Environmental Psychology 4th Edition by Bell, Paul, Greene, Fisher, Baum

Ekistics
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The term Ekistics (coined by Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis in 1942) applies to the science of human settlements. [1]
[2]
It includes regional, city, community planning and dwelling design. It involves the study of all kinds of human
settlements, with a view to geography and ecology - the physical environment- , and human psychology and
anthropology, and cultural, political, and occasionally aesthetics.
As a scientific mode of study is currently found to rely on statistics and description, organized in five ekistic elements:
nature, anthropos, society, shells, and networks. It is generally a more academic field than " urban planning", and has
considerable overlap with some of the less restrained fields of architectural theory.
In application, conclusions are drawn aimed at achieving harmony between the inhabitants of a settlement and their
physical and socio-cultural environments.[3]

[edit] The scope of ekistics

The notion of ekistics implies that understanding the interaction between and within human groups -infrastructure, agriculture, shelter, function (job) -- in conjunction with their environment directly affects their
well-being (individual and collective). The subject begins to elucidate the ways in which collective settlements
form and how they inter-relate. By doing so, humans begin to understand how they 'fit' into a species, i.e. homo
sapiens, and how homo sapiens 'should' be living in order to manifest our potential -- at least as far as this
species is concerned (as the text stands now). Ekistics in some cases argues that in order for human settlements
to expand efficiently and economically we must reorganize the way in which the villages, towns, cities,
metropoli are formed.
As Doxiadis put it Ekistics is a science, even if in our times it is usually considered a technology and an art, without the
foundations of a science. This is a mistake for which we pay very heavily. Having recorded very successfully the
destructions of the ekistic wealth in Greece during WWII, Doxiadis became convinced that human settlements are
susceptible of systematic investigation. Doxiadis being aware of the unifying power of systems thinking and particularly
of the biological and evolutionary reference models as used by many famous biologists-philosophers of his generation,
especially Sir Julian Huxley (1887-1975), Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-75), Dennis Gabor (1900-79), Ren
Dubos (1901-82), George G. Simpson (1902-84), and Conrad Waddington (1905-75), used the biological model to
describe the "Ekistic behavior" of Anthropos (the five principles) and the evolutionary model to explain the
morphogenesis of human settlements (the eleven forces, the hierarchical structure of human settlements, dynapolis,
ecumenopolis). Finally, he formulated a general theory which considers human settlements as living organisms capable
of evolution, an evolution that might be guided by Man using "Ekistic knowledge".

[edit] Etymology
Ekistics is derived from the Greek adjective more particularly from the neuter plural (as physics is
derived from , Aristotle). The ancient Greek adjective meant: "concerning the foundation of a house, a
habitation, a city or colony; contributing to the settling." It was derived from , an ancient Greek noun meaning
"the person who installs settlers in place". This may be regarded as deriving indirectly from another ancient Greek noun,
, meaning "building", "housing", "habitation", and especially "establishment of a colony, a settlement , or a town"
(already in Plato), or "filling with new settlers", settling", "being settled". All these words grew from the verb , to
settle and were ultimately derived from the noun , "house", "home" or "habitat.
The shorter Oxford English Dictionary contains a reference to an oecist, oekist or oikist, defining him as: "the founder
of an ancient Greek ... colony". The English equivalent of oikistikh is ekistics (a noun). In addition, the adjectives ekistic
and ekistical, the adverb ekistically, and the noun ekistician are now also in current use. The French equivalent is
kistique, the German oekistik, the Italian echistica (all feminine).

[edit] Ekistic Units

See also: Human settlement hierarchy
Doxiadis believed that the conclusion from biological and social experience was clear: to avoid chaos we must organize
our system of life from Anthropos (individual) to Ecumenopolis (global city) in hierarchical levels, represented by human
settlements. So he articulated a general hierarchical scale with fifteen levels of Ekistic Units [4][5]:
Names of Units and Population Scale (final version, from C.A.Doxiadis' last book, ACTION for Human
Settlements, p.186, Athens Center of Ekistics, 1976): Note: The population figures below are for Doxiadis' ideal future
ekistic units for the year 2100 at which time he estimated (in 1968) that Earth would achieve zero population growth at
a population of 50,000,000,000 with human civilization being powered by fusion energy. [6][7]

Anthropos 1
room 2
house 5
housegroup (hamlet) 40
small neighborhood (village) 250
neighborhood 1,500
small polis (town) 10,000
polis (city) 75,000
small metropolis 500,000
metropolis 4 million
small megalopolis 25 million
megalopolis 150 million
small eperopolis 750 million
eperopolis 7,500 million
Ecumenopolis 50,000 million

