Candle

For other uses, see Candle (disambiguation).

sphere to ignite and form a constant ame. This ame
A candle is wax with an ignitable wick embedded that provides sucient heat to keep the candle burning via a
self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the ame melts
the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liqueed fuel then
moves upward through the wick via capillary action; the
liqueed fuel nally vaporizes to burn within the candles
ame.
As the mass of solid fuel is melted and consumed, the
candle becomes shorter. Portions of the wick that are not
emitting vaporized fuel are consumed in the ame. The
incineration of the wick limits the exposed length of the
wick, thus maintaining a constant burning temperature
and rate of fuel consumption. Some wicks require regular trimming with scissors (or a specialized wick trimmer), usually to about one-quarter inch (~0.7 cm), to promote slower, steady burning, and also to prevent smoking.
In early times, the wick needed to be trimmed quite frequently. Special candle-scissors, referred to as "snuers"
were produced for this purpose in the 20th century and
were often combined with an extinguisher. In modern
candles, the wick is constructed so that it curves over as it
burns. This ensures that the end of the wick gets oxygen
and is then consumed by rea self-trimming wick.[3]

Young Man with a Candle by Michel Gobin

1 Etymology
The word candle comes from Middle English candel,
from Old English and from Anglo-Norman candele, both
from Latin candla, from candre, to shine.[4]

2 History
Main article: History of candle making
Collection of modern synthetic candles

The earliest surviving candles originated in China around

200 BC, and were made from whale fat. European candles of antiquity were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax. In Ancient Rome, candles were
made of tallow due to the prohibitive cost of beeswax.[5]
It is possible that they also existed in Ancient Greece, but
imprecise terminology makes it dicult to determine.[5]

provides light, and in some cases, a fragrance. It can also

be used to provide heat, or as a method of keeping time.

A candle manufacturer is traditionally known as a

chandler.[1] Various devices have been invented to hold
candles, from simple tabletop candle holders to elaborate
chandeliers.[2]
In the Middle Ages in Europe, tallow candles were the
For a candle to burn, a heat source (commonly a naked most common candle. By the 13th century, candle makame) is used to light the candles wick, which melts ing had become a guild craft in England and France.
and vaporizes a small amount of fuel (the wax). Once The candle makers (chandlers) went from house to house
vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmo- making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that pur1

USE

pose, or made and sold their own candles from small candle shops.[6] Beeswax, compared to animal-based tallow,
burned cleanly, without smoky ame. Rather than the
foul and terrible odor of tallow, it emits a fresh smell.
Beeswax candles were expensive, and relatively few people could aord to burn them in their homes in medieval
Europe. However, they were widely used for church
ceremonies.[7]

for continuous production of molded candles by using a

cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they
solidied. This more ecient mechanized production
produced about 1,500 candles per hour. This allowed
candles to become an easily aordable commodity for
the masses.[9] candlemakers also began to fashion wicks
out of tightly braided (rather than simply twisted) strands
of cotton. This technique makes wicks curl over as they
burn, maintaining the height of the wick and therefore
In the 18th century, spermaceti, oil produced by the
[8] the ame. Because much of the excess wick is incinsperm whale, was used to produce a superior candle.
erated, these are referred to as self-trimming or selfLate in the 18th century, colza oil and rapeseed oil came
consuming wicks.[10]
into use as much cheaper substitutes.

2.1

Modern era

In the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling

paran wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West
Lothian and developed a commercially viable method of
production.[11] Paran could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax,
burned cleanly, and left no unpleasant odor, unlike tallow
candles. By the end of the 19th century, most candles
being manufactured consisted of paran wax and stearic
acid.
By the late 19th century, Prices Candles, based in London, was the largest candle manufacturer in the world.[12]
Founded by William Wilson in 1830,[13] the company pioneered the implementation of the technique of steam
distillation, and was thus able to manufacture candles
from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat,
bone fat, sh oil and industrial greases.
Despite advances in candle making, the candle industry
declined rapidly upon the introduction of superior methods of lighting, including kerosene and lamps and the
1879 invention of the incandescent light bulb. From this
point on, candles came to be marketed as more of a decorative item.

