ROMAN

LIFE

AND

MANNERS
THE

UNDER

EARLY

EMPIRE

By

FRIEDLANDER

LUDWIG
Authorized
and

Translation

Revised

Edition

the

of

of the

Seventh

Enlarged

Roms
Sittengeschichte

by
J. H. FREESE,
AND

LEONARD

(In

M.A.

(Cams.)

MAGNUS,

A.

LL.B.

Volumes)

Three
Volume

II

LONDON

GEORGE

ROUTLEDGE
NEW

YORK:

"

E.

P.

LIMITED

SONS,

BUTTON

"

CO.

A.

2-s.y2"^0

The

Author's

Excursuses

Notes

and

in
a

fourth

volume

will

be

published

ROMAN
LIFE

AND

MANNERS
UNDER

THE

EARLY
EMPIRE

CONTENTS

CHAP.

PAGE

Spectacles

The

1-130
Considerations

General

Spectacles
Pattern

Circenses.

et

The

spectacles.

spectacles
and

Political
in

(especially
of

the

The

three

of

chief

classes

of

the

limited
of

demoralization.

The

of

Presents

shows

Public

not

ance
appearof

symptom

the

of

and

foreigners.

the

distinction

Attitude

year.
ordinary
Extra-

emperors

it.

towards
I

the

tainment
Enter-

of

classes.

of

senatorial

in

spectacles.

Influx

lower

persons

the

spectators.

influence
the

to

Expenses

Illuminations.

distributed.

Demoralizing

mitted.
per-

Etiquette

days

of

the

people.

emperors,

on

festival

spectacles.
tickets

by

dress).

burden

heavy

Number

for

Petitions

the

of

matter

the

at

the

demonstrations.

the
a

games

order.

Emperors

of

even

Circus

19-40

......

Site

and

dimensions

Traffic

in

and

with

Compared
circles

of

'

colours.

'

Gradual
Rome.

The

Chariot

'

'

their

"

of

development
for

Preparations
V

racing.

personnel

of the
the

highest
in

and

Rome

circus
drivers.

The

interested

keenly

circus.

Decorations.

jockeys.

Factions

Factions

great

circus.

races.

modern

society

Racehorses.

the

seats.

the

near

Chariot

games.

of
the

of

Arrangement

at

1-19

tion
distinc-

of

persons

forward

brought

in

substitute

condescension.

abuse,

Rome.

interest
a

them.

at

imperial

as

How

their

complaints

Gibes

spectacles

received

were

in

Imperial

assemblies.

popular

and

necessity

and

nople.
Constanti'

circus

factions
games.

'

Contents

ri

PAGE

CHAP.

The

Public

machus.
ceremonies.

Chariots

the

The

circus.

the

of

number

teams.

The

younger

processionto

and

and

SymSuperstitious

the

excitement.

The

Arrangements

II

of

praetorian games

the

races.

The

race.

present condition

of

tors.
spectasite of

the

circus.

The

Amphitheatre

Gladiatorial

The

1.

40-90

....

Games

gradual development of

Beginnings and

41-63

the

Numbers
of the
batants.
comgladiatorial games.
shows.
of
the
Increasing splendour

Extraordinary
The

interest.

Freedmen.

Amateur

soners
fight. Pri-

gladiators.
under
Gladiators
compulsion and
of the
profession.
Advantages
Commodus
as
a
ator.
gladigladiators.

war.

volunteers.

Innocent

compelled to
persons
Slaves employed as

condemned
of

The

amphitheatre.

criminals.

Condemned

public
gladiators.
or
unjustly

stimulate

to

measures

Gladiators

favourites

public. Spanish
Trade

in

schools

with

with

compared

toreros

and

women

the

ators.
gladi-

atorial
gladiators. Imperial gladi-

in Rome,

outside

and

Rome.

of the

imperial gladiatorsin Rome.

Stem
Arrangement of the schools.
discipline
Careful
Gladiatorial
diet.
zations.
organinecessary.
Number

fencing. Differences
Devotion
of rank.
of gladiatorsto their order
to
and
their masters.
Employment
loyalty
in

Instruction

gladiators in war.
Suicide and mutiny in

of

of the
the

arena.

Gladiators
the

the schools.

The

lot.

ments
Advertise-

Parade
in
Free meals.
games.
The
chief
of combats.
classes

killed

or

spared

the

at
'

bidding

factions.'

of

bats
Com-

masse.

