RunningparalleltothesecularizationanddeChristianizationofnineteenthcenturyFrench

society,manycultsandsectsemergedduringthistimethatworkedbothintheinterestsofdeveloping
alternativestoChristianityandlaicisme,whichhaddevelopedfromprecedingcenturies.Theoccult
revivalgaineditsnamefromauniquehistorywhichwasintegraltothedevelopmentsoftheEuropean
intellectualismoftheRenaissance.Europeanintellectualismcreatedacoverforthedevelopmentof
alternativecultsandsecularizedreligions.ThisoccultrevivalemergedinEuropeansocietythroughthe
developmentsoftheRosicrucians,Freemasons,Humanists,Mesmerists,Spiritualists,Theosophistsand
otherspearheadsofalternativebeliefs.Thiswaslargelyduetothechangingconditionsofintellectual
andsocialdevelopmentsinthenineteenthcentury.Thetraditionalapproachtothestudyofnineteenth
centuryEuropeansocietyoftenpositedthatsuchdevelopmentswerearchaicremnantsofbelief,
leftoversfromtheMiddleAges,whichgreatlycontrastedwithandstuntedtheinnovativeand
intellectualrationalethatemergedatthistime.Itisthepurposeofthestudytoshowthatthereisample
evidencethatthesecularizationofthenineteenthcenturybothfosteredandopposedthedevelopment
oftheoccultrevivalwithinFrenchsociety.Thisoccultrevivalwasnotcontrarytointellectualand
socialdevelopment,butoftenwasanoverlookedandessentialcomponentthereof.
TheoccultrevivalinFrancenotonlyranparalleltotrendsofintellectualandsocial
development,butsomeofitsthreadsweredespisedbyboththeclericsandanticlericalsthroughoutthe
nineteenthcentury.Thefollowingreviewofbooksandarticlesincludeawiderangeofperspectives
andresponsestotheemergingoccultrevival.

OriginsofOccultism
J.W.Burrowdefinesoccultismasafascinationwithmagicandtheideaofatraditionofoccult
knowledge,whichwasparticularlystronginFrance.D.G.Charltondefinedoccultismasthe
doctrines,practicesandritesofthingshiddenandmysterious,andclaimstoderiveitsinsightsintothe
natureandpurposesofthecreationofoneormoredivinerevelations.iTheoccultscienceswere
definedbyDr.JosephGrasset,aMontpellierneurologist,as,thosefactswhichdonotyetbelongto
science[but]canonedaybepartofitii.
J.W.BurrowsbriefcoverageofoccultismaddressesalongtraditionofMagiinFrance,and
fourofthemostfamousFrenchoccultistwriters,AbbeConstant,JosephinPeladan,Stanislasde
Guaita,andJ.KHuysmans.AbbeConstant,originallyknownasAlphonseLouisConstant,andhis
betterknownpersonage,EliphasLevi(181075),gaveaccountsofmagic,itshistoryandpractice,in
twoworksin1856and1869.Burrowspointsoutthattherehadbeenaperceptiveoverlapbetween
eccentricCatholicismandOccultisminFrance.Infact,manyauthorssuchasEliphasLeviand
JosephinPeladan,weredevotedCatholicswho,outofdissatisfactionwiththeCatholicChurch,
becamespearheadsoftheoccultrevival.iii
However,inanalysisoftheoccultrevival,itisnecessarytodiscussitsprecursorymovements,suchas
Spiritualism,Mesmerism,andSpiritism.JohnWarneMonroesdissertationchallengesprevious
scholarshipbypresentingthelonghistoryanddevelopmentofthealternativebeliefswhichshaped
occultism,andtheinherentoccultrevivalofthenineteenthcentury.InMonroesdiscourseonoccult
origins,hecompletesafairlyindepthanalysisofthecurrentsofSpiritualism,Mesmerism,and
SpiritisminFrance.

Monroechallengesthetriumphofscientificmaterialismoverspiritualchicanerybytracing
Frenchideasandpracticestoshowthatreligionandmodernityareconsiderablymorecloselyrelated
thanscholarshavepreviouslythoughtiv.Catholicism,accordingtoMonroe,wasmostcrucial
toFrenchreligiouslife,andinparticularthespiritualsystemswerecrucialtothedevelopmentof
socialismandtherepublicanleft.vDismissalofnewideasandpracticesasmerefadsshowsignorance
offactsalreadyfamiliartosociologistsandanthropologists:thatheterodoxyofthiskindcontinuedto
playanimportantroleincontemporaryWesternreligiouslifevi.Monroeemphasizesthatmany
modernFrenchscholarstendtotreatSpiritismandOccultismasseparatemicrohistories,whichhave
norelevancetowardsoneanother.Thisisamajorfactorinoverlookingtheconnectionsbetweenthese
movements,whichalsoobscuredtheircollectiveimportanceforourunderstandingofthehistoryof
Frenchreligiouslifevii.WhereasSpiritismisapproachedfromanthropologicalorsociohistorical
perspectives,Occultismistraditionallyapproachedfromanideologicalorphilosophicalperspective.
Often,scholarsrefertoOccultismasesoterisme,whichdrawsliberallyfromChristianreligious
esotericthought,rootedintheworkofRenaissancethinkerslikeFicino,BrunoandPicadella
Mirandolaviii.
AccordingtoCharlton,theeighteenthcenturywitnessedthespreadofFreemasonryswiftly
expandingthroughoutWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,anditalsosawamarkedenthusiasmfor
astrology,mesmerism,andtheosophyix.AlisonButleralsoassertsthatthecontinuationofamagical
traditionduringtheageofscientificadvancementandsecularizationreflectedtherelevanceofspiritual
organizations,andtheoccultrevivaltointellectualhistoryasavalidpopularizationoftherational
interpretationoftheworld.xHowever,Charltonpositsthatmanyoftheoccultphilosophersconsidered

religion,...theuniversallanguageofnature.Scornfulattacksofreligionbythephilosopherswasa
necessarysteptowardsacquiringreligiousbeliefacceptabletothenineteenthcenturymindxi.
Charltonmarvelsat,...theastonishingresurgenceofoccultism,illuminism,theosophy,freemasonry
andevendiabolismthataccompaniedthedeclineofChristianbeliefduringtheeighteenthand
nineteenthcenturies,andthat,occultismnotonlyantedatedthesubstitutedoctrineswehave
consideredbutstronglyinfluencedsomeatleastamongthemxii.
ButlerdrawsonEnglishoccultistsinherattempttoshowthatthegoalofsuchgroupswasto
reshapeChristianfaiththroughaChristiancenteredspiritualitybasedonHermeticism,Theosophy,
Spiritualismandmagic.xiiiWhatmakesherarticlemostrelevanttothestudyofnineteenthcentury
FrenchsocietywashertreatmentofEliphasLevi.TheOrderoftheGoldenDawn,anorganization
beguninEngland,washighlyinfluencedbythewritingsofEliphasLevixiv.
MonroearguesthattheutopianvisionoftheSpiritualMesmeristsandOccultistsincludedthe
eliminationofthecharacteristicpolitical,socialandintellectualcleavagesoftheirtimebetween
republicanismandCatholics,betweenmaterialistsandspiritualistsnotbyseeingthetriumphofone
sideovertheother,butbyjoiningbothinanewsynthesisxv.

Mesmerism
FrankAntonMesmercontributedamajorconceptthatSpiritismandOccultismwouldlater
employ,whichisthenotionofthetranceasastateofheightenedcognitionandtheideaofaninvisible
universalfluidthatthehumanwillcouldusetoactonobjectsatadistance.xviSpiritismandOccultism
sharedemphasisonsocialinteractionanddirectexperienceofphenomenathatseemedtoprovide

empiricalsupportformetaphysicalideas.xviiHisadaptationtoanimalmagnetism(ifthewillofan
individualcouldbeconcentratedandcorrectlyfocused,hewouldinevitablybringaboutphysiological
changesinthebiologicalconditionofthepatient),Millerargues,wasreachedinthelateeighteenth
centuryxviiigainedgreatinspirationfromRichardMeadsDeImperioSolis,andIsaacNewtonxix.
Afterthedeclineofsancevogue,difficultyinterpretingproblemsofnewphenomena
precipitatedaschisminMesmerism,whichplayedacrucialroleinthesubsequentdevelopmentof
heterodoxreligioninFrance.TheMesmeristssplitintotwofactions:therapistsandspiritualists.The
MesmeristtherapiststookmoreofamedicalapproachwhereasthespiritualistMesmeristseventually
openedthewayforSpiritismwhichwouldbecomeimportantinthe1860s.xx
AcademicandculturalinterestinMesmerismwasanessentialtoitsdevelopment.Nosooner
thanAcademiahadrejectedMesmerism,itwasdefendedbyUtopiansocialistsandRomantic
authors.xxiInthecourseofthedivisionbetweenscientificandspiritualMesmerism,oppositionto
Spiritualmesmerism,orSpiritualism,wasbasedonthepreservationoftherapeuticmesmerism. xxii
However,asMonroepointsout,in1857,SpiritualismgaineddominanceoverMesmerism.xxiii