3 Use
See also: Ceremonial use of lights Candles
Before the invention of electric lighting, candles and oil

Prices Candles became the largest candle manufacturer in the

world by the end of the 19th century

The manufacture of candles became an industrialized

mass market in the mid 19th century. In 1834, Joseph
Morgan, a pewterer from Manchester, England, patented
a machine that revolutionised candle making. It allowed Candle lighting in the Visoki Deani monastery.

4.1

Wax

lamps were commonly used for illumination. In areas

without electricity, they are still used routinely. Until
the 20th century, candles were more common in northern Europe. In southern Europe and the Mediterranean,
oil lamps predominated.
In the developed world today, candles are used mainly
for their aesthetic value and scent, particularly to set a
soft, warm, or romantic ambiance, for emergency lighting
during electrical power failures, and for religious or ritual purposes. Scented candles are used in aromatherapy.
Some have even gone so far as to make candles scented
with racing two-stroke motorcycle oil.[14]

3.1

Other uses

With the fairly consistent and measurable burning of a

candle, a common use of candles was to tell the time. The
candle designed for this purpose might have time measurements, usually in hours, marked along the wax. The
Song dynasty in China (9601279) used candle clocks.[15]
By the 18th century, candle clocks were being made with
weights set into the sides of the candle. As the candle
melted, the weights fell o and made a noise as they fell
into a bowl.
In the days leading to Christmas some people burn a candle a set amount to represent each day, as marked on the Unlit candles
candle. The type of candle used in this way is called the
Advent candle,[16] although this term is also used to refer
stearin[19][20] (now produced almost exclusively
to a candle that decorates an Advent wreath.
from palm waxes though initially manufactured
from animal fats);

4
4.1

Components
Wax

beeswax (a byproduct of honey collection);

gel (a mixture of polymer and mineral oil);
some plant waxes (generally palm, carnauba,
bayberry, or soybean wax);

The hydrocarbon C31 H64 is a typical component of paran wax,

from which most modern candles are produced.

tallow (rarely used since the introduction of aordable and cheap wax alternatives);

For most of recorded history candles were tallow and

spermaceti (extracted from the head of a sperm
beeswax until the mid 1800s at which point they were
whale).
made mainly from spermaceti (spurring larger demand
for whale oil), and puried animal fats (stearin). Today,
most candles are made from paran wax.[17] Candles can The size of the ame and corresponding rate of burning
also be made from beeswax, soy, other plant waxes, and is controlled largely by the candle wick.
tallow (a by-product of beef-fat rendering). Gel candles
Production methods utilize extrusion moulding.[17] More
are made from a mixture of mineral oil and a polymer.[18]
traditional production methods entail melting the solid
The candle can be made of:
fuel by the controlled application of heat. The liquid is
then poured into a mould or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle.
paran wax (a product of petroleum rening);
Often fragrance oils, essential oils or aniline-based dye is
microcrystalline wax;
added.

4.2

Wick

CHARACTERISTICS

way, but was chosen such that a candles luminous intensity is still about one candela.

