Introductory Engineering Geology

4. EARTHS EXTERNAL PROCESSES

4.1 Weathering
Weathering refers to physical and chemical processes that change the characteristics of rock
on or near the earths surface. It is the process by which rocks on or near the Earths surface
break down and change. Also, weathering may be defined as the process of alteration of
rocks occurring under the direct influence of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Weathering
creates smaller and smaller pieces of rock called sediment. Examples of sediment are mud,
sand, or silt, which are very fine particles of rock.
Rock weathering is important in geotechnical engineering since it concerns the behaviour of
materials used as embankment fill, concrete, roads, or buildings. It is also concerned with the
behaviour of weathered materials in rock structure.
4.1.1 Weathering processes
The geological work accomplished by weathering is of two kinds:
(a) Physical or mechanical changes: This is the situation whereby materials are
disintegrated by temperature changes, frost action, and organisms and;
(b) Chemical changes: This is the situation whereby minerals are decomposed, dissolved,
and loosened by the water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and by organisms
and the products of their decay.
As a result of the changes, we have three types of weathering
(1) Mechanical weathering
(2) Chemical weathering
(3) Biological Weathering
4.1.1.1 Mechanical weathering
This is the process by which rocks break down into smaller sizes without any
change in the rocks composition. This process is also referred to as physical
weathering. It is highly dependent on the rock type and the time. The following
factors acting for significant period of time may cause mechanical weathering:
(i) Climatic effect: This includes both temperature and rainfall; daily temperature fluctuation
and more importantly freeze thaw-cycle over a long period of time. Temperature plays a
significant role in mechanical weathering. When temperature drops to freezing point of water,
water that fills the cracks of rocks layers freezes, expands and exerts pressure on the rocks
and may cause them to split. Also, when temperature rises, the ice in the cracks of rocks
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melts. The repeated thawing and freezing of water in the cracks of rocks called frost wedging
can split the rocks.
(ii) Abrasion: Whenever there is pushing of large quantity of soil or ice under pressure
across the underlying rock by glaciers, grinding or abrading both materials to smaller size.
(iii) Organic activity: Cracking force exerted by plant roots and roots in crack and crevasse
of rock can break rocks into fragments. As the roots grow and expand they can exert pressure
on the rocks to split.
(iv) Pressure: Bedrock at great depths is under pressure from overlying rock layers. When
the overlying rock layers are removed, the pressure on the bedrock is reduced. The bedrock
surface, formerly buried is then able to expand and long curved cracks can form. These
cracks, also known as joints occur parallel to the surface of the rock. Reduction of the
pressure allows existing cracks in the bedrock to widen. Over time, the outer layers of the
rocks are stripped (exfoliation) away in succession.
The processes most commonly involved in mechanical weathering are listed in Table 4.1
Table 4.1: The processes of mechanical weathering
Mechanical Unloading

Vertical expansion due to the reduction of vertical load by

erosion. This will open existing fractures and may permit the
creature of new fractures

Mechanical Loading

Impact on rock and abrasion, by sand and silt size windborne

particles in deserts. Impact on soil and weak rocks by rain drops
during intense rainfall storms

Thermal Loading

Expansion by freezing of water in pores and fractures in cold

regions, or by the heating of rocks in hot regions. Contraction
by the cooling of rocks and soils in the cold regions.

Wetting and Drying

Expansion and contraction associated with the repeated

absorption and loss of water molecules from mineral surfaces
and structures

Crystallization

Expansion of pores and fissures by crystallization within them

of minerals that were originally in solution. Note: expansion is
only severe when crystallization occurs within a confined space.

Pneumatic Loading

The repeated loading by waves of air trapped at the head of

fractures exposed in the wave zone of a sea cliff
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4.1.1.2 Chemical weathering
The process by which rocks undergo changes in their composition as the result of
chemical reactions is called chemical weathering. It is the decomposition whereby one
mineral species is changed into another through various chemical processes. This
changes happen because of elements in the air or water and the minerals in the rock
interact. The chemical reactions result in the formation of new minerals. The new
minerals have different properties from those of the original rocks. Agents of chemical
weathering include water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and acids.
Some minerals react with oxygen in the air and begin to crumble. Sometimes minerals are
combined with water or carbon dioxide to form weak acids. The acids break down the rock.
Climate has a great affect on rocks. Climates that are warm and moist will produce more
chemical weathering than cool, dry areas will. Rocks in cold and dry or hot and dry areas
generally experience greater mechanical weathering.
The alteration and solution of rock material by chemical processes is largely accomplished by
rain water acting as a carrier of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide together with various
acids and organic products derived from the soil.
The degree of activity depends on:
(1) the composition and concentration of the solutions so formed
(2) the temperature
(3) the presence of bacteria and
(4) the substances taken into solution from the mineral decomposed.
Water: Water is an important agent in chemical weathering because it can dissolve many
kinds of minerals and rocks. Water has an active role in some reactions, while it simply
serves as a medium through which other reactions occur. The reactions of water with other
substances (hydrolysis) occur in the decomposition of silicate minerals, such as
decomposition of potassium feldspar into kaolinite, a fine-grained clay mioneral common in
soils.
Oxygen: Like water, oxygen combines with other subsatances in a process called oxidation..
For example, Iron in rocks and minerals readily combines with atmospheric oxygen to form
minerals (hematite)
2fe3O4 + O2

