Cap 4 2015

4.
CONNECTING DEVICES
Chapter 4
CONNECTING DEVICES
4.1. GENERAL
Connecting devices for steel structures are:
Welds are largely used in fabrication of structural members in shops;
Bolts are largely used in assembling structural members on the field;
Rivets at present they are practically abandoned due to their complicate

technology and high cost.
4.2. WELDING
4.2.1. General
Welding is a technological process that realizes the junction of the members

of a structure into a monolithic elastic network.
To execute a weld, one needs:
a heat source;
some adequate additional material.
The weld seam results after local melting in the area of welding (Fig. 4.1). A
number of welding passes, called weld layers, are necessary.
heat source
additional material
parent metal
weld layer (seam)
solidified weld
molten pool
Fig. 4.1. Scheme of a welding process

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4. CONNECTING DEVICES
The integrity of the welded structure depends on its ability to deform
plastically during fabrication, erection and service. The ability of the welded structure
to deform plastically, avoiding brittle failure primary depends upon:
1. weldability of steel;
2. welding procedure selection;
3. avoidance of notches both in design and fabrication;
4. adequate quality control and inspection.
4.2.2. Weldability
Weldability is defined as the capacity of a metal to be welded under

fabrication conditions imposed into a specific suitably designed structure and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended service life.
Weldability is largely depending on the reaction of steel to the drastic heating
and cooling cycle of arc welding. Three of the most important steel properties that
influence weldability are:
the chemical composition;
the structural grain size;
the thickness of the material.
Weldability is expressed by an empirical formula which defines the carbon

equivalent value (CEV):
CEV = %C +
%Mn %Cr + %Mo + %V % Ni + %Cu

+
+
6
5
15
( 4.1 )
A good weldability is obtained when CEV is smaller than 0,42.
Chemical composition. The brittleness that steel may reach after rapid cooling from
high temperature is directly proportional to the carbon content. In order to avoid
brittle failure of the welded structure it is necessary:
to limit the content in carbon to 0,20 0,22%;
to limit the content in carbon of the additional material to 0,08,..., 0,12%.
Structural grain size. There is a linear relationship between the ferrite grain size and
the Charpy transition temperature between ductile and brittle behaviour; the greater
93
the grain size is the greater the transition temperature is. Weldability also varies with
grain size meaning it is favoured by a reduced grain size.
High heat input welds show a larger grain size than the same process at a
lower heat input, because they provide a slower cooling rate. That is why
recommendations usually limit the thickness of a weld layer at about 6mm. A
subsequent pass will refine the grains of a previous pass.
Thickness. Because of their greater mass, thick plates extract heat from the weld
area and cool the weld more rapidly than the same weld on thin plates. As a result,
weldability is affected. There are two possibilities to avoid a tendency to brittle
fracture:
to limit the thickness of plates;
to pre-heat the pieces and to hold them at a temperature of a few hundred

degrees before the welding operation.
Conclusions:
Weldability is increased by:
low carbon content;
fine grain size;
restricted low thickness;
and, conversely, is reduced by:
high carbon content;
coarse grain;
big thickness.
4.2.3. Structural welding process and materials
Fusion welding processes vary largely, according to the applied heat source
and to how the molten pool is protected against atmosphere. The most common
welding processes used in commercial structural steel fabrication are:
1. Manual shielded metal arc process (Fig.4.2), (Fig.4.3)
The heat source is the electric arc formed between the electrode and the
parent metal. The developed heat produces a quick melting of the external
coatings of electrodes containing aluminium, silicon and other deoxidizers, which
94
protect the area surrounding the arc and the weld pool. This process is widely
applicable to any kind of welds.
electrode
additional material
coating
protective gas
direction of travel
protecting slag
solidified weld
(weld deposit)
metal arc
parent metal
weld pool (molten pool)
Fig. 4.2. Scheme of the manual shielded metal arc process
Fig. 4.3. Schematic image of the manual shielded metal arc process (by courtesy of
www.twi-global.com)
2. Submerged arc process (Fig.4.4), (Fig.4.5), (Fig.4.6)

The heat source is the electric arc formed between the electrode and the
parent metal. The protection of the weld pool, better as in the shielded arc
process, is provided by a granulated deoxidizer flux automatically thrown in
advance and at the same speed of the welding process. This procedure is highly
productive for long weld seams.
recovered flux
95
bar electrode
(continuous wire)
metal arc
direction
of travel
molten pool
flux feed line
granular flux
parent metal
slag
solidified weld (weld deposit)
Fig. 4.4. Scheme of the submerged arc process
Fig. 4.5. Scheme of the submerged arc process (by courtesy of www.twi-global.com)
96
Fig. 4.6. Image of the submerged arc process (by courtesy of Arc Resources)
3. Gas shielded metal arc process (GMAW - Gas Metal Arc Welding) with
consumable electrode (MIG and MAG). The arc protection is provided by an
inert gas (MIG) (Fig. 4.7), (Fig. 4.8) or by a chemically active gas (MAG). This
procedure is used in welding mild steel and low alloy steel.
Fig. 4.7. Schematic image of MIG welding (by courtesy of www.arcabrasives.com

and www. Luvata.com)
97
Fig. 4.8. Image of MIG welding
4. Gas shielded metal arc process with non-consumable electrode. The arc is
produced between a tungsten element and the parent metal. The protection is
provided by argon. This procedure is used especially for welding stainless steel
or aluminium alloys.
5. Electro-slag welding is a special procedure to weld very thick steel parts with
only one pass in a vertical position.
7.3 Welding processes (EN 10902 [20])
Welding may be performed by the following welding processes defined in EN ISO 4063:
111: Manual metal-arc welding (metal-arc welding with covered electrode);
114: Self-shielded tubular cored arc welding;
121: Submerged arc welding with one wire electrode;
122: Submerged arc welding with strip electrode;
123: Submerged arc welding with multiple wire electrodes;
124: Submerged arc welding with metallic powder addition;
125: Submerged arc welding with tubular electrodes;
131: Metal inert gas welding; MIG-welding;
135: Metal active gas welding; MAG-welding;
136: Tubular-cored arc welding with active gas shield;
137 Tubular-cored arc welding with inert gas shield;
141: Tungsten inert gas welding TIG welding;
21: Spot welding;
22: Seam welding;
23: Projection welding;
24: Flash welding;
42: Friction welding;
52: Laser welding;
783: Drawn arc stud welding with ceramic ferrule or shielding gas;
784: Short-cycle drawn arc stud welding.
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Resistance welding processes 21, 22 and 23 shall only be used to execute welding of thin gauge steel
components. Additional information is given:
in EN ISO 14373 for process 21(spot welding);
in EN ISO 16433 for process 22 (seam welding;
in EN ISO 16432 for process 23 (projection welding).
The diameter of spot and projection welds shall be checked during production by means of peel or
chisel testing according to EN ISO 10447.
Other welding processes shall only be used if explicitly specified.
4.2.4. Metallurgic phenomena in the welding process
Essentially, there are three metallurgic phenomena:

1. A hard zone appears in the parent metal near the weld seam, which can lead to
so-called cold cracking (Fig. 4.9). The origin of this phenomenon is assigned to
the hydrogen absorbed by the weld material in the molten state. The tendency to
brittle cracks may be moderated by pre-heating the part to be welded and by
using electrodes with basic coating.
hardness
cracks
2 6mm
Fig. 4.9. Scheme of the material structure near a weld seam
2. Lamellar tearing is a separation or a crack in the base metal, caused by

through-thickness weld shrinkage stairs (Fig. 4.10). It is a result of the reducing of
ductility in the through-thickness direction, which can be lower than in the
conventional longitudinal tests.
99
lamellar tearing
Fig. 4.10. Lamellar tearing
3. Hot cracking can occur in the molten area. These cracks form during the
solidification process and they are explained by the presence of some impurities
solidifying at a lower temperature than steel (Fig. 4.11).
Fig. 4.11. Hot cracks
4.2.5. Thermal phenomena in welding process
The heating-cooling cycles during welding produce (Fig. 4.12):
internal stresses (residual stresses);
deformations (Fig. 4.13).
The greater deformations are the lower stresses are.

res = (0,5 1,0) fy
steel plate
100
longitudinal shrinkage
weld seam
Fig. 4.12. Residual stresses and residual deformations
Fig. 4.13. Example of residual deformations after welding (angular distortion)
4.2.6. Welding positions
The most common welding positions are as follows:

