Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Structures
Agamoni Das
Asst Manager-Projects, mageba India
adas@mageba.in, Kolkata, India
Santanu Majumdar
CEO, mageba India
smajumdar@mageba.in , Kolkata, India
1. Introduction
The design of critical structures to withstand the effects of earthquakes continues to gain importance all over
the world. The main objective of any seismic protection system would always be the peoples safety. However,
the integrity of the structures and their serviceability immediately after an earthquake play an important role in
the speed of the emergency response, particularly bridges, hospitals and schools. Additionally, the cost
associated with repair or reconstruction of damaged structures is likely to be small compared to the economic
impact caused by disruption of serviceability after an earthquake and during the long reconstruction phase. In
order to assure functionality of buildings and bridges, they must be designed to safely withstand the devastating
forces of seismic ground movements. Past earthquakes have served as full-scale tests and the often tragic results
have forced engineers to reconsider design principles and philosophies.
The need for safer structures has stimulated the adoption of a common earthquake protection strategy which
has seen conventional bearings being replaced by seismic isolation devices. An isolation system placed between
the building structure and its foundations is generally capable of increasing both flexibility and energy
dissipation. Flexibility in the horizontal plane will lower the frequency of the bridge, decreasing earthquakeinduced acceleration, while the energy-dissipating capacity of the seismic isolators will considerably reduce the
damaging energy exerted to other structural members. Moreover, when isolation bearings are installed in the
structure, the lateral force from the foundations during a seismic event can be distributed among all structural
elements, avoiding the concentration of lateral forces at specific locations. Seismic isolation systems provide an
alternative to conventional earthquake resistance design such as strengthening of structural elements (columns
or beams), and have the potential for significantly reducing seismic risk without compromising safety, reliability,
and economy of structures. Together with the adoption of new performance-based design criteria, this has
resulted in seismic isolation technologies already becoming the preferred option for many structural engineers.
As an alternative to seismic isolation, energy dissipation becomes essential in terms of seismic protection. The
use of effective devices able to dissipate high amounts of energy ensures that other structural elements do not
undergo excessive demands that could cause significant damage.
An effective seismic isolation system shall provide the following four functions:
a)
Performance under all service loads, vertical and horizontal, shall be as effective as conventional
structural bearings
b) Provide enough horizontal flexibility in order to reach the target natural period for the isolated
structure
c)
Re-centering capabilities even after a severe earthquake so that no residual displacements could
disrupt the serviceability of the structure.
d) Provide an adequate level of energy dissipation: in order to control the displacements that otherwise
could damage other structural elements.
to minimize the seismic energy flow to the superstructure and to limit the horizontal displacements of the
isolators. In lead rubber bearings, the lead plug deforms plastically and thus dissipates energy through hysteretic
damping. In the curved surface sliders, the energy is dissipated by friction between the sliding material and a
curved stainless steel sliding surface.
2.1. Lead Rubber Bearings (LRB)
Lead Rubber Bearings consist of alternate layers of rubber and vulcanized reinforcement steel plates of limited
thickness and a central lead core. They can dissipate energy up to 30% damping due to the high damping capacity
of the lead core, as shown in Fig. 3.1-a. LRBs work on the principle of base isolation and limit the energy
transferred from the ground to the structure in order to protect it. The rubber/steel laminated bearing is
designed to carry the weight of the structure and make the post-yield elasticity available. The rubber provides
the isolation and the re-centering. The lead core deforms plastically under shear deformations, while dissipating
energy through heat.
2.2. High Damping Rubber Bearings (HDRB)
High Damping Rubber Bearings consist as well of alternate layers of rubber and vulcanized reinforcement steel
plates of limited thickness. HDRB are essentially elastomeric bearings manufactured with chemically improved
rubber. They allow isolation of the structure dissipate energy up to 16% damping (Fig. 3.1-b).
2.3. Curved Surface Sliders (Pendulum Isolators, PI)
Pendulum isolators are based on the working principle of a pendulum. The isolators allow the horizontal
displacement of the structure, while providing the necessary natural period shifting required by the seismic
isolation system. Once activated by an earthquake, the isolators will allow the virtual decoupling of the
supported structure from the ground. Subsequently, the restoring force due to gravity will bring it back toward
the center position. The performance of the device mainly depends on the radius of curvature and the coefficient
of friction. Pendulum isolators can be design with single or double curved surfaces. Fig. 4 shows an example of
the single pendulum isolator. Fig. 5 shows the general construction of a double pendulum isolator. The working
principle of the pendulum isolators is shown in Figure 6.
Transmit the vertical loads due to permanent and accidental effects in seismic condition; it is possible
to cover a wide range of loads about up to 50,000 kN
Support the horizontal loads due to service load conditions with low displacements
d) Damping ratio from 10% to up to 30% equivalent viscous damping value to reduce the horizontal
displacement of the isolated structure respect to the ground
e) Guarantee the stability at the maximum horizontal displacement due to seismic excitation; it is possible
to guarantee a wide range of displacements function of the applied vertical load and horizontal stiffness
f)
Significant dissipation of energy during a large scale earthquake, leading to a reduced structure size and
total bridge cost
g)
Effective solution for several types of bridges and buildings. It is highly suitable to be applied in crucial
buildings as hospitals, schools or research facilities
Among the different isolation system, the effectiveness of LRBs has been proven by numerous articles
as well as during numerous earthquakes
j)
The isolation of structures by LRBs is the most used seismic isolation technology in the world
k)
Very well-known technology with 20-30 years of experience in many applications for buildings and for
bridges all around the world
l)
Very simple maintenance mainly limited to a periodic visual inspection for all the design life
m) High capacity of reducing the seismic forces on the structure; this implies simplification of the structure
design and reduction of the structure construction costs
n) Very easy simulation of the device response due to a simple bi-linear modeling
Reduction of the dynamic impact on structural elements allowing slender as well as economic
structures
b) Significant increase of the seismic safety of the structure and its users
c)
d) Re-centering capabilities allowing the structure to return to the initial position after excessive
displacements
e) Simplicity in design and adaptability to any type of structure
f)
g)
Longer life of the devices due to highest quality standards for all components
h) Virtually maintenance free due to high durability of the corrosion protection and high performance
sliding material
i)
Proven seismic protection technology throughout the years in structures all over the world
of additional damping, significantly reducing design loads acting on the adjacent structural members. The
devices are ideally combined with seismic isolators such as lead rubber bearings, high damping rubber
bearings or pendulum isolators to further reduce forces and control the movements of the structure.