Main article: Candle wick

5.2 Temperature

A candle wick works by capillary action, drawing (wicking) the melted wax or fuel up to the ame. When the See also: Combustion
liquid fuel reaches the ame, it vaporizes and combusts.
The candle wick inuences how the candle burns. Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, sti- The hottest part of the ame is just above the very dull
blue part to one side of the ame, at the base. At this
ness, re-resistance, and tethering.
point, the ame is about 1,400 C. However note that
A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the this part of the ame is very small and releases little heat
ame of a candle. Commercial wicks are made from energy. The blue color is due to chemiluminescence,
braided cotton. The wicks capillarity determines the rate while the visible yellow color is due to radiative emission
at which the melted hydrocarbon is conveyed to the ame. from hot soot particles. The soot is formed through a seIf the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams ries of complex chemical reactions, leading from the fuel
down the side of the candle. Wicks are often infused with molecule through molecular growth, until multi-carbon
a variety of chemicals to modify their burning character- ring compounds are formed. The thermal structure of
istics. For example, it is usually desirable that the wick a ame is complex, hundreds of degrees over very short
not glow after the ame is extinguished. Typical agents distances leading to extremely steep temperature gradiare ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate.[17]
ents. On average, the ame temperature is about 1,000
C.[22] The color temperature is approximately 1,000 K.

5
5.1

Characteristics

5.3 Candle ame

Light

A room lit up in the glow of many candles

Based on measurements of a taper-type, paran wax

candle, a modern candle typically burns at a steady rate
of about 0.1 g/min, releasing heat at roughly 80 W.[21]
The light produced is about 13 lumens, for a luminous
ecacy of about 0.16 lumens per watt (luminous ecacy of a source) almost a hundred times lower than an
incandescent light bulb.
The luminous intensity of a typical candle is thus approximately one candela. The SI unit, candela, was in fact
based on an older unit called the candlepower, which represented the luminous intensity emitted by a candle made
to particular specications (a standard candle). The
modern unit is dened in a more precise and repeatable

Candle ame with zones marked

A candle ame is formed because wax vaporizes on burning. It has three distinct regions. The innermost zone,
directly above the wick, contains wax that has been vaporized but that is unburnt. It is the darkest zone. The

5
middle zone is yellow and luminous. As it is an oxygen
depleted zone, insucient oxygen exists to burn all of
the wax vapor. As such, partial combustion of wax takes
place. The zone also contains unburnt carbon vapor. The
temperature in this region is hotter than the innermost
zone, but cooler than the outer zone. The outer zone is
the area where the ame is the hottest and complete combustion of wax takes place. It is light blue in color and not
normally visible.[23]

porize during the burning process, releasing lead vapors

a known health and developmental hazard. Lead core
wicks have not been common since the 1970s. Today,
most metal-cored wicks use zinc or a zinc alloy, which
has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available.

7 Regulation

The main determinant of the height of a candle ame is

the diameter of the wick. This is evidenced in TeaLights International markets have developed a range of standards
where the wick is very thin and the ame, which is for and regulations to ensure compliance, while maintaining
mainly decorative purposes, is very small. Candles whose and improving safety, including:
main purpose is illumination use a much thicker wick.[24]
Europe: GPSD, EN 15493, EN 15494, EN 15426,
EN 14059, REACH, RAL-GZ 041 Candles (Ger5.4 History of study
many), French Decree 91-1175
One of Michael Faraday's signicant works was The
Chemical History of a Candle, where he gives an in-depth
analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and
science of candles.[25]

Hazards

USA: ASTM F2058, ASTM F2179, ASTM F2417,

ASTM F2601, ASTM F2326, California Proposition 65, CONEG
China: QB/T 2119 Basic Candle, QB/T 2902 Art
Candle, QB/T 2903 Jar Candle, GB/T 22256 Jelly
Candle

According to the U.S. National Fire Protection Associa- 8

tion, candles are one of the leading sources of residential
res in the U.S. with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 8.1
6% of civilian fatalities from re attributed to candles.[26]

Accessories
Candle holders

A candle ame that is longer than its laminar smoke

point[27] will emit soot. Proper wick trimming will substantially reduce soot emissions from most candles.
The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but the
amount and temperature are generally rather limited and
the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a candle snuer
instead of blowing on the ame. A candle snuer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. Placing the snuer over the ame cuts o the oxygen supply.
Snuers were common in the home when candles were
the main source of lighting before electric lights were
available. Ornate snuers, often combined with a taper
for lighting, are still found in those churches which regularly use large candles.
Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal
shock from the candle ame, particularly when the candle
burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass
holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with
chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once 1/2 inch
or less of wax remains.
A former worry regarding the safety of candles was that
a lead core was used in the wicks to keep them upright A candle in a candle stick
in container candles. Without a sti core, the wicks of
a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax Decorative candleholders, especially those shaped as a
pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would va- pedestal, are called candlesticks; if multiple candle ta-