Animal-Baiting

2.

first exhibitions

century
and

miserable

spectators. Gladiatorial
en

Rare

Their

of the

animals
in

of animals.

republicand
in

modem

hippopotamus.

in

Europe in
times.

Number

62-74

....

imperialtimes.
Middle

the

Giraffe
and

In the last

Ages

rhinoceros

variety of

the

Contents

vii

CHAP.

PAOE

animals.

Animal
driven

and
and

Egjrpt

claims

hunts.

Wild
from

out

animals

tirpated
ex-

Africa

northern

still full of them.

; Asia

Imperial
imperial
Animals
procured
and
foreign parts.
lions.

The

elephants and
menageries in Rome.
from
the
provinces
of hunting them.
Their transport,
Methods
and
decoration, taming
training. Animal
and
Huntsmen
hounds.
fightsin the arena.
to

Persons
Theatrical

death

to

put

wild

by

animals.

spectacle. Executions
accompanied by theatrical and
mal
pantomimic performances. Mythological anipantomimes.
and

outfit of the

tortures

Naumachiae

3. The

Naval

in the

engagements

amphitheatre.
Caesar, Augustus,

Summary
Views
the

in

the

crowd.

Romans

on

the

opinion of
habit.
cence
Magnifiindividual

amphitheatre

the

beginning of

at the

still in

century. Venationes
sixth century.
Spread of
amphitheatre throughout

the

the

the

western

and

the

the

Middle

provinces.

East.

Fate

Ages

and

in

games

empire.

Asia

Greece.

of the

the

existence

in the

The

lost

atorial
Spanish bull-fights. Gladi-

abolished

games

in

shows
condemns

Roman

in

Games

the

alone

Seneca

for

with

compared
fifth

Philip.

and

of
Slavery. Force
of the spectacles. The

them.

Julius
Fucine

the

76-90

amphitheatre.
Reasons

74-76

of

arena

of

(on

......

of educated

them.

flooded

Claudius

lake), Titus, Domitian,

Naumachiae

The

the

Minor

amphitheatres
times.

modem

in

The

amphitheatres at Nlmes, Aries, Frejus, Verona.

The

Colosseum.
The

Ill

Theatre

Relation

of theatricalshows

The

Atellana.

The

mimus

Choricius.

90-117

The
in

Its

Mimus.

Justinian'stime

AUusions

especially to

the

spectacles.

to other

to events

indecency.

according to

of the

day (and

The

artistic

emperors).

viii

Contents

iogata and the palliata. Actors

in the palliata. Tragedy. Separationof song
in tragedy. Dissolution of tragedy
and dance

The

drama.

Semi-dramatic

into its elements.

concert

formances
per-

tragedians. The pantomime as

an
independent kind of art. The libretti oi the
The
music
of the pantomimes.
pantomimes.
cloak dance.
The pantomimic dance.
Robe
or
Pantomimic
displays. Expressiveness of the
of

pantomime.
and

Its

sensuous

corrupting influence.

of Paris

judgment

indecency,

Tragic

and

comic
Other

Bathyllus.

pantomime.
Pylades and
orchestral performances.
The

charm,

dance.

Pyrrhic
Pyrrhic,described

The

as

the
on
by Apuleius. Pantomime
supreme
in the
of dancing.
art
stage. Dilettantism
Actors
to
actors.
chiefly
Infamia attaching
slaves

freedmen.

or

Honours

actors.

Court

in the

Disturbances
The

and

Rome.

in

The

before

Rome

Neronea.

Later

at Rome.

guilds.

Difference

Roman

views

between

of

Their

positionin Rome

Romans

especially
them.

to

took

part

in athletics
Their

athletes.
the

athletics.

in Greece.

improved

Rome,

of the

tests
con-

Gymnastics

Dilettantism

contests.

at

Capitoline

of the

Nero.

Civil status

athletes

athletic

Opposition
comparatively seldom

Romans

in athletic

into

perial
im-

the

Augustus

athletics.

introduced

17-130

Nicopolis,

at

The

Dislike

agon.
agones.
to
and
gymnastics

The

'.

period. The Actian games

the periodicalgames
under
Frequent repetitionof

by

factions

.....

contests

encouraged

Public

theatre.

Stadium

nevertheless

'

Theatrical

actors.

in Rome.

Rewards.

imperialfavourites.

in the

Athletic

famous

positionof

distinctions.

and

often

actors

interest

IV

Social

Greek

and

High repute of
privileges.Their
also after the third

century.
II

Roman

Luxury

General

Review

131-230
of

the

Introductory remarks.

