Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy
Center for Electric Power and Energy, Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
c
Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100190, China
b
h i g h l i g h t s
The principle and characteristics of present EES technologies are reviewed.
The potential applications of different roles played by EES are described.
The recent researches about the EES planning problems, including type selection, optimal sizing and siting are summarized.
The operation and control strategies are discussed.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 January 2014
Received in revised form 10 March 2014
Accepted 30 April 2014
Available online 23 May 2014
Keywords:
Energy Storage System (ESS)
Optimal siting
Optimal sizing
Planning and operation
Wind power
a b s t r a c t
With the rapid growth of wind energy development and increasing wind power penetration level, it will
be a big challenge to operate the power system with high wind power penetration securely and reliably
due to the inherent variability and uncertainty of wind power. With the exible chargingdischarging
characteristics, Energy Storage System (ESS) is considered as an effective tool to enhance the exibility
and controllability not only of a specic wind farm, but also of the entire grid. This paper reviews the
state of the art of the ESS technologies for wind power integration support from different aspects. Firstly,
the modern ESS technologies and their potential applications for wind power integration support are
introduced. Secondly, the planning problem in relation to the ESS application for wind power integration
is reviewed, including the selection of the ESS type, and the optimal sizing and siting of the ESS. Finally,
the proposed operation and control strategies of the ESS for different application purposes in relation to
the wind power integration support are summarized. The conclusion is drawn in the end.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Nowadays, as the most popular renewable energy source (RES),
wind energy has achieved rapid development and growth. According to the estimation of International Energy Agency (IEA), the
annual wind-generated electricity of the world will reach
1282 TW h by 2020, nearly 371% increase from 2009. By 2030, that
gure will reach 2182 TW h almost doubling the year 2020 production [1].
Due to the intermittent nature of wind power, the wind power
integration into power systems brings inherent variability and
uncertainty. The impact of wind power integration on the system
stability and reliability is dependent on the penetration level [2].
From the reliability perspective, at a relative low penetration level,
Corresponding author at: Center for Electric Power and Energy, Department of
Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby 2800,
Denmark. Tel.: +45 4525 3529; fax: +45 4588 6111.
E-mail address: qw@elektro.dtu.dk (Q. Wu).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.04.103
0306-2619/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
the net-load uctuations are comparable to existing load uctuations [3], and the Conventional Generators (CGs), such as thermal
or hydro units, have sufcient load tracking capability without
requiring additional operating reserve. As the wind penetration
level increases, the response time of committed CGs should be
short enough during sudden and large changes of wind power production and load due to random failures and wind gusts, and more
operating reserves will be required. From the stability perspective,
different from synchronous generators, Wind Turbine Generators
(WTGs) provide only small or even no contribution to frequency
stability [4]. The wind power variation can also degrade the grid
voltage stability due to the surplus or shortage of power [5]. An
Energy Storage System (ESS) has the ability of exible charging
and discharging. Recent development and advances in the ESS
and power electronic technologies have made the application of
energy storage technologies a viable solution for modern power
application [6]. The potential applications mainly cover the following aspects. Through time-shifting, the power generation can be
546
regulated to match the loads. The ESS can also be used to balance
the entire grid through ancillary services, load following and load
leveling [7]. Moreover, it can meet the increasing requirement of
reserves to manage the uncertainty of wind generation [8] which
can increase the system operation efciency, enhance power
absorption, achieve fuel cost savings and reduce CO2 emissions.
Additionally, the ESS is a potential solution to smooth out the uctuations, and improve supply continuity and power quality [9].
For a specic application, the rst task of an ESS project is planning. It generally includes the type selection and size determination. Sometimes, the ESS siting also needs to be considered.
Several factors, such as technical features, economical cost and
local wind power characteristics, can inuence the ESS selection
[10]. Once a specic ESS type is chosen, the optimal sizing needs
to be done by balancing the benets and cost. If there are no geographical constraints, the ESS could be optimally installed to
achieve the maximum benet, mainly in the reduction of transmission system upgrade cost.