10

REFERENCES

pers are held, the term candelabrum is also used. The Candle followers are often found in churches on altar canroot form of chandelier is from the word for candle, but dles.
now usually refers to an electric xture. The word chandelier is sometimes now used to describe a hanging xture
8.3 Candle snuers
designed to hold multiple tapers.
Many candle holders use a friction-tight socket to keep
the candle upright. In this case, a candle that is slightly
too wide will not t in the holder, and a candle that is
slightly too narrow will wobble. Candles that are too big
can be trimmed to t with a knife; candles that are too
small can be tted with aluminium foil. Traditionally, the
candle and candle holders were made in the same place,
so they were appropriately sized, but international trade
has combined the modern candle with existing holders,
which makes the ill-tting candle more common. This
friction tight socket is only needed for the federals and the
tapers. For tea light candles, there are a variety of candle
holders, including small glass holders and elaborate multicandle stands. The same is true for votives. Wall sconces
are available for tea light and votive candles. For pillartype candles, the assortment of candle holders is broad.
A reproof plate, such as a glass plate or small mirror, is
a candle holder for a pillar-style candle. A pedestal of any
kind, with the appropriate-sized reproof top, is another
option. A large glass bowl with a large at bottom and
tall mostly vertical curved sides is called a hurricane. The
pillar-style candle is placed at the bottom center of the
hurricane. A hurricane on a pedestal is sometimes sold
as a unit.
A bobche is a drip-catching ring, which may also be afxed to a candle holder, or used independently of one.
Bobches can range from ornate metal or glass, to simple plastic, cardboard, or wax paper. Use of paper or
plastic bobches is common at events where candles are
distributed to a crowd or audience, such as Christmas carolers or people at other concerts/festivals.

8.2

Candle followers

These are glass or metal tubes with an internal stricture

partway along, which sit around the top of a lit candle. As
the candle burns, the wax melts and the follower holds the
melted wax in, whilst the stricture rests on the topmost
solid portion of wax. Candle followers are often deliberately heavy or 'weighted', to ensure they move down as
the candle burns lower, maintaining a seal and preventing
wax escape. The purpose of a candle follower is threefold:

Main article: Candle snuer

Candle snuers are instruments used to extinguish burning candles by smothering the ame with a small metal
cup that is suspended from a long handle, and thus depriving it of oxygen. An older meaning refers to a scissorlike tool used to trim the wick of a candle. With skill,
this could be done without extinguishing the ame. The
instrument now known as a candle snuer was formerly
called an extinguisher or douter.

9 See also
Candle-making
Candle warmer
Candelabra
Julleuchter
Rushlight
Singing candle
Tealight
Trick candles
Trudon
Unity candle

10 References
[1] Chandler. The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved
2012-05-19.
[2] chandelier. The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved
2012-05-19.
[3] European Candle Association FAQ.
[4] Candle. The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved
2012-05-19.

To contain the melted wax making the candle more

ecient, avoiding mess, and producing a more even
burn

[5] Forbes, R J (1955). Studies in Ancient technology. pp.

139140. ISBN 9789004006263. Retrieved 7 November
2014.

As a decoration either due to the ornate nature

of the device, or (in the case of a glass follower)
through light dispersion or colouration

[6] History of candles. National Candle Association.

Archived from the original on May 17, 2012. Retrieved
2012-05-19.

And sometimes to shield the ame from wind.

[7] history of candle. national candle association.