Subject
The

common

view

131-145

Contents

ix

CHAP.

PAGE

II

partly
Luxury
Luxury

exceptions and anomalies.

the Emperors (Caligulaand Nero).
the petty German
despots in the
and
ury
Luxeighteenth centuries.
nabobs
in the later days of the

based
of
of

seventeenth
the

of

on

Their

republic.

The

wealth

especiallyof
individual

most

century, in

Russia

of

The

; in the

destruction

views

of

Varro, Seneca

to

of

food

of

feather

drink

and

with

cushions.

compare.

The

main

Pliny,e.g.

and

Ancient

luxury

of valuables.

three

our

Ages

nineteenth

"

strict

largest

America.

difficult

of

and

modern,

exceptions ^Apicius.

of the wanton

parison.
com-

Middle

the

and

wealth

modern

Further

"

in

centuries

penses.
ex-

fortunes

times.

recent

fortunes

succeeding

and

to those

and

great in

not

largest individual

antiquitynot equal

and

incomes

enormous

Their real

authorities
the

on

cooling

and

snow,

Too

the

Declamations

luxuriousness

use

against

effeminacy
A separate treatment
of the
commonplace.
The
varieties of luxury necessary.
period of
the greatest luxury in Rome
(31 B.C.-69 a.d.).
and

Luxury

of

Foreign

OF

Moderation
of

and

Foods

Introduction

at table

of

in the

criticisms

Foreign
of Actium.

foods

partlyjdue
Flowers.

of
table

to

Distribution

Roman
the
after

vanity
table

nineteenth
meals

and

the

and

nings
begin-

century

B.C.

result of the
dence
Evi-

modern

times.

luxury

in

before

rare

tiquity.
an-

battle

the

luxury

after the

only
great banquets
luxury. Decoration.
rafflingof

and

the

dainties

for

desire

luxury compared
century. The
in

commerce.

of this

High prices paid

to

last

of table

Increase
Costliness

peace.

Ages

Modest

foreignfoods

the Middle

Exaggerated

due

of prosperity and

from

ation
Import-

the

of southerners.

luxury

increase

Table

the

rhetorical

measure

for

partly

notoriety.

with
use

sents.
pre-

of

purely

that

of

emetics
dietetic.

Ages ; in the empire

of the Khalifs, in Christian Europe, in France,

Table

luxury in the Middle

146-164

Contents

PAGB

CHAP.

II

in

Italy. Italian cookery

cookery in
century. French
in

England,

sixteenth
seventeenth

Table
eighteenth centuries.
eighteenth century in Germany,

century.

Use

and

Plants

and

America.

North

nineteenth

the

Importation

Animals

in

Russia,

luxury in

The

II

in

Poland,

Table

the

and

luxury in the
in

in the

Edible

of

165-173

....

for food.
Pliny's
Importation of animals
opinion of it. Artificial breeding of oysters.
Imported birds.
Importation of cultivated
fruit trees and vegetables. Orientalization
of
vegetation and land during the republic and
under
the empire. Improvement, multiplication
acclimatization

and

of

with

Comparison

fruits

and

tables.
vegehorticulture.

modem

Spread of cultivated plants from Italyto

provinces. The olive and the vine.
Luxury

III

of

Dress

the

Adornment

and

Expensive

in dress

Extravagance
in modern

than

clothes.

England,

Germany,

small

empire

cities.

from

century.

China

the

and

modern

the

largest

considerable

Pearls.

the
turies.
cen-

into the

wares

Extravagance

Imitations.

stones.

Rome

to

in

nineteenth

with

compared

as

confined

Exports

third

France

and

eighteenth
import of oriental

The

respects less

luxury of dress in
centuries
in Italy,

and

seventeenth,

standard

with

sixteenth

and

antiquity.

Frequent change of
in colours, especially

Extravagance

fifteenth

in

in many

times.

purple. Comparison

the

little used

materials

173-185

in

after

precious

Jewellery

of

the

travagance
Exconquistadoresand English nabobs.
in precious stones
and
pearls in
times.
Was
of
modern
dress
luxury
prevalent
the
lower
classes
in
amongst
antiquity ?

Extravagance
IV

Luxury

in

in scents.
Dwelling-.houses
.