Spiritualism
OneoftheprominentfeaturesofSpiritualMesmerismwastheobservationofspiritual
phenomena,suchastheSpiritualistspursuedthroughtableturningandsancevogue.Monroe
highlightstheimportanceofsancevogue,whichrevealedsignificantaspectsofFrenchreligious,
scientificandpoliticalcultureduringthesecondempire.xxivAmericanSpiritualism,whichbeganin
1852,madequiteanimpactinFrancein1853.xxvMonroerevealsthatCatholicismsgrowthduringthe

secondempirewasevidencedbythewayinwhichCatholicsusedSpiritualismandthedemonic
representationofsancevoguetoreaffirmthemoralframeworkofCatholicorthodoxy.xxvi
Asecondprominentfeature,spiritcommunications,revealedanexperimentalfrontierinwhich
theSpiritualistschallengedCatholicdogma,eventhoughmanyCatholiccommentatorsfeltthatthe
findingsofSpiritualistssupportedCatholicheresies.JournalistHenriCariorisexperimentsinnew
phenomenaoftheplanchette,whichisadevicestillusedtodaythataccompaniestheouijaboard,
yieldedresultsaffirmingtheCatholicteachingsxxvii.CatholiccommentatorssuchasAbbeCognatxxviii
pavedthewayformoresweepingcritiquesofthesecondempirexxix.Criticsheldthatthenew
phenomenapavedthewayforarevivalofFrenchreligiouslifexxx.AccordingtoMonroe,Mirville
declaredthatthespreadofSpiritismthreatenedhegemonyofCatholicismandthosewhoenjoyed
privilegeinthesecondempirexxxi.Meanwhileothercritics,suchasSequinandGuerin,presentedthis
debateoverscientificopenmindednessaboveallasanissueofexperimentalmethodology.xxxii

Spiritism
TheamalgamationofSpiritualismandMesmerismsynthesizedintoanewformcalledSpiritism.Alan
Kardecwasresponsibleforthis.HisspiritistdoctrinedrewliberallyonAugusteComtesphilosophy
ofhistory,thecosmologiesofCharlesFourierandJeanReynard,theideasofsocialChristianity
elaboratedbyHenriSt.SimonandEtienneCabet,andotherinfluences.Kardecmanagedtoneutralize
whathaddecidedlybeenknownasintellectualsourcesthatheldassociationwiththerevolutionary
Leftxxxiii.Kardecsdefinitionofspiritism,designatedadoctrinebasedonrelationsbetweenthe
materialworldandspirits,orbeingsfromtheinvisibleworldxxxiv.Whiletheeschatologyandmorality

ofKardecsspiritismheraldedbacktothevisionarytraditionofFrenchutopiansocialism,Kardec
eliminatedrevolutionaryaspectsthatthecurrenthadacquiredinthe1840sxxxv.
SpiritismchallengedtheproblemofSocialismbydrawinginterestfromavarietyofclassesin
Frenchsociety.Asspiritismbecameapopularbelief,peoplebegantoshiftthefocusfromtheirbodies
totheirsouls.AlthoughitwasinspiredbyanddeviatedfromFrenchutopiansocialism,itwould
accomplishwhatutopiansocialismnevercouldalone.Byspurringtherichtoperformevengreater
actsofcharity,inspiringavirtuousresignationinthepoor,andeliminatingthesenseofcosmicdoubt
thoughttobeaninevitableconditionofmodernity,SpiritualismproducedsocialjusticexxxviMonroe
proposesthatKardecchallengedthesystemofutopiansocialismashewrote,sincetheexperienceof
povertywasanecessaryformofexpiation,thosewhosoughttoendsocialinequalityonEarthwith
revolutionarymaterialredistributionofwealth,weredeeplymisguidedxxxvii.
Spiritismpropagatedthemostinpetitebourgeoisieandtheworkingclass.Presentationof
spiritismastheconcernofenlightenedmenwasundoubtedlytoemphasizeitsseriousnessand
respectabilityxxxviii.Herehedescribestheeducatedworkingclasstodifferentiatefromboththeilliterate
proletariatandthehighlyeducatedbourgeoisie.xxxixKardecdifferentiatesbetweenmediumandfortune
teller.Themediumcontactedthespiritworldoutofacharitabledesiretocontributetomankinds
knowledgeofthebeyond;fortunetellerindulgedinuncannybehaviortoentertainanddeceivetheir
audiences.Anumberofnewconvertsofworkingandlowermiddleclasseswereeagertosynthesize
mediumismandfortunetelling.Inadditiontodistributingspiritisttexts,theSpiritistsalsodistributed
booksofmagicandsorcery,unorthodoxpoliticalwritingsandattemptedtoformsocietiesoftheir
own.xl

AlthoughtheproponentsofSpiritismvieweditasanempiricalscience,visitingSpiritistsfrom
AmericawouldprovideFrenchpropagandistswithevidencetothecontrary.Kardecarguedthat
spiritismwasanempiricalscience,andhebelievedthatspiritismsolvedtheproblemofscienceand
philosophicalmaterialism(whichhebelievedrenderedpreviousformsofreligionobsolete),
conventionaltheologycouldnotprovidethekindofempiricalevidencethatsciencehadrequired,but
Spiritismhadmadetheimmortalityofthesoulveryrealinamodernway.xliIn1865,thearrivalofthe
Davenports,twowellknownAmericanmediums,Spiritismbecameafashionabletopicofdiscussion
inthepress,andpossiblyamongFrenchpeopleaswell.xliiAftertheDavenportswereexposedas
frauds,andtheFrenchmediausedtheincidenttoincitedistrustforFrenchspiritism,Kardectookissue
withtheassociationofSpiritismwiththeDavenportsandwrotetocleardistinctionbetweenthe
AmericanfraudsandFrenchSpiritism.xliii
TheDavenportsAmericanSpiritismdidlittletoadvancethepursuitsofanempiricalSpiritism
inFrance.WhilecasesoffraudwereusedbyjournaliststoridiculetheSpiritistmovement,legal
statuteswereenactedandpursuedtotheheaviestdegreetoensurethesuppressionofSpiritismand
othersectslikeit.ItwasbelievedthatpsychicresearchfromBritainhelpedemphasizethelegitimacy
oftheworkdonebyFrenchspiritualists,butinreality,Monroeexpoundsthatselfconsciousapproach
threatenedtorevealhowunscientificSpiritismwas.xlivSpiritphotographyexcitedFrenchSpiritists
becauseitgavethemhopeforemphasisofphysicalandempiricalproof.xlvUnfortunatelyitalso
attractedgreaterscrutinyfromthegovernmentofNapoleonIII.Todescribetheseefforts,French
Spiritismdwindledovertheyears.However,incontrasttoMonroespositiononthecourseof
Spiritism,CharltonattributestheriseofSpiritismtotheincreasedinterestofVictorHugo.According

toCharlton,aminorityofoccultwritersturnedtoblackmagicasportrayedbyJ.K.Huysmansandthe
palladisteswho,withtheirantiPope,soughtthefurtherdeChristianizationoftheentireworld.xlvi
MuchSpiritistthoughtemergedfromthinkerswithpredominantlyCatholicbackgrounds.
Nevertheless,theCatholicresponsecarriedadecisivelyantiSpiritisttone.TheSpiritistsdoctrinewas
notacauseforrevolution,butameansofregenerationtoreconciletheconflictbetweenprogress
andtraditionofFrenchsocietyxlviiSpiritismwasnotequippedwiththeFrenchcharacterizationof
religion.Catholicismwasdescribedasameansthatgratifiedapersonalsenseofobligation.Spiritism,
incontrast,waspursuedtodiscovertheobjectivejustificationforthesubjectivedictatesoftheir
consciousnessxlviii.KardecbasedhisfindingsonthelegitimacyofChristsauthority.Hetookhis
ChristianizationofSpiritismfurtherbyarguingforaffinitywithCatholicism.xlixThemajorityofFrench
peopleattractedtoSpiritismcamefromCatholicbackgroundsl,andassuchhadparticularinfluencein
constructingthenewspiritualsystem.In1861,theCatholicresponsecameintheformofantiSpiritism
publications.liBy1864,SpiritistbooksandpublicationswerecondemnedbytheVatican.Catholic
criticsofspiritistswereconcernedwiththeproblemofauthorityintheevaluationofspirit
communications,thedifficultyintheassimilationofreincarnationintoChristiantheology,the
diabolicalnatureofthesance,andthethreatsposedbythenewdoctrineofFrenchsocietylii.Thus,
CatholiccriticsfeltthatSpiritismwasamoralepidemicliii.
Thefocusofspiritismshiftedfromspiritcommunicationstophenomenaexperiencedduring
seances.LeymarieandothersinthearenaofpostKardecianSpiritismthoughtthatthisemphasis
wouldhelpresolvethetensionsbetweenscientificandorthodoxreligiousviews.livSpiritists
expressedtheirvisionofsocialtransformationinpoliticaltermsandformany,Spiritismwasbelieved

tobethereligiousbasisforanewRepublicanFrance,characterizedbyitspositivisticfocusonthe
importanceofempiricalevidence.lv