[8] Shillito, M. Larry; David J. De Marle (1992). Value: Its

Measurement, Design, and Management. Wiley-IEEE. p.
33. ISBN 0-471-52738-6.
[9] Phillips, Gordon (1999). Seven Centuries of Light: The
Tallow Chandlers Company. Book Production Consultants plc. p. 74. ISBN 1-85757-064-2.

[26] John Hall, NFPA 2009, http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files/

/PDF/Research/Fire_overview_2009.pdf.
[27] K.M. Allan, J.R. Kaminski, J.C. Bertrand, J. Head, Peter
B. Sunderland, Laminar Smoke Points of Wax Candles,
Combustion Science and Technology 181 (2009) 800
811.

[10] A Brief History of Candles

[11] Golan, Tal (2004). Laws of Men and Laws of Nature:
The History of Scientic Expert Testimony in England and
America. Harvard University Press. pp. 8991. ISBN
0-674-01286-0.
[12] Geo Marshall (2013). Londons Industrial Heritage. The
History Press.
[13] Ball, Michael; David Sunderland (2001). An Economic
History of London, 1800-1914. Routledge. pp. 131132.
ISBN 0-415-24691-1.
[14] Tushar Burman (December 20, 2013), Flying Tiger Motorcycles two stroke smoke puts you in the powerband, motovore.com
[15] Whitrow, G. J. (1989). Time in History: Views of Time
from Prehistory to the Present Day. Oxford University
Press. pp. 9091. ISBN 0-19-285211-6. Archived from
the original on June 10, 2015.
[16] Geddes, Gordon; Jane Griths. Christianity. Heinemann.
p. 89. ISBN 0-435-30693-6.
[17] Franz Willhft and Fredrick Horn Candles in Ullmanns
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000, Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a05_029
[18] Camp, William R.; Vollenweider, Jerey L.; Schutz,
Wendy J. (12 October 1999). Scented candle gel.
United States Patent 5,964,905.
[19] Using stearic acid or stearin in candlemaking. happynews.com. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
[20] Stearic acid (stearin)". howtomakecandles.info.
trieved 25 September 2014.

Re-

[21] Hamins, Anthony; Bundy, Matthew; Dillon, Scott E.

(November 2005). Characterization of Candle Flames
(PDF). Journal of Fire Protection Engineering 15: 277.
doi:10.1177/1042391505053163.
[22] On Fire Background Essay, PBS LearningMedia,
WGBH. Retrieved April 8,2015.
[23] National Council of Educational Research and Training.
Science: Textbook for Class VIII. Publication Department, 2010, p.72.
[24] Sunderland, P.B.; Quintiere, J.G.; Tabaka, G.A.; Lian, D.;
Chiu, C.-W. (6 October 2010). Analysis and measurement of candle ame shapes (PDF). Proceedings of the
Combustion Institute 33: 24892496. Retrieved 2015-0210.
[25] Internet History Sourcebooks. Fordham.edu. Retrieved
2012-12-25.

11 External links
Media related to Candles at Wikimedia Commons
National Candle Association of the U.S.
The Chemical History of a Candle by Michael Faraday
Association of European Candlemakers(AECM)
European Candle Association (ECA)
Latin American Candle Manufacturers Association
(ALAFAVE)

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Candle Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candle?oldid=686478397 Contributors: Wesley, David Merrill, Rmhermen, Ortolan88,