(a) City Palaces

Luxurious

Rapid

increase

185-193

.....

buildings only
of them,

185-202

78-44

came

B.C.,

in
and

late.

again

xi

Contents
CHAP.

PAGE

II

Size of the

palaces.
palaces. Luxury of

after 31 B.C. up to 69 a.d.

Prices
of houses
and
artistic decoration.
coloured

marble

Marble

and

warehouse

Movable

sof"ts.

Nero's

Golden

other

at the

silver

Glass, gold and

So-called

and

Increased

The

Gardens

luxury

kinds

of

stones.

Aventine.

of the

foot

in decoration.

plate used

House.

(6) Villas

of walls with

Incrustation

'

apartments

poor

'.

palace of Domitian.
193-202

....

after

viUa-building

in

"Villas
Difficulties of site overcome.
31 B.C.
built into the sea.
The younger
Pliny's villas.
The
villas at Sorrento
and Tivoli described
by
Statius.
of

the

with
and

Hadrian's

villa at Tibur.

Gordians.
modern

villas

Roman

compared
French

Venetian,

chdteaux.

villa

The

other

tury.
country seats in the eighteenthcenThe
seats.
palace at
English country
Roman
Alupka.
building extravagance perhaps

unequalled. Buildings the mania

great and wealthy. Luxury of coloured
not

gardens
of the

exotic
V

and

monotonous

modems.

in flowers

Turkey

later.

repeated

and

Roman

rials
mate-

parks an^

Roman
smaller
and

of the

those

than

modern

luxury

compared.

Flowers

imported

America.

Luxury

in varieties

from

and

plants.

Luxury

in

Character

Domestic
of

the

in Roman

Arrangements

202-210
.

rangements
arluxury in household
antiquity. Excessive

utensils
furniture
and
prices
prices much
unusually high ; the average
lower.
Very high prices generally fancy
prices. Roman
luxury in domestic arrangements
of

luxurious

compared

with

modern,

in the

sixteenth

nineteenth
in
the
eighteenth, and
century. Luxury in silver plate increased
during the last centuries of the republicowing
to the accumulation
of the precious metals.
Luxury in silver increased by the discovery of
in the
America, in Spain,England and France
Russia
in
the
seventeenth
and
eighteenth,in
in the
eighteenth,and in England and France
to

the

Contents

xii

*''*^"=

CHAP.

silver dishes

large
century. The
of
the purpose
served
the Romans
perhaps
fund.
Weight
easilytransportablereserve

nineteenth

II

of
an

times.

Its

spread

classes.

lower

Luxury

VI

and

middle

the

among

imperial

in

in silver

plate. Luxury

of silver

210-218

Funerals

in

....

processions.

Funeral

images.

Ancestral

Funeral
in perfumes.
pyres.
Extravagance
of
burial
and
Urns
sarcophagi. Burning and
Cost of funerals.
objects used by the deceased.
and
interments
at
and
shows
Banquets

Sepulchral monuments.
in Italy and
Monuments
outside
Italy. Cost of

celebrations.

funeral
Size

of graves.
provinces," and

Hadrian's

monuments.
VII

Luxury
Promoted
and

the

wasted
of

'.

Slaves

[' and

freaks.

VIII

Conclusion

comparatively

low

the

standard

luxury mainly

greatest

giants

development
comparative

small

The

luxury.
poverty of

and

produced

ridiculous

and

Dwarfs,

luxuries.

as

221-230

Roman

smallness

work

their masters.

by

Exaggerated
as

of the
of

slaves

upon

'

lack

the

much

As

machinery.

and

laziness.

subdivision, and

excessive

possiblethrown
Study slaves

Cause

218-221
....

by the largeimportation of slaves

profitsof slave ownership. Labour

by

tools

the

mausoleum.

Slaves

in

the

world

ancient

of

luxury.

confined

to

The

Rome.

luxury. Similarity
and naturalness
of clothingin all ranks.
bination
Comwith
of luxury
Cheap
economy.
substitutes
for valuables, especiallyartistic.
in cleanliness.
Luxury
Aqueducts common
everywhere" in
Italy, in the
provinces,

The

good

side

of Roman

Antioch, Alexandria, African

Baths.

Enjoyment

classes share
donations

festivities.
and

communes

the wealth

for

of

and

Gallic towns.

nature.

of the rich.

The

lower

Frequent

and
good objects,amusements
of
the
luxury
governments

The

democratic.

Contents

xiii

CBJlP.