Occultism
AsSpiritismevolvedfurther,itfragmentedintodiscretesectsthatdisputedtheoriginalprecepts
ofSpiritism.By1889Spiritistswerenolongerunifiedand,hadbeguntolosetheircentralpositionin
Frenchheterodoxlifelvi.ThesesectscametocomprisetheoverallmovementknownasOccultism.
AbulkofnewmovementsrepresentedattheCongresfitintoaloosecoalitionthattheorganizers
referredtoasOccultisme.ItappliedtoasmalldisproportionateassortmentofTheosophists,Cabalists,
Hermeticists,andstudentsofesotericChristianity.Thesegroupsallchallengedthefundamental
assumptionsofSpiritismandlookedtoothersourcesofspiritualauthorityincluding,butnotlimitedto
Hindusacredwritings,neoPlatonicphilosophy,theworksofRenaissancealchemistsandotherancient
formsofesotericwisdomlvii.Charltonassertsthatmensdifferentreligionscametobeconsideredthe
transitoryandprogressiveformsofasingleeternaltruth,aviewfirstheldbytheilluministslviii.Many
whohadrejectedChristianityturnedtoOrientalreligiousorspiritualideologies.Charltonsdiscourse
onoccultandtheosophysuggeststhatorientalreligionswerenotaswidespreadasoccultismhad
remainedinFrancelix.Monroeemphasizesthatorganizedoccultismbeganwiththearrivalof
TheosophyinFrance.FrenchadherentsdrewonanumberoftheirownthinkerslikeAlexandreSaint
YvesdAlveydreandEliphasLevilx.
ParallelandcentraltothedevelopmentofOccultism,wasthedecisiveurgeforsometolook
towardseasternformsofmysticismandspirituality.TheTheosophicalmovementwasattheforefront

10

ofthisdevelopment.MadameHelenaBlavatsky,aRussianimmigrantandspearheadofTheosophy,
wasentirelydevotedtophilosophy...beforephenomena.HerviewoftheprimarygoalofTheosophy
wastodiscoverthesinglebodyofesoterictruthsatthecoreofallformsofreligiousbelief,and
throughtruth,phenomenawasconferred.ThroughherassociationswithLeymarie,Blavatsky
establishedaninitialFrenchbranchoftheTheosophicalSociety,theSocieteTheosophiquedes
SpiritesdeFrancelxi.However,accordingtoMonroe,theproponentsofFrenchtheosophydidnot
convergewithBlavatskyonhervisionforTheosophy.IncontrasttoBlavatsky,theChristianinfluence
inFrenchsocietywastoodeeplyrootedforthemtoignore.Frenchtheosophistsstressedthe
importanceofChristandthecentralroleofFranceonhumanitysspiritualdevelopmentlxii.Dr.
Johannes,AbbePaulRocer,andStanislasdeGuaita,threeFrenchTheosophicalwriters,arguedthatthe
goalofTheosophyshouldaimtosynthesizethespiritualitiesofeastandwest,andbyfocusingon
Orientalsources,AngloSaxontheosophyoverlookedtheimportanceofChristianitylxiii.Johannes,
RocaandGuaitadrewtheirconceptionsofesotericChristianityandtheexaltedspiritualdestinyof
FrancefromAlexandreSaintYvesdAlveydrelxiv.Thisresultedinconsiderablediscontentbetween
BlavatskyandtheFrenchtheosophists.
TheoppositionbyMadameBlavatskyledtoaFrenchresponsefromPapus.Inlate1889,Papus
organizedLinitiation,anoccultismjournalaswellasacentraloccultistorganizationcalledGroupe
IndependentdEtudesEsoteriqueslxv.Theprimarygoalwastocreateinitiates,whoashedefinedthem
were,anyonewhochosetoundertakeastudyofesotericwisdomandoccultscience.(Monroe331)
Thegroupwasopentobothsexesandemphasizedthat,membershipdidnotrequireadherencetoa
specificsetofspiritualteachings.Theroleoftheinitiatingsocietywastoencouragethestudentto

11

createapersonaldoctrineofhisownlxvi.ThiswassomethingatwhichtheFrenchtraditionof
spiritualists,mesmerists,theosophistsandoccultistshadlongprovenwastheirnaturalskill.
Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,Frenchoccultismdiversifiedintotwoschoolsofthought.
Thefirstschoolfocusedondevisinganexistentialistworldview,whilethesecondschoolfocusedupon
developinganethicalframeworkwithwhichtoviewtheworldonanempiricalbasis.Occultismbuilt
oninnovationsofitsprecursor,bothbystressingtheimportanceoforganizedsocialinteractionandhad
accordedacentralroletophenomenathatappearedtoprovideempiricalsupportformetaphysical
ideaslxvii.Fleurantarguesthatpopularoccultismwasassociatedwithempiricalmaterialisminthatit
complementedalimited,albeitrationaldescriptionoftheuniverselxviii.Whilethefirstschoolof
occultismwasfocusedonexistence,theotherwasmorecenteredonethicalproblemslxix.French
occultistswereuniquelypositionedtotakeadvantageofadeeplocalreservoirofsecretwisdom,as
descendantsoftheancientGaulslxx.Occultismappearedtosolvetheproblemsofscienceandreligion,
whilenotposinganyseriousthreatstotheChristianreligiouspursuitsthattheFrenchsocherishedlxxi.
Thetheosophicalmovementinspiredmanyesotericorders,whichcontributedtoOccultism.
PapusfoundedtheOrdreMartinistein1887.GuaitafoundedtheOrdreKabbalistiquedelaRoseCroix
in1887.lxxiiPapusGroupeIndependentdEtudesEsoteriquesovershadowedTheosophyinFranceand
itsaimsincludedthepublicizingofoccultism,thecultivationofpotentialmembersofsecretsocieties,
thetrainingofoccultlecturers,andthestudyofthephenomenaofspiritism,Mesmerism,and
magiclxxiii.By1892theyhad17branchesinFrancelxxiv.WhileOrdreMartinistewaseasytojoin,
OrdreKabbalistiquemaintainedsecrecyandextremelyhighstandardslxxv.Underthesurface,however,
OrdreKabbalistiquesoughttotransformWesternreligiouslifethroughtherevitalizationofesoteric

12

Christianity.Bothgroups,however,strovetocultivateacleardistinctionbetweenthesacredandthe
profanelxxvi.AfterdeGuaitasdeath,OrderMartinisteoccupiedanincreasinglyimportantplacein
occultistmovementwithemphasisonChristianilluminism.Itdidnotsurvivethefirstworldwarlxxvii.