1. Flat position
butt welds
fillet welds
Fig. 4.14. Flat position
2. Horizontal position
101
Fig. 4.15. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
Fig. 4.16. Vertical position
4. Overhead position
Fig. 4.17. Overhead position
Flat position requires the simplest technology. The overhead position is the
most complicated one and, consequently, prone to poorer quality.
4.2.7. Weld details
In order to avoid unfavourable weld details, the following are recommended:
102
1. Avoid overwelding (Fig. 4.18). This requires the use of an appropriate weld
size, not larger than the one given by calculation.
OK
NO
oversized weld
(too much heating)
Fig. 4.18. Example of oversized weld seam
2. Avoid asymmetry (Fig. 4.19).

desirable
notch effect
Fig. 4.19. Example of asymmetric weld seams
3. Avoid lamellar tearing (Fig. 4.20). Lamellar tearing means failure of a hot rolled
plate or of a hot rolled shape because of cracks formed along the rolling direction.
These cracks create separation plans among longitudinal fibres.
desirable
lamellar
tearing
Fig. 4.20. Example of details that may favour lamellar tearing
4. Avoid susceptible details (Fig. 4.21). Some details might favour lamellar tearing
or brittle fractures.
103
improved details
susceptible details
Fig. 4.21. Examples of susceptible details and improved ones
5. Avoid weld fatigue (Fig. 4.22). Any change in section should be stream-lined.
stream line
NO
YES
stream line
Fig. 4.22. Example of stream-lined details to avoid fatigue and brittle fractures
4.2.8. Welding defects
Welding defects are:
cracks
blow holes metallurgic defect;
lack of penetration;
porosity;
slag inclusions.
the worse defect;
104
4.2.9. Weld inspection methods
1. Visual Test (VT)

It is the most economical test. The magnifying glass detects surface
imperfections, porosity, slag, cracks, irregularities, etc.
2. Dye (Liquid) Penetrant Test (DPT) (Fig. 4.23)
This test uses a red dye penetrant applied to the work from a pressure spray can.
subvisible
crack
red penetrant
applied in excess
excess
removed
visible
indication
white developer
applied
Fig. 4.23. Dye penetrant test
3. Magnetic Particle Test (MPT) (Fig. 4.24)

A magnetizing current is introduced over a dry red magnetic powder. This
induces a magnetic field in the work that will be distorted by any cracks or
inclusions, located on or near the surface.
current
red dry
powder
Fig. 4.24. Magnetic particle test
This method will indicate surface defects, like fine cracks not to be observed by
liquid penetration (cracks filled with slag, difficult for liquid to penetrate).
4. Radiographic Test (RT.)
Radiographic testing is basically an X-ray film process. Internal defects may be
put in evidence (porosity, blow holes, slag inclusions, cracks appear as darker
stains (spots) on the film).
105
5. Ultrasonic Test (UT)
The ultrasonic inspection process is analogous to radar. The method is based on
the variations in reflections due to differences in acoustic properties (pulse echo)
caused by defects (at the boundary).
EN 1090-2:2008 [20]
Inspection before and during welding shall be included in the inspection plan according to the
requirements given in the relevant part of EN ISO 3834.
Non destructive testing (NDT) methods shall be selected in accordance with EN 12062 by personnel
qualified according to Level 3 as defined in EN 473. Generally ultrasonic testing or radiographic
testing applies to butt welds and penetrant testing or magnetic particle inspection applies to fillet
welds.
NDT, with the exception of visual inspection, shall be performed by personnel qualified according to
Level 2 as defined in EN 473.
12.4.2.4 Additional NDT methods
The following NDT methods shall be carried out in accordance with the general principles given in
EN 12062 and with the requirements of the standard particular to each method:
a) penetrant testing (PT) according to EN 571-1;
b) magnetic particle inspection (MT) according to EN 1290;
c) ultrasonic testing (UT) according to EN 1714, EN 1713;
d) radiographic testing (RT) according to EN 1435.
The field of application of NDT methods is specified in their relevant standards.
4.2.10. Strength of welded joints
In the Romanian code STAS 10108/078 [7] there are two important types of
weld seams, with respect to their behaviour and to their design models:
butt welds;
fillet welds.
The main difference is that in this model butt welds behave like parent material, while
fillet welds resist always by shear stresses .
All important steel design codes distinguish between two types of weld seams:
butt welds;
fillet welds.
In the case of butt welds, the weld seam is placed in the thickness of a connected
part, whilst fillet welds are always placed in the angle between the connected parts.
106
end lap weld seams
T joints
butt weld seams
overlapping
weld seams
fillet weld seams
Fig. 4.25. Classification of weld seams
Checking a welded connection generally consists of the following steps:

1. Establishing the design cross-section and its geometrical characteristics;
2. Reducing loads in the centre of gravity of the cross-section;
3. Establishing the stress distribution on the cross-section;
4. Checking the seam in the most loaded points.
The beginning and the end of a weld seam are generally weak zones; many
defects are found there. That is why these weak parts are neglected when
establishing the strength of the joint. In order to avoid losing a part of the seam, it is
possible to use some additional pieces from where to start and to end welding.
These pieces are made of copper (Fig. 4.26). In the end they are cut down and the
entire seam is reliable. The use of additional pieces (run on and run off plates)
is strongly recommended for butt welds.
cutting line
run on plate
Fig. 4.26. Example of using run on and run off plates
Weld seams are noted on drawings according to SR EN 22553 (ISO 2553).
107
4.2.10.1. Butt welds
The European standard EN 1993-1-8 [14] accepts two types of butt weld
seams:
full penetration butt welds;
partial penetration butt welds.
The full penetration butt welds can be checked similarly to the parent material, whilst
the partial penetration butt welds are checked like fillet weld seams.
The design cross-section of the weld seam must be established before any
design procedure.
a
a
L
a
a
Fig. 4.27. Dimensions of a butt weld seam
A s = a Ld
( 4.2 )
L d = L (2 a)
( 4.3 )
the throat (effective thickness); it is equal to the thickness of the thinner

joined member (Fig. 4.19);
Ld the design length of the seam; it is obtained by deducing the bad parts of the
seam from the actual length L (4.3); if run on and run off plates are used, it
is equal to the actual length of the seam (Fig. 4.27).
1. Butt weld subjected to axial force (NEd) (Fig. 4.28)

z
NEd
NEd
Ld y
y
z
108
Fig. 4.28. Butt weld seam subjected to axial force
The stress distribution is constant on the cross-section:

=
N Ed
Aw
( 4.4 )
2. Butt weld subjected to shear force (VEd) (Fig. 4.29)

VEd
VEd
z
Ld
y
z
hw
z
y
a
t
VEd
VEd
(a)
y
tw
bz
(b)
Fig. 4.29. Butt weld seam subjected to shear force
Generally, the stress distribution is a parabola described by Juravskis relation:

=
VEd S y
( 4.5 )
w Iy
where:
Sy
static moment of the area of the part of the cross-section that tends to
slide in the point where is calculated;
width of the cross-section in the point where is calculated;
Iy
second moment of the area (moment of inertia) of the cross-section about

y-axis (axis normal to the shear force).
The maximum shear stress is obtained in the neutral axis (Fig. 4.29a), where the
static moment Sy has the maximum value:
max =
VEd S y , max
( 4.6 )
w Iy
In cases where there is an important variation in the value of the width w of the
cross-section, Juravskis relation describes a leap in the diagram and the
parabola is flattened. In these cases, a simplified distribution is accepted (Fig.
4.29b), considering that the entire shear force is resisted only by the web.
109
=
VEd
A vw
( 4.7 )
A vw = a w h w shear area of the weld seam
( 4.8 )
3. Butt weld subjected to bending moment (MEd) (Fig. 4.30)
z
MEd
MEd
Ld
Fig. 4.30. Butt weld seam subjected to bending moment
Generally, the linear stress distribution is described by Naviers relation:
M Ed
z
Iy
( 4.9 )
where:
Iy
second moment of the area (moment of inertia) of the cross-section about

y-axis (axis normal to the plane of the bending moment).
the distance from the considered point to the neutral axis (in the plane of
the bending moment).
The maximum stress is obtained when z takes the greatest value:
max =
M Ed
M
z max = Ed
Iy
Wy
( 4.10 )
where:
Wy
cross-section modulus about y-axis (axis normal to the plane of the

