Lipids

151.232
Dr Cheryl Gammon
2014
IFNHH, Albany
Massey University

Lipids 1
Learning outcomes:
By the end of this session you should be able to:
Define the functions of lipids in the human body and
in food
Differentiate between different types of lipids
according to their chemical structure, classification
and food sources
Describe the digestion, absorption, transport and
metabolism of lipids

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Introduction
Fat plays critical role in health and functioning
of human body:
Source of energy (37kJ/g / 9kcal/g)
Insulates body from temperature extremes
Cushion vital organs to protect from mechanical
shock
Carriers of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K
Important structural component of cell membranes
Play role in cell signaling
Precursors for synthesis of hormones and other
important physiological mediators

Introduction (cont)
In food, lipids contribute to aroma, flavour,
texture
However, over-consumption associated
with chronic disease (CHD, obesity,
cancer)
Focus over last decades to decrease
dietary fat intake
Is less fat better?

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Introduction (cont)
Recent research has
shown that very low fat
diets will not
necessarily chronic
disease.
Very low-fat diets
(<15%E), where fat is
replaced with CHO
(>60%E) possible
adverse effects

Introduction (cont)
Different types of fatty acids or fatty
food sources different physiological
effects.
Risk for chronic disease depend on
quality rather than quantify of dietary fat.
E.g. replacing saturated fatty acids
(SFA) with unsaturated fatty acids more
effective in CHD risk than by total
fat intake.

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Lipids
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols)
Fats and oils (95%)
Human body (99%)
Phospholipids
Sterols

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White Adipose Tissue

White (yellow) adipose tissue (WAT)
Stores triacylglycerols.
Storage stimulated by insulin / reported by leptin.
Catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline) and
glucagon:
activate lipolysis
FFAs blood
Used for energy by other tissues (mainly muscle
tissue).
Number and sites of adipocytes dependent on
genetic predisposition and feeding habits.

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White adipose tissue

Brown Adipose tissue (BAT)

Metabolically highly active and different from WAT.
Regulated by catecholamines and adrenergic (sympathetic)
nerves via adrenoreceptors.
Especially active in hibernating animals and human babies.
Essential to body temperature maintenance in small
mammals.
In humans and other large mammals, BAT mostly
disappears after infancy.
Exposure to cold or excess food energy intake (cafeteria
diet) leads to fatty acid catabolism (oxidation of fatty acids).
BAT produces heat (uncoupling proteins) instead of ATP
and gives significant rise in body temperature.

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Brown adipose tissue

Transgenic Mice expressing human

Uncoupling Protein 3 (UCP3).
Mice ate 15 - 54% more than controls
Fat-tissue mass 44 - 57% less than controls.
Cholesterol levels 70% lower
i.e. able to eat more than normal but still weigh
less due to increased fat metabolism.
UCP-3 is one possible drug target for obesity research.
no side effects from the increased UCP3
greater insulin sensitivity

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Triglycerides
glycerol + 3 fatty
acids triglyceride
+ H2O
Properties depends
on constituent fatty
acids

Fatty Acids

Saturated (Stearic acid 18:0)

Simplified structure
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Fatty Acids
Length
Saturated vs unsaturated
Location of double bonds (omega number)
Configuration of double bonds (shape)

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Fatty Acids
Length of carbon chain
Short chain (<6 carbons) (primarily in dairy
products, produced by fermentation in colon)
Medium chain (6-12 carbons) (Intermediates
of LCFA synthesis, coconut milk, dairy
products)
Long chain (>14 carbons) (most common in
diet)

Shorter more soluble in water

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Fatty Acids
Degree of saturation
Saturated fatty acid
Monounsaturated fatty acid
Polyunsaturated fatty acid

An impossible chemical structure

Monounsaturated (Oleic acid 18:1)

Polyunsaturated (Linoleic acid 18:2)

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Degree of saturation affects firmness of

food products at room temperature

Fatty Acids
Location of double bonds
Omega number
Omega-3 fatty acid
Omega-6 fatty acid

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Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

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Dietary sources of SFA

Animal products (butter, meat, poultry,
full-fat dairy products, plant oils
(coconut, palm, palm kernel)
Palm kernel vs palm:
Palm kernel - 82% SFA
Palm - 50% SFA,
50% UFA (MUFA)

MUFA:
Olives, olive oil, canola, nuts, avocado, rice bran oil (43%)