ReligionandSuperstition
WhilethetransitorymovementsofSpiritualism,Mesmerism,andSpiritismprevailedinurban
regionsofFrance,superstitionandreligionwasthedomainofruralFrance.Webersuggeststhat
religionandsuperstitionweremostactiveduringthehightideofirreligionandanticlericalismlxxviii.
WeberalsoarguesthatsocialismandOccultismsharedacommonfactorofmagic.Feminism
andsocialismbothemergedfromoccultmovements,andtheirreformerswerehighlyinvolvedinthe
occultlxxix.Flaubert,Weberexplains,calledattentiontotheconceptthatmagicbelievesinimmediate
changebyvirtueoftheformulasitemploys,exactlylikesocialismlxxx.
Theprogressivepoliticalandliterarymilieuxwerepermeatedbyearlyandmidnineteenth
centuryFrenchinterestintheoccultlxxxi.Occultforceswereconvenienttoexplainphenomenaothers
consideredsupernaturallxxxii.Weberpresentsauniqueanticlericalreference,whichisthatoccultism
andLeftwingpoliticshadfedthebelief,popularinCatholiccircles,thatthechurchspolitical
enemieswereinleaguewithSatan.TotheRestoration,libertywasdiabolic.Religiouswars
reinforcedachangeinthelanguageofdemocracytodemonocracy.Tofurthersupportthissuspicion
ofanticlericalsamongtheClericals,masonicdensofrepublicanismandanticlericalismbecame
templesofSatan.AlthoughtheenemiesoftheLefthadneverbeenbackwardintheirrecoursetothe

13

supernatural,theywereasembroiledwiththeoccultastheirfoesareallegedtobelxxxiii.
WeberidentifiesthatPhilippeMuray,whohadwrittenLe19esiecleatravailslesages,linked
occultism,socialismandantisemitism.Antisemitismwasviewedasanoffshootofsocialism,since
JewswereconsideredbothenemiesofChristendomandofthepeople.Throughcasesofritualmurder,
whichreceivedmuchpublicizationatthetime,theirrelationtoSatanwasevidentlxxxiv.
WeberscriticismofJudithDevlinhighlightsthatwhatboundpeopletogetherwerecommon
beliefsandideasthatreflectedtheeconomicandsocialrestrictionsonthosewhoheldthemlxxxv.
Furthermore,Devlinsdiscourseonruralbeliefestablishesitsimportanceasapsychological,rather
thanascientifictechniquelxxxvi.Devlinalsorevealsthatbeliefinspellsandwitchcraftheldprominence
inthetraditionalruralcultureasanoutletofexpressionratherthanforthesatisfactionfromits
theoreticalexplanationslxxxvii.Witchcraftbeliefswereimportantbecausetheywerestatementsonsocial
conditions,andtheyrevealthepeoplesconditionsandhowtheydealtwiththemlxxxviii.
InherdiscourseonreligionandsuperstitioninruralFrance,JudithDevlinarguesthatde
Christianizationwassynonymouswiththedisappeareanceofseeminglyirrationalbeliefslxxxix.Devlin
presentsasyncreticcombinationofChristianityandfolkreligion,withparticularemphasisonthe
saintsxc.Devlinalsoshowsthatspiritualityandmysticismwereoftenreplacedbymaterialistic
concernsxci.Theimportanceattachedtostatuesandrelicshighlightsthematerialismofpeasant
France.xciiPeasantsweresometimesridiculedfortheirbeliefinomens,whichwastakenasfurther
proofoftheirrationalityoftheiroutlookxciii.However,thefrequencyinwhichstoriesofextraordinary
phenomenaweretold,suggeststhattheyfulfilledanimportantroleinpremodernculturexciv.
WebersuccessfullyidentifiesthatinDevlinswork,saintsfilledrolesnowadaysassignedtodoctors,

14

psychiatrists,marriageguidancecounsellorsandsocialworkers,insuranceagents,privateinvestigators
andsecurityservices.Theyrightedwrongs,curedillnesesorspedthemtoresolution,watchedover
soldiers,travellers,childrenandfolkindistress,protectedagainstthieves,hail,storm,fire,spells,evil
spiritsorconscriptionxcv.
WeberalsoaddressesoneofDevlinsmoreimportantpoints:theevolutiontowardsrationality
wasgradual...primitiveandlogicalthoughtcould...coexistinonemind.However,primitivewas
logical;thetwodidnotconflict.Thesupposedconfrontationbetweencommonsenseandmagicwas
actuallyaconflictbetweendifferentkindsofmagicandbetweendifferentkindsofcommonsense.xcvi
Similarly,Fleurantarguesthat,atleastinthemindofJacquesCazotte,irrationalismandreasonwere
fosteredbythesamesocial,philosophicalandpsychologicalconditions.xcvii
InhisanalysisofGerardCholvyandYvesMarieHilairesHistoireReligieusedelaFrance
Contemporaine,WeberaptlyaddressesthatthesecularizationofSunday,whichpreviouslyhadbeen
devotedtothepracticeofreligion,ledtoanincreaseofoccultism.InpostRevolutionaryFrance,the
secularizationofholydayssuchasSundaybecameanissueandnuisance.CholvyandHilaire
emphasizethatthesecularizationofCatholicismhaddeterioratedthepreviouslyunquestionedholdof
religiousdogmaonFrenchsociety.This,onemayspeculate,iswhatmakesthenineteenthcenturyso
rifewithsuperstition,withoccultcults,withcounterreligionsxcviii.WhatisalsosignificantisWebers
critiqueofCholvyandHilairesdiscourseontheroleoftheclergyinreincorporatingthepeasantryinto
thechurch.Theclergydidnotgainfollowersamongpeasantrybydismissingfolkorcultbeliefsand
practices.Forexample,whenpriestsexplainedawaywerewolvesandapparitionswithasmuch
eloquenceaslocalschoolteachers;whentheyhesitatedtoblesslivestockorarepasdemortsthey

15

encourageddoubt,disaffectionorquitesimplyindifferencexcix.Withthedecreaseofreligious
practice,theclergytriestopurifythefaithoftheremainingfaithful,fightsunorthodoxpractices,
condemnsthepastanditssuperstitionsc.Webersanalysismakesitevidentthatwhenpriestsdonot
takestockintheinterestsofpopularreligiontotheirparishioners,theybecomeirrelevant.ci

EliphasLeviandtheFrenchOccultRevival
SyncretismrepresentedamajorthreadrunningthroughouttheFrenchOccultrevival.
AccordingtoCharlton,socialandmetaphysicalcreedswereintellectuallythemostimportant
substitutesforChristianity.Religioussyncretistsworkedforreconciliationtowardsacommon
belief.ciiCharltonremarksthattherewasatendencytowardssyncretismamongoccultists.Occultists,
likeChristians,areultimatelyoptimisticofreabsorptionintoperfectharmonywithGod.Although
occultismhasleaningstowardspantheismandsyncretism,anddepartsfromCatholicorthodoxy,it
remainsinherentlysimilartoChristianity,particularlyinthedoctrinesofmansfallandfuture
redemption.SomealsoclaimedtheirchargeasthedefenseofCatholicism,suchasSwedenborgciii,
MartinesdePasqually,andSaintMartin,whowereallhighlyinfluentialinthenineteenthcentury.civ
SecularreligionswereanattempttoreplaceCatholicChristianity.cvThedeclineofChristian
beliefwastheessentialbackground,anditwasespeciallyevidentamongnonChristianthinkers.cvi
Romantics,occultists,ecclectics,andscientists,suchasRenanandTaine,convergedonthepantheist
positionoruponpantheismasametaphysicalreligion.However,Catholictraditionalistsandagnostic
socialistswerenotaloneintheirincorporationofocculttheories.Alargenumberofilluministcults
alsothrivedinnineteenthcenturyFrance.cviiOtherhumanistgroupsemerged;manyofthesegroups

16

openedalternativeChurcheswherethefocuswastheinterminglingofilluminismandnatural
religioncviii.Amongtheideologiesexpressedinoccultteachingswerethehumanitarianidealism,
egalitarianadvocacyofahigherstatusofwomen,andthesyncretistsdesiretoforgeaunifyingfaith
fromtheworldsreligions.SyncretistssuchasJosephdeMaitre,AntonMesmer,AlanKardec,and
EliphasLevimanagedtopaytheirrespectstothescientificattitudewithdesirestoresolveareunionof
scienceandreligion,notallthatdifferentfromhowtheyperceivedthehopefulreunionofGodand
man.cix
McIntoshprovidesanintroductiontotheoccultrevivalandaddressesthesocialconditionsof
Frenchsociety.AccordingtoMcIntosh,manysocialandpoliticalcriseswerebrewingattheinduction
oftheFrenchoccultrevival.cxTheCatholicChurchwassystematicallysuppressed,andmanystrange
creedsnowbegantoflourishintheopen.cxiThecultoftheophilantropeswasanattempttofind
commongroundbetweenallreligionsandsects,essentiallythekindofreligiousecclecticism
associatedwithTheosophyandsimilarnineteenthcenturyphenomena.cxii
McIntoshalsodevotesalargeportionofhisdiscourseontheoccultrevivaltotheroleof
EliphasLevi.McIntoshstatesthatWronskisinfluenceofEliphasLevihelpedtoresolveanumberof
conflictsandaimedatthesynthesisofrationalism,religion,andbeliefinhumanprogress.Hedefined
messianismasthesynthesisofphilosophyandreligion.cxiiiBecauseofhisinfluenceonseveralofthe
majorplayersoftheHermeticOrderoftheGoldenDawn,Leviwasconsideredoneofthekeyfigures
inthehistoryofModernOccultism.cxiv
LevicriticizedtheCatholicChurchandalsoexpressedrespectforalternativereligions.
McIntoshexplainsLevisdoubletalkas,appearingtobowtoorthodoxybutinfactleavingtheway