bending moment).
4. Butt weld connection subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment
(NEd, VEd, MEd) (Fig. 4.31)
t
110
*N
*M
z
VEd
NEd
hw
z*
y
tw
MEd
bz
Fig. 4.31. Butt weld seam subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment
Solving the general problem given in figure 4.31 means using linear superposition
of relations (4.4) (4.10) and checking the stress state in the most loaded points by
means of relations (4.11) (4.13).
max = N M =
V
fy
N Ed M Ed
z
AW
Iy
M0
( 4.11 )
fy
( 4.12 )
3 M0
eq =
*
N
*M ) + 3 2V
2
fy
M0
; *N = N ; *M =
M Ed *
z
Iy
( 4.13 )
When using relation (4.13), and must be calculated in the same point (z*) and in
the same loading situation.
The values of the normal design strength Rs and of the shear design strength Rsf
according to the Romanian code STAS 10108/078 [7] may be found in table 4.1.
The values of the yielding limit fy are given in tables 3.6 and 3.7, while the value of
the safety factor M0 may be found in table 3.8.
4.2.10.2. Fillet welds
The profile of a fillet weld can have different shapes:
flat
convex
concave
111
concave with
Fig. 4.32. Possible profiles of a fillet weld
unequal legs
In the model used in the Romanian code STAS 10108/078 [7] the design thickness
of the cross-section of the seam is defined by the height of the greatest isosceles
triangle that can be inscribed in the cross-section of the weld seam (Fig. 4.25).
In the model used in EN 1993-1-8 [14] the effective throat thickness of the seam is
defined by the height of the largest triangle (with equal or unequal legs) that can be
inscribed within the fusion faces and the weld surface, measured perpendicular to
the outer side of this triangle (Fig. 4.33 (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Fig. 4.3)):
Fig. 4.25. Design cross-section of a fillet weld seam
Fig. 4.33. Throat thickness of a fillet weld (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Fig. 4.3)
Once the thickness of the design cross-section (throat) established, the design
section of the weld seam is obtained by bringing the rectangles defined by relations
(4.14) and (4.15) in the plane of the connection.
A w = a Ld
( 4.14 )
L d = L (2 a)
( 4.15 )
the effective throat thickness (Fig. 4.33) (design thickness of the crosssection of the seam);
Ld the design length of the seam; it is obtained by deducing the bad parts of the
seam from the actual length L (4.15); these parts are situated at each end.
The effective throat thickness a can be 25, 3, 35, 4, 5, 6, 7 ... mm and it generally
shall satisfy the following requirements (Fig. 4.33), (Fig.4.34a):
112
0,3 t max a 0,7 t min
( 4.16 )
a1
a1
a2
t1
a2
tp
tp
tg
tg
t2
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.34. Geometric requirements for the effective throat thickness of fillet welds
For shapes like angles (Fig.4.34b) or channels (Fig.4.34c):

0,3 t max a 2 0,7 t min
( 4.17 )
0,3 t max a1 min(0,7 t g; 0,85 t p )
( 4.18 )
where:
tg
thickness of the gusset;
tp
thickness of the shape (profile);
tmin the minimum thickness of the connected elements (min ti).

There are also limitations for the length Ld of the weld seam (Fig. 4.35):
6 a for plates
15 a for hot rolled shapes ( L , U )

L d 60 a
b
40mm
6 a for plates
L d 150 a
30mm
(STAS 10108/078)
(EN 1993-1-8 [14])
( 4.18 )
( 4.19 )
In lap joints longer than 150a, a reduction factor Lw.1 multiplies the length Lj:
Lw.1 = 1,2 0,2Lj /(150a) but Lw.1 1,0
Lj is the overall length of the lap in the direction of the force transfer.
113
model stress distribution

real stress distribution
N
Fig. 4.35. Geometric requirements for the length of fillet weld seams
Depending on their position with respect to the main force, fillet weld seams
can be classified as:
side (longitudinal) weld (Fig.4.36a);
end (transverse) weld (Fig.4.36b);
combined weld (Fig.4.36c).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.36. Types of fillet weld seams
Combined welds are not recommended because of the different stiffness of side and
end welds, which generates a non-uniform behaviour of the connection. Tests
showed that fillet welds generally fail due to tangential stresses that are developed in
inclined planes at 45.
EN 1993-1-8 [14] accepts two checking models for fillet welds:
the directional method (Fig. 4.37);
the simplified method where the loading state is reduced to shear stresses .
114
Fig. 4.37. Stresses on the throat section of a fillet weld, according to the directional
method (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Fig. 4.5)
Following this, the design relations are as follows.

1. Fillet weld subjected to axial force
when the force acts in the centroid line of the connection (Fig. 4.38)
a
NEd
NEd
a
L
Ld
Fig. 4.38. Axial force acting in the centroid line of a fillet weld connection
L d = L (2 a)
( 4.20 )
A w = 2 a Ld
( 4.21 )
N =
N Ed
f vw ,d
Aw
( 4.22 )
fu 3
w M2
( 4.23 )
f vw .d =
Strictly according to EN 1993-1-8 [14], the weld seam is considered to be

concentrated in the root of the weld. The check is done on unit of length:
Fw ,Ed Fw ,Rd
( 4.24 )
Fw ,Rd = f vw ,d a
( 4.25 )
115
when the force acts with an eccentricity from the centroid line of the
connection (e.g. angles, channels, etc.) (Fig. 4.39)
a1
L
e
NEd
a1
Ld1
N1
NEd
b
N2
a2
a2
Ld2
Fig. 4.39. Axial force acting with an eccentricity by the centroid line of a fillet weld
L d1 = L (2 a1 )
( 4.26 )
L d 2 = L (2 a 2 )
( 4.27 )
A w1 = a 1 L d1
( 4.28 )
A w2 = a 2 Ld2
( 4.29 )
N 1 = N Ed
be
b
( 4.30 )
N 2 = N Ed
e
b
( 4.31 )
N1 =
N1
f vw ,d
A w1
( 4.32 )
N2 =
N2
f vw ,d
Aw2
( 4.33 )
2. Fillet weld subjected to shear force
when the shear force acts together with a bending moment, Juravskis relation
is used
V =
VEd S y
w Iy
f vw ,d
( 4.34 )
or in cases where there is an important change in the width w of the crosssection, the simplified relation (4.35) may be used, where Avw is the shear
area of the cross-section (area of the web for I and H shapes)
V =
VEd
f vw ,d
A vw
( 4.35 )
116
when the shear force does not act together with a bending moment (a
scissors-like force or a force acting in the plane of the connection, in the
centre of gravity of the connection, on any direction), relation (4.36) is used,
where Aw is the total area of connection
V =
VEd
f vw ,d
Aw
( 4.36 )
3. Fillet weld subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment acting
normally to the plane of the connection (Fig. 4.40)
element
cross-section 1 z
T N
M
connection design
cross-section
Fig. 4.40. Fillet weld connection subjected to moment acting normally on the plane
Solving the general problem given in figure 4.40 means using linear superposition
of the previously presented relations and checking the stress state in the most
loaded points, always keeping in mind that all stresses that are developed in a
fillet weld connection are shear ones.
N =
N Ed
Aw
( 4.37 )
V =
VEd
A vw
( 4.38 )
or, by using the general relation (not a common situation)

V =
M =
VEd S y
( 4.39 )
w Iy
M Ed
z
Iy
max, M =
( 4.40 )
M Ed
z max
Iy
( 4.41 )
The checks to be done are:
117
in the farthest points away from the centre of gravity welded connection (point
1 in figure 4.40)
N M f vw.d
( 4.42 )
theoretically, in any point on the cross-section and especially at the edge of

the web for I cross-section, the geometric sum of stresses (point 2 in figure
4.40)
( N M )2 + ( T )2
f vw .d =
f vw.d
( 4.43 )
fu 3
w M2
( 4.44 )
where:
w
correlation factor, given in table 4.1.
Table 4.1. Correlation factor w (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Tab. 4.1)
Standard and steel grade
Correlation factor
EN 10025
EN 10210
EN 10219
S235
S235 W
S235 H
S235 H
0,8
S275
S275 N/NL
S275 M/ML
S275 H
S275 NH/NLH
S275 H
S275 NH/NLH
S275 MH/MLH
0,85
S355 H
S355 NH/NLH
S355 MH/MLH
0,9
S420 MH/MLH
1,0
S460 NH/NLH
S460 MH/MLH
1,0
S355
S355 N/NL
S355 M/ML
S355 W
S355 H
S355 NH/NLH
S420 N/NL
S420 M/ML
S460 N/NL
S460 M/ML
S460 Q/QL/QL1
S460 NH/NLH
The values of the ultimate strength fu are given in tables 3.6 and 3.7, while the
value of the safety factor M2 may be found in table 3.8.
The values of the shear design strength Rsf for fillet weld seams according to the
Romanian code STAS 10108/078 [7] may be found in table 4.1.
118
4. Fillet weld subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment acting in the
plane of the connection (Fig. 4.41)
According to the previously presented relations,