PUFA:
N-6 (linoleic acid): sunflower oil, PUFA margarine,
soybean, nuts, corn oil, cotonseed oil, rice bran oil (39%),
grapeseed oil, sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, etc.
Gamma-linolenic acid: evening primrose, borage,
blackcurrant seed oil
N-3: plant sources (ALA) = soybean, canola, flaxseed
(linseed), walnuts, Chia seeds
Fish sources (EPA, DHA) = mackerel, pilchards, salmon,
sardines, herring, kipper, farmed kingfish, snapper, grey
mullet, kahawai, Jack mackerel, squid, mussels, eel
Marine algae (rich source of DHA)
n-3 fortified products = eggs, milk, spreads, bread

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Fatty acid composition of some fats & oils

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Other sources: fish oil and algal oil supplements

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Characteristics of fats in food

Degree of unsaturation
Firmness at room
temp (liquid/solid)
Stability
Oxidation
Antioxidants
Hydrogenation

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Hydrogenation
Chemical process of adding H to unsat. FA to
make it more solid and stable

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Trans fatty acids

Food manufacturers rarely use total
hydrogenation and fat is partially
hydrogenated yielding trans fatty acids
E.g. shortening, margarine
Small amounts of trans fats also found in
animal products due to bio-hydrogenation
Unsaturated health benefits lost
Associated with CHD risk important to
decrease / eliminate from food supply

Trans fatty acids

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Food sources of trans FA

Deep-fried foods (vegetable shortenings)
Cakes, cookies, doughnuts, pastry, crackers,
snack chips
Margarine / spreads
Meat and dairy products (via bio hydrogenation)
In NZ: 0.6%E (WHO recommendation <1%E)
(2009 FSANZ report)

>85% intakes below 1%

75% from ruminant foods
High consumers (>1%): greatest contribution from
pastry products, creamy style pasta dishes, cheese,
popcorn, doughnuts, take away fish products

Alternatives to hydrogenation
Edible fats suitable for use by food
industry need to be solid or semi-solid
at room temperature.
People demand optimal taste, flavor,
texture, shelf-stability, convenience,
novelty as well as healthy products.
Two possibilities:
Interesterification
Blending of natural saturated fatty acids
with unsaturated fatty acids

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Alternatives to hydrogenation
Interesterification = randomisation of the fatty
acid positional distribution along the glycerol
backbone of the TG molecule
1) 31% C16:0

1) 23% C16:0

2) 9% C16:0

2) 25% C16:0

3) 31% C16:0

3) 23% C16:0

Palm oil

Inter-esterified palm oil

Interesterification
No trans fatty acids introduced
Fatty acid composition stays the same.
IE modify melting and crystallisation
properties of fats & oils mixtures - resulting
in desired functional properties.
Process already chosen as route of choice
for some food manufacturers.
Trans-free spreads in NZ

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Blending:
Blending of unsaturated fat sources with
natural SFA rich oils such as palm oil.

Solid fat

Liquid oil

Palm-stearin
Palmkernel oil
Coconut oil
Fully hydrogenated
oils (high in C18:0)

Soy bean oil

Sunflower oil
Corn oil

IE

Phospholipids

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Phospholipids
Similar to TG but contain
phosphorous
Water soluble head & fatsoluble tail
Component of cell membranes.
Regulates transport of
substances in & out of cells
Serve as emulsifiers (allow fat
& water to mix and travel in and
out of cells)
Lecithin often used as
emulsifier in food
Egg yolks, peanuts, soybeans
Body manufactures. Thus not
essential.
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Cholesterol
Animal products
Roles of cholesterol
Bile acids
Sex hormones
(estrogen &
testosterone)
Adrenal hormones
Vitamin D
Structural component
of cell membrane
Body makes own
cholesterol.
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Thomson Learning

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Cell membrane function depends upon

maintenance of their lipid composition

Fluidity depends upon content

of unsaturated FAs

Less fluid at lower temperature

cholesterol opposes

Plant sterols
Naturally occurring
in plants (vegetable
oils, seeds, nuts)
Not well absorbed
Functional food
Decrease blood
cholesterol

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Dietary fat

95%
Triglycerides
(Fatty acids)

Saturated
fatty acids

Trans

5%

Sterols

+ Phospholipids

Unsaturated
Fatty acids

Monounsaturated

Polyunsaturated

Omega-3

Omega-6

Fat Digestion
Mouth
Melting when body temp reached
Lingual lipase
Small role in adults
Active role in infants (digest short &
medium-chain fatty acids in milk)
Little lipid digestion

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Fat Digestion
Stomach
Churning and mixing fat with water
and acid
Gastric lipase (primarily on SCFA)
Little lipid digestion