17

openforwhateveropinionhewishedtoprofess.cxvForLevi,thetrappingsoforthodoxyplayedapart
inthattheysuppliedthereligiousneedsofthemasses.However,theycouldbedispensedwithbythe
elect,whohadtheintelligenceandboldnesstowishtogobeyondthenarrowconfinesofdogma.cxvi
FrancoisSecretalsoremarksthatEliphasLevisworkwouldreviveoccultismfromthedrudgeryof
decadenceandbecomethemostinfluentialofoccultistsofhisera.cxvii

IntellectualReactionstotheOccultRevival
ThetwomajorareasofFrenchintelligensia,whichwereinspiredbytheocculttradition,were
inthefineartsandscience.Withinthearts,theareasofliterarytheoryandartistrywereparticularly
affected.Lachmanaddressesthehistoryandfutureofoccultism,anditfocusesonwritersandartists
whoheldaninfluentialroleofperpetuatinganddevelopingoccultismthroughpopularfiction.About
themhestates:
Poetsandartistscontinuedadefenseofimaginationagainstencroachingreductionismofscience.Inits
battleagainstsuperstition,scientificthoughthadunburdenedthehumanmindanumberofchainsyetinthe
processoffreeingmanfromthefalsehoodsofreligionandtheconstraintsofpoliticalandsocial
oppression,ithadreducedhisstatureconsiderably cxviii.

Inhisdiscourseonvaryingdegreesofoccultism,Lachmanaddressesapeculiarformof
occultismthatisuniquetothealternativebeliefs,whichwerespawnedfromtheoccultrevival.
LachmandescribesSatanismasasmallbranchoftheoccult.Hearguesthatitwasntuntilthelate
antiquityestablishmentofChristianitythattheideaofabeingdedicatedtoevil,whosetaskitwasto
leadhumanbeingstoperdition,becameafixtureofwesternconsciousness.cxixSatanismisrootedin
themagicalefficacyoftheCatholicmassortherequiemmass.cxxChristopherMcIntoshalsoconcurs
withLachmansdiscourseofdiabolicaloccultismbyaddingthatSatanismwasoneofthecruderby

18

productsofnineteenthcenturyoccultrevival.JulesBoisandDr.Bataillebothpublishedaccountsof
Satanism,which,accordingtoMcIntosh,weredefinedasanythingthatdepartsfromtheworshipof
theOneGod.cxxiOnJulesBois,D.G.Charltonalsocomments:
JulesBoisoffersdesPetitsReligionsdeParis(1894)whichdealswithSwedenborgians,Buddhists,
Theosophists,acultoflightdevotedtoattackingblackmagic,satanists,Christians,gnostics,followersof
Isis,EsseniansclaimingChristtobeanEssene(andJoanofArcasthesecondmessiah)halfacentury
beforethediscoveryoftheDeadSeaScrolls.

ExtensionsincludeMoravians,Mormons,RussianIlluminstsandFreemasonsestimatedat20,000in
1888.cxxii
BurrowandCharltonalsoconvergewithLachmanontheinfluenceofoccultidealogyon
literature.BurrowemphasizedthatJ.K.HuysmansbelievedthatthenewRosicrucianswereSatanists,
andincludedsuchdiscourseinhisfictioncxxiii.AccordingtoCharlton,theOccultideologyhad
profoundeffectandinfluenceonnineteenthcenturyliterature,philosophy,artandmusiccxxiv.McIntosh
alsospecifiesthattheocculthadaveryhighinfluenceonnineteenthcenturyFrenchliterature,bothas
subjectmatterandanintellectualperspective,andincludessomeofthemostrenownedauthors:
Balzac,Swedenborg,EsquirosandHugocxxv.Lachmansuggeststhatmanyofthepreoccupations
associatedwithNewAgethoughtweredeeplyrootedwithintheturnofthenineteenthcentury
societycxxvi.Someofwhichwerethelongstandingdesiretouseempiricalevidencetoprovethereality
oftheinvisibleworldthathousedthecontactsofthespiritistsandtablestournantes.
Inhisanalysisoftheroleoffourthdimensionspaceinoccultism,TomH.Gibbonsconverges
theliteraryandscientifictheoryofthenineteenthcentury.AccordingtoGibbons,anumberof
scientiststurnedtooccultsciencesandrecognizedtranscendentalphenomenacxxvii.Theterm
occultism,itself,firstrecordedinTheOccultWorld(1881),abestsellerbytheprominent

19

TheosophistA.Sinnett,isitselfbothasignandaproductofthisimportantmovement,which
Gibbonsaddressesashiscentralviewtounderstandinglatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentieth
centurydevelopmentsinartisticandliterarytheoryandpracticecxxviii.
J.C.F.Zollner,thebestknownofanumberofcelebratedlatenineteenthcenturyscientists,
employedtheconceptoftheFourthDimensioneithergenerally,asanargumentinsupportof
transcendentalism,or,morespecifically,asajustificationfortheirresearchesintoSpiritualismcxxix.
GibbonssuggeststhatZollnersexperimentswereperhapsthemostfamousundertakeninthelate
nineteenthcenturyasscientificsupportforSpiritualistclaimscxxx.
Gibbonsproposesthatthefourthdimension,fortheoccultmovement,representsa
supernatural,spiritualortranscendentalorderoutsideofthethreedimensional,materialexistence.Itis
thedomainoftheinfiniteandeternal.Thenotionofafourthdimensionofspaceinhabitedbyspirits
hasbeentracedbacktotheseventeenthcenturyworkEnchiridionMetaphysicumbyHenryMore,the
CambridgePlatonistcxxxi.C.W.Leadbeaterandotheroccultistshadprovidedproofofthe
immaterialityofmatterandthevalidityofoccultnotionsofastralsightorfourdimensionalvision.
ItwascommonunderstandingthatthemediumsofnineteenthcenturySpiritism,inastateof
clairvoyanttrance,hadtheabilitytoperceivesolidobjectsastransparent.cxxxii
GibbonsrevealsthatApollinairesreferencetothetermfourthdimensionasutopianis
significantandsuggeststhatApollinairemayhaveimplicatedtheCubistpaintersasspearheadsfor
socialandintellectualutopianism.OthercontemporaryinterpretersofCubismalsoechoedtheoccult,
transcendentalinterpretationsofthefourthdimension.AccordingtoGibbons,inMauriceRaynals
criticismoftheCubistpainters,Raynalwrites:

20

Thecubists,nothavingthemysticismofthePrimitiveasamotiveforpainting,tookfromtheirownagea
kindofmysticismoflogic,ofscienceandreason,andthistheyhaveobeyedliketherestlessspiritsand
seekersaftertruththattheyare.cxxxiii

Thesecritics,andothers,shareacommonvaguesuggestionthatsciencehassomehowvalidatedthe
conceptofafourdimensionalspacewhichiseithermoreprofound,ormystical,orinfinitethanthe
previouslyacceptedthreedimensionalspace.cxxxiv