N =
N Ed
Aw
( 4.45 )
V =
V
Aw
( 4.46 )
xM =
M Ed
z
Ix + Iz
( 4.47 )
zM =
M Ed
x
Ix + Iz
( 4.48 )
3
xM
M
N
T
z
design
cross-section
zM
Fig. 4.41. Fillet weld connection subjected to in-plane moment
Considering fvw.d given in relation (4.44) for fillet welds, the check to be made in
the farthest point away from the centre of gravity (point 3 in figure 4.41) is:
( N xM )2 + ( T zM )2
f vw.d
( 4.49 )
In all the previously presented fillet weld connections whenever the seams are
doubled (they are situated on both sides of a plate), the areas and the moments of
inertia (second moments of the area) are doubled on the same geometric
configuration.
Table 4.1. Strength of weld seams according to STAS 10108/078 [7]
Weld type
Compression
Tension
119
Shear
Butt weld
Rcs = R
Fillet weld
Ris = R for automatic welding,

followed by non-destructive tests
Ris = 0,8 R for manual welding
R sf = 0,6 R
Rsf = 0,7 R
R = design strength of the parent material

Whenever a connection contains in the same cross-section butt welds
and fillet welds, it is treated as a whole and only the checks differ, depending
on whether the checked point is situated on butt weld or on fillet weld.
4.3. BOLTS
4.3.1. General
The more general term fasteners includes bolts and rivets. The behaviour of
rivets is very much alike the behaviour of bolts and they are very rarely used today.
Bolts are connecting elements largely used on field at the erection stage when
structural members are to be assembled in order to realise a steel structure. Figure
4.42 shows a steel frame built on field using bolted connections.
Fig. 4.42. Example of steel frame built on field using bolted connections
Bolts used for structures generally consist of the following components:
a metal cylindrical shank, partially threaded and having a head, usually

hexagonal (Fig. 4.43a);
a nut, usually hexagonal (Fig. 4.43b);
one or two washers, usually round (Fig. 4.43c).
120
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.43. Components of a bolt
A bolted connection results by twisting the nut until a firm contact is obtained
between the plates to be assembled (Fig. 4.44a). In bolted connections subjected to
vibration, spring washers (Grower) (Fig. 4.44b) or lock nuts (Fig. 4.44c) should be
used in order to avoid any loosening of the nuts.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.44. Possible components of a bolted connection
4.3.2. Classification of bolts
Bolts can be classified as:
normal bolts;
high strength bolts.
Table 4.2 shows the mechanical properties of the most common bolts used in steel
structures depending on the bolt grade. Bolts are defined by two numbers: the first
one is the ultimate strength, fub, in hundreds of N/mm2. The second one is ten times
the ratio between the yielding limit, fyb, and the ultimate strength, fub.
Table 4.2. Main mechanical properties of the most common bolts [2]
Type
Grade fub (N/mm2) fyb (N/mm2) u (%) fkb (N/mm2)
4.6
400
240
22
240
Normal bolts
5.6
500
300
20
300
6.8
600
480
8
420
121
High strength
8.8
800
640
12
560
bolts
10.9
1000
900
9
700
fub is the minimum tensile strength determined on the entire bolt
fyb is the minimum yield stress determined on the entire bolt
u is the ultimate strain
fkb is the characteristic strength value, equal to the lower between fyb and 0,7fub
Table 4.2. Main mechanical properties of the most common bolts (EN 1993-1-8 [14]
Tab. 3.1)
Bolt grade
4.6
4.8
5.6
5.8
6.8
8.8
10.9
fyb (N/mm2)
240
320
300
400
480
640
900
400
400
500
500
600
800
1000
fub (N/mm2)
The diameters in mm of the bolts usually used in steel structures are: 10, 12, 14, 16,
18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36.
4.3.3. Behaviour and design resistance of bolts
4.3.3.1. Loading and tightening
The behaviour and the design resistance of bolts substantially depend on:
loading type;
tightening type.
Loading type. From the loading type point of view, bolts can be classified as:
bolts loaded perpendicular to their axis (shear connections) (Fig.4.45a);
bolts axially loaded (tension connections) (Fig.4.45b).

F/2
F/2
F/2
F/2
F/2
F
F/2
(a)
Fig. 4.45. Loading types of bolts
(b)
Tightening type. Tightening can be:
normal tight;
122
controlled tight.
In both types of tightening, the bolt is introduced in a 2...3mm larger diameter hole. If
the difference between the diameter of the hole and the diameter of the bolt
(clearance) is less than 0,3mm the connection is called fitted connection. The
nominal clearance in standard holes is:
1mm for M12 and M14 bolts;
2mm for M16 to M24 bolts;
3mm for M27 and larger bolts.
Normal tight is defined as the tightness that exists when members to be connected
are in firm contact. This may usually be realised by the full effort of a man using an
ordinary wrench. The tightening produces a self-stress loading consisting of:
tension in the bolt, balanced by compression in the plates (a certain friction also
results between plates in contact);
a twisting moment in the bolt balanced by friction between the plate and the
washer and between this one and the nut.
Controlled tight is defined as the tightness corresponding to a fully pre-tensioned
bolt. The control of tightening refers to the preload force Nt to be induced in the
shank of the bolt by a twisting moment Mt applied to the nut (by using a calibrated
impact wrench or by using turn-off the nut method).
4.3.3.2. Spacing of holes
e1
p1
p1
e2
p2
e2
t1
t2
Fig. 4.46. Spacing of holes
123
p1
e1
Table 4.3. Minimum and maximum spacing, end and edge distances (EN 1993-1-8
[14] Tab. 3.3)

Distances and
spacings
Minimum
End distance e1
1,2d0
Edge distance e2
1,2d0
Distance e3
in slotted holes
Distance e4
in slotted holes
Spacing p1
1,5d0
4)
1,5d0
4)
2,2d0
Spacing p1,0
Spacing p1,i
Spacing p2
5)
2,4d0
Maximum1) 2) 3)
Structures made from steels conforming to Structures made
EN 10025 except steels conforming to
from steels
EN 10025-5
conforming to
EN 10025-5
Steel not exposed
Steel exposed to the
to the weather or
Steel used
weather or other
other corrosive
unprotected
corrosive influences
influences
The larger of
4t + 40 mm
8t or 125 mm
The larger of
4t + 40 mm
8t or 125 mm
The smaller of
14t or 200 mm
The smaller of
14t or 200 mm
The smaller of
28t or 400 mm
The smaller of
14t or 200 mm
The smaller of
14t or 200 mm
The smaller of
14tmin or 175 mm
The smaller of
14t or 200 mm
The smaller of
14tmin or 175 mm
1)
Maximum values for spacings, edge and end distances are unlimited, except in the following
cases:
for compression members in order to avoid local buckling and to prevent corrosion in exposed
members and;
for exposed tension members to prevent corrosion.
2)
The local buckling resistance of the plate in compression between the fasteners should be
calculated according to EN 1993-1-1 using 0,6 p1 as buckling length. Local buckling between
the fasteners need not to be checked if p1/t is smaller than 9 . The edge distance should not
exceed the local buckling requirements for an outstand element in the compression members,
see EN 1993-1-1. The end distance is not affected by this requirement.
3)
t is the thickness of the thinner outer connected part.
4)
The dimensional limits for slotted holes are given in []
5)
For staggered rows of fasteners a minimum line spacing of p2 = 1,2d0 may be used, provided
that the minimum distance, L, between any two fasteners is greater than 2,4d0, see []
d0 diameter of the hole;
see Fig. 4.46
124
4.3.3.3. Behaviour of bolts in tension
Tension is applied on the bolt (Fig. 4.47) at the contact between one plate and
the head of the bolt (or the washer which is under the head) at one end and at the
contact between the other plate and the washer which is under the nut at the other
end. A bolt in tension fails in the most reduced cross-section, in the threaded zone of
the shank. The area of the cross-section of the bolt, As, in this zone can be taken
from tables or it may be calculated using relations (4.50) and (4.51).
Fig. 4.47. Bolt in tension
As =
d s2
4
( 4.50 )
d s 0,89 d
( 4.51 )
In the case of rivets, the shank fills the hole and the area is:
A0 =
d 02
4
( 4.52 )
The design resistance of a bolt in tension is:

Ft , Rd =
k 2 f ub A s
M2
(EN 1993-1-8 [14], Tab. 3.4)
( 4.53 )
where:
k2 = 0,63 for countersunk bolts or 0,9 otherwise;
fub ultimate strength of the material of the bolt;
The design resistance of a rivet in tension is:
Ft , Rd =
0,6 f ur A 0
M2
(EN 1993-1-8 [14], Tab. 3.4)
where:
125
( 4.54 )
fur ultimate strength of the material of the rivet;

In the case of bolts, a second failure mode is possible, by punching. The punching
shear resistance for a bolt is:
Bp, Rd = 0,6 d m t p
fu
M2
( 4.55 )
where:
dm
the mean of the across points and across flats dimensions of the bolt head or
the nut, whichever is smaller;
tp
thickness of the plate.
4.3.3.4. Behaviour of normal bolts in shear connections
Figure 4.48 shows the behaviour of a normal bolt in a shear connection.

shear force
bearing pressure
F/2
F
F/2
model used for the

stress distribution
real stress distribution
Fig. 4.48. Stress distribution in a bearing type connection
The following states can be noticed when loading a bolted connection normally on
the axis of the bolt (Fig. 4.49):
Phase 1 The bolt is generally introduced in a 2...3 mm larger hole and it is
normally tightened. A friction force Ff results between plates in contact. In this

phase, when loading, no relative displacement is noticed until the load F reaches
the friction limit Ff (Fig. 4.49).
126
F
Fu
Phase 4
Phase 3
Phase 2
Ff
Phase 1
L = L L 0
Fig. 4.49. Typical load deformation curve for a usual bearing type connection
Phase 2 When F = Ff, slipping of the joint begins under a force F practically
constant. Slipping stops when the contact shank plates is realised.
Phase 3 is
characterized
by
an
elastic
behaviour,
meaning
that
the
displacement L is proportional to force F.
Phase 4 is characterized by a plastic behaviour, i.e. large deformations occur for
a slight load increase and the joint fails at an ultimate value Fu.
Failure at the ultimate load can be one of the following:
1. collapse due to hole failure in bearing (Fig.4.50a);
2. collapse due to bolt failure in shear (Fig.4.50b);
3. collapse by shear failure of the connected plates (Fig.4.50c);
4. collapse by failure of plates in tension (Fig.4.50d).
F
Bearing
failure of
plate
F
Shear
failure
of bolt
Longitudinal
shear
failure of
plate
e1
F/2
(a)
F/2
F/2
F
Plate
failure in
tension
d
b
F/2
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.50. Typical failure modes for a usual bearing type connection
127
1. Bearing failure of the plate (Fig.4. 50a). Plate failure is a result of the bearing
force produced at the contact between the bolt and the plates in connection. The
bearing resistance of the contact between the bolt and one plate is:
Fb,Rd =
k1 b f u d t
M2
( 4.56 )
The bearing resistance of a connection with one bolt is:

Fb,Rd =
k1 b f u d t
min
( 4.57 )
M2
Np,g = d t Rbp,g
( 4.42 )
Np,g = d t Rpb,g
min
where:
d is the nominal diameter of the bolt;
t
is the smallest thickness of plates in contact;
is the minimum value of the sum of the thickness of the plates which tend
min
to go in the same direction;

f ub
or 1,0;
fu
in the direction of load transfer:
e1
- for end bolts: d =
; for inner bolts: d =
3d 0
perpendicular to the direction of load transfer:
e
- for edge bolts: k1 is the smallest of 2,8 2 1,7
d0
p
- for inner bolts: k1 is the smallest of 1,4 2 1,7
d0
b is the smallest of d ;
p1 1
3d 0 4
or 2,5
or 2,5
Rk
is the design strength calculated with:
m
Rk the characteristic strength of plates (= fy);
m = 1,25 partial safety factor of the material;
= 2,0 usually.
Rbp,g =
2. Shear failure of the bolt (rivet) (Fig. 4.50b). The bolt fails in shear under a force
per shear plane equal to:
128
Fv , Rd =
v f ub A
M2
( 4.58 )
where the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt (A is the
tensile stress area of the bolt As):
- for strength grades 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8: v = 0,6
- for strength grades 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9: v = 0,5
- where the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the bolt (A is
the gross cross section of the bolt): v = 0,6
In the case of rivets, the shear resistance per shear plane is:
Fv , Rd =
0,6 f ur A 0
M2
Nf ,p = A b Rbf =
( 4.59 )
d2 b
Rf
4
( 4.43 )
where:
Rbf is the shear design resistance of the bolt
0,6 Rk
Rbf =
m
Rk the characteristic resistance of the bolt;
m = 1,25 partial safety factor of the material;
Ab is the cross-section area of the bolt equal to:
d2
Ab =
when the shear plane passes through the unthreaded part of
4
the bolt (d is the nominal diameter of the bolt);
d02
Ab =
when the shear plane passes through the threaded part of the
4
bolt.
d + dm
dres = d0 = n
0,89 d (Fig. 4.40)
2
dn = diameter of the core of the shank;
dm = average diameter;
d = nominal diameter;
dres= resistant diameter.
dn dres
dm
Fig. 4.40. Cross-section of the bolt and the resistant area [12]
The design resistance in shear of a bolt or a rivet is:
Fnv , Rd = n f Fv , Rd
( 4.60 )
where:
129
nf is the number of shear planes.
3. Longitudinal shear failure of plate (Fig. 4.50c). The resistance against
longitudinal shear failure of the plate is:

d
fu
e1 0 t
2
3 M2
( 4.61 )
In order to avoid shear failure of plates, the following requirement should be

satisfied:
d
( 4.45 )
e1 t R f Nf
2
The minimum required edge distance e1 (Fig.4.39c) results from relation (4.61),
where Rf is the shear design strength of the material of the plate. The minimum
required edge distance e1 is generally given in codes (if eactual > e1 there is no
need to check the condition (4. 61)). Usually, it is greater than two times the
diameter of the hole.
4. Plate failure in tension (Fig. 4.50d). Generally, the elastic stress distribution
around a hole is the one given in figure 4.51a.

F
2c
real
distribution
model
distribution
2a
d
b
t
F/2
F/2
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.51. Stress distribution around a hole
If the hole is assumed to be an ellipse it can be proved that the maximum stress
is given by the following relation:
2a
max = av 1 +
( 4.62 )
where:
130
av average stress in the plate;
a half of the axis normal to the stress (Fig. 4.51a);

c half of the axis along the stress (Fig. 4.51a).
In the special case of a circular hole, it results:
max = 3 av
( 4.63 )
max = 3 av fy
(for structural steel)
( 4.47 )
Based on the good plastic properties of structural steel, which is a fundamental

requirement in this case, the simplified distribution given in figure 4.51b is
accepted. The resistance against plate failure in tension is: This leads to the
following condition, according to the Romanian code STAS 10108/078 [7]:
N u , Rd = 0,9 (b d 0 ) t
N net , Rd = (b d 0 ) t
fu
M2
fy
M0
(EN 1993-1-1, rel. (6.7))
( 4.64 )
(EN 1993-1-1, rel. (6.8))
( 4.65 )
(b d) t R F
( 4.48 )
where:
b width of the plate that is being checked (Fig. 4.51b);
d0 diameter of the hole (Fig. 4.41b);
t
thickness of the plate that is being checked (Fig. 4.51b);
d diameter of the hole (Fig. 4.41b);

R design strength of the material of the plate;
F axial force in the checked cross-section (1-1).
Remark The uniform stresses distribution which is assumed in calculus when
checking an element is unfavourably affected by the presence of the hole.
4.3.3.5. Behaviour of bolts in tension and shear
When a bolt or a rivet is subjected to tension and shear, an interaction relation

must be used:
Fv , Ed
Fv , Rd
Ft , Ed
1,4 Ft , Rd
1,0
( 4.66 )
All the values of the resistance are summarized in the following table from EN 19931-8 [14]:
131
Table 4.4. Design resistance for individual fasteners subjected to shear and/or
tension (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Tab. 3.4)