3fe2O3

Magnetite

Hematite

Introductory Engineering Geology

Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide which is produced by living organisms during the process
of respiration combines with water in the atmosphere, to form a weak carbonic acid (see the
equation below) that falls to Earths surface as precipitation.
H2O +
Water

CO2

H2CO3

Carbondioxide

Carbonic acid

Carbonic acid reacts with minerals such as calcite in limestone and marble to dissolve rocks.
Carbonic acids can also affects silicate minerals such as mica, and feldspar by reacting with
elements in minerals such as magnesium and calcium.High concentrations of carbonic acid
accumulate in soil, where decaying organic matter and plant respiration produce high levels
of carbon dioxide. When water from precipitation seeps into the ground and combines with
carbon dioxide, large amounts of carbonic acid become available for the process of chemical
weathering.
Acid precipitation: Another agent of chemical weathering which is caused mainly by the
oxidation of sulfur dioxide and nitro oxides that are released by human activities. Sulfur
dioxide forms from the industrial burning of fossil fuels, while nitrogens are emitted from
motor-vehicle exhaust. These two gases combine to form sulfuric and nitric acids
The processes most commonly involved in chemical weathering are listed in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Some commonly occurring processes in chemical weathering
Solution

Dissociation of minerals into ions greatly aided by the presence of CO2 in the
soil profile, which forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) with percolating rainwater.

Oxidation

The combination of oxygen with a mineral to form oxides and hydroxides

and any other reaction in which the oxidation number of the oxidized
elements is increased.

Reduction

The release of oxygen from a mineral to its surrounding environment: ions

leave the mineral structure as the oxidation number of the reduced elements
is decreased.

Hydration

Absorption of water molecules into the mineral structure. Note: this normally
results in expansion, some clay expand as much as 60%, and by admitting
water hasten the processes of solution, oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis Hydrogen ions in percolating water replace mineral cations: no oxidationreduction occurs.
Leaching

The migration of ions produced by the above processes. Note: the mobility of
ions depends upon their ionic potential: Ca, Mg, Na, K are easily leached by
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moving water, Fe is more resistant, Si is difficult to leach and Al is almost
immobile.
Cation

Absorption onto the surface of negatively charged clay of positively charged

Exchange

cations in solution, especially Ca, H, K, Mg.

4.1.1.3 Biological weathering

Weathering effects which are small in themselves but noticeable in the aggregate can be
attributed to plants and animals (biotic weathering). Plants retain moisture and any rock
surface on which they grow is kept damp, thus promoting the solvent action of the water. The
chemical decay of rocks is also aided by the formation of vegetative humus, i.e. organic
products derived from plants, and this helped by the action of bacteria and fungi. Organic
acids are thereby added to percolating rain-water and increase its solvent power. Some
bacteria are active I reducing conditions, and contribute to the making of sulphides; others
can convert nitrogen to NH4 compounds which affect the pH value of soils.
The mechanical break down of rocks is brought about when the roots of plants
penetrate into cracks and wedge apart the walls of the crack.

4.1.2 Factors affecting the rate of weathering

The natural weathering of Earth materials occurs very slowly, for example it may take to
weather 1 cm of limestone, and yet most rocks weather at even slower rates. Certain
conditions and interactions can accelerate or slow weathering process. They include climate,
rock type and composition, surface area, and topography.
Climate
The climate of an area is a major influence on the rate of chemical weathering. Variables of
climates include precipitation, temperature and evaporation. The interaction between
temperature and precipitation has the greatest effect on a regions rate of weathering.
Chemical weathering occurs readily in climates with warm temperature, abundant rainfall and
lush vegetation. These climatic conditions produce thick soils that are rich in organic matter.
When water from heavy rainfalls combines with the carbon dioxide in this organic matter to
produce high level of carbonic acid. Conversely, physical weathering occurs readily in cool,
dry climates. Physical weathering rates are highest in areas where water undergoes repeated
freezing and thawing. Conditions in such climates do not favour chemical weathering as cool
temperatures slow or inhibit chemical reactions.

Introductory Engineering Geology

Rock type and composition:
The characteristics of rocks including how hard or resistant they are to being broken down
depend on their type and composition. In general, sedimentary rocks are more easily
weathered than igneous or metamorphic rocks.
Surface area
Mechanical weathering breaks up rocks into smaller pieces. As the pieces get smaller, their
surface area increases. This means that more total surface area is available for chemical
weathering. Thus, the greater the surface area, the more weathering occurs.
Topography
Earth materials cover the surfaces of slopes and level areas. Materials on level areas are likely
to remain in place as they undergo changes, whereas materials on slopes have a greater
tendency to move as a result of gravity. As materials move down a slope, it exposes
underlying rock surfaces and thus provides more opportunities for weathering to occur.

4.2 Erosion
Erosion is the process by which the land surface is worn away by the action of wind, water,
ice, or gravity. In simple terms, it is the process where soil particles are dislodged or detached
and put in motion. Erosion can also be defined as the process by which Earth materials are
transported from one place to another. A number of agents transport weathered materials.
These include running water in stream and rivers, glaciers, winds, ocean currents and waves.
Rivers, wind, moving ice ad water waves are capable of loosening, dislodging and carrying
particles of soil, sediment and larger pieces of rocks. Humans, plants and animals also play a
role in erosional process. Weathering prepares the rock surface for erosion, that is, the
removal of decomposed or disintegrated materials by the agents earlier mentioned. At the
point that the movement of transported slows down, the materials are deposited in another
location in a process called Deposition. Erosion reshapes landforms, coastal regions, and
riverbeds and banks.