III

paob

The

Arts
I

231-365
Sculpture

Architecture,
Aims

1.

Number

Applicationof

and

Painting.

and

231-337

Architecture.

231-260

magnificence of the remains.

Culture
and prosperityof the old world
in the
and
beauty of the
early empire. Number
Lambaesis.
Camuntowns.
towns.
Camp
Mainz.

tum.

beauty
and

and

Aristides

the

on

and

number

in upper, central
Narboneusis.
Sicily.Gaul.

of the

Towns

towns.

lower

Italy.
Lugdunensis. Aquitania. Belgica. Spain.
Africa.
Egypt. Sjnria.Phoenicia. Palestine.
The Hauran.
Arabia.
Asia. Bithynia. Cappadocia. Pamphylia and Pisidia.
Lycia. Tlirace.
Britain.
Macedonia.
Dalmatia.
Greece.
Agri
decumates.

Raetiaand

Pannonia.

Moesia.

of architects
of

the

Vindelicia.

Large numbers
provinces. Buildings

Dacia.

in all the

Imitation

communes.

Buildingsof Bithjmian
Alcantara.

Noricum.

Income

towns.

of the

of
The

Rome.

bridge

at

for defraying

communes

Public
buildings
building expenses.
individuals.
Buildings of
by private
Atticus.
ings
Buildthe Greek sophists. Herodes
of senators, imperial freedmen,
foreign
of Judaea. Buildings of the
princes. Herod
of fire
Imperial assistance in cases
emperors.
and
earthquake. Buildings of the Julian and
srected

of Trajan, of Hadrian
emperors,
Antonines.
(especially in Greece), of the

Flavian

Private
2.

buildingsin
Aims

and
Arts

provinces.

the

Application of
and
Painting

(fl)Decorative

Art.

the

Plastic

260-337

260-271

ture.
plasticarts on architecof
Artistic
public buildings
and
of
Greece
towns
in
the
and
Italy.
places
statues
Statues
of kings and generals. Other
of the geniiof the cities.
in the fora. Statues
of privatebuildings,
Artistic decoration
parks
and
under
the
later
in
and
republic
gardens
of villas. Hadrian's
the empire. Excavations

Dependence

of the

decoration

villa at Tivoli.

General

artistic decoration

and

Contents

xlv

^"*-"*^

CHAP.

III

Abundant
ment
employuniversalityof the art.
in soft
Plastic
of cheap materials.
tion
materials.
Stucco
painting. Artistic decoraof
antiquity.
generaldown to the last days
Artistic
art

adornment

presents

as

Artistic

occasions.

and

Saturnalia

at the

of

adornment

of

Works

furniture.

of

other

on

sepulchral

monuments.

(6) Monumental
Personal

of

Age of the statues

memorials.

of historical events.

Pictures

at Rome.

honour

Art

for
Pictures
special occasions.
triumphal processions,imperial pyres, judicial
for the
shipwrecked.
proceedings. Pictures
Other
Votive
representations of
pictures.
personal events.
Representations of dreamPictures

for

visions.

Pictures

brides.

Portraits
inbooks

emperors.

princesses prospective
traits
Porprivate persons.
libraries.
Portrait painting
Plastic
representations of
as

of

and

common.

and

Busts

persons.

of the

Oriental

of

very

Portraits

painting.

Portrait
Portraits

records.

permanent

as

of

statues

the

emperor
their
Destruction
cult.
of the
very general ;
memorials
hated
of
(especially
emperors
Preservation

Domitian).

chiefly by

imperial

of

of

Rome.

of

the

of

governors,

of

of

subordinate

statue

in the

Several

erected

by

Erected

at

them.
the

hold,
imperial house-

municipia.
for the

of the

same

curiae, vici, pagi

and

the

Statues
town

renamed.

officials.

provincialpriests. Reasons

of statues.

by

of the

or

highest officials,of provincial

in the
distinguished Romans

of

provinces,
honour

altered

ones

of members

of

the

private individuals.
in Greece, of Augustus in
nesses
Napoleon I. Imperial like-

rarely old
Memorials

tion
erec-

and

Hadrian

Busts

orials,
mem-

porations,
by officials,provincialcor-

communes

Statues

imperial
Rapid

throughout

monuments

Erected

empire.

of

consecration.

cost

of

statues

of

those

honoured

The

Statues
erection
person,

phylae.
with

foreigners. Statues voted

councils, in Rome
by the Senate.