Failure mode
Shear resistance per shear
plane
Bearing resistance 1), 2), 3)
Tension resistance 2)
Bolts
v f ub A
M2
Fv,Rd =
Rivets
0,6 f ur A0
Fv,Rd =
M2
- where the shear plane passes through the

threaded portion of the bolt (A is the tensile
stress area of the bolt As):
- for strength grades 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8:
v = 0,6
- for strength grades 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9:
v = 0,5
- where the shear plane passes through the
unthreaded portion of the bolt (A is the gross
cross section of the bolt): v = 0,6
k f dt
Fb,Rd = 1 b u
M2
f
where b is the smallest of d ; ub or 1,0;
fu
in the direction of load transfer:
e1
; for inner bolts: d =
- for end bolts:
d =
3d 0
perpendicular to the direction of load transfer:
e
- for edge bolts:
k1 is the smallest of 2,8 2 1,7
d0
p
- for inner bolts:
k1 is the smallest of 1,4 2 1,7
d0
Ft,Rd =
k 2 f ub As
Ft,Rd =
M2
p1 1
3d 0 4
or 2,5
or 2,5
0,6 f ur A0
M2
where
k2 = 0,63 for countersunk bolt,
otherwise k2 = 0,9.
Punching shear
resistance
Combined shear and
tension
Bp,Rd
Fv , Ed
Fv , Rd
0,6 dm tp fu / M2
=
+
Ft , Ed
1,4 Ft , Rd
1,0
132
No check needed
1)
The bearing resistance Fb,Rd for bolts
2)
in oversized holes is 0,8 times the bearing resistance for bolts in normal clearance holes.
in slotted holes, where the longitudinal axis of the slotted hole is perpendicular to the
direction of the force transfer, is 0,6 times the bearing resistance for bolts in round,
normal clearance holes.
For countersunk bolt:
3)
the bearing resistance Fb,Rd should be based on a plate thickness t equal to the thickness of
the connected plate minus half the depth of the countersinking.
for the determination of the tension resistance Ft,Rd the angle and depth of countersinking
should conform with .8 Reference Standards: Group 4, otherwise the tension resistance
Ft,Rd should be adjusted accordingly.
When the load on a bolt is not parallel to the edge, the bearing resistance may be verified
separately for the bolt load components parallel and normal to the end.
4.3.3.6. Behaviour of high strength bolts in slip connections
Tightening control refers to the pre-load force Fp,C to be induced in the shank
of the bolt by the twisting moment Mt applied to the nut. Codes generally accept an
empirical relation like the following one:
M t = 0,2 Fp ,C d
( 4.67 )
between the pre-load force Fp,C and the applied twisting moment Mt, where d is the
diameter of the bolt. The preload force is:
Fp ,C = 0,7 f u ,b A s
( 4.68 )
The design slip resistance is (Fig. 4.52):

Fs, Rd =
ks n
Fp ,C
M3
( 4.69 )
where:
n
number of friction surfaces;
ks given in table 4.5 (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Tab. 3.6);
slip factor given in EN 1993-1-8 [14] Tab. 3.7 and in EN 1090-2 [20] Tab. 18;
Table 18 Classifications that may be assumed for friction surfaces (EN 1090 2)
Surface treatment
Surfaces blasted with shot or grit with loose rust removed, not pitted.
Surfaces blasted with shot or grit:
a) spray-metallized with a aluminium or zinc based product;
b) with alkali-zinc silicate paint with a thickness of 50 m to 80 m
Surfaces cleaned by wire-brushing or flame cleaning, with loose rust removed
Surfaces as rolled
133
Class
A
B
Slip factor
0,50
0,40
C
D
0,30
0,20
Table 4.5. Values of ks [14] (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Tab. 3.6)
ks
Description
Bolts in standard clearance holes.
1,0
Bolts in either oversized holes or short slotted holes with the axis of the
slot perpendicular to the direction of load transfer.
Bolts in long slotted holes with the axis of the slot perpendicular to the
direction of load transfer.
Bolts in either oversized holes or short slotted holes with the axis of the
slot parallel to the direction of load transfer.
Bolts in long slotted holes with the axis of the slot parallel to the direction
of load transfer.
Nt
0,85
0,7
0,76
0,63
friction forces
Nf/2
Nf/2
Nf
Nf
Nf/2
Nf/2
Nt
Fig. 4.52. The basic principles of a slip connection
If a slip-resistant connection is subjected to an applied tensile force, Ft,Ed, in addition

to the shear force, Fv,Ed, depending on the category of the connection (Tab. 4.6) the
slip resistance force is:
for category B connections
Fs, Rd =
for category C connections
Fs, Rd =
k s n ( Fp,C 0,8 Ft , Ed ,ser )

M 3,ser
k s n ( Fp,C 0,8 Ft , Ed )
M3
( 4.70 )
( 4.71 )
Based on the fact that the greater pressure is the greater the friction force is,
in order to obtain a maximum capacity of the connection, a maximum pre-load force
Nt needs to be applied. According to the Romanian code C13382 [8], the pre-load
force should be:
Nt = k A b Rc
( 4.50 )
where:
k behaviour factor;
k = 0,8 for 8.8 bolt grade;
k = 0,7 for 10.9 bolt grade;
134
Ab area of the cross-section of the bolt in the threaded zone; it may be taken
from tables or it may be calculated using the approximate formulae:
d2s
Ab =
( 4.51 )
4
ds 0,89 d
( 4.52 )
d nominal diameter of the bolt;
Rc yield strength of the bolt (fyb in table 4.2);
The pre-load force Nt may be practically obtained by:
using a dynamometric wrench calibrating the required Mt;
turning-off the nut tightening (after the first snug tight, an additional turning is
applied, representing an amount of a complete turn i.e. 0,25 to 0,75 turn).
An important friction appears between plates (Fig. 4.42) as a result of the tightening.
Under these circumstances, the slip resistance of a pre-loaded bolt is [8]:
Nf = m nf f Nt
( 4.53 )
where:
m working condition factor (it has the meaning of a partial safety factor);
m = 0,95 for static loading;
m = 0,85 for dynamic loading;
nf number of friction (slip) interfaces;
f
slip factor; according to [8] it generally may be considered as:
f = 0,25 for cleaned surfaces without any brushing;
f = 0,35 for brushed surfaces using wire brushes or for burnt surfaces;
f = 0,50 for blasted surfaces;
Nt the pre-load force.
The equation (4.53) shows that the slip resistance of a bolt increases when the preload force Nt increases. Following this, a higher strength bolt allows a higher slip
resistance. It may be also noticed that the greater the slip factor f is the greater the
slip resistance is. A treatment of the surfaces in contact improves friction.
Figure 4.53 shows the general behaviour of a shear connection. It can be
noticed that the ultimate load Fu is the same for a given bolt and it corresponds to the
failure of a bearing type connection (which is produced by the lowest value between
the force that causes failure of the plates and the force that causes shear failure of
the bolt). The presence of the pre-load force Fp,C only increases the range of elastic
behaviour and it delays slipping but it has no practical influence on the ultimate
capacity of the connection.
135
F
Fu
Nf2
pre-loaded slip connection
Nf1
partially pre-loaded slip connection