4.2.1 Erosion Process

There are two types of erosion: geologic and accelerated.
Geologic erosion or natural erosion is the action of the wind, water, ice, and gravity in
wearing away rock to form soil and shape the ground surface. Except for some stream and
shore erosion, it is a relatively slow, continuous process that often goes unnoticed.
Accelerated erosion is a speeding up of erosion due to human activity. Whenever we destroy
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the natural vegetation or alter the contour of the ground without providing some sort of
surface protection, we greatly increase the rate of erosion. Accelerated erosion can be
minimized through careful planning and by implementing appropriate control measures.
Farming, construction, logging, and mining are the principal causes of accelerated erosion.
These activities radically upset the delicate balance that nature has developed between
rainfall and runoff. Although all the sources mentioned above generate sediment, we will
focus on construction. There are two major reasons that erosion is often increased during and
after construction. The first one is the removal of protective natural vegetation. The second is
the placement of impermeable surfaces like paving and rooftops on the soil. This prevents
water infiltration and increases runoff. These two factors increase the likelihood that soil will
be exposed to the erosive forces of water and wind.

4.2.2 Major Categories of Erosion

4.2.2.1 Water Erosion
There are three kinds of eroding action of water erosion. One happens when water flows in a
stream or river. Another form eroding action of water erosion is abrasion. This is the grinding
away of rock by transported particles in the water. A third eroding action of water occurs
when the water dissolves chemical elements in the rock. With the exception of the extremely
strong winds associated with tornadoes and hurricanes. Water has more power to move large
particles of weathered materials than wind. Water erosion is greatest when a large volume of
water is moving rapidly, such as during spring thaws and torrential downpours. Water
flowing down steep slopes also has greater potential to erode Earth materials, because the
steeper the slope, the faster the water flows. Not only does swiftly flowing water have greater
erosional power than wind, but it can also carry more material along with it and over a greater
distance. Runoff causes both stream channel erosion and overland erosion.
Channel erosion occurs both in intermittent and permanent waterways and streams. Three
causes of channel erosion are: increased runoff, removal of natural vegetation along the
waterway, and channel alterations resulting from construction activities. It includes both
stream bank and stream bed erosion. Overland erosion occurs on bare slopes as a result of
rain splash and runoff. It is the predominate type of erosion and source of sediment from
construction sites. Overland erosion is generally separated into three categories: sheet
erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion.

Introductory Engineering Geology

Sheet erosion is the removal of a uniform layer of soil from the land surface as a result of rain
splash and runoff. Rain splash is the impact of raindrops on a soil surface. The splash
dislodges soil particles, making them more susceptible to movement by overland water flow.
The loosened particles that are not washed away can form a muddy slick that clogs pores in
the ground surface. The sealed surface further reduces infiltration and increases runoff. As
runoff water moves down a slope, it increases in velocity and increases the potential for
erosion. The volume of sediment also increases because the transported particles scour and
dislodge more soil particles.
Rilling is another form of overland erosion. Evidence of rill erosion is the development of
small grooves spaced fairly uniformly along the slope. It is caused when runoff is heavy and
water concentrates in rivulets. Individual rills range in depth and width up to several inches
and reflect a tremendous loss of soil. If rilling is not corrected immediately, it will develop
into gully erosion. The depth of erosion defines the difference between rills and gullies.
Although there are no formal definitions for rills and gullies, it is commonly accepted that
rills can be easily obliterated by normal tillage practices, whereas gullies cannot. Gullies do
not always represent the culmination of unchecked rill erosion. Gullies can form wherever
ground or paved surfaces concentrate water into an area that cannot handle the flow. Proper
planning and construction practices prevent this from happening.

4.2.2.2 Wind erosion

Wind is a major erosional agent in areas that experience both limited precipitation and high
temperatures. Such areas typically have little vegetative cover to hold soil in place. In many
ways, wind erosion is similar to water erosion. Wind transports sediment and deposits it in
other locations. Depending on the type of windborn sediment, new landforms may be
produced. Deposits of loess, wind-blown silt and clay sediment that produce very fertile soil,
are found many feet deep in some areas of the world. Wind erosion is common on
agricultural lands and large construction sites. Soil that is piled and left unprotected is
especially vulnerable to wind erosion. In some areas, more soil is lost from wind erosion than
from water erosion. The amount of soil lost from wind erosion may not be realized because
the soil particles disperse over a large area where they are not visible. In an urbanizing area,
the most damaging aspect of wind erosion is dust. It creates traffic hazards, adds to cleaning
costs, is abrasive to plant tissue, and blights the appearance of structures and other surfaces.

Introductory Engineering Geology

4.2.2.3 Glacial erosion
A glacier is a large, long-lasting mass of ice. Glaciers form in mountainous areas and in
regions that are regularly covered with heavy snowfall and ice. Glaciation is the changing of
landforms by slowly moving glaciers. Glaciers scrape and gouge out large sections of Earths
landscape. Massive glaciers cut U-shaped valleys in the land. Because they are so dense,
glaciers have the capacity to carry huge rocks and piles of debris over great distances. Glacial
movement scratch and grind some surfaces, while they polish others. On top or within the ice
are other rocks carried by the glacier. When the glacier melts, these rocks are left behind.
Rocks left behind by a glacier may form a ridge or a hill called a moraine.