PoliticalandLegalReactionstotheOccultRevival
WhileSpiritismgainedsupportamongartistsandscholars,politicalchangesbroughtforththe
riseofagovernmentofmoralordercxxxv(Monroe263).Twocourtcases,violationofescroquerieand
article4797exemplifythegrowinganticlericaloppositiontotheoccultrevivalandatendencytouse
thefailingsofSpiritisminanticlericalargumentsagainstreligioningeneral.Resurgentpopularfaith
andgrowingCatholicpoliticalinfluenceledtothesurveillanceofSpiritismasasocialthreatandthe
investigationandprosecutionofBuguetandLeymarie.cxxxviTheoppositionwassostrongthatby1874
OlympeAndouardsLesMondesdesEspritswascensoredbytheministryoftheInterior.cxxxviiAs
Monroepointsout,thedesiretousestatepowertoprotectthefreedomofunwarycitizensfromforms
ofbeliefdeemedexcessivelyrigidoreccentricisnothingnewforFrancecxxxviii.Buguetsfraudinthe
takingofspiritphotographyledtochargesofescroquerieonLeymarie,BuguetandFirman,definedby
theCodePenalasearningmoneybyemployingmethodstocreatebeliefinanimaginarypower)cxxxix.
ThecourtwasunwillingtoheartestimonyfromSpiritistperspectivesandexplainedSpiritistadoption
ofsuperstitionasaformofmentalderangementcxl.AchilleDubucsinclinationtodefineSpiritismin
termsofpathologyasirrationalformsofconvictionmadehisargumentcentraltotherepublican
discourseoftheperiod.cxliFollowingthatthread,JeanMartinCharcotandothersalsoprovidedaway
21

ofconceivingsusceptibilitytointensereligiousexpressionasoutrightsignsofmentaldisease.Itwas
throughpathologizingreligionasmanyofthesewritershaddone,thatenabledrepublicanismto
presentlaicismeasaformofsocialhygiene.cxlii
TheCatholicReaction
CatholicjournalistsarguedthatSpiritismwasakeyexampleofwhatbecomesoffaithina
societythatmovestosuppressit.cxliiiVeuillotandthecatholicjournal,Lunivers,assertedthat,faith
washardwiredintothehumansoul.Accordingtothisview,inawellorderedsociety,priestswould
policethesupernatural,toexposecasesoffraudandendorseauthenticmanifestationsofthedivine.
SpiritismforCatholicjournalistswasaprimeexampleoftheevolutionofthefaithinstinctinasociety
thathadattemptedtosuppressit.ThisemphasiswastotheendthatifFrancewouldnotembrace
Catholicism,itwouldwatchrationalitybecomeunseatedbyaresurgenceofmisdirectedbelief.
Veuillotcontinuedthatthedestructionoffaithinthedivinesupernaturalwouldturnthecitizens
towardthediabolicalsupernatural.cxliv
AntiClericalReaction
RepublicanjournaliststhoughtthatsuchnaiveteonpartoftheSpiritistsmadescientistsmore
susceptibletotheoccultthanordinarypeople.cxlvHereitappearsthatwherescienceandreligion
agreefallsontheblindfaithoftheSpiritists.Anticlericalpapersdevelopedananalogybetween
SpiritismandCatholicism.cxlviTheanticlericalscynicalviewofreligioninterchangedreligionwith
superstition,aprimitivesetofbeliefsrenderedobsoletebytheprogressiverefinementofhuman
reason.cxlviiVilliersemphasizedthatifitwerethestatesjobtoprotectFranceagainstfraudsand
excessivefaith,CatholicswereasguiltyasSpiritism.However,itappearedthatduetothevested

22

interestsofthestatesintheFrenchCatholicChurch,Spiritismcaughtthebruntoftheattacksandnot
theCatholicChurch.cxlviiiTheSpiritistwitnessestendencytoframetheirideasinscientifictermshad
noeffectinconvincingrepublicanwriters,whotendedtopresentsuchpositivisticapsirationsas
furtherproofofirrationality.cxlix
Outofthebeliefthatreligiousfaiththreatenedthefreedomoftheindividual,theheartof
Republicanism,itwasmostdamagingtothewellbeingofFrenchsocietyandofgreatconcernto
Republicanwriters.UniversallaiceducationwaslookeduponasaremedyforpurgingFrenchsociety
ofitsvestigialirrationality.clVacquerieandotherrepublicansfeltthattheonlytruewaytocombatthe
dangeroffaithwaseducation.cli
MonroehasalsofoundthatNapoleonIIIsgovernmentprovedincreasinglywillingtouse
legalsanctionsagainstmesmeristsandsomnambulistswhoexercisedtheirpowersformoney.In
1852,forexample,AlexisDidier,wastriedandconvictedalongwithnineothersomnambulistsunder
articles479and480oftheCodepenal,whichforbadethepracticesofdivinationanddream
interpretation.cliiThisincludedfortunetellers,supposedsorcerers,cardreaders,inshort,allthose
whomakeaprofessionofpretendingtouncoverhiddenfacts,topredictthefuture,bythemeansof
superstitiouspractices.cliiiAlthoughfortunetellingwasillegalinFrancethroughoutthenineteenth
century,Articles4797wererarelyenforced,andfortunetellerswereendemicinFrenchsociety.cliv
DavidAllenHarveyexaminesArticle4797anddivinationinpostRevolutionaryFrance.Accordingto
Harvey:
MirceaEliadesessaysonoccultismandwitchcraft,CarloGinzburgsstudyofwitchcraftandsorceryin
RenaissancenorthernItaly,RobertDarntonsexaminationofthemesmeristcraze,andAntoineFaivresmany
worksonearlymodernesotericphilosophyhavefurtherdocumentedthatbeliefinmagicisnotlimitedtonon

23

Westerntribalsocieties,butformsanimportant,ifoftenneglected,partoftheWesterntraditionitself. clv

Harveyarguesthatthemostsignificantevidenceoflegalpursuitsagainstfortunetellerscamewhen
theParisianpolicetookanactiveinterestinthesupernaturalandassembledalargeandfascinating
dossierrangingfromthenineteenthcenturytothelatetwentieth.,journalistsweredrawntothe
mysteryandromanceoftheoccultandoftenprofilednoteworthyfortunetellers,andduringappeals
casesinwhichprosecutedFortunetellersappealedtheirconvictions.clviThecommonassumptionwas
thatfortunetellersandtheirclientellewereprimarilycomprisedoflowerclasswomen.
Becauseoftheirinvolvementindivinations,womenweremarginalizedinthepublicsphereof
theThirdRepublic.Thus,theirrationalityofwomenwasfrequentlyinvokedbytheopponentsof
womenssuffrage,anditwasamongtheprincipalreasonswhyFrancewasoneofthelaststatesin
WesternEuropetograntwomentherighttovote.clviiThiswasalsosupportedbycriticismfrom
CamilleDelavilleandJeanLouisErnestCamescasse,whoportrayedwomenasnaveaschildrenin
regardtotheirbeliefinspiritmediumsandfortunetellers.clviii
Harveyshowsthattheappearanceoffortunetellinginmanyupperclasssalonswasevidence
againstthepreconceivednotionthatfortunetellingwasalowerclassfemalevocation.Harveyalso
statedthatthespiritistfad...andoccultsubjectsheldanunendingfascinationformanyartistsand
writers.OneunidentifiedclippinginthefilesoftheArchivesdelaprefecturedePolicereveala
hierarchycompletewitharistocracy,bourgeoisieandproletariat.clixWhiletheelitesgenerallypassed
throughundetectedorunpunished,thepoormembersofthefortunetellingventureweremostaffected
byArticle479.clx
Thecategoryoffortunetelleroftenblurredintotherealmofspiritmediumandfolkhealer,and
thesewereadvertisedonhandbillsandinthebackpagesofpopularjournals.Theirareaoffocus
24

includedhandcraftedtalismans,andthecastingandremovingofmagicspells.clxiOneoffortune
tellingsprimaryappealswasthatitpromisedtoenableonetomasterdifficultcircumstancesandchart
oneswaythroughathreateningfutureclxii,notunlikeDevlinsdiscourseontheroleofsuperstition
andreligionamongFrenchpeasantry.Despitethegovernmentsdisapprovalofwhattheythought
werewomenusinggovernmentalrelieffundstopayfortunetellers,thegovernmentcouldnotprovide
whatFrenchwomenduringWorldWarIreallysought:theassurancethattheirhusbandsandsonswere
safe.Thistheygainedthroughsessionswithfortunetellers.clxiii
ThispointwasalsoemphasizedbyMonroe:AsDenisenvisionedit,theprimarypurposeofSpiritism
wasmoralimprovementmadepossiblebyemotionallyresonantexchangeswiththebeyond.clxiv
DuringthedecadesthatfollowedWWI,Spiritismenjoyedaperiodofmarkedexpansion.Manywho
lostlovedonesinthewarweremoreinterestedincontactingthemthantheywereinengagingin
scientificstudiesofthebeyond.clxvThejournalistsapproachedthesubjectoffortunetellingsimilarly
tothediscourseofthemagistratesoftheThirdRepublic,althoughtheiraimwastosellnewspapersby
recountingcolorfulstories.clxvi

SocioCulturalReactionstotheOccultRevival
Tiryakianrevealshowesotericcultureistreatedasasourceofideologicalinnovationsinthe
modernizationofWesternEuropeanculture.clxviiRecentsociologicalscholarshipsuggeststhatthe
occultrevivalasneosacralizationisevidenceagainsttheideathatsecularizationparallels
modernity.clxviiiModernity,Tiryakianargues,isrootedinesotericculture.clxixTheinfluenceofoccult
themes,particularlythosedealingwiththedemonicandthesatanic,isastrikingaspectinthehistorical