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Fat Digestion
Small intestine (most of the
digestion)
Cholecystokinin (CCK) causes
gallbladder to contract and release
Bile - emulsification

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Fat Digestion

Bile = bile salts made from cholesterol + lecithin + other

phospholipids + electrolytes (Na, K, Cl, Ca)
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Fat Digestion

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Fat Digestion
Pancreatic+
Hydrolysis
intestinal lipase
Triglycerides monoglycerides +
2 free fatty acids
Phospholipase

Phospholipids lyso-phospholipid
+ 1 free fatty acid
CE-hydrolyse

Cholesterolesters free
cholesterol + 1 free fatty acid
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Fat Digestion

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Fat
Digestion
Overview

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Fat Digestion
Enterohepatic
circulation
How viscous
fiber decrease
cholesterol

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Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group a division of Thomson Learning

Lipid Transport to tissue

Lipoproteins hydrophobic lipid core,
lipophilic/protein surface
4 major classes (categorised by
function & density)
Chylomicrons
VLDL = very-low-density lipoproteins
LDL = low-density lipoproteins
HDL = high-density lipoproteins

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Lipid Transport

Apolipoproteins
Important role in lipid metabolism:
Ligand for chylomicron & LDL-receptor (apoE,
apoB100)
Activator of enzymes (lipases) (apoA-I, apoC-II)
Give structure (apoA-II)
Mediates lipoprotein formation (apoB48, apoB100)

Apolipoprotein profile genetically determined

Genetic variants may result in specific metabolic
disorders (e.g. APOE polymorphisms)

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Receptor mediated uptake of cholesterol

and cellular cholesterol homeostasis
Cholesterol
LDL-R
synthesis
HMGCoA
reductase
cholesterol
synthesis
Activation
of ACAT
storage of
excess CE

HMGCoA: Hydroxymethyl-glutaryl-CoA; ACAT: Acyl CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase

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Reference values for lipid

profiles
TC <4-5mmol/L
LDLC <2.5-3mmol/L (fasting)
Friedewald formula:
LDLC=TC-HDLC-(TG/2.2)
HDLC >1mmol/L
TG (fasting) <1.7mmol/L
TC/HDLC <4.5
Conversion from mg/dL
Cholesterol: x0.0259
TG: x0.0113

How does plant sterols lower [cholesterol]?

Dietary cholesterol

Micelle

Faeces

Bile

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Plant sterols

Chrystals

Dietary cholesterol

Micelle

Faeces

Bile

Plant Sterols: Mechanism of action (continue)

Consequences for cholesterol metabolism

Reduced absorption:
Lower liver [cholesterol]

Liver compensate:
cholesterol synthesis
(HMG-CoA reductase)
* LDL-receptors

LDL-receptors:

* uptake from circulation

* serum TC & LDLC

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Regulation of fat storage &

oxidation
FA circulate in blood in form of
NEFA bound to albumin
As TG in lipoproteins
Ketone bodies (prolonged starvation)

Storing of fat

Fat is stored as TG
Provides 37kJ/g
Unlimited capacity unlike glycogen stores
LPL (on surface of adipose cells) hydrolyse TG in
lipoproteins to fatty acids & glycerol and passes into
cells.
In cell TG are again formed for storage.
Adipose cells always stores fat after meals. Later
released when needed (fasting).

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Making fat from CHO or protein

Excess CHO & protein can be stored as fat
FA can be made from CHO and amino acids
not vice versa
FA preferred fuel for oxidation whenever
circulating concentrations are high (fasting)
and glucose is spared.

Making fat from fat:

Body simply absorbs the parts and puts them
together again in storage.
Requires very little energy.
To convert CHO to fat requires more energy.

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Using fat as energy

Fat supplies 60% of bodys ongoing energy needs
during rest.
During prolonged exercise or extended periods of
food deprivation greater supply of energy.
FA stored as TG in adipose tissue mobilised by
action of hormone sensitive lipase (HSL).
HSL hydrolyse stored TG into FA & glycerol and
release in circulation.
Oxidation regulated by availability of FA and rate of
utilisation which in turn is dictated by insulin:glucagon

Fasting /exercise - insulin - HSL (break

down of TG in adipose tissue) - NEFA in
circulation.
Ingestion of food - insulin - LPL, HSL lipolysis, esterification of FA in adipose tissue
(TG).
TG in chylomicron/VLDL

Fat cell

LPL

TG

Fatty acids + glycerol

Fatty acids + glycerol

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