4.2.2.4 Erosion by plants, animals and humans

Plants and animals living on the surface of Earth also play a role in erosion. As plants and
animals carry on their life processes, they move Earths materials from one place to another.
For example, earths materials are relocated as animals burrow into soil and shovel it to
another place. Humans also excavate areas and move soil from one location to another.
Planting a garden, developing a new athletic field and building highways are all examples of
human activities that result in the movement of Earths materials from one place to another.
However, the effects of erosion by activities of plants, animals and humans are minimal in
comparison to the other erosional effects of water, wind and glaciers.
4.2.3 Physical Factors Affecting Erosion
Erosion is affected by several physical factors; the common ones are:
Climate
Vegetative cover
Soil
Slope characteristics

4.2.3.1 Climate
The climatic factors that influence erosion are rainfall amount, intensity, and frequency.
Rainfall amount is usually measured in inches. Rainfall intensity is the rate at which the rain
falls. It is measured in inches of water falling in an hour of time. The infiltration rate is the
rate that water is absorbed into the soil. It is also measured in inches per hour. When rainfall
exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff occurs. The frequency of rainfall is the number of separate

Introductory Engineering Geology

rainfall events occurring during a specific period of time, such as a week or month. During
periods of frequent rainfall a greater percentage of the rainfall will become runoff because of
high soil moisture or saturated soil conditions.
Temperature is another climatic factor influencing erosion. While frozen soil is highly
resistant to erosion, rapid thawing of the soil surface brought on by warm rains can lead to
serious erosion. Temperature also influences the type of precipitation. Falling snow does not
erode. However, heavy snowmelts in the spring can cause considerable runoff damage.
Temperature also influences the amount of organic matter that collects on the ground surface
and incorporates with the topsoil layer. Organic matter is plant and animal residue in various
stages of decomposition. Areas with warmer climates have thinner organic cover on the soil
because decomposition is more rapid. Organic matter protects the soil by shielding it from the
impact of falling rain and by soaking up rainfall that would otherwise become runoff.
Organic matter also provides essential nutrients for plant growth.
4.2.3.2 Vegetative Cover
Vegetation is probably the most important physical factor influencing soil erosion. A good
cover of vegetation shields the soil from the impact of raindrops. It also binds the soil
together, making it more resistant to runoff. A vegetative cover provides organic matter,
slows runoff, and filters sediment. On a graded slope, the condition of the vegetative cover
will determine whether erosion will be stopped or only slightly halted. A dense, robust cover
of vegetation is one of the best protections against soil erosion.

4.2.3.3 Soils
Physical characteristics of soil have a bearing on erodibility. Soil properties influencing
erodibility include texture, structure, and cohesion. Texture refers to the size or combination
of sizes of the individual soil particles. Three broad soil size classifications, ranging from
small to large, are clay, silt, and sand. Soils having a large amount of silt-sized particles are
most susceptible to erosion from both wind and water. Soils with clay or sand-sized particles
are less prone to erosion.
Structure refers to the degree to which soil particles are clumped together, forming larger
clumps and pore spaces. Structure influences both the ability of the soil to absorb water and
its physical resistance to erosion. Organic matter influences the structure of most soils. In
clay soils, it loosens the structure and allows more water to infiltrate. In granular structured
sand or silt soils, organic matter tends to bind the soil into clumps that are more resistant to
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erosion. Soils with organic matter absorb and store more water than soils without organic
matter. The last soil property to consider is cohesion. Cohesion refers to the binding force
between soil particles and influences the structure. When moist, the individual soil particles
in a cohesive soil cling together to form a doughy consistency. Clay soils are in this category.
Clay soils are very cohesive, while sand soils are not.

4.2.3.4 Slope Steepness and Length

Slope steepness, length, and roughness affect erodibility. Generally, the longer the slope the
greater the potential for erosion. The greatest erosion potential is at the base of the slope,
where runoff velocity is the greatest and runoff concentrates. To avoid this problem, long
slopes are often "broken up" so that they function as a series of short slopes rather than one
long slope. Runoff is also slowed by using various runoff control structures, including
diversions and terraces. These structures function to intercept runoff and thereby reduce the
flow of water over the lower portion of the slope. Slope steepness, along with surface
roughness, and the rainfall amount and intensity control the speed at which runoff flows
down a slope. The steeper the slope, the faster the water will flow and the greater potential
for erosion. Steepness of slope is expressed in several ways. The most common ways are as a
ratio of the difference in the vertical and horizontal distance or as a percentage. For example,
a slope with a 100-foot horizontal change for every 10 feet of vertical distance would be
called a 10 to 1 or a 10 percent slope. Although we have little control over soil features and
other natural factors, we do have control over how we develop a site and what measures we
use to prevent or minimize erosion. After every effort has been made to prevent erosion,
efforts should then be directed to controlling sediment.
4.2.4 Preventing/Minimizing Erosion
Storm water runoff is rain that does not infiltrate when it comes in contact with the soil.
Runoff can carry several pollutants, including sediment, nutrients, oil, salt, and other toxic
materials. The faster runoff travels, the more soil it erodes and carries.
Without proper planning, construction activities can result in an increase in runoff. This
increased runoff can cause erosion and flooding. One potentially damaging result of
increased runoff is an increase in the amount of sediment.
There are three primary reasons why runoff increases during and after construction:

The first one is that grading removes vegetation. Vegetation is nature's greatest runoff
protector.
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The second reason is that grading compacts the soil, thus reducing the amount of
infiltration.