[edit] Details of the study of human settlement

This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since March 2008.
Its factual accuracy is disputed. Tagged since March 2008.
One of the primary tenets of Ekistics is the development of human settlements based on hexagonal
infrastructures. Rectilinear urban planning is shown to fail miserably in the ability to efficiently handle the
various zones (residential, commercial, and industrial) in ways that support people that are collectively and
demonstrably well and fit (integrated and balanced spirit, mind, and body). That the horrendus traffic in such
places as Washington, DC and Los Angeles exist as a result of this type of 'methodology', or more aptly phrased
a lack of foresight and control in urban design, is testament to the inability of rectilinear planning to adequately
provide the means to effectively handle the growth of metropolitan settlements. Noded and hierarchical
hexagons (think of a structured bi-directional tree, or map, in computer science, a more geometric neural
network, or the refinement (not the Baroque adornment) of the Academie des beaux-arts d'architecture evolved
into a hexagonal infrastructure), or weighted hexagons and connected based on their proximity (think of a
circulatory system), relative importance to the central function of the settlement, eg. a commercial center or an
industrial sector, or 'neural center' (if you will), and flow of human bodies or material resources, not only
provides for free-flowing circulation, but enables the expansion and promotion of hexagonal sectors to higher
weights of arrangement as the settlements increases in population and/or importance. It is important to
remember though that the ekistical planning and development of human settlements based on such a scientific
approach need not be considered a conversion into a collective machine. Rather, Ekistics provides the means by
which individual settlements based on their ethnic background and geographic location to incorporate their
heritage while arranging it in a manner that supports their collective intent. Literally, much of the wasted time
and resources can be significantly reduced so that the duty of the individual can be smoothly performed in order
to allow ample time for the creative quality-of-life (story-telling, the arts - martial, applied, and fine -,

cultivation of one's relationship with nature, relaxation time, and conversation, etc.), to emerge by means of the
interpersonal relationships within and between settlement(s). Essentially, the structure of Ekistics enables
humans to synergize their cultural heritage with technological evolution.
A settlement hierarchy is a way of arranging settlements into a hierarchy based upon their population or some other
criteria. The term is used by landscape historians and in the National Curriculum[1] for England. The term is also used
in the planning system for the UK and for some other countries such as Ireland, India and Swaziland. The term was
used without comment by the geographer Brian Roberts in 1972[2].
The greater the population in a settlement, the larger geographic area, the higher the status and the greater the availability
of services. Position in a settlement hierarchy can also depend on the sphere of influence. This is how far people will
travel to use the services in the settlement, if people travel further the town becomes more important and ranks higher in
settlement hierarchy.

] Example of a settlement hierarchy

In this example, an isolated building is at the lowest point, and the ecumenopolis is at the top with the greatest number of
people: [3] Note: This settlement hierarchy is adapted from the work of Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis for the actual
current world situation as of 2010 as opposed to Doxiadis' idealized settlement hierarchy for the year 2100 that he
outlined in his 1968 book Ekistics.
Ecumenopolis - the entire area of Earth that is taken up by human settlements. As of the year 2009, the United
Nations estimated that for the first time more than 50% of the world's populations lived in cities, so the total
population of this area would be about about 3,400,000,000 people as of 2010.
Megalopolis - a group of conurbations, consisting of more than ten million people each.
Conurbation - a group of large cities and their suburbs, consisting of three to ten million people.
Metropolis a large city and its suburbs consisting of multiple cities and towns. The population is usually one to
three million.
Large city a city with a large population and many services. The population is >1 million people but over
300,000 people.
City a city would have abundant services, but not as many as a large city. The population of a city is over
100,000 people up to 300,000.
Large town a large town has a population of 20,000 to 100,000.
Town a town has a population of 1,000 to 20,000
Village a village generally does not have many services, possibly only a small corner shop or post office. A
village has a population of 100 to 1,000.
Hamlet a hamlet has a tiny population (<100) and very few (if any) services, and few buildings.
Isolated dwelling an isolated dwelling would only have 1 or 2 buildings or families in it. It would have
negligible services, if any.

[edit] Problems with concept of a settlement hierarchy

Using size of a settlement can be misleading in some cases as not all population boundaries fit. Some cities (e.g.,
Norwich, England) have a smaller population than some towns (e.g., Luton, England). In addition, there is no agreement
as to the number of levels in the hierarchy or what they should be called. Many terms used to describe settlements (e.g.,
village) have no legal definition, or may have contradictory legal definitions in different jurisdictions.