25

developmentofmodernavantgardeculture,withbothliteraryandpoliticalrepercussionsagainst
institutionalizationfromrationalandindustrialperspectivesofbourgeoissocialorder.clxxTiryakian
proposesthatesotericcultureinavantgardepoliticstookastandagainsttheestablishedregimes.In
particular,Amajorsocialvehicleofsuchprotesthavebeensecretsocieties,especiallyFreemasonry
ineighteenthandnineteenthcenturyFrance,whichdrewuponimageryofesotericconceptionsof
reality,andsymbolsofliberatingmanfromdarkness,suchastherealmoflightassymbolicofa
freedhumanity.clxxi

Conclusion
Occultism,likeSpiritismbeforeit,wasasmuchasocialasanintellectualmovement.clxxii
UndertheguidanceofPapus,occultismbecameverycentralized.Becauseoftheirbeliefthat
fundamental,universalChristianreligioustruthsexistedattheheartofallreligioussystems,theyfelt
theywerefreetopursueanytoallideas.Conversely,thedominanttrendsinSpiritismfocusedon
organizationaldecentralizationandphilosophicalconsideration.Occultismaddressedthesame
problemsasSpiritismhad,butdidsoinmoreglamourous,intriguing,andcomplexways.clxxiii
MonroehasmanagedtoopposetheideathatFrenchheterodoxyseemstohavenoplaceinthe
viewofthereactionaryCatholicrightandtherepublicanleft.Thissituationhowever,istheworkof
theseheterodoxthinkersthemselves:theSpiritualists,Mesmerists,andOccultistssoughttosynthesize
whatmanyhadcometoseeasmutuallyexclusivewaysofknowing.clxxivSuchattemptstofusereason
andfaithplacedthesespiritualmovementsjustoutsidetheestablishedbordersofscience,religion,
andsuperstition.

26

Devlinsanalysisaddressesthethemethatruralreligionaccomplishesasocialimportance,
resonatingwithWebersthemethatsocialismandoccultismarebothformulaic.Similarly,superstition
andMariancultswerealsoformulaicinruralculture.Theempiricaloccultistsinadditiontothe
peasantsofruralsuperstitionwereequallyridiculedandanticlericalpublicationsemphasizedthe
irrationalityandmentalderangementinSpiritistsandthesuperstitious.ThefailuresofSpiritism
enabledanticlericalattacksontheocculttraditions.However,superstitiouscultsservedsimilar
purposesforruralFrance,asSpiritismhadforthemothers,sistersandwidowsofWorldWarI.As
Weberpointsout,priestswhoneglectedthepopulismoftheircommunitieswereasneglectfulasthe
anticlericaljournalistsandthemoralgovernmentofNapoleonIII.
CharltonsdiscourseonthesecularreligiousattempttoreplaceChristianityrevealsthatthe
occultthinkerswerepivotaltoshapingmodernconceptsofsyncretismnecessarytocreatea
Republicanutopia.McIntoshsanalysisofEliphasLeviandMessianismexpresseshisinfluencenot
onlyonFrenchoccultism,butalsoonthetraditionofoccultisminBritain.
Lachmansexplorationoftheincreasingimportanceoftheroleofartistsandwritersinthe
nineteenthcenturychallengespreviousandcurrentscholarshiptoincludetheliteraryandartistic
membersofFrenchintelligentsiainthediscourseofoccultisminnineteenthcenturyFrance.Lachman
emphasizedtheoccultinfluenceonliterature.McIntosh,LachmanandCharltonconvergeonthe
subjectandinfluenceofdiabolicaloccultism,orsatanism,intheliteratureofnineteenthcentury
France,especiallythroughtheworksofJulesBois.AsCharltonalsosuggests,theoccultalsohad
particularinfluenceoverphilosophy,artandmusic.Gibbonsanalysisaddressesthescientificworkon
thefourthdimensionandhisfocusonthenineteenthcenturyFrenchartcriticssupportedthescientific

27

validationoftheSpiritualisttheories.Italsorevealedthattheartworldofthetimewaswhollyinspired
bytheoccultphilosophiesofthenineteenthcentury.
Chargesofescroquerieagainstthespiritphotographersinthenineteenthcenturyandchargesof
article4797againstfortunetellersintheearlytwentiethcenturyrevealarisingdistrustforthe
Spiritists.Monroeestablishesthelinkthattheanticlericaljournalistsandwritersmakebetween
SpiritismandCatholicism,inanattempttorewritethelanguageofReligionandsuperstitionclxxvasa
defenseoftheindividualfreedomsofRepublicanism.Similarly,Harveyestablishesaconnection
betweenthepreoccupationofwomenwithfortunetellingandtheanticlericalthoughtsofwomenin
ordertoreestablishFrenchwomeninvolvedinSpiritismaswhollyirrationalandunworthyof
suffrage.
Althoughtheoccultrevivalmay,atfirstglance,appearmarginaltothestudyofsociological
preoccupations,Tiryakianhasestablishedtheimportanceofthestudyoftheesotericthroughoutmany
facetsofsociologicaldiscipline,suchasthesociologyofknowledge,art,religion,anddeviance.clxxvi
Tiryakiansproposalthatesoterictrendswereendemictoculturalwatersheds,andinparticularthe
developmentoftheavantgardethroughtheintellectualtrends,presentsanentirelynewperspectiveto
thestudyoftheoccultrevivalinnineteenthcenturyFrance.

28

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Burrow,J.W.TheCrisisofReason,Europeanthought18481914(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2000),225.
D.G.Charlton,SecularReligionsinFrance,18151870(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1963),127.
ii Weber,Eugen,ReligionandSuperstitioninNineteenthCenturyFrance(TheHistoricalJournal,31,2(1988),403.
iii Burrow,p225.
iv Monroe,JohnWarne,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen:Spiritism,Occultism,andaSearchforaModernFaithinFrance,
18531925(PhDdiss.,YaleUniversity,2002),23.
v Ibid.,4.
vi Ibid.,8.
vii Ibid.,910.
viiiIbid.,101.FrancoisSecret,DuOccultaPhilosophiaaLoccultismeduXIXeSiecle,(RevuedeLhistoirie
Religions,188(1974),81.FrancoisSecretsevaluationrevealsthatoccultismwasbornoutofalongtraditionofthe
arcanephilosophiesoftheRenaissance.
ix D.G.Charlton,127.
x AlisonButler,MagicalBeginnings:TheIntellectualOriginsoftheVictorianOccultRevival,,Limina:AJournalof
HistoricalandCulturalStudies,Vol9(2003),81.
xi Charlton,138.
xii Ibid.,126.
xiiiButler,82.
xiv Ibid.,86.
xv Monroe,19.
xviIbid.,11,97:FrankAntonMesmerdevelopedasystemoftherapeutichealingwhichfocusedonaninvisibleforce,
roughlyanalogoustoelectricity,calledtheuniversalfluid.Trainedindividuals,calledmagnetiseurscouldeliminate
obstructionsinthebodybymanipulatingandconcentratingthefluid.FrenchmesmerismwassupportedbyArmandMarie
JacquedeChastenet,marquisdePuysigur.
xviiIbid.,12.
xviiiJohnathanMiller,MagneticMockeries,SocialResearchVol68Issue3(2001),721.
xix Ibid.,720.
xx Monroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,96.
xxi Ibid.,99.
xxiiIbid.,116,113;Domicilleheldthatthescientificandmedicalrootswereitsprimaryclaimstointellectuallegitimacy
andthattheywouldbeforgottenifdevelopedsolelyintoametaphysicalenterprise.
xxiiiIbid.,130,133.
xxivIbid.,23;SeanceswereasourceofhopeforSocialists.Duringseances,entitiesspokethroughthetablesthat
explainedtheleftspoliticalfailureswhilereaffirmingitstranscendentaspirations.ThinkerslikeJulesBarbey
dAurevilly,EmileLittreandVictorHugodemonstratedtheimportanceofsancevogue(althoughpreviousscholars
overlookit,itreallywasadevelopmentthatrevealedcrucialaspectsofFrenchreligious,scientificandpoliticalcultureof
thesecondempire).
xxvIbid.,24.
xxviIbid.,356.
xxviiIbid.,43.
xxviiiIbid.,44.AbbeCognatemphasizedtrickerybeingusedbytheDeviltotakemenoftheclothoutoftheChurch.
xxixIbid.,45.
xxxIbid.,46.
xxxiIbid.,52.
xxxiiIbid.,65.
xxxiiiIbid.,135.
xxxivIbid.,147.
xxxvIbid.,148.
xxxviIbid,158.
xxxviiIbid.,150.
xxxviiiIbid.,178.
xxxixIbid.,179.
xl Ibid.,195,196:Kardecfearedthesetendencieswouldsloworreversetheprogressionofspiritistrespectability.
xli Ibid.,155.
xliiIbid.,171.