The third reason is that construction generally results in covering large portions of the
soil surface with concrete, asphalt, roofs, and other impervious surfaces. A small
increase in impervious area can cause a disproportionate increase in runoff during a
rainfall.

4.2.4.1 Construction Practices to Control Runoff

There are several construction practices or control measures that will minimize runoff and
thus control erosion. To be effective, all control measures must be periodically inspected,
maintained, and/or replaced when necessary. All damaged areas must be corrected
immediately. If banks are severely eroded, consider installing slope stabilization. Sediment
should be removed when it accumulates behind check dams or diversions
Scheduling
The first construction practice is scheduling. Scheduling is a planning process that provides a
basis for implementing all control measures in a timely and logical fashion during
construction. It may be necessary to implement control measures sequentially instead of all at
one time. Staging of construction is part of scheduling. Staging is sometimes called phasing.
With staging, grading and stabilization are finished in one area before proceeding to the next.
Staging allows you to take advantage of the existing vegetation on the site. Plan the stages or
phases of development so that only areas which are actively under construction are exposed.
All other areas should have a good cover of vegetation or mulch.
Seeding and Mulching
The second practice is to seed and mulch all areas that have no vegetative cover. If it is not
feasible to permanently seed, establish a quick-growing temporary grass cover. Mulch should
always be placed on bare soil to protect it from rain or wind, whether or not it has been
seeded.
Preserve Vegetative Buffers
Preserve vegetated buffer areas above and below the graded area. The buffer above will slow
the runoff before it has a chance to erode. The buffer below slows runoff and will filter some
of the sediment before the runoff leaves the site ( see Figure 4.1).

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Figure 4.1: Vegetative buffers

Surface Roughening
The rate of runoff can be reduced by surface roughening. It is an easy and economical
method that simply creates an uneven or bumpy condition on the soil surface. Horizontal
grooves tend to spread runoff over the slope, slowing it down and allowing more of it to
infiltrate into the soil (Figure 4.2). Scarification is one way to roughen the soil surface. It can
be easily accomplished with a drag, cultivator, or by back blading perpendicular to the slope.
Roughening also produces a soil surface more suitable for the growth of vegetation because it
will hold the seed and retain moisture.

Figure 4.2: Surface roughening (Horizontal grooves)

Diversions

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Diversions can be used to intercept runoff that would otherwise flow across the exposed soil
(Figure 4.3). Care must be taken to divert runoff to an area where it can infiltrate or be safely
discharged. A diversion is generally constructed as a channel with a ridge on the lower side.
Often the excavated material from the channel is used to construct the ridge. The channel and
ridge can be bare compacted soil or vegetated. When the anticipated runoff velocities exceed
1.5 to 2.0 feet per second, diversions should be vegetated. Soil reinforcement measures, such
as erosion control blankets, may be necessary while establishing vegetation in the channel or
on the ridge.

Figure 4.3: Intercepting runoff using diversion

Grade Stabilization Structures
Grade stabilization structures are used to carry runoff from one level to another (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4: Grade Stabilization

All grade stabilization structures must be designed to carry the anticipated runoff from the
site and constructed in such a manner to prevent "piping." Piping occurs when water erodes
small channels under or along the side of the water conveyance structure. The potential for

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piping can be minimized by using flared metal inlets and compacting the soil around the inlet
section.
No matter what grade stabilization structure is used, care must be taken to prevent scouring or
erosion at the outlet. Scouring can be prevented by using one or more of the following: place
large rocks on geotextile material downstream of the outlet, use flared end sections, or place
large rocks or concrete blocks in the flume channel.
Check Dams
Check dams may be necessary to reduce the velocity of flow in roadside ditches or in other
concentrated flow areas. Check dams can reduce the potential for erosion and protect
vegetation in early stages of growth. In some situations, vegetation may not become
established without the help of check dams. The primary purpose of check dams is to reduce
water flow to non-erosive velocities. In some situations, the water velocity will be slowed
sufficiently to allow large-sized particles to settle out of the water and be deposited upstream
of the check dam. The deposition of sediment can be increased by excavating sumps
upstream of the check dams (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5: Check dam

Check dams are generally constructed of rock. In low flow situations, pea-stone or gravelfilled bags may be used instead of rock. Sandbags should never be used in flowing water
because water will not pass through the bags. When constructing check dams, place the rock
in the ditch and up the sides to a level above that of the anticipated flow. The middle of the
dam should be nine inches lower than the outer edges. This allows water to flow over the
depression in the center of the check dam, as opposed to around the sides where it could
erode the banks. Check dams are usually used in a series. They should be located or spaced
so that the toe of the upstream check dam is at the same elevation as the lowest point of the
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top of the downstream check dam. Therefore, the steeper the slope, the closer the check dams
should be.
Channel and Slope Stabilization
Check dams are not always capable of reducing water velocities to levels that will prevent
erosion. When this occurs, additional measures must be used for stabilization. Anticipated
velocities, and to lesser extent aesthetics, will dictate what stabilization measures will be
used. For example, unvegetated bare channels (Figure 4.6) can generally only sustain
velocities up to 1.5 to 2 feet per second without eroding. Established grassed lined channels
can accommodate velocities up to approximately 4 to 5 feet per second (Figure 4.7). Until
grass is established, runoff may have to be diverted away from the exposed area to protect the
seedlings and the channel itself from erosion. Under extreme conditions, channel velocities
can reach 15 feet per second, and extreme measures will be needed for stabilization.