[edit] Hierarchy and Status

Position in an accepted settlement hierarchy implies status [4] which in turn reinforces the position of the settlement in the
hierarchy. Status can derive from being the residence of a King or high ranking member of the nobility or from being the
location of a major religious establishment. A formal hierarchy of settlements appears to have been common in 10th
century England[5]. The centre of an estate (often called a "caput") could be supported by subsidiary settlements
sometimes given specialised roles. For example, a Saxon royal estate might be supported by settlements specialising in
production of cheese or barley or maintaining flocks of sheep [6].

[edit] Settlement hierarchy in the UK planning system

The position of a settlement in the hierarchy is intended to inform decisions about new developments such as housing.
Rather than define the hierarchy by population, an alternative way to construct the hierarchy is based on the services that
are available within each settlement. Settlements are described as "level 1", "level 2", etc. rather than using terms such as
village or town[7]. The Government planning statement (PPS3) does not specifically mention "settlement hierarchies", but

talks about the availability of services to small rural settlements. The term is used a number of times in the guidance for
preparing evidence for planning decisions.
A Report on Psychology & Architecture By W. Bro. Victor G. Popow, Dec 2000. V1 Given my long affiliation as a modern
speculative Freemason, my interest in architecture and my previous study of psychology I composed a paper on the
psychology of architecture. I wanted to restrict my study to artificial structures and their possible impact on human behaviour.
To begin with I asked myself do humans have an innate ability to perceive patterns in artificial forms? Is the human body
physically wired to recognize the subtleties of patterns or proportions in art or architecture? What might these patterns be? If
people do indeed react to the subtleties of structure would this explain why people react emotionally or spiritually given their
entrance into Medieval Chartres Cathedral, France? Why would people either like or dislike the ultramodern gleaming new
Guggenhiem Museum in Bilbao, Spain? I am inclined to believe that the human body is biologically predisposed to
recognizing design and structure either consciously or unconsciously and that a variety of criteria may be at work influencing
us when we find ourselves living, working or playing within the urban environment.
Upon investigation I soon found that the study of psychology and architecture is a broad and diverse one including many
different fields- mathematics, aesthetics, philosophy, different branches of psychology- environmental, gestalt or social, physics,
and naturally, architecture to name just a few.
I began to explore the relatively new field of environmental psychology that at first I considered superficial. But upon closer
examination the physical and behavioural effects between people and their physical environments became quite complex when
elements of light and colour (shade or tint, warm or cool), texture (materials and surfaces), acoustical characteristics (noise) are
taken into account. Ultimately, Light is the most effective element in creating a sense of mystery and awe, and the manipulation
i
of light is a principal agent in the creation of shrines and religious buildings. Much has been written about the effects of colour
on people as philosopher and Freemason, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe discussed optics and the physiological effects of
colours in 1810. A recent study illustrates gender sensitivities to colour as females seem more colour conscious and there
ii
colour tastes more flexible and diverse. When a person is exposed to the colour red dramatic physiologic effects may be
observed including the release of adrenalin, elevated heart rate, and an increase in gastric activity- hence the practical use of
red or red-checked table clothes in restaurants. The application of orange and reds (warm colours) to interiors or the use of
interior accents, such as candles, with low-level light output, serve to enhance an intimate psychological effect when applied to
dining. Electroencephalogram and pulse rates of people recorded accelerated heart rates when in a grey room than in a
colourful room (Kuller 1976). Indeed I found that environmental psychologists do concede, our surroundings influence not only
iii
the way we think but our intellectual development. Environmental psychology would surely, but not completely, confirm why
people might behave in awe at the sight of the awesome vertical interior of a Medieval cathedral and perhaps the giant
multicoloured stained glass windows, the varied materials and textures on the floors, walls and ceilings and finer patterned stone
detailing. Given these factors one would have to take into account the physical surroundings that assail the senses in any
environment. Is the environment dimly or brightly lit? Is there an optimum or minimum requirement to lighting before one is
either frustrated- for example due to low light conditions? Does the environment cause a person physical stress- due air
temperature (heat or cold) or perhaps noise levels? How about the buildings scale? Too large a structure may make a person
feel overwhelmed and vulnerable while too limiting a physical environment could be constrictive to movement to not only one
person but an entire group.
Environmental psychology may also be broken into several elements: attention or understanding how people notice their
environment; Perception and cognitive mapping or how people cognitively map what they experience based on what they know
or think they know about their environment; Preferred environmental psychology studies peoples motivations illustrating that
people naturally seek out places where they will feel competent, confident, where they will feel comfort or enjoyment. Further,
research demonstrates that people have preference for coherence (a sense that things in an environment connect together) and
legibility (that people can feel they may explore an environment without being lost). Thus the creation and preservation of a
preferred environment is believed to increase the sense of well-being and behavioural effectiveness in people.
Gestalt psychology, from the German Gestalt meaning form or shape, seeks to explore how the mind forms or interprets
patterns. It is thought that the mind is wired to seek meaning and significance in all the sensory information inputted into it. This
may be the result of eons of development as humans instinct for survival was based upon changes in colour in the environment
(to seek shelter upon lower light levels indicating the coming of night) or auditory input (the snap of a twig indicating the threat of
a predator).