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Mattieboy33, Winchelsea, Dvstanley, Dawn Bard, Cwkmail, Hirohisat, Keilana, Bentogoa, Tiptoety, Oda Mari, Boogster, Oxymoron83,
Borriszinders, Jongleur100, Cecilia47, Seola, Sean.hoyland, Maralia, Ascidian, Denisarona, Amazonien, Tattery, WikipedianMarlith,
ClueBot, LAX, Traveler100, Edwardge123, JGump100, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rachelmiao, Bendavidu, Shoemoney2night,
RashersTierney, Ndenison, Saket6, Dlabtot, Denna Haldane, Uncle Milty, DanielDeibler, Boing! said Zebedee, Hafspajen, Xenon54,
Pinrut, Followingjoshua, Big jac, Tinactin, Catsh Jim and the soapdish, Excirial, Alexbot, Rcooley~enwiki, Mika167, NuclearWarfare,
Proesor.Costigan, Pckapcka, Nicholasweed, Thehelpfulone, Sparta300xps, Thingg, Versus22, Bellroth, Apparition11, Vanished User
1004, XLinkBot, Fede.Campana, BodhisattvaBot, Razat, Sekhon23, Zolaboy9933, Mifter, Badgernet, Plutolms, Thewickhut, LizGere,
Kbdankbot, Albambot, Addbot, Wakablogger2, Pyfan, Some jerk on the Internet, RobinClay, Jojhutton, Tissuetable, Jncraton, Fielddaysunday, Jackcapper, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, Geekzilla, CactusWriter, Cst17, Download, LaaknorBot, Morning277, Dbello2968,
Jean Lugan, Milepost53, Thebigboy1, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, SeymourSycamore, Nolelover, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot,
Cesiumfrog, Totorotroll, Al3xil, Teles, Zorrobot, Saiklops, Frehley, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81,
Guy1890, Yay96, PMLawrence, Worm That Turned, Ningauble, MacTire02, Roberto212, Tempodivalse,
, AnomieBOT, Rjanag,
IRP, BlazerKnight, Chuckiesdad, Priestess Flame, 95jb14, Materialscientist, BarbaraBowen, Citation bot, OllieFury, Frankenpuppy, LilHelpa, Xqbot, LuntCover, Fyrelight, Kguzz91, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Jerey Mall, Millahnna, Gilo1969, X123454321x, Coeelover2009,
Cmeinzer34, AbigailAbernathy, Almabot, Mickyboy1825, Hi878, Tulrun, GrouchoBot, Ranafast, Pinelandsboi, Editorguy78, Starchet,
Polandrocks, Amaury, Doulos Christos, MLauba, Jar174185, Shadowjams, Dougofborg, Jack B108, Prari, FrescoBot, Leslyou99, Philebritite, Sky Attacker, Michael93555, Brpro94, Fleurrouge, Kevindaman, Wikiman0085, Wikiman1616, Weetoddid, Eagle4000, GoldMutant,
Stonetallica, Lilaac, Sphinxash, DigbyDalton, Happypinkwhale, Chainsaw2098, Biker Biker, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Pink Bull,
Vicenarian, Lemons44, Natedogqwe, Calmer Waters, A8UDI, Hoo man, Phearson, Harmsrocks2, Meaghan, Cullen328, Bgpaulus, Merlion444, Robvanvee, Kgrad, TobeBot, Steven135, Ticklewickleukulele, Sofarshellcat, Lotje, Vrenator, Mrleroyjenkinssmith, Leondumontfollower, Matt2727, Sutminpik, Reaper Eternal, Laidiesman417, Purple garden gnome, Sammetsfan, Reach Out to the Truth, Suuurewhatever, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jfmantis, Mean as custard, The Utahraptor, Sheryllw, Aced4life, Clarky 123123123, Themoomaster1234, Slon02, DASHBot, EmausBot, Avenue X at Cicero, Immunize, Shanvij123, ScottyBerg, Boundarylayer, RA0808, Gold Bernard,
Solarra, Tommy2010, Winner 42, Ugulee, Wikipelli, K6ka, Djembayz, Hhhippo, ZroBot, Bollyje, Imperial Monarch, Ncboy2010,
Bryce Carmony, Access Denied, Lmq2401, EWikist, Mcmatter, Mitbhandal, Scoopczar, Srtig, Erianna, Kevjonesin, Chemistress, Kaybutrell, Dogeatdog33, Rgiesbers, Noodleki, Lorzu, Donner60, Scientic29, Anonimski, Alschwal, MaddHattre, ChuispastonBot, GermanJoe, Warmington, Pauley is mean, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Rowanas, Nickosourus, Tommyisking, This
lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, A520, 258147369abc, RSithron, Billybobjoesmack, Frietjes, Harryh0530, O.Koslowski, Asukite, Ste-ECA,