Figure 4.6: Unvegetated bare channel

Figure 4.7: Grass lined channel

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Another option is to line the channels with erosion control blankets or turf reinforcement
mats. Blankets and mats are manufactured by several companies, each of which has specific
applications. Primary differences between blankets and mats are in the materials that are used
and how they are constructed. Some are designed for low velocity situations while others are
capable of accommodating higher velocities.

4.2.4.2 Practices to Control Wind Erosion

Sandy and organic soils tend to be the most susceptible to wind erosion. Soil may start
moving, or eroding, when wind speed exceeds 13 miles per hour measured at one foot off the
ground. Similar to rainfall-induced erosion, the best way to protect against wind erosion is to
keep the area covered with vegetation or with securely anchored mulch. Also, in areas
subjected to strong winds, such as along the Great Lake shorelines, soil should never be
placed in piles and left unprotected.
Windbreaks
Leave trees or other tall vegetation along the perimeter and intermittently across the site to
serve as wind barriers (Figure 4.8). When trees or vegetation must be removed, snow fence
can be used to form mini wind barriers. The snow fence must be placed perpendicular to the
prevailing wind direction at evenly spaced intervals across the site. Most barriers will protect
the soil downwind for a distance of about 10 times the height of the barrier. Therefore, place
rows of snow fence about every 40 to 50 feet (Figure 4.9). Although the primary purpose of
fencing or other barriers is to reduce the erosive velocity of wind, they also create barriers to
stop wind-born soil. Thus they help keep wind-generated sediment on the site.

Figure 4.8: Tall vegetation along sites perimeter

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Figure 4.9: Snow fence

Watering
Another temporary measure for controlling wind erosion is to keep the bare soil moist by
watering. A readily accessible water source is required. Water should be applied to the site
whenever moderate to high winds are anticipated. Haul roads may have to be watered
continuously
Chemical Binders
In addition to watering, chemical binders can be sprayed on the soil surface. The chemical
penetrates into the soil and bonds the individual soil particles, making them resistant to the
forces of wind.

4.3 Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the process whereby the detached particles generated by erosion are
deposited elsewhere on the land or in our lakes, streams, and wetlands. Together, the two
processes (erosion and sedimentation) result in soil being detached, carried away, and
eventually deposited elsewhere.

4.3.1 The Sedimentation Process

As previously explained, sedimentation is the process whereby eroded soil particles settle out
or are deposited. Deposition of sediment occurs when soil-laden water slows enough to allow
the different sized particles to settle out. Sediment deposition may result in one or more of the
following:
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Increased flooding due to reduced channel or storm drain capacity
Reduction of fish spawning areas
Less desirable fish communities
Reduction of aquatic insect communities
Impaired or destroyed terrestrial habitats
Reduced recreational opportunities
Increased costs to keep harbors and marinas navigable
4.3.2 Factors affecting sedimentation process
There are important physical factors that influence the sedimentation process. The
interactions of these factors will determine how sediment is transported and deposited.
The velocity and turbulence: The velocity and turbulence of the runoff water are key factors
in determining the fate of sediment. The greater the velocity and turbulence of flow, the
greater will be the amount of sediment transported in suspension in the water or carried along
the stream bottom as bedload. The lesser the velocity and turbulence of flow, the greater the
amount of sediment deposited.
The size, shape, and density of the transported particles: These factors influence the rate at
which they settle out. Smaller, lighter particles, such as clay-sized particles, are more easily
transported. They stay suspended and are slow to settle out. Larger, heavier particles, such as
sand, are harder to transport and thus are more quickly deposited.

4.3.3 Principles and Strategies

The goal of erosion and sediment control is to protect land and water resources by
minimizing erosion and off-site sedimentation, using the best practical combination of
procedures, practices, and people.
Protect land and water resource:. Responsible people seek to be stewards of all our natural
resources, including land and water. A balance must be met between resource protection and
the other activities of the construction project.
Minimizing erosion and off-site sedimentation: During construction activities, everything
possible should be done to prevent the erosion of soil from the site and its deposition off-site
and into surface waters and wetlands.
Using the best practical combination of procedures, practices, and people: To control
erosion and sediment we need workable laws, regulations, and procedures; up-to-date
practices and techniques; and responsible people working together.
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The effective control of erosion and sedimentation requires the application of the following
five principles of erosion and sediment control:

Plan the development to fit the particular topography, soils, waterways, and natural
vegetation at a site. Think stewardship or a partnership with nature. When structures
and grading are designed to fit the site less soil is exposed to erosive forces. The result
can be both reduced environmental damage and savings in project costs.

Expose the smallest practical area of land for the shortest possible time, by scheduling
and staging project activities. This means that the soil surfaces exposed during the
first phase of the project are stabilized before beginning construction on the next
phase. Daily seeding and mulching with permanent or temporary seeding mixtures is
recommended.