Proximity gestalt illustrates how people see a pattern in space despite distance. For example, the stars representing the big
dipper star constellation are in fact stars at different distances from the earth but they are perceived as being on a single plain.
Repetitive gestalt demonstrates equalities in object spacing where none may exist. The corner columns of the Parthenon
designed to be thicker and spaced closer to surrounding columns will be visually interpreted as being of equal size and spacing.
Indeed the entire structure itself was designed with subtle curves, the columns are slightly tapered, the rectangular base is
slightly curved purposefully engineered to withstand the lateral movement of the earth caused by earthquakes. Simplest and
latest figure gestalt suggests that the mind may fill in missing portions of the simplest or largest (which also suggests
prioritization) figures visually presented.
It is also noted that there is a kinesthetic body response to forms and lines. We may examine the horizontal prairie residence
th
falling water designed by the great American 20 century architect Frank Lloyd Wright that may be sensed symbolically as a
human body at rest horizontally suggestive of domestic tranquility. In contrast, we may sense the dynamic equilibrium of a
vertical structure implying aspiration, reaching and assertiveness as in a corporate headquarters building or a Gothic cathedral.
It is also known that the mind seeks to organize data when faced with random unknown visual information or even construct
data, as in the absence of sensory data when a person is placed in a sensory deprivation chamber. In circumstances where
cognitive information becomes repetitive the mind filters and automatically switches to anticipating patterns (be they open
spaces, windows, or decorative elements- designs, painted surfaces, textures or ornamentation). Mentally there are impulses
towards continuity and closure that again, suggests the minds preference for pattern, unity or coherence in a structure despite
circumstances when these characteristics are not inherent.
The recent study of complexity and patterns (fractals) via physics has relevance to architecture. A fascinating path by way of
Nikos A. Salingaros, Mathematics Professor at the University of Texas in an article entitled Architecture, Patterns and
Mathematics theorizes that: Man's visual system is especially receptive to patterns. In Salingaros treatise patterns are defined
as regularity in some dimension and that mathematics is a science of patterns. Thus I began to see how mathematics, patterns
and gestalt psychology began to intertwine and be applied to architecture. The paper referred to mankinds need to generate
patterns out of some basic inner need and applying basic psychology we might ask, are human beings insecure in a perceived
wildly chaotic universe? If the answer is yes, then does architecture and design fulfill a basic desire for permanence and
meaning? Might this explain the preference towards architectural details, to regular patterns and symmetrical design- in other
words, does architecture fulfill mans craving for meaning? And if symmetry and patterns are preferred or considered beautiful
does this conversely imply that random design, empty walls, little colour, no pattern be judged as non-preferable or even ugly?
Salingaros paper relates that historically architects were mathematicians and that the two disciplines were indistinguishable.
Historically, when the Emperor Justinian wanted an architect to design the church of Haggia Sophia (Divine Wisdom) in Istanbul,
Turkey, a structure that would surpass anything built before, he turned to two professors of mathematics, Isidoros and
Anthemios. The Medieval stonemasons had a strong understanding of Platonic philosophy, proportion and mathematics and to
them all their work was grounded in the ancient Pythagorean maxim all is number. Studying the Gothic structures geometry
and mathematics are completely woven into (the Golden Mean or Golden Proportion being a consistent calculation) the
structures physical features honouring the geometric nature of creation and the Creator. Ancient Classical cultures and Western
European Renaissance architect mathematicians designed their structures with patterns in mind and thus the structures
themselves reflected processes which are inherent in the human mind (again we must refer to Gestalt psychology).
iv
A recently developed model to gauge the intrinsic qualities of buildings based upon the science of thermodynamics is another
link that might be used to ask ourselves what is it that is appealing to the perception of structure? Architectural temperature (T)
defines the degree of detail, harmony (H) measures coherence and symmetry. The degree to which a structure has life (L) is a
product of temperature and harmony. Complexity (C) also is a measurement based on T and H. The model establishes a
connection between science rooted in measurement and subjective qualification. Using this model to gauge the qualities of, for
example, Chartres cathedral in France, or any other medieval or modern structure, one would find high temperature (that is
colour hue variations according to light levels which are richly impressed upon an individual in the structure) and high harmony
(little randomness) would reflect a preferred high life in a structure. The model is indicative that the connection between
biological life and architecture arises from the thermodynamics of living forms. So, life would seem to be the result of enormous
and purposeful complication. Biological organisms are marveously connected on many different levels, and they are
characterized by very high design temperature and harmony. The connective thought processes underlying cognition
themselves mimic the thermodynamic and connective structures that are characteristic of living forms. This helps to explain our
instinct to relate to forms having a high degree of architectural life and thus confirmation of our proclivity for pattern.