271-298

Contents

xv

OHAP.

III

PAOa

Publiclyerected
Where
they were
the

set

chief Vestals.

the

Statues

monuments

of one's
for

monuments

living.

and

in Rome.

up

Private

Erection

erected.

of the dead

statues

dead,

why
vate
Pri-

especiallyas

Statues of
sepulchralmemorials.
of antiquity. Personal
memorials
the last days of antiquity.

(c)ReligiousArt

statue.

own

of

famous

men

erected

till

298-301

....

The

of images of the gods the

largenumber
result of the theocracy. Settlements
of artists
near
largetemples. Increased artistic requirements
and
production en masse
throughout the
and
empire. Herculaneum
Pompeii show the
standard

average
towns

of

Italy. Statistics

adornment

in the

of artistic adornment
of

artistic

the

of Rome.

\d) Artistic Industry

301-320

artistic
industry
Similarity of art and
throughout the empire except in Gaul, Egypt
and

Palestine.

in Rome

of art executed

Works

quarries. The
stone
Images kept in
stock.
of
the
gods. Sarcophagi.
Images
the
Made
Statues
of honour.
on
spot where
to be used, partly by wandering,
they were
partlyby resident artists. General uniformity

provinces, and in
quarries of Pannonia.

the

for the

of treatment,
to

tradition.

main

plastic. Copies
and

the

Adherence
of

viUa

the

Herculaneum.

at

duction
empire. Proreproduction,as also in

for the

in the

painting

in

Bronzes

model

the

technique.

philosopher

Epicurean
Rome

of

even

of

whole

older

famous

works

in

vessels, gems, pottery.

fluence
Inof artistic handicraft.

mosaic,

High development

of the discoveries

at

Herculaneum

on

Art
ing
manufactura
industry of Paris.
industry. Highly specializeddivision of
several
artists.
labour.
Co-operation of

the

art

Works

of art in

great part executed

Cheapness

of ordinary artistic work.

fees under

the

nineteenth

empire

centuries.

in the

by slaves.
Artists'

eighteenthand

Contents

xvi

TA.a'E

OHAP.

ie) The

III

for

Reasons
the

amongst

models.

Roman

Reasons

painters.
highly valued

architects

for
the

amongst

knowledge
Romans

disparagement

Romans.

Spread

of

artistic

of

the

Dilettantism

of art.

of

painting. Inspection

and

collections,

Art

travels.

during

325-337

art

Recognition by

importance

sculpture
of art

Feeling

interest.

the

by

numerous.

the

and

of the

works

Female

Female

(/) Artistic

in

painting also practised

Architecture

Romans.

in the

plasticart

The

Greeks

artists

of

disparagement

Romans.

the

by

the

320-325

....

Romans.

of the

hands

Artists

chiefly due to the love of show, consisted

Collectors
often taken
mainly of older works.
in by copies. Works
of art which
had belonged
famous

to

of true

Lack
ture

lectors'
especially prized. Colpretensions to
expert knowledge.
persons

shows

artistic

feeling.
of

trace

no

artistic

Greek
intelligence,

much

Contemporary

treated

in

II

art

both

Roman

Utera-

interest

evidence

of
little

with

or

both.
sideration
con-

literatures.

Music

337-365
music

early supplanted by Greek.

Ancient
music
with
closelyconnected
poetry,
the
in
Middle
subordinated
as
Ages. Melody
in vocal music.
No
to text
harmony in vocal
music.
Instrumental
music.
The flute. Stringed
instruments.
The cithara.
Instruments
played
of
instrumental
music.
together. Poverty
with
modern
instrumental
music.
Comparison
music.
mixture
adProgramme
Strengthening and
Roman

of musical
en

the

pantomime.

Thibaut's

degraded

music.

Decay

in

gratify

and

the

bination
Com-

different

ally
especi-

orchestra

in

of the concerto

Rome.

Monstre

degeneration

lamentations
to

The

Continuance

and

effects.

of non-Greek,

instruments

several

concerts.

similar

Influence

Alexandrian,
of

of

masse

instruments.

and

means

of music.

anticipated.
senses.