Apply soil erosion prevention practices as a first line of defense against onsite
damage. Use practices that minimize erosion on a site to prevent sediment from being
produced and the need for costly controls to trap and control sediment.

Examples of erosion control practices include:

Special grading methods
Diversions
Runoff control structures
Temporary and permanent vegetation
Mulching

Apply sediment control practices as a perimeter protection to prevent sediment from

leaving the site. Use practices that control sediment once it is produced, and prevent it
from getting off-site. Examples of sediment control are: Silt fences; Interceptor dikes
and ditches; Sediment traps; Vegetative filters; and Sedimentation basins.

Implement a thorough inspection, maintenance, and follow-up program. Erosion and

sedimentation cannot be effectively controlled without a thorough, periodic check of
the site and continued maintenance of the control measures. An example of applying
this principle would be a routine end-of-day check to be sure all control practices are
working properly.

4.3.4 Controlling Sediment

Vegetative and structural practices are used to control sediment. It is important to remember
that sediment control should not be used as a substitution for erosion control. Both should be
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part of a coordinated strategy. Erosion control is the first line of defense. It reduces the
amount of sediment that will be generated. Sediment control is the second line of defense. It
prevents much of the sediment created by uncontrolled soil erosion from leaving the
construction site or entering surface waters within the site.

4.3.4.1 Vegetative Sediment Control

Vegetative sediment control involves using existing or newly planted vegetation to trap or
filter sediment from runoff (Figure 4.10).

Figure 4.10: Controlling sediment using vegetation

The most common method is to use vegetative filter strips. Vegetative filters are one of the
more effective and economical methods for removing sediment. Natural vegetation can be
preserved for the filter strip or it can be established before grading the site (Figure 4.11).

Figure 4.11: Natural vegetation

The effectiveness of filter strips depends on flow patterns, strip width, vegetation type, and
density. To be the most effective, water should pass through the strip of vegetation as sheet
flow and not as concentrated flow (Figure 4.12).

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Figure 4.12: Concentrated and Sheet flow

The required length of the strip will vary depending on the slope length and steepness of the
disturbed area. However, a 20-25 foot strip of dense grass should be considered the
minimum. Except for essential roadway crossings, no vehicles or construction should be
allowed within the filter strip. Dense grass provides the best filtration.
Brushy and wooded areas are less desirable filters. However, they can provide some degree
of filtering action as well as aiding in the absorption of runoff. Care must be exercised when
directing flow to wooded areas because the deposition of a few inches of sediment around a
tree can kill it (Figure 4.13). Use woodland areas only for filtering sheet flow with minor
sediment concentrations.

Figure 4.13: Deposition of sediment around trees

4.3.4.2 Structural Sediment Control
Structural practices must be used where vegetative practices are not practical or sufficient to
control sediment. Structural practices to control sediment include silt fences, straw bales,
diversions, interceptor dikes, sediment traps and basins, rock construction exits, and storm
drain inlet filters.

Perimeter Barriers: Silt fences and straw bales are commonly used along the perimeter of
small graded sites. Silt fences are far superior to straw bales because they are less expensive,
easier to install, longer lasting, more effective, and can be re-used. Silt fencing must be

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installed correctly and trenched (Figure 4.14) or it will be ineffective in trapping sediment
(Figure 4.15). Silt fences must be trenched in a minimum of six inches.

Figure 4.14: Effective silt fence

Figure 4.15: Ineffective silt fence

Silt fences must also be installed on the same elevation contour across the slope. If the
elevation contour is not followed, the fence will act as a diversion and the concentrated water
will flow around the end or over the top of the fence. The effectiveness of silt fencing can be
increased by placing it beyond the toe of the slope (Figure 4.16). This will enhance sediment
deposition by allowing more area for the water to pond. A very limited amount of water can
pass through a silt fence.

Figure 4.16: Silt fence place beyond the toe of slope

For long slopes or large areas, silt fence should be installed parallel to each other in a series at
approximately 200-foot increments along equal contour lines and drain no more than one-half
acre per 100 feet of silt fence. When it is necessary to dredge in lakes, marinas, and other
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standing water bodies, silt fences can be used to confine the sediment. In deeper areas,
floating siltation curtains can be used. Fences and curtains should never be placed across
flowing water.
If straw bales are used in lieu of silt fences, they must be trenched into the ground a minimum
of four inches and staked (Figure 4.17). Care must be taken to butt the bales tightly together
to prevent water and sediment from passing between them.

Figure 4.17: Straw bales

Replacement of the bales will be necessary on extended projects.
Major disadvantages in using straw bales are:
It is very time consuming to trench the bales
They deteriorate rapidly, often in 60 to 90 days
The straw swells when becoming wet so very little if any water will pass through, often
resulting in overtopping or failure of the bale barrier
Because of the problems associated with straw bales, it is not recommended that they be used
for perimeter sediment control devices. Straw bales can, however, be used for temporary
diversion structures.

Diversions: Diversions are also commonly used to control sediment, especially on large
projects by diverting sediment-laden water to sedimentation basins (Figure 4.18). Interceptor
dikes are specialized diversions. They are generally used on road projects or other corridor
type construction projects. Interceptor dikes are constructed of compacted soil or pea stone
and located intermittently across the slope (Figure 4.19).