The architectural temperature mimics the activity of life processes, which is highly organized and structured. It should not be
surprising then that living beings instinctively copy the intrinsic qualities of living systems in their own creations. How can
humans put an image of life into a building? Apart from figurative icons and statues, we work with emotions: structures are
carefully tailored to generate positive psychological and physiological responses. Far from merely being a plausible hypothesis,
v
this model suggests, humans have a basic need to raise the architectural life of their environment. The thermodynamic model
not only provides us with a quantitative methodology for gauging the quality of structure but also more importantly confirms a
psychological preference between structures and people.
A study of architecture and its effects on people yields a tremendous amount of learning from very diverse subjects. It certainly
became apparent that the so-called simple act of experiencing structure and environments involves so many different aspects.
The cognitive function alone seems fantastic itself when one considers the eyes move together at nine hundred degrees per
second bringing our gaze on a target within 25 milliseconds.vi

The eyes process an unbelievable volume of light frequency

information along with the brain that processes what is seen or what is believed to be there and perhaps fill in the gaps for what
may be missing. Gestalt psychology seems to be central to how we experience architecture in suggesting our brains are wired
to infer the rhythm and patterns of architecture that in turn yield a behavioural effect. Such an understanding of behaviour and
environment might be helpful in the design of isolated or otherworldly extraterrestrial environments (the International Space
Station Freedom for example). It seems evident that people have a preference to generating patterns out of an innate inner
need to constancy and predictability opposite the unpredictability and chaos extant in the natural universe. As to a connection
between architecture and people We apparently enjoy the input from patterns, and this enjoyment often increases with the
complexity of a pattern; however, this is true only for complex patterns that have some sort of ordering. The precise nature of
vii
this effect remains imprecise and largely intuitive.
Architecture a symbolic and intentional endeavour seems to reflect the psychology of its designers regardless of time, culture
and perhaps even species. Space, form, and light are elements that are often incorporated either purposefully of unconsciously
for aesthetic or practical reasons but more pointedly give creatures meaning, purpose and stability amidst an ever changing
physical universe of seeming chaos.

Abstract.
Environmental Psychology deals with behavior in relation to the environment. Concepts regarding the environment and
aesthetic preferences are studied and represented in behavioral maps. Environment influences behavior at different
levels. Immediate behavior is a function of the setting in which it occurs. The personality make-up of people of a country is
shaped by the nature and type of environment in which they live. In unnatural or caged conditions animals show `behavior
starvation' and their behavior breaks down. Population stress and the artificial character of urban conditions are supposed
to be the reasons for the increased rates of crime and incidence of mental disorders of people living in urban areas.
Applied Environmental Psychology attempts to provide norms for better management of the environment for better life and
personality development. It studies effective ways of promoting conservation of the natural environment and better ways
of designing buildings, towns and cities, taking into consideration the behavioral needs and responses of people.

1. Introduction
Environmental Psychology deals with behavior in relation to the physical environment. The physical environment includes
material objects, plants, animals and human beings. Environmental Psychology does not emphasize the interactional
processes among people, which form the subject matter of other branches of Psychology. Environmental Psychology
follows the systems approach which has become the modern approach in several branches of science. It is holistic and
naturalistic and studies the adaptation of organisms to their settings. Organisms are studied as part of the ecosystem,
stressing the balance and interdependence of organisms and the `environment. This field of science took shape during
the 1960s and `Environmental Psychology and Population' has been included as a division of the American Psychological
Association.

The importance of the field has increased in recent years owing to the increased concern with the environment resulting
from the pollution problems, problems posed by population explosion, depletion of natural resources and the felt need to
conserve wilderness.