xliiiIbid.,1734.
xlivIbid.,248.
xlv Ibid.,250.
xlviCharlton,1345.
xlviiMonroe.,217.
xlviiiIbid.,218.
xlixIbid.,219.
l Ibid.,220.
li Ibid.,2201.
lii Ibid.,221.
liii Ibid.,228.
liv Ibid.,239.
lv Ibid.,2412.
lvi Ibid.,300.
lviiIbid.,301.
lviiiCharlton,140.
lix Ibid,146.
lx Monroe,304.
lxi Ibid.,307.
lxiiIbid.,304.
lxiiiIbid.,3112.
lxivIbid.,315,3189,320;RocadescribedBlavatskysmahatmasandChristianesotericismasameansofreconciling
scienceandreligion...andthatitwaspossibletobeatheosophistandaproudsonofFrance,andapriestofJesus
Christsimultaneously.HewasofcoursecondemnedbyBlavatsky,herself,whodeclaredthatChristianitywasaform
ofblasphemybecauseithadcarnalizedauniversalandentirelyimpersonalprinciple,turningwhatshouldhavebeena
granduniversalabstractionintoanabsurdandgrotesqueanthropomorphicfetish.
lxv Ibid.,3301.
lxviIbid.,331.
lxviiIbid.,332.
lxviiiFleurant,68.
lxixFleurant,69.
lxx Monroe,336.
lxxiIbid.,340.
lxxiiIbid.,340;McIntoshChristopher,DarkMuse:AHistoryoftheOccult,(NewYork:SamuelWeiserInc.,1974),1701.
Burrow,225:JosephinPeladan(18581918),withStanislasdeGuaita,foundedtheKabbalisticOrderoftheRosyCross,
claimingtohaverevivedthetraditionsoftheRosicrucians.
lxxiiiMonroe,341.
lxxivIbid.,342.
lxxvIbid.,3435.
lxxviIbid.,346.
lxxviiIbid.,349.
lxxviiiWeber,399.
lxxixIbid.,402.
lxxxIbid.,400.
lxxxiIbid.,401.
lxxxiiIbid.,404.
lxxxiiiIbid.,404.
lxxxivIbid.,405.
lxxxvIbid.,409.
lxxxviDevlin,Judith,TheSuperstitiousMind:Frenchpeasantsandthesupernaturalinthenineteenthcentury,(New
Haven:YaleUniversity,1987),101.
lxxxviiIbid.,100.
lxxxviiiIbid.,102.
lxxxixIbid.,5.
xc Ibid.,89.
xci Ibid.,12.

xciiIbid.,14.
xciiiIbid.,92.
xcivIbid.,98.
xcvWeber,410.
xcviIbid.,415.
xcviiKennethJFleurant,MysticismandtheAgeofReason:JacqueCazotteandtheDemons,TheFrenchReviewVol49
(1975):68.
xcviiiWeber,415.
xcixIbid.,417.
c Ibid.,421.
ci Ibid.,422.
cii Charlton,126.
ciii Fleurant,68:MensuchasSwedenborgandMesmerwereconcernedwithontologicalquestionsthenatureofthe
universeandmansfunctionwithinitonboththevisibleandunseen,oroccult,plane.
civ Charlton,128.
cv Ibid.,12.
cvi Charlton,121;ItwasevenmoreevidentinnonChristianthinkers,whethertheybeganfromtheRomanticbeliefinthe
goodnessofNature;or,secondly,fromtheoccultistandOrientalbeliefintheNaturesunity;or,thirdly,fromthe
metaphysicalconceptsofSpinozaandHegel;or,lastly,fromthescientificbeliefasthedeterminedinterrelationand
unityoftheuniverse,manincluded.
cviiIbid.,130.
cviiiIbid.,131.
cix Charlton,135.
cx McIntosh,13.
cxi Ibid.,43.
cxiiIbid.,47.
cxiiiIbid.,p98.
cxivIbid.,141
cxvIbid.,145.
cxviIbid.,146,148:LeviwasthefirsttorelateTarotandCabala;152:Leviwasfirsttopopularizethepracticeoftheurgy
(ameanstodrawingthewillthroughcertainchannelsandtransformingthemagicianintoamorefullyrealizedbeing)
withinthescopeoftheoccultrevival.
cxviiSecret,81.
cxviiiGaryLachman,ADarkMuse:AHistoryoftheOccult,(NewYork:ThundersMouth,2005),64.
cxixIbid.,127.
cxxIbid.,129
cxxiMcIntosh,206.
cxxiiCharlton,134.
cxxiiiBurrow,225.
cxxivCharlton,12930.
cxxvMcIntosh,195.
cxxviLachman,152;yoga,meditation,vegetarianism,multiculturalism,homeopathy,higherconsciousness,visionsof
alternativesocieties,anticapitalism,interestinprimitivebeliefs,fascinationwithancientstonemonuments,religious
cultsandcommunes,progressiveeducation,freelove,feminismandopennesstohomosexualityorlesbianism,
experimentationwithdrugs,rejectionofcoldreasoninfavorforfeelingandintuition,paganismandnatureworship,
turningfrommodernityandprogressandfeverishmillennialism.
cxxviiTomH.Gibbons,CubismandtheFourthDimensionintheContextofLateNineteenthCenturyandEarlyTwentieth
CenturyRevivalofOccultIdealism,JournaloftheWarburgandCourtaldInstitutes,Vol44(1981):134.
cxxviiiIbid.,134.
cxxixIbid,133.
cxxxIbid,135.
cxxxiIbid,134.
cxxxiiIbid,140.
cxxxiiiIbid,141.
cxxxivIbid,142.

cxxxvMonroe,263.
cxxxviIbid.,264.
cxxxviiIbid,265.
cxxxviiiJohnWarneMonroe,CartesdeVisitefromtheOtherWorld:SpiritismandtheDiscourseofLaicismeintheEarly
ThirdRepublic,FrenchHistoricalStudiesVol26(2003):119.
cxxxixMonroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,270.
cxl Ibid,279.
cxliMonroe,CartesdeVisite,142
cxliiIbid.,143.
cxliiiMonroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,284.
cxlivMonroe,CartesdeVisite,141
cxlvMonroe,EvidenceofThingsNotseen,287.
cxlviIbid,292.
cxlviiMonroe,CartesdeVisite,120.
cxlviiiMonroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,292.
cxlixMonroe,CartesdeVisite,144,146,147.
cl Monroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,2934.
cli Monroe,CartesdeVisite,1489.
clii Monroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,101.
DavidAllenHarvey,FortunetellersintheFrenchcourts:AntidivinationProsecutionsinFranceinthenineteenthand
twentiethcenturies,FrenchHistoricalStudies,Vol28(2005):133.Article4797declaredthatthosewhomakea
professionofdivinationandprediction,oroftheexplanationofdreams.
cliiiHarvey,134.
clivIbid.,138.
clv Ibid.,133.
clviIbid.,1356.
clviiIbid.,139.
clviiiIbid.,141.Afterblithelydismissingthedomesticdramasofpoorwomen,Delavillenotedthat,whateverlacks
commonsenseattractswomen.
clixIbid.,142.
clx Ibid.,143.
clxiIbid.,1445.
clxiiIbid.,145.
clxiiiIbid.,148.
clxivMonroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,362.
clxvIbid,363.Itfinallyfadedinthe1920s.
clxviHarvey,140.
clxviiEdwardA.Tiryakian,TowardtheSociologyofEsotericCulture,AmericanJournalofSociologyVol78Issue3
(1972):491.
clxviiiIbid.,493.
clxixIbid.,502.
clxxIbid.,504.
clxxiIbid.,505.
clxxiiMonroe,EvidenceofThingsNotSeen,350.
clxxiiiIbid.,351.
clxxivIbid.,368.
clxxvMonroe,CartesdeVisite,122.Leftwingjournalists,usedthecoverageofthetrialasanopportunitytolaunch
ruthlessattacksnotonlyonSpiritism,butalsoonreligiousbeliefingeneral,whichtheypresentedasaproducteitherof
ignoranceorofoutrightmentalpathology.Catholicsandrepublicansalikeusedprocesdesspiritesasaweaponin
politicalbattles.
clxxviTiryakian,507,509:Occultrevivalshaveservedasawatershedbetweenoneculturalmatrixtoanother.