The operation and control strategies of the ESS are designed for
different application purposes. The recent studies mainly focus on
the coordinated control of wind farms and on-site ESSs. The shortterm (daily or hourly) dispatch scheme of an ESS and uctuation
smoothing by a wash-out lter are the two attractive areas. It is
also proposed to combine many dispersed ESSs as a virtual storage
unit and control centrally [10]. Since the ESS is an expensive solution, it is not economically viable for the ESS to work for a single
application service. It can also contribute to the system wide
control.
This paper is to review the state of the art of the ESS technologies and the applications for the wind power integration support
from different aspects. The paper is organized as follows: Section
2 introduces the principle and characteristics of present ESS technologies. The potential different roles played by the ESS for the
wind power integration support are described in Section 3. The
recent research of the ESS planning problem, including type selection, and optimal sizing and siting, are summarized in Section 4.
Finally, the operation and control strategies of the ESS for wind
power integration support are discussed in Section 5. The conclusion is drawn in Section 6.
2. Energy storage technologies
The electrical energy can be stored in different energy forms:
mechanical, electro-chemical, chemical, electromagnetic, thermal,
etc. [3,7]. The classication of energy storage technologies according to the stored energy form is illustrated in Fig. 1.
547
In (cycles)
In (years)
0.11.4
24
325
20100
20100
15100
820
580
580
600020,000
220
Efciency (%)
Very small
Small
100
0.10.3
0.20.6
0.10.3
20
Small
Small
0
2040
1015
5100
250
10005000
200400
8001500
6002500
300500
1501000
1501000
3002000
100010,000
Response time
7080
4175
8090
7590
6080
6575
7085
6075
6575
3444
8598
7580
$ (kW h)
6002000
4008000
250350
300600
5001500
12004000
10003000
6001500
7002500
10,000+
100300
200300
min
min
<s
<s
<s
<s
<s
s
s
smin
<s
<s
$ (kW)
Lifetime
PHS
CAES
FES
LA
NiCd
Li-on
NaS
VRB
ZnBr
FC
SC
SMES
Capital cost
System
>50
>25
1520
315
520
5100
1015
520
510
1030
412
Table 1
Capital cost of ESS.
>15,000
>10,000
104107
2501500
15003000
6001200
25004500
>10,000
10003650
103104
104105
0.10.2
0.20.6
5000
90700
75700
130010,000
120160
0.52
125
0.220
40,000120,000
2600
124 h+
124 h+
sh
sh
sh
minh
sh
s10 h
s10 h
s24 h+
ms1 h
ms8 s
1005000
5300
00.25
020
040
00.1
0.058
0.033
0.052
050
00.3
0.110
System
Table 2
Technical features of ESS.
PHS
CAES
FES
LA
NiCd
Li-on
NaS
VRB
ZnBr
FC
SC
SMES
Density
Rating
The rst generation of the FES has been available since 1970s
which uses a large steel rotating body on mechanical bearings. In
the FES, the rotational energy is stored in an accelerated rotor, a
massive rotating cylinder [10]. The main components are a rotating
cylinder (comprised of a rim attached to a shaft) in a compartment,
bearings and a shaft. The whole structure is placed in a vacuum
enclosure to reduce windage losses. During the charging process,
the rotor is accelerated to a very high speed which can reach from
20,000 to over 50,000 rpm. The energy is stored in the ywheel by
keeping the rotating body at a constant speed. During the discharging process, the ywheel releases energy and drives the machine as
a generator.
The main advantages of ywheels are the excellent cycle stability, a long life of providing full chargedischarge cycles, little maintenance cost, high power density and high efciency. The FES is
mainly applied as a power quality device to suppress fast wind
power uctuation, provide ride-through of interruptions of several
seconds or bridge the shift between two sources [11]. Besides, it is
also designed to provide damping enhancement [21]. The main
drawbacks are the short operation duration and high self-discharge
losses. They are considered as a support for wind turbines in combination with other ESSs rather than standing alone [13].