2. Concepts of Environmental Psychology

Behavioral Geography studies the cognitive maps of the individual regarding his environment. It traces environmental
values, meanings and preferences. Behavioral maps are prepared relating activities to surroundings. Lines to represent
direction of movement, colors to represent time spent and so on are techniques used in the preparation of such maps.
Behavior maps can be prepared for exploratory behavior, neighborhood feelings, etc. Environmental aesthetics studies
preferences in terms of aesthetic judgements. Recently attempts have been made to relate environmental preferences to
personality characteristics, race and national character (Hall 1976; Berry 1976).

3. Influence of Environment on Behavior

It has been hypothesized that environment influences behavior at several levels. Immediate behavior is a function of the
settings in which it occurs. For example, the arrangement of furniture in a room influences the way in which people in the
room interact. The characteristic personality make-up of persons in a country is shaped by the nature and type of
environment to which they are subjected for long periods of time. Racial differences in personality can to a large extent be
traced to the influence of different environments to which people of different races have been subjected for generations
(Moos 1976).
For example, it is supposed that climate influences temperament. The cold climate presumably makes people `Rajasik'.
The possibility of freezing induces insecurity and in a cold place one has to keep working to warm up the body. People in
a cold region have to plan ahead. hoard food and firewood and make warm clothes and footwear for winter. The hostile
and scarce environment makes people aggressive and aggressiveness necessitates artificial moral control. People in
such environments develop linear intelligence and they become practical, their approach to the environment being
characterized by one of aggression, competition, exploitation and manipulation. It is said that science and technology are
the result of this kind of approach to the environment.
In contrast, people in a very warm climate are likely to be `Thamasik'. This kind of temperament is characterized by
laziness and inertia. In a very hot place, it is unpleasant to keep working, because of perspiration and fatigue. In the
tropics, the seasons do not change much and resource extraction is easy throughout the year. This kind of climate makes
for an attitude of surrender and the approach to the environment is marked by fear and superstition.
The moderate climate is most conducive for the `Sathwik' temperament. This is characterized by an awareness of oneself
and the relationship of the environment to one's adjustment. Consequently the Sathwik approach involves living in
harmony with the environment. The insight into the role of the environment in our well being leads to a felt need to
conserve the natural environment. The Sathwik temperament is holistic, intuitive and well balanced.
Every animal is at home in its natural environment and in unnatural settings, its behavior becomes deranged. It has been
shown that animals have behavior needs related to their natural habitats. For example, a polar bear which catches fish
has the need to perform the movements involved in catching fish. In captivity, if the bear is deprived of the opportunity to
satisfy this need, it will exhibit symptoms of behavior starvation, even though it is given enough food. Many caged animals
show symptoms of abnormal behavior like compulsions. Increase in population density beyond the optimum point is also
part of alteration of the environment and this leads to population stress causing aggression and breakdown of behavior.
Many studies demonstrate the deleterious influence of urbanization on human behavior (Baum et al. 1978). Instinctual
behavior patterns of human beings also seem to break down under artificial and overpopulated urban conditions. It has
been shown that the incidence of mental illness increases with urbanization. The highest incidence of schizophrenia is at
the center of cities. Only about one fifth of the population of big cities seems to be relatively free from debilitating
symptoms of pathology. Crime rates in big cities are increasing at an alarmingly high rate and many of the major cities of
the world have come to be known as crime cities. The increasing violence of mothers towards children reflected in high

rates of baby battering and the rising rates of divorce and illegitimacy point to the breakdown of instinctive behavior
patterns in human beings.
Environmental Psychologists also study effects of different types of neighborhood like housing scheme area, flats, red
light area, slums, etc. on emerging behavior patterns. Effects of immediate social environment like size of group on
immediate behavior (Ittelson et al. 1974) are also studied. Effects of various characteristics of institutions on the behavior
of inmates is another topic of study. Research on the effects of monotonous environments and isolation also can be
included in this section. Ergonomics, the study of aspects of the working environment like heating, lighting, etc., in relation
to productivity also forms part of Environmental Psychology.

