SEKOLAH BERASRAMA PENUH INTEGRASI GOPENG

PREPARED BY :MUHD FAZLI BIN DOLLAH

CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN HUMANS & ANIMALS
SUPPORT IN PLANTS
TYPES OF SKELETON
Muscles, ligaments & tendon
LOCOMOTION
AQUATIC PLANTS
TERRESTRIAL PLANTS
Hydrostatic skeleton Birds Exoskeleton
Fish Grasshopper Appendicular skeleton
Endoskeleton
Axial skeleton
Earthworms
LEARNING OUTCOMES

To explain the necessity for support and locomotion in humans and animals, To de
scribe problems that could be faced by humans and animals in support and locomot
ion, To explain how problems in support and locomotion are overcome in humans an
d animals, To name the bones that make up the axial skeleton and appendicular sk
eleton of the human body
The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMA
LS NEED SUPPORT?
1. To find the food 2. To find partner for mating 3. To protect/escape from thei
r predator 4. To shelter from bad environment
The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals
Without support, animals & humans would not be able to maintain their body shape
their body collapse under the weight of their own tissues.

Support are provided by some form of skeleton.

Hydrostatic
skeleton Exoskeleton endoskeleton
HYDROSTATIC SKELETON

A fluid-filled internal body cavity in which the fluid is held under pressure
maintaining the body shape & providing support for internal organ The cavity is
surrounded by muscles arranged in layers. The body shape of the animal changes a
s these muscles contract &
The animals are soft & flexible, the hydrostatic fluid does protect body parts b
y acting as a shock absorber. Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech & caterpill
ar.
EXOSKELETON

A rigid outer covering usually made up of protein, chitins &/@ calcium salt. Ins
ects – the cuticle (covered with wax to prevent water loss from the body), cover
the body’s surface. The exoskeleton is jointed / hinged = certain points of the
skeleton are flexible & can bend enabling the
Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animals the exoskeleton must be shed from t
ime to time in order for the animal to grow. (ecdysis) Also found in the shells
of molluscs & the bony plates of tortoises. Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters,
tortoise
ENDOSKELETON

Found in the bodies of all vertebrates including fish, amphibians & birds. Consi
st of hard skeleton of bones & cartilage found inside the body – made up of calc
ium & phosphate. Works with the muscular system to perform movement & locomotion
. It support the body & protects the organs.
The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals

The functions of skeleton :

Provide
shape & support Enables movement (locomotion) Protects internal organs Sto
res calcium & phosphate ions Produces blood cells A firm base for the attach
ment of muscles
Problems that could be faced by humans and animals in support and locomotion,
gravitational
The Necessity for Support & Locomotion in Humans & Animals
force, friction & resistance when moving around

Aspect need to be considered when describing the locomotion of an animal :Stabil

ity – when it moves, it is temporarily unstable, but its stability will be resto
red when it stops. Support – must have enough support from
HOW TO OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS?

RESISTANCE & FRICTION – by streamlining their bodies. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE – most

animals have their own supporting structures (fins – fishes, wings – birds & st
rong limbs – tetrapods & humans) provide the propulsive force to overcome the
problem
The skeletal system together with its muscles are designed specially to overcome
the problems associated with support & locomotion of humans & animals. To initi
ate locomotion, the force required is generated by contraction of muscles, where
as
The adult human skeleton consist of 206 bones. Divided into two main parts : the
axial skeleton & the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton : made up of the
bones that form the vertical axis of the body.
THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
The appendicular skeleton : made up of the bones that are attached to the axial
skeleton. Include bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle & the pelvic girdle.
FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON

PROTECTION – the skull protects the brain, the vertebral column protects the spi
nal cord & the rib cage protects internal organs such as the heart. SUPPORT – ac
t as a framework to support the soft body parts, to maintain the upright positio
n & to keep the body stable.
MOVEMENT – bones interact with the skeletal muscle. BLOOD CELL FORMATION – most
of the blood cells are formed in the bone marrow of the long bones. MINERAL STOR
AGE – bones act as a reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.
FUNCTION OF THE SKELETON
SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETON AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON SKULL
VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE PELVIC GIRDLE
CERVICAL
THORACIC LUMBAR SACRUM
COCCYX
FORELIMB BONES
HINDLIMB BONES
THE SKULL

Made up of 8 cranial bones & 14 facial bones including the upper jaw & the lower
jaw. The facial bones also provide support & protect the entrances to the respi
ratory system.
SKULL
PARTS 8 Cranial bones Eye sockets Nasal bones Ear holes Maxilla (upper jaw) Mand
ible (lower jaw)
Are
FUNCTIONS fused to form immovable joints called sutures. Protect the brain & t
he sensory organs. to protect the eye ball.