3.2. Shock Transmission Units (STU)
Shock transmission units consist of a piston, a piston rod and a cylinder pipe. They are temporary (dynamic)
connecting devices allowing free movements during service conditions while locking up during a shock loading
from an earthquake or due to traffic/train breaking. In such cases, they transmit the forces to the connected
elements (Figure 9 and 10).
Shock transmission units also known as lock-up devices work on the principle that the rapid passage of a
viscous fluid through a narrow gap, orifice or port generates high resistance, while slow passage at low velocity
generates only minor resistance. Consequently, RESTONSTU devices lock-up during a quick motion, while
delivering a very small reaction force caused by friction during slow displacements such as from thermal
expansion or contraction.
STUs do not dissipate energy and consequently there is no reduction of the load impacts. However, by locking
up in certain extraordinary events, the STUs temporarily change the static system of a structure, e.g. from simply
supported to continuously supported elements. The main purpose is to control the load distribution and to share
the forces with several structural elements. In addition, STU devices avoid large movements of the structural
elements such as bridge decks in case of sudden load impacts.
For general loads due to traffic, creep, shrinkage and thermal variations, the PSD devices act as fixed
points of the structure and do not allow any movements.
2.
In a seismic event, the PSD devices allow the structure to move. The units dissipate seismic energy and
control displacements simultaneously.
3.
After a seismic event, the PSD devices automatically re-center them-selves back to their initial position.
The proper definition of the preloaded value F0 is very important, as the units will prevent any displacement
before reaching this threshold. It has to be further taken into account that F0 varies in relation to the
temperature. Preloaded spring dampers can dissipate over 30% of the introduced energy due to a dynamic
event. This allows the structures to be protected at a lower cost as compared to conventional strengthening
methods.
The re-centering capability is given by the internal compression. The return force has to be defined in advance
and is an important design parameter of the device. In any case, return force and friction force must be higher
than the friction force of the structures sliding bearing, which ensures its return to initial position.
These devices can be produced in the following options:
1.
2.
3.
Traction only
4.
2.
Longer lifespan of the devices due to finest quality standards for all components
3.
Structural engineer evaluates the dynamic characteristic of the proposed isolator together with the
designer of the device
b) The bilinear model of the isolators hysteresis is applied to the seismic analysis of the building, based
on the information provided by the manufacturer
c)
d) Structural engineer provides the manufacturer with final parameters, such as stiffness, displacements,
loads and dimension limitations.
e) The manufacturer shall optimize the design of the units once target horizontal stiffness and
displacements are fully defined
f)
Structural engineer shall review and approve the final design of the devices
For the above process, a nonlinear seismic analysis of structures is recommendable in order to find the most
effective seismic protection system. This advanced optimization process provides safe and economical
structures. Such analysis can be performed in accordance with any seismic norm (EN, AASHTO, JSCE, IBC, BS,
JPN, etc.). A nonlinear seismic analysis allows the precise calculation of forces and displacements that could
potentially occur during a determined earthquake.
5. Performance and CE certification of seismic devices
Seismic devices are designed and manufactured in accordance with European Standard EN 15129, EN 1337 and
with European Technical Approval ETA-08/0115. Bearings are marked with the CE mark of conformity, which
confirms that they satisfy all requirements of these Standards and Approval, without exception. The seismic
devices can also be designed, manufactured and tested in accordance with international specifications, such as
the AASHTO Guide Specification for Seismic Isolation Design, Japanese Specifications, National Norms, etc.
6. Conclusions
The use of a seismic protection strategies such as seismic isolation and energy dissipation by added damping has
proven to be a sensible approach to the challenges presented by the need to make important and key structures
seismically safe in accordance with current seismic design standards. By providing an alternative to conventional
earthquake resistance design measures, it saves the major strengthening works which would otherwise be
required, if the benefits of energy dissipation and damping were not incorporated in the design. The application
of seismic protection technologies thus demonstrate the potential such an approach, and such devices, have to
significantly reduce seismic risk without compromising the safety, reliability, and economy of structures.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2009. EN 15129 - Anti-seismic devices. Brussels,
Belgium.
Mendez Galindo, C, Spuler, T, Moor, G, & Stirnimann, F. 2012. Design, full-scale testing and CEcertification of anti-seismic devices according to the new European norm EN 15129: Elastomeric
Isolators. 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Lisbon, Portugal.
Mendez Galindo, C, Spuler, T, Moor, G, & Stirnimann, F. 2012. Design, full-scale testing and CEcertification of anti-seismic devices according to the new European norm EN 15129: Curved Surface
Sliders. 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Lisbon, Portugal.
Moor, G, Mendez, C, and OSuilleabhain, C. 2011. Measuring Up, Bridge Design & Engineering, Issue 63.
London, England.