4. Applied Environmental Psychology

Applied Environmental psychology aims at better management of the environment for better life and psychological growth.
It studies effective ways of conserving the natural environment, better ways of designing towns and cities and means of
promoting environmental awareness among people.
Psychology has a great deal of application in town planning. Studies on how the community works, the psychological
needs of the people and their likes and dislikes should be considered while planning the growth of towns. Since the
environment shapes and limits behavior, proper planning to ensure maximum satisfaction, efficiency and growth is
essential.
The Psychology of Architecture studies how architectural styles reflect the needs and preferences of people and how
different designs mould and shape behavior. A proper investigation of cultural, social and personal needs of potential
inmates is required before an acceptable design can be made. An effective design should maximize freedom of behavior,
mobility and flexibility. Some of the other considerations are possible use and misuse of space, and contrasting needs of
privacy and socialization. Training people for effective space utilization and follow-up studies of the effectiveness of
various types of designs are necessary. Knowledge of modern points of view regarding how an office, school or hospital
should function is essential while preparing a design for the purpose. A detailed knowledge of the kinds of activities and
programmes and patterns of human interaction that are expected to take place in the type of building is necessary for
successful architectural design.
It has been shown that closeness to elements of nature like pools, plants and trees makes people more relaxed. Hence,
one of the main considerations of town planners and architects is how to incorporate elements of nature in their designs.

The field develops such a model of human nature while retaining a broad and inherently multidisciplinary focus. It
explores such dissimilar issues as common property resource management, wayfinding in complex settings, the effect of
environmental stress on human performance, the characteristics of restorative environments, human information
processing, and the promotion of durable conservation behavior. The field of environmental psychology recognizes the
need to be problem-oriented, using, as needed, the theories and methods of related disciplines (e.g., psychology,
sociology, anthropology, biology, ecology). The field founded the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA),
publishes in numerous journals including Environment and Behavior and the Journal of Environmental Psychology, and
was reviewed several times in the Annual Review of Psychology.
There are several recurrent elements in the research literature that help to define this relatively new field. Understanding
human behavior starts with understanding how people notice the environment. This includes at least two kinds of stimuli:
those that involuntarily, even distractingly, command human notice, as well as those places, things or ideas to which
humans must voluntarily, and with some effort (and resulting fatigue), direct their awareness. Restoring and enhancing
people's capacity to voluntarily direct their attention is a major factor in maintaining human effectiveness.
Perception and cognitive maps - How people image the natural and built environment has been an interest of this field
from its beginning. Information is stored in the brain as spatial networks called cognitive maps. These structures link one's
recall of experiences with perception of present events, ideas and emotions. It is through these neural networks that
humans know and think about the environment, plan and carry out their plans. Interestingly, what humans know about an
environment is both more than external reality in that they perceive with prior knowledge and expectations, and less than
external reality in that they record only a portion of the entire visual frame yet recall it as complete and continuous.

Preferred environments - People tend to seek out places where they feel competent and confident, places where they can
make sense of the environment while also being engaged with it. Research has expanded the notion of preference to
include coherence (a sense that things in the environment hang together) and legibility (the inference that one can explore
an environment without becoming lost) as contributors to environmental comprehension. Being involved and wanting to
explore an environment requires that it have complexity (containing enough variety to make it worth learning about) and
mystery (the prospect of gaining more information about an environment). Preserving, restoring and creating a preferred
environment is thought to increase sense of well being and behavioral effectiveness in humans.
Environmental stress and coping - Along with the common environmental stressors (e.g., noise, climatic extremes) some
define stress as the failure of preference, including in the definition such cognitive stressors as prolonged uncertainty, lack
of predictability and stimulus overload. Research has identified numerous behavioral and cognitive outcomes including
physical illness, diminished altruism, helplessness and attentional fatigue. Coping with stress involves a number of
options. Humans can change their physical or social settings to create more supportive environments (e.g., smaller scaled
settings, territories) where they can manage the flow of information or stress inducing stimuli. People can also endure the
stressful period, incurring mental costs that they deal with later, in restorative settings (e.g., natural areas, privacy,
solitude). They can also seek to interpret or make sense of a situation as a way to defuse its stressful effects, often
sharing these interpretations as a part of their culture.
Participation - The field is committed to enhancing citizen involvement in environmental design, management and
restoration efforts. It is concerned not only with promoting citizen comprehension of environmental issues but with insuring
their early and genuine participation in the design, modification and management of environments.
Conservation behavior - The field has also played a major role in bringing psychological knowledge to bear upon the issue
of developing an ecologically sustainable society. It explores environmental attitudes, perceptions and values as well as
devise intervention techniques for promoting environmentally appropriate behavior.
Scope
Although "environmental psychology" is arguably the best-known and more comprehensive description of the field, it is
also known as environmental social sciences, architectural psychology, socio-architecture, ecological psychology,
ecopsychology, behavioral geography, environment-behavior studies, person-environment studies, environmental
sociology, social ecology, and environmental design research; each advanced by different researchers, sometimes used
interchangeably, sometimes with recognized gaps and overlaps between the terms. This multidisciplinary field draws on
work in a number of disciplines including anthropology, geography, ekistics, sociology, psychology, history, political
science, engineering, planning, architecture, urban design and, of course, aesthetics.
The varied names for the field accurately reflect an ongoing debate about its proper scope, for example, whether or not it
includes study of human interaction with the natural environment. "Environmental design" is generally understood to
describe design activities focused on the natural environment and sustainability as well as concern with the planned
environment which humans build - the "artificial" or designed physical environment - and its ability to meet community
needs. Only a small portion of the built environment is attributable to architects, so a focus on "architectural psychology" is
seen as too narrow. Generally speaking, individuals associated with the field are interested in better understanding the
relationships between people and their environments so that this knowledge can be applied to problematic real-world
situations.
Proxemics
In the mid 1950s anthropologist E. T. Hall wrote "The Hidden Dimension" which developed and popularized the concepts
of personal space and his more general name for this field, proxemics. He defined proxemics as, ". . . the study of how
man unconsciously structures microspace - the distance between men in the conduct of daily transactions, the
organization of space in his houses and buildings, and ultimately the layout of his towns."
Hall defined and measured four interpersonal "zones":
. intimate (0 to 18 inches)
. personal (18 inches to 4 feet)
. social (4 feet to 12 feet)
. public (12 feet and beyond)
In "The Hidden Dimension" he famously observed that the precise distance we feel 'comfortable' with other people being
near us is culturally determined: Saudis, Norwegians, Milanese and Japanese will have differing notions of 'close'. In one
of his best known empirical studies, Hall carried out an analysis of employee reactions to Eero Saarinen's last work, the
John Deere World Headquarters Building.
Impact on the Built Environment
Ultimately, environmental psychology is oriented towards influencing the work of design professionals (architects,
engineers, interior designers, urban planners, etc.) and thereby improving the human environment.