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Figure 4.18: Diversion to sedimentation basin

Figure 4.19: Interceptor dyke

The dikes control sediment in one of two ways. The first is to intercept and divert runoff to
sedimentation basins or vegetative filter areas. The second is to pond runoff behind the dikes,
allowing the sediment to settle out. Constructing dikes out of pea stone aids in the settling
process. The pea stone allows runoff to pass through, filtering out the sediment. Another
advantage of pea stone dikes is that construction vehicles can drive over them with minimal
damage.
Rock Construction Exits: Sediment is often lost from sites because construction vehicles are
not limited to designated access roads. Instead, the vehicles enter and exit at will, resulting in
the tracking of sediment onto the street (Figure 4.20). The tracked sediment can create a
serious traffic hazard when wet. Also, the sediment often enters surface drains or storm drain
inlets that ultimately discharge to lakes and streams. Tracking can be minimized by
restricting vehicular traffic to designated areas. At all designated exit areas, nonwoven
geotextile fabric should be placed on the soil surface and covered with a bed of crushed rock
or stone at least 50 feet in length (Figure 4.21).
Periodic Street sweeping in the vicinity of the exit roads may be necessary even with the use
of rock construction exits. Limiting access is also essential when attempting to stabilize the
area.

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Figure 4.20: Tracking of sediment

Figure 4.21: Rock Construction Exit

Sedimentation Basins: Sedimentation basins are commonly used on construction sites to
trap sediment carried by runoff. Sedimentation basins can have a variety of designs and
shapes (Figure 4.22).

Figure 4.22: Sedimentation basin

They are generally created by excavating a depression in the ground or by constructing a
barrier to impede water flow, or a combination of both. For effective sediment control, basins
should be at least four times as long as wide with the inlet and outlet at opposite ends. If this
is not possible due to site constraints, baffles should be placed within the basin to increase the
water travel distance.
The amount of sediment removed from the runoff is dependent upon the water velocity, the
time that the water remains in the basin, and the size and density of the sediment particles.

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The slower the water flows through the basin and the longer it remains in the basin, the
greater quantity of sediment that will be deposited .
The heavier the soil particle, the quicker it will settle out. Sand tends to settle out rapidly in
basins, whereas clay and silt sized particles may never settle out. Careful engineering is
required when constructing basins to accommodate large flows. The engineer must determine
the appropriate volume of the basin, as well as how to discharge the water from the basin.
Basin volume depends on such factors as anticipated storm events, the size of the drainage
area, and the type of soils in the drainage area.
Water can be discharged from a sedimentation basin in a number of ways. The most common
way is through a vertical riser pipe connected to a horizontal discharge tube. Collected runoff
will leave the basin only when water levels rise above the top of the riser pipe. The surface
water in the basin generally contains less sediment than the water in the bottom of the basin.
Therefore, it is preferable to drain the basin from the surface through a riser pipe rather than
through a discharge pipe located at the bottom of basin
After a storm has passed, it is often advantageous to lower the water in the basin below the
top of the riser pipe to make the storage volume available to accommodate the next storm.
This can be easily accomplished by using a perforated riser pipe instead of a pipe with solid
walls (Figure 4.23).

Figure 4.23: Riser pipe

The holes will allow the water to slowly exit the basin, lowering the depth of the water to that
of the bottom holes. To minimize the loss of sediment passing through the holes, the riser
pipe should be wrapped with wire mesh and surrounded with pea stone.
In addition to the principal spillway, emergency spillways are often required to protect the
basin when runoff from storm events exceed the design capacity of the principal spillway.
The amount of freeboard between the crest of the emergency spillway and the top of the dam
should be indicated by the engineer.

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No matter which type of outlet structure is used, care must be given to insure that the
receiving area can accommodate the discharge without scouring. Generally, energy
dissipaters will have to be constructed at the basin outlet.
Only suitable soils must be used to construct the dam that forms a sediment basin. A high
degree of compaction must be achieved. Proper positioning of the riser pipe is essential for
proper performance. Always consult applicable standards and specifications and state and
local regulations governing basin design and construction before starting to build one.
Periodic cleaning is essential if the basin is to do its job. Sediment is generally removed with
an excavator or front-end loader so the basin must be accessible. All basins should be cleaned
when 40 to 50 percent filled. Care must be taken to isolate the excavated portion of the basin
from the channel to reduce pollution downstream. This is usually done by diverting the
incoming water or removing the sediment when the basin is dry.
Storm drain inlet protection: All storm drain inlets must be protected during construction.
If left unprotected, they will become clogged or allow sediment to be transported to lakes and
streams. Storm drain inlets can be protected in several ways. If it is not critical to drain water
from the site, the inlet can be sealed with an impervious material until the site is stabilized.
Generally though, water must be removed from the site so the drain must remain functional.
Simple structural ways to protect inlets include:

Wrapping the grate of the storm drain inlet with geotextile materials. The geotextile
fabric should be placed on top, not under the grate.

Installing silt fence around the perimeter of the drain inlet. Water flows though the
structure can be increased, if necessary, by separating the corner or corners of the
fencing and placing pea stone in the gap.

Placing a gravel filter made of coarse gravel or pea stone in front of or around the
drain inlet. The gravel provides a certain amount of filtering action, and is highly
resistant to erosion. Standard concrete building blocks or wire mesh are placed on the
inside of the gravel filter to keep stones from being washed into the storm drain inlet.
The configuration of the filter will depend upon the type of inlet being protected.
Prompt maintenance is essential.

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