12.2

Images

Scruu, Widr, Zakhalesh, Helpful Pixie Bot, JV057PANGESTIKA, Martin of Sheeld, Imacrazyperson, JohnSRoberts99, HMSSolent,
Shane99999, Calabe1992, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Roberticus, SarThePhotographer, Cyberpower678, Who.was.phone, MusikAnimal, Zew15, AlsoTr1v1aM0nth2o11, CitationCleanerBot, Samiamsuperman, Snow Blizzard, Tiby9899, The Editor4cheesepus, Jhanvichoksi, Rytyho usa, Amitshah02, BattyBot, Hjg123, Cyberbot II, Tarheelfan905, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, Current123, Aliwal2012, Ihavabigdick, CarrieVS, Khazar2, Apersonofnoimportance, Polymerase I, BuzyBody, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Pasheeba, Webclient101, Morning jog Michael, Doggy23woggy4, Amywelsh97, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Doctorbass00, AndyTheMonster, SFK2, QSlacks, Jonhope123, Elbe519, Reatlas, Yashrjpt77, Faizan, Epicgenius, Jabbar007, Crazy6f, Tenoy Thomas, Candlelight Obsession, Hellbert, Ogle999, Colleen Ung, Turtles111111, DavidLeighEllis, Vicky6878, Christywong102, RastaPhoenix89, Noyster, Wikiweirdi, Robbie47765, Cwisnie1, Plarstic, Racer Omega, Bballer123456789321, Hello handle lovers, JaconaFrere, TinceyVince, Lolsmileface1234567,
Melcous, Monkbot, Aaronwarp36, AkivanKemraj, Superpie55, Theundergroundnerd, Dfvdfvb, Theskynerd, Theoornerd, Theleadernerd,
Knight of the Square Table, Youkseo, Mchlclbro, Wowkool, Candlekath, Kethrus, Frewfrew, Sb2s3, Hide199925, Yo ugly mama, Anand
peter Kozhipat, SvenDM, Mchel787, JenelleCWilliams, Gggsjaksockxjs, TheIrishScot, Supdiop, KasparBot, 3 of Diamonds, Wgbhglenn,
Ggajdv, DD123XD, BoltonandNupps, HistoryStory101, Xraysburn and Anonymous: 827

12.2

Images

File:7candles.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/7candles.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

Own work Original artist: Jonathunder
File:Candle-flame_with_colour-shift_B_With_zones_marked.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/
Candle-flame_with_colour-shift_B_With_zones_marked.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:2006-02-25 candle-ame with
colour-shift B.jpg Original artist: With Modications by JohnSRoberts99
File:Candles.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Candles.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Collection_of_modern_synthetic_candles.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Collection_of_
modern_synthetic_candles.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sb2s3
File:Gobin,_Michel_-_Young_Man_with_a_Candle_-_1681.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/ef/Gobin%2C_Michel_-_Young_Man_with_a_Candle_-_1681.jpg
License:
Public
domain
Contributors:
Web Gallery of Art:
<a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/g/gobin/candle.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/g/gobin/candle.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Michel Gobin
File:Hentriacontane.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Hentriacontane.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: ZooFari
File:Kosovo-metohija-koreni-duse027.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/
Kosovo-metohija-koreni-duse027.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 rs Contributors: Transferred from sr.wikipedia to Commons by
Anglo-Araneophilus. Original artist: Dozetdarko at Serbian Wikipedia
File:LA2_Skultuna_kontorsljusstake.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/LA2_Skultuna_
kontorsljusstake.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: LA2
File:Price{}s_Palmitine_Candles00.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Price%27s_Palmitine_
Candles00.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-the__argory_lighting__list.pdf Original
artist: Unknown
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

12.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0