On a civic scale, efforts towards improving pedestrian landscapes have paid off to some extent, involving figures like Jane
Jacobs and Copenhagen's Jan Gehl. One prime figure here is the late writer and researcher William H. Whyte and his
still-refreshing and perceptive "City", based on his accumulated observations of skilled Manhattan pedestrians, steps, and
patterns of use in urban plazas.
No equivalent organized knowledge of environmental psychology has developed out of architecture. Most prominent
American architects, led until recently by Philip Johnson who was very strong on this point, view their job as an art form.
They see little or no responsibility for the social or functional impact of their designs, which was highlighted with failure of
public high-rise housing like Pruitt Igoe.
Environmental psychology has conquered one whole architectural genre, although it's a bitter victory: retail stores, and
any other commercial venue where the power to manipulate the mood and behavior of customers, places like stadiums,
casinos, malls, and now airports. From Philip Kotler's landmark paper on Atmospherics and Alan Hirsch's "Effects of
Ambient Odors on Slot-Machine Usage in a Las Vegas Casino", through the creation and management of the Gruen
transfer, retail relies heavily on psychology, original research, focus groups, and direct observation. One of William
Whyte's students, Paco Underhill, makes a living as a "shopping anthropologist". Most of this most-advanced research
remains a trade secret and proprietary.
Density and Crowding
As environmental psychologists have theorized that density and crowding can have an adverse effect on mood and even
cause stress-related illness. Accordingly, environmental and architectural designs could be adapted to minimize the
effects of crowding in situations when crowding cannot be avoided. Factors that reduce feelings of crowding within
buildings include:
. Windows, particularly openable ones, and ones that provide a view as well as light
. High ceilings
. Doors to divide spaces (Baum and Davies) and provide access control
. Room shape: square rooms feel less crowded than rectangular ones (Dresor)
. Using partitions to create smaller, personalized spaces within an open plan office or larger work space.
. Providing increases in cognitive control over aspects of the internal environment, such as ventilation, light, privacy, etc.
. Conducting a cognitive appraisal of an environment and feelings of crowding in different settings. For example, one
might be comfortable with crowding at a concert but not in school corridors.
. Creating a defensible space (Calhoun)
Noise
Noise increases environmental stress. Although it has been found that control and predictability are the greatest factors in
stressful effects of noise; context, pitch, source and habituation are also important variables
Personal Space and Territory
Having an area of personal territory in a public space e.g. at the office is a key feature of many architectural designs.
Having such a 'defensible space' (term coined by Calhoun during his experiment on rats) can reduce the negative effects
of crowding in urban environments. Creation of personal space is achieved by placing barriers and personalising the
space, for example using pictures of one's family. This increases cognitive control as one sees oneself as having control
over the entrants to the personal space and therefore able to control the level of density and crowding in the space.