0.22
26
2080
5080
1580
200400
15300
2070
65
600 (200 bar)
1020
6
548
549
Time scales
Example of
EES
Hours to days
Frequency regulation
Seconds to
minutes
<1 s
PHS, NaS,
CAES, VRB
Li-ion, NaS,
FES, VRB
LA, NAS, FES,
VRB
PHS, FES, BES
PHS
the plant level reduces the need for power quality and ancillary
services at the system level [33].
3.1.3. Transmission utilization efciency
Rich wind resources are often located in rural areas far from
existing high capacity transmission lines [34]. Due to the transmission constraints, the energy produced may not be transferred to
the load. Additional ESS can mitigate transmission congestion,
defer or avoid transmission and distribution upgrades.
3.2. Grid-side roles of ESS
Currently, the ESS is required by the grid operator to provide
ancillary services to mitigate the variability and uncertainty of
the entire grid, rather than specic loads or wind farms. These
applications are listed in Table 3. Due to the geographical distribution of wind resources, the net variability and uncertainty are less.
Therefore, the need of the overall service is reduced [7].
3.2.1. Energy arbitrage/load leveling
In the electricity market, the electricity price varies from time to
time, normally hourly [14]. The ESS can be used to store low-cost
off-peak energy and releases when the price is higher. It can reduce
market risk exposure to volatile on-peak prices and manage high
cost energy imbalance charges [35].
3.2.2. Frequency regulation
Modern wind farms are required to provide frequency regulation by the grid operator. With high wind penetration level, providing frequency response from a wind farm is technically feasible by
10 min
Minutes to
hours
Minutes to
hours
Minutes to
hours
Li-ion
LA
550
551
552
Pord
bess
sT f
P wind
1 sT f
While the Remaining Energy Level (REL) of the ESS can be calculated as,
REL
P ord
Tf
bess
Pwind
s
1 sT f
Eq. (2) shows that the larger time constant Tf has higher
smoothing effect but also results in a larger ESS power and capacity. It is very important to select proper Tf for the controller design.
Normally, Tf is decided by the local wind prole and the ESS capacity, and is kept constant during operation [23,43,46,70,44] proposes a exible LPF with an optimal Tf. Tf is regulated by the
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm in real-time. The
maximum uctuation of the combined power in any 1 min and
30 min time window is kept within predened constraints.
With large output variations of wind farms, it is easy to reach
the capacity limits of the ESS by the mere smoothing method without consideration of the charging level. Therefore, the SOC is introduced as a feed-back signal to keep the charging level within its
proper range [23,44]. In [46], an additional coefcient k is introduced to protect the ESS from over-limiting, as shown in (3). k is
changed according to the predened curve based on SOC.
Pord
bess k
sT f
P wind
1 sT f
Fig. 4. Basic principle of using LPF algorithm for power uctuation mitigation.
553
[42] Binding C, Gantenbein D, Jansen B, et al. Electric vehicle eet integration in the
Danish EDISON project a virtual power plant on the island of Bornholm. In:
IEEE PES general meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; 2010.
[43] Lubosny Z, Bialek JW. Supervisory control of a wind farm. IEEE Trans Power
Syst 2007;22(3):98594.
[44] Jiang Q, Wang H. Two-time-scale coordination control for a battery energy
storage system to mitigate wind power uctuations. IEEE Trans Energy
Convers 2013;28(1):5261.
[45] Barton JP, Ineld DG. Energy storage and its use with intermittent renewable
energy. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2004;9(2):4418.
[46] Li Q, Choi SS, Yuan Y, et al. On the determination of battery energy storage
capacity and short-term power dispatch of a wind farm. IEEE Trans Sustain
Energy 2011;2(2):14858.
[47] Li W, Joos G, Abbey C. Wind power impact on system frequency deviation and
an ESS based power ltering algorithm solution. In: Power systems conference
and exposition, vol. 2; 2006. p. 207784.
[48] Yao DL, Choi SS, Tseng KJ, et al. Determination of short-term power dispatch
schedule for a wind farm incorporated with dual-battery energy storage
scheme. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2012;3(1):7484.