to support nose tissues to protect inner part of ears to support upper teeth
to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Known as the spine/ backbone. Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic g
irdle. Made up of 33 vertebrae separated from each other by discs of cartilage (
intervertebral discs) which absorb shocks & serve as flex point. This S-shaped c
olumn supports & balances the body in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cor
d, supports the skull & provides a base for the attachment of muscles to the bac
k.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebrae differ in structure & function in different regions of the vertebr
al column. A vertebra typically consists of a main body (the centrum), a neural
arch & transverse processes.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
STRUCTURE FUNCTION Provides surface for attachment of ligaments & muscles. Provi
des surface for attachment of ligaments & muscles. Protects the spinal cord.
NEURAL SPINE TRANSVERSE PROCESS NEURAL ARCH/ VERTEBRAL FORAMEN CENTRUM NEURAL CA
NAL ARTICULATING SURFACE
Provides support & absorbs shocks. Provides the passage of nerves from the spina
l cord. Provides surface which articulates with the next vertebra.
TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
TYPE OF POSITION VERTEBRAE Cervical Vertebra NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE Below the 7 sku
ll MAIN CHARACTER

1st one – atlas vertebra 2nd – axis vertebrae Large neural canal/vertebral foram
en Short neural spine Flat centrum Short transverse processes Has a pair of vert
ebrarterial canals
CERVICAL VERTEBRA
THORACIC VERTEBRA
TYPE OF VERTEBRA E Thoracic Vertebra POSITIO N Thorax NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE 12

MAIN CHARACTER Neural canal/ vertebral foramen is smaller than cervical vertebra
’s

Long neural spine/ spinous processes (for attachment of back muscle)

Thick & big centrum

THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
TYPE OF POSITION VERTEBRA E Lumbar Waist Vertebra NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE 5

MAIN CHARACTER small neural canal/ vertebral foramen short neural spine thick &
big centrum long transverse processes for muscle attachment
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
SACRUM & COCCYX
TYPE OF POSITION VERTEBRA E Sacrum Pelvic region NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE 5 fused

MAIN CHARACTER Vertebrae fused to each other Has four pairs of openings

Coccyx
Caudal region
4 fused
Triangular
shape Bones fused to each other forming a triangular shape which tapers at one
end
SACRUM & COCCYX
THE STERNUM & RIBS

The rib cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs with the thoracic vertebrae at the bac
k portion of the body & join to the sternum in the front portion. Movement of th
e rib cage are brought about by intercostal muscles between the ribs.
THE STERNUM & RIBS

The sternum & ribs enclose & protect the internal organs (the lungs & heart) & p
lay an important role in breathing.
PECTORAL GIRDLE

Consist of scapula & clavicle. Links the upper limbs bones to the axial skeleton
. The scapula : bound by muscles to the back of the thorax. It is a flat, triang
ular bone which provides a surface for the attachment of muscles.
The clavicle : a rodshaped bone placed horizontally above the scapula. It links
the scapula to the sternum. It limits the movements of the scapula.
PELVIC GIRDLE

Consists of 6 fused bones – support the weight of the body from the vertebral co
lumn. Also protect the internal organs – urinary bladder & reproductive organs.
Made up of two halves, each consists of 3 bones (ilium, pubis & ischium)
PELVIC GIRDLE

The pelvic girdle is attached to the sacrum of the vertebral column. The asetabu
lum / socket for femur articulates with each side of the pelvic girdle at the hi
p joint.
Consists of humerus, radius & ulna. The Humerus :

FORELIMB BONES

The long bones of the upper arm Rounded head end fits into an open socket of t
he scapula forming a ball-and-socket joint (allow movement in all planes)
The posterior end of the humerus forms a hinge joint with the ulna with the ulna
radius bones, allowing movement in one plane only. The radius & ulna :

The bones on the forearm in which the ulna is longer than the radius. It has a n
otch at its upper end which articulates the humerus at the elbow.
The carpals :

The bones that form the wrist. Consists of 8 small bones

The metacarpals :

The rod-shaped ones that form the palm.

The phalanges :

The bones that form the fingers.

HINDLIMB BONES tibia Consists of femur,
& fibula.

The femur :

The longest, strongest & heaviest bone in the body. Support the tight. Play an i
mportant role in maintaining the body’s upright position & in locomotion as it i
s attached to massive muscles. The head of femur fits into the pelvic girdle to
form a joint. Other end, articulates with the tibia & fibula at the knee.
The tibia & fibula :

The bones of the lower leg. Support the shank. Tibia larger than fibula & is the
weight-bearing bone of the leg. Fibula is a long & thin bone – not bear any loa
d more important for attachment of muscles than for support. Articulate with t
he tarsals of the ankle.
The tarsals :

The 7 bones that form the ankle.

The metatarsals :

The 5 rod-shaped bones that form the foot.

The phalanges :

The bones that form the toes.

The patella/kneecap :

A small rounded, movable bone. Protect the knee joint.