another male or a female that he may be able to mate with. This can vary
though by species but overall such behaviors are a part of the mating process for
snakes.
Once mating has occurred the male and the female will go their separate way. They
dont say in contact. The female can become very hostile if mating is over and the male
is still around. He will typically be in a hurry though to go look for other females in the
area. However, when the male is mating for the first time he may become very
exhausted. This is why he may want to stay around the female he simply is too tired to
venture further away from her.

Once mating has occurred the female will lay eggs. This can take place soon after
mating for some species. With others though the eggs will stay in her body for a long
period of time. Then they will emerge right before the young are ready to come out of
them.
She will place them in a nest or burrow to offer them a save place. Most species will
leave those eggs and that is the end of it. Some species though will linger around the
area to protect them. She will leave though as soon as the eggs emerge. There are a
few species including boas and rattlesnakes that give birth to live young (viviparous).
She may mate again with a male. The other option is that she may have sperm in her
body that was left over that she can use again.
Those that are born from eggs have sharp teeth and they will use it to break the egg
from the inside out. Mating may occur annually for some species but there are those
that will only do so once very three years.
All young have to care for themselves from the instant they are born. They are very
vulnerable to a verity of predators including birds, fox, and lizards. There is a high
mortality rate in the wild for young snakes. They look very much like their adult parents
at birth but they are just smaller.
............

SHARK REPRODUCTION
Unlike most bony fish, shark's eggs are fertilized inside the female's body. The male
shark has "claspers," extensions of the pelvic fins that are used to transfer sperm to the
female and fertilize her eggs.
Most sharks give birth to live young, but some release eggs that hatch later. The
gestation period (the time the embryo spends inside the female, developing) can be up
to almost two years long (the spiny dogfish shark may have the longest shark
gestation period).
Baby sharks (called pups) are born with a full set of teeth and are fully ready to take
care of themselves. They quickly swim away, even from their mothers who might eat
them. Litter size ranges from one or two pups (for a great white shark) to over 100
(for a large blue shark and the whale shark).
There are different types of shark egg development:
Viviparity- The eggs hatch inside the female's body and the babies are fed by a
placenta which transfers nourishment from the mother to the babies (via an

umbilical cord which is connected to the baby shark behind the between the
pectoral fins). The placenta helps transfer nutrients and oxygen from the
mother's bloodstream and transfers waste products from the baby to the mother
for elimination. Viviparous sharks give birth to live young. The number of pups
in a litter ranges from 2-20 or more. Examples of viviparous sharks include the
Bull sharks, Whitetip reef shark, Lemon shark, Blue shark, Mako, Porbeagle,
Salmon shark, the Silvertip shark, and Hammerheads. Although long thought to
be oviparous (an egg 14 inches (36 cm) long was once found), Whale
sharks are viviparous and pregnant females have been found containing
hundreds of pups.
Oviparity- These sharks deposit eggs in the ocean which will hatch later if they
are not eaten by predators. The eggs are not guarded by either parent. Shark
eggs (sometimes called "mermaid's purses") are covered by a tough, leathery
membrane. Their shape ranges from pouch-like to screw-shaped (like the
California hornshark and the Port Jackson shark). Some eggs (like those of
catsharks) have tendrils that attach the egg to objects on the sea bed. The egg
has a yolk that feeds the embryo, very much like a chicken egg. Oviparous
sharks include the Zebra shark, the catsharks, swellshark, the necklace
carpetshark, some Epaulette sharks, and the Hornshark.
Aplacental Viviparity (Ovoviviparous)- In these animals, the eggs hatch and
the babies develop inside the female's body but there is no placenta to nourish
the pups. The pups eat any unfertilized eggs and each other (they are
oviphagous). Very few pups in a litter survive until birth due to this form of
sibling cannibalism. Great white sharks, sawsharks,Mako, crocodile sharks,
Cookiecutter sharks, Pelagic thresher, Greenland shark, Gummy shark, Soupfin
shark, Pacific Angelshark, Pygmy sharks, Nurse shark, Tiger shark, and Sand
tiger sharks reproduce this way.