[49] Salgi G, Lund H. System behaviour of compressed-air energy-storage in
Denmark with a high penetration of renewable energy sources. Appl Energy
2008;85(4):1829.
[50] Baalbergen F, Bauer P, Ferreira JA. Energy storage and power management for
typical 4Q-load. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2009;56(5):148598.
[51] Abbey C, Strunz K, Jos G. A knowledge-based approach for control of twolevel energy storage for wind energy systems. IEEE Trans Energy Convers
2009;24(2):53947.
[52] Lee H, Shin BY, Han S, et al. Compensation for the power uctuation of the
large scale wind farm using hybrid energy storage applications. IEEE Trans
Appl Supercond 2012;22(3):5701904.
[53] Ise T, Kita M, Taguchi A. A hybrid energy storage with a SMES and secondary
battery. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 2005;15(2):19158.
[54] Succar S, Denkenberger DC, Williams RH. Optimization of specic rating for
wind turbine arrays coupled to compressed air energy storage. Appl Energy
2012;96:22234.
[55] Barton JP, Ineld DG. A probabilistic method for calculating the usefulness of a
store with nite energy capacity for smoothing electricity generation from
wind and solar power. J Power Sources 2006;162(2):9438.
[56] Bludszuweit H, Domnguez-Navarro JA, Llombart A. Statistical analysis of wind
power forecast error. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2008;23(3):98391.
[57] Bludszuweit H, Domnguez-Navarro JA. A probabilistic method for energy
storage sizing based on wind power forecast uncertainty. IEEE Trans Power
Syst 2011;26(3):16518.
[58] Yuan Y, Li Q, Wang W. Optimal operation strategy of energy storage unit in
wind power integration based on stochastic programming. IET Renew Power
Gener 2011;5(2):194201.
[59] Teleke S, Baran ME, Bhattacharya S, et al. Rule-based control of battery energy
storage for dispatching intermittent renewable sources. IEEE Trans Sustain
Energy 2010;1(3):11724.
[60] Wang XY, Mahinda Vilathgamuwa D, Choi SS. Determination of battery storage
capacity in energy buffer for wind farm. IEEE Trans Energy Convers
2008;23(3):86878.
[61] Brekken TKA, Yokochi A, Von Jouanne A, et al. Optimal energy storage sizing
and control for wind power applications. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy
2011;2(1):6977.
[62] Zhang Y, Zhu S, Chowdhury AA. Reliability modeling and control schemes of
composite energy storage and wind generation system with adequate
transmission upgrades. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2011;2(4):5206.
[63] Bose S, Gayme DF, Topcu U, et al. Optimal placement of energy storage in the
grid. In: IEEE 51st annual conference on decision and control (CDC); 2012. p.
560512.
[64] Ghofrani M, Arabali A, Etezadi-Amoli M, et al. A framework for optimal
placement of energy storage units within a power system with high wind
penetration. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2012;4(2):43442.
[65] Voller S, Al-Awaad AR, Verstege JF. Benets of energy storages for wind power
trading. In: IEEE international conference on sustainable energy technologies;
2008. p. 7026.
[66] Hu P, Karki R, Billinton R. Reliability evaluation of generating systems
containing wind power and energy storage. IET Gener Transm Distrib
2009;3(8):78391.
[67] Korpaas M, Holen AT, Hildrum R. Operation and sizing of energy storage for
wind power plants in a market system. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst
2003;25(8):599606.
[68] Bathurst GN, Strbac G. Value of combining energy storage and wind in shortterm energy and balancing markets. Electr Power Syst Res 2003;67(1):18.
[69] Yao DL, Choi SS, Tseng KJ, et al. A statistical approach to the design of a
dispatchable wind power-battery energy storage system. IEEE Trans Energy
Convers 2009;24(4):91625.
[70] Daz-Gonzlez F, Sumper A, Gomis-Bellmunt O, et al. Energy management of
ywheel-based energy storage device for wind power smoothing. Appl Energy
2013;110:20719.