normally tightened connection
L
Fig. 4.53. General behaviour of a shear connection
4.3.3.5. Design resistance of bolts according to STAS 10108/078 [7], C13382 [8]
1. Bolts in tension connections
Ncap,i = A b Rbi
( 4.54 )
where:
Ab area of the cross-section of the bolt (from table or using rel. (4.51));
Rbi tension design strength of the bolt, as given in table 4.3.
2. Ordinary bolts in shear connections
Ncap,f = min(Np,g; Nf ,p )
( 4.55 )
Np,g = d t R
( 4.56 )
b
p,g
min
Nf ,p = A b Rbf
( 4.57 )
where the terms are explained at relations (4.42) and (4.43) and values of the
design strength are given in table 4.3.
3. High-strength bolts in slip connections
Nf = m nf f Nt
( 4.58 )
where the terms are explained at relation (4.53).
4. Bolts used in tension and shear connections
Shear connections
Apart from checks using relations (4.54) and (4.55) for the capable forces, an
interaction check is needed. This check is based on the von Mises criterion.
NL
=
( 4.59 )
A
NT
=
( 4.60 )
A
136
2 + 3 2 R
( 4.61 )
where:
NL the force acting along the axis of the bolt;
NT the force acting normal to the axis of the bolt;
A area of the cross-section of the bolt; if shear occurs in the threaded zone of
the shank the reduced area given by relation (4.51) shall be used.
R design strength of the steel grade of the bolt;
Slip connections
The force NL reduces the pre-load Nt and it unfavourably affects the capacity of
the connection. The capable force is in this case:
Nf = m nf f Nt NL
( 4.62 )
Table 4.3. Design strength for bolts according to STAS 10108/078 [7]
Design
Bolt grade
Steel grade of plates
strength
m
4.6
5.6
6.6*)
OL37
OL44
OL52
[N/mm2]
0,6
130
160
180
Shear Rbf
Bearing Rbp,g
1,6
350
415
500
0,8
170
210
240
Tension Rbi
*) They are no longer in fabrication
In order to avoid failure of plates between neighbour holes and to prevent
corrosion between connected elements, codes usually give some limitations
concerning the spacing of holes for bolts and rivets. In the Romanian code STAS
10108/078 [7], they are as follows (Fig. 4.45):
3d0 e min(8d0 ;12t )
( 4.63 )
2d0 e1 min(4d0 ;8t )
( 4.64 )
1,5d0 e2 min(4d0 ;8t )
( 4.65 )
t = min(t1; t 2 )
( 4.66 )
where:
d0 diameter of the hole;
e spacing between centres of fasteners on any direction;
e1 end distance from the centre of a hole to the adjacent end of any part,
measured parallel to the loading direction;
e2 edge distance from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent edge of any
part, measured normally to the loading direction;
t
minimum thickness of exterior plates.
137
e1
e1
e2
e
e2
t1
t2
Fig. 4.45. Spacing of holes
4.3.4. Categories of bolted connections according to EN 1993-1-8 [14]
Table 4.6 shows a classification of bolted connections given in EN 1993-1-8

[14]:
Table 4.6. Categories of bolted connections (EN 1993-1-8 [14] Tab. 3.2)
Shear connections
Category
Criteria
A
bearing type
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
B
slip-resistant at
serviceability
C
slip-resistant at
ultimate
Remarks
No pre-loading required.
Bolt classes from 4.6 to 10.9 may be used.
Fv,Ed.serFs,Rd,ser Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be used.

Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
No slip at serviceability limit state
Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
Surfaces treatment
Fv,Ed Fs,Rd
Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
Fv,Ed Nnet,Rd
Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be used.

No slip at ultimate limit state
Surfaces treatment
Tension connections
D
non-preloaded
Ft,Ed Ft,Rd
Ft,Ed Bp,Rd
No pre-loading required
Bolt classes from 4.6 to 10.9 may be used.
Ft,Ed Ft,Rd
Preloaded 8.8 or 10.9 bolts should be used.
138
preloaded
Ft,Ed Bp,Rd
No slip at ultimate limit state

Surfaces treatment
4.3.5. Examples of calculation
4.3.5.1. General aspects
Checking a fastened connection generally consists of the following steps:

1. Establishing the design cross-section of the connection, that consists of points;
2. Reducing loads in the centre of gravity of the cross-section;
3. Establishing the load distribution on the cross-section;
4. Checking the most loaded fastener.
A force acting on any direction in the centre of gravity of the connection
uniformly distributes its effects on all fasteners in the connection. A moment acting in
the centre of gravity of the connection distributes its effects on each fastener
proportionally to the distance from that fastener to the centre of rotation. The first
three steps of the checking procedure are the same for all types of fastened
connections (rivets, bolted connections, slip connections). The influence of the type
of fastener appears only in the final step, when establishing the capable force.
4.3.5.2. Connection loaded only in its plane (Fig. 4.54)
139
Fi , M
Fix, N
Fix, M
ri
NEd
x
VEd
MEd
z
Fiz,V
design cross-section
Fiz, M
Fig. 4.54. Fastener connection loaded only in its plane
The force produced in a fastener i by the moment M (Fig. 4.54) is proportional

to the displacement i. This displacement is normal to the radius of the point, ri, and
it is proportional to that radius, considering a rotation .
i = ri
( 4.72 )
As all fasteners are identical, they have the same stiffness K. The force Ni produced
by the moment in a fastener can be expressed as:
Fi = K i = K ri
( 4.73 )
The moment is resisted by all the fasteners in the connection:

n
M Ed = Fj rj
( 4.74 )
j=1
where n is the number of fasteners in the connection.

Using relation (4.73) in relation (4.74), the following relations can be written:
n
M Ed = K rj2
( 4.75 )
j=1
K =
M Ed
( 4.76 )
r
j=1
2
j
Following this, the force Fi produced by the moment in the fastener i is:
140
Fi =
M Ed
ri
r
j=1
( 4.77 )
2
j
Based on the following notations:

ri2 = xi2 + zi2
( 4.78 )
Fix, M = Fi
zi
ri
( 4.79 )
Fiz, M = Fi
xi
ri
( 4.80 )
it can easily be proved that:

Fix, M = M Ed
zi
(x
n
j=1
Fiz, M = M Ed
+z
2
j
+z
2
j
xi
(x
n
j=1
Fi =
2
j
2
j
( 4.81 )
( 4.82 )
(F ) + (F )
2
x
i,M
2
z
i,M
( 4.83 )
It is obvious that the most loaded fastener is the one situated at the greatest distance
from the centre of gravity of the connection.
For the problem in figure 4.54:
Fix, N =
N Ed
n
( 4.84 )
Fiz,V =
VEd
n
( 4.85 )
Based on relations (4.82), (4.83), (4.84) and (4.85), the resultant force in the most
loaded fastener is obtained for the maximum value of the distance ri:
Fi , max =
(F
x
i, N
+ Fix, M ) + (Fiz, V + Fiz, M )

2
( 4.86 )
This force must be less than the design resistance capable force of the for individual
fastener:
for category A shear connections (bearing type):

Fi, max = Fv , Ed Fv , Rd
( 4.87 )
Fi , max = Fv , Ed Fb, Rd
( 4.88 )
for category B shear connections (slip-resistant at serviceability LS):

141
Fi , max = Fv , Ed ,ser Fs, Rd ,ser
( 4.89 )
Fi , max = Fv , Ed Fv , Rd
( 4.90 )
( 4.91 )
for category C shear connections (slip-resistant at ultimate LS):

Fi , max = Fv , Ed Fs, Rd
( 4.92 )
( 4.93 )
Fi , max = Fv , Ed N net , Rd
( 4.94 )
Depending on the type of fastener, Ncap may be calculated using relation (4.55) for
rivets and bolts in ordinary shear connections or relation (4.58) for high-strength
bolts in slip connections.
4.3.5.3. Connection loaded normally on its plane (Fig. 4.55)
The model accepted by the Romanian code STAS 10108/078 [7] assumes
the end-plate as infinitely rigid. A force acting on any direction in the centre of gravity
of the connection uniformly distributes its effects to all fasteners in the connection.
The model used for calculating the efforts produced by a bending moment M
resembles to the one used for a reinforced concrete cross-section. A moment
equation should be written by the centre of compressions (Fig. 4.47b):
n
M = Nj rj
( 4.83 )
j =1
Based on the infinite rigidity of the end plate assumption, efforts in each fastener are
proportional to the distance ei from that fastener to the neutral axis (Fig. 4.47b).
Ni = K ei
( 4.84 )
where K is a constant.
142
Nix,N
Niz,T
Nix,M
ei
M
hi
ri
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Fig. 4.47. Fastener connection loaded normally on its plane
A force acting on any direction in the centre of gravity of the connection in

figure 4.55 uniformly distributes its effects to all fasteners in the connection. If a
support is attached on the column by welding right under the end-plate, than the
shear force VEd is transferred to the column by means of this support and no longer
loads the fasteners. The model used for calculating the efforts produced by a
bending moment MEd resembles to the one used for a reinforced concrete crosssection. A moment equation is written about the centre of compression (Fig. 4.55b):
Ftrx, N
Fvrz , V
Ftrx, M
MEd
NEd
hr
VEd
CM
(a)
(b)
(c)
143
(d)
(e)
Fig. 4.55. Fastener connection loaded normally on its plane
There are several possible failure modes of this connection and they must be taken
into account when checking the resistance:
failure of the bolt in tension;
failure of column flange in bending;
failure of end-plate in bending;
failure of column web in tension;
failure of beam web in tension;
failure of beam flange in compression;
failure of column stiffener in compression.
The models used in EN 1993-1-8 [14] are based on the equivalent T-stub (Fig. 4.56).
Three possible failure modes of the T-stub are taken into account:
Mode 1: Complete yielding of the flange (plastic hinges) (Fig. 4.57)
Mode 2: Bolt failure with yielding of the flange (Fig. 4.58)
Mode 3: Bolt failure (Fig. 4.59)
1 End bolt row adjacent to a stiffener

2 End bolt row
3 Inner bolt row
4 Bolt row adjacent to a stiffener
Fig. 4.56. The equivalent T-stub
144
Prying force
Prying force
Fig. 4.57. Mode 1: Complete yielding of the flange
Prying force
Prying force
Fig. 4.58. Mode 2: Bolt failure with yielding of the flange
Fig. 4.59. Bolt failure
Based on these models, considering several bolt-rows and bolt-groups, the capable
force Ftr,Rd on each row of bolts is established and the capable (resistant) bending
moment of the connection is calculated as:
145
n
M j, Rd = Ftr , Rd h r
( 4.95 )
r =1
where hr is the distance from the bolt-row r to the centre of compression. The centre
of compression is considered to be in the centre of gravity of the compressed flange
of the beam. The distribution of forces on bolt-rows (Fig. 4.55(b)) is not a simple one.
The procedure is complicated and requires a lot of calculation.
In the following, a simplified procedure (not always a safe one) is presented,
as a first step in learning how to check such a connection and not as one to be used
in practice. This simplified approach presumes the end-plate (and the column flange)
as infinitely rigid.
These equations are hard to be handled, so a simplified approach is used: the
compression centre is on the same line with the rotation axis, which is situated on
the last line of fasteners (Fig. 4.47e). In this case:
ri = ei = hi
( 4.85 )
where hi is the distance from fastener i to the line of least tensioned fasteners (Fig.
4.47e). Under these circumstances, the force produced in a fastener i by the
moment MEd (Fig. 4.55e) is proportional to the fastener elongation li. This
elongation is proportional to the distance hi, considering a rigid body rotation .
li = hi
( 4.96 )
As all fasteners are identical, they have the same stiffness K. The tension force Ni
produced by the moment in a fastener can be expressed as:
Ftix, Ed , M = K l i = K h i
( 4.97 )
The moment is resisted by all the fasteners in the connection:

n
M Ed = Ftix, Ed , M h j
( 4.98 )
j=1
where n is the number of fasteners in the connection. Replacing (4.97) in (4.98), it

can easily be proved that:
n
M Ed = K h 2j
( 4.99 )
j=1
K =
M Ed
( 4.100 )
h
j =1
2
j
146
Following this, the force Fti,Ed,M produced by the moment in the fastener i is (Fig.
4.55e):
Ftix,Ed ,M =
M Ed
n
h
j=1
hi
( 4.101 )
2
j
and it has the maximum value for the maximum distance hi. The forces produced by
the axial force NEd (Fig. 4. 55c) and by the shear force VEd (Fig. 4.55d) are:
Ftix, Ed , N =
N Ed
n
( 4.102 )
Fiz, Ed , V =
VEd
n
( 4.103 )
When solving the problem in figure 4.55a, there are basically three groups of
checks that need to be done:
A. Check in the longitudinal direction of the fastener (Fig. 4.55c), (Fig. 4.55e):
Fti , Ed , max = Ftix, Ed , N + Ftix, Ed , M max
( 4.104 )
Fti, Ed , max Ft , Rd
( 4.105 )
Fti ,Ed ,max B p,Rd
( 4.106 )
where Ft,Rd and Bp,Rd are calculated using the relations given in table 4.4.
where Ncap is calculated using relation (4.54).
B. Check in the plane of the connection (Fig. 4.55d):
Niz,T Ncap
( 4.96 )
Fvz, Ed ,V Fv , Rd
( 4.107 )
Fvz, Ed , V Fb, Rd
( 4.108 )
Fvz, Ed ,V Fs, Rd
( 4.109 )
where the transverse capable force Ncap is calculated using relation (4.55) for
rivets and bolts in ordinary shear connections. For high-strength bolts in slip
connections the following interaction checks apply. The relations (4.107),
(4.108), (4.109) are chosen depending on the corresponding situation in table
4.4.
C. Interaction check, depending on the type of fastener:
147
Shear connections
A check based on the von Mises criterion is used. The normal stress and
the tangential stress are calculated in the shared cross-section of the
fastener. Relations (4.59), (4.60) and (4.61) are used. Relation (4.66) is used.
Slip connections
The longitudinal force in the bolt reduces the pre-load Nt and it unfavourably
affects the capable force. The capable force is in this case:
Nf = m nf f Nt Nix,N + Nix,M
)]
( 4.97 )
Relation (4.70) or (4.71) is used, depending on whether it is a category B or

category C connection (Tab. 4.6).
If the end-plate stands on a support that is welded on the column, it is
considered that the shear force is directly transferred to this support and in-plane
checks are no longer necessary, as the fasteners do not carry this force.
When checking a spliced connection of a beam, efforts are distributed
between the flanges and the web connection proportionally to the stiffness
characteristic of the cross-section for that effort:
the axial force proportional to the area;
the shear force to the web (proportional to the shear area);
the bending moment proportional to second moment of the area.
Following this, the connection of the web and the connections of the flanges are
checked separately.
148

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4.

Connecting devices for steel structures are:

Welds are largely used in fabrication of structural members in shops;

Bolts are largely used in assembling structural members on the field;

Rivets at present they are practically abandoned due to their complicate

Welding is a technological process that realizes the junction of the members

some adequate additional material.

weld layer (seam)

Fig. 4.1. Scheme of a welding process

Weldability is defined as the capacity of a metal to be welded under

the chemical composition;

the structural grain size;

the thickness of the material.

Weldability is expressed by an empirical formula which defines the carbon

%Mn %Cr + %Mo + %V % Ni + %Cu

A good weldability is obtained when CEV is smaller than 0,42.

to limit the content in carbon to 0,20 0,22%;

to limit the content in carbon of the additional material to 0,08,..., 0,12%.

to limit the thickness of plates;

to pre-heat the pieces and to hold them at a temperature of a few hundred

low carbon content;

fine grain size;

restricted low thickness;

and, conversely, is reduced by:

high carbon content;

4.2.3. Structural welding process and materials

weld pool (molten pool)

Fig. 4.2. Scheme of the manual shielded metal arc process

2. Submerged arc process (Fig.4.4), (Fig.4.5), (Fig.4.6)

solidified weld (weld deposit)

Fig. 4.4. Scheme of the submerged arc process

Fig. 4.7. Schematic image of MIG welding (by courtesy of www.arcabrasives.com

Fig. 4.8. Image of MIG welding

4.2.4. Metallurgic phenomena in the welding process

Essentially, there are three metallurgic phenomena:

2. Lamellar tearing is a separation or a crack in the base metal, caused by

Fig. 4.10. Lamellar tearing

Fig. 4.11. Hot cracks

4.2.5. Thermal phenomena in welding process

The heating-cooling cycles during welding produce (Fig. 4.12):

internal stresses (residual stresses);

deformations (Fig. 4.13).

The greater deformations are the lower stresses are.

Fig. 4.12. Residual stresses and residual deformations

Fig. 4.13. Example of residual deformations after welding (angular distortion)

4.2.6. Welding positions

The most common welding positions are as follows:

Fig. 4.14. Flat position

Fig. 4.15. Horizontal position

Fig. 4.16. Vertical position

Fig. 4.17. Overhead position

4.2.7. Weld details

In order to avoid unfavourable weld details, the following are recommended:

Fig. 4.18. Example of oversized weld seam

2. Avoid asymmetry (Fig. 4.19).

Fig. 4.19. Example of asymmetric weld seams

Fig. 4.20. Example of details that may favour lamellar tearing

Fig. 4.21. Examples of susceptible details and improved ones

4.2.8. Welding defects

Welding defects are:

blow holes metallurgic defect;

the worse defect;

1. Visual Test (VT)

3. Magnetic Particle Test (MPT) (Fig. 4.24)