Music

Music
com-

CHAPTER

THE

SPECTACLES

GENERAL
Every

Rome

exhaustive

of

intellectual

and

most

in

the

later

that

people

The

youth

the

such

were

gifts

was

though

did
the

him:

his

for

pseudo

Neros

R,L.M.

delights

people

wished

"

II.

of

combats

of
did

return
to

appear

the
to

mob

for

The

; Dio

of

in

years,

Prusa

his
and

how

and

women

for

hearts,
of

these

populace,
to

Nero

sate

survived

hoped

caused

this

the

meat,

the

death,

explains

that

splendid

intended

thus

of

honoured

was

lavishing

of

terest;
in-

constant

of

for

memory

believe

thirty

most

their

only

were

tacles
spec-

knew

the

won

consideration

blood.
not

and

the

Caesar,

Napoleon,

popularity

Josephus,

had

combats

the

distributions

of

popular

excited

populace

death

of

due

the

of

like

indispensable
to

once

these

XIV,

be

chasing
pur-

keeping

runs,

But

Louis

must

of

advantage,

of

they

jealousy

'.

gauge

according

his

gladiatorial

the

moral

of

tale

diversion

like

most

gladiatorial

lust

people

foUy

nominally
the

her

means

his

us

autocracy

desire

not

the

monarch's

the

the

the

your

the

was

the

Caligula,
by

and

games

about

than

of their

one

beloved

and

itself

emperors,

of

Even

devices.

is to

absolute

imagination
were

as

measure

of

Empire,

for

It

even

aids

festivals

'

magnificence

sovereign.

the

survey,

celebrations,
best

the

Pantomime

replied

more

their

admiration

customs

best

ways

the

Augustus,

concerns

effected

the

as

religious

under

and,

the

Pylades

the

the

many

Republic,

contented.

Pylades

and

in

part,

favour,

populace

rival,

as

the

even

reproached

include

spectacles,

indicative

for

popular
the

the

and

manners

condition.

Originally,
became,

the

necessarily

be, of
and

grandeur,

her

of

must

may

as

CONSIDERATIONS

delineation

attempted
Imperial

of

and

several

by
B

Nero's

The

Spectacles
in

manifested

generosity, most

extravagant

spectacles.

his

populace of Rome,
and
the
theatre
to the
accustomed
circus, as depressed and
was
greeted as
Otho, at the games,
greedy for rumours.
Nero, and did not decline the title,as it ensured popularity.
But
the omnipotent ruler could
no
longer give specsoon
tacles
After

his

Tacitus

murder,

his

at

pleasure ; they
Into
the
capital

necessity.

corrupt and wilder and

of the dregs of
composed
more

the

absolute, and

was

mostly

of idlers,

had

supply

to

essay, written
from
Sallust

rougher

Government

about

the

Caesar

than

of

ioo,

and

the

as

of
their

corn

mob

the

provided

needs

a.d.

proletariat,
in modern
capitals,
its
;
predominance

nation

every

unavoidable

an

poured

there

great distributions

by the
them,

become

had

dangerous

more

f The

the

describes

for
and

leisure.

purporting

consisted
their

fed

having
In

to

tenance
main-

school

be

letter

reorganization of the

State,
the ruler is advised
to keep the mob
occupied, after bribing
with
them
giftsand corn, and thus to prevent them injuring
This
the
weal.
common
occupation was
provided by the
of Juvenal, panem
The
well-known
words
et cirgames.
in which
he sums
censes,
up the desires of the people, formerly
of sovereignty, the
the
bestower
fasces, the legions and
from
older
and
an
everything, are simply borrowed
equally
andria
expressivephrase. Pressure had been first applied at Alexif the population had plenty of bread
and races
; where
trouble
about
nobody would
anything else. Bread and races
in Rome
were
soon
regarded as no mere
imperial indulgence,
but as an
absolute right ; a damnosa
had to
hereditas,which
be accepted by every
new
government ; the best and the
worst
alike had
to vie in the splendour and magnificence
emperors
of

the

to

on

festivals.
'

outdid
in the frequency,variety and
one
Augustus
every
splendour of his spectacles : the importance which the founder
of the
is evidenced
Empire ascribed to the games
by the
'

detailed

account

circumstantial

Vespasian
in

1756

the

of

them

directions

built
value

estimated

the
of

in his record
with

regard

of his Ufe, and

to them.

largest amphitheatre
the

travertine

The
in the

still left in the

in the

economical
world

and

Colosseum

by experts, according to the prices then obtaining,

at 2,218,065 scudi, or
16,894,851francs, the cost of the
walls being put by an Italian architect at five million scudi.
was

The

Spectacles

for the most

have
been
Certainly, the material
part may
demolition
of
the
Golden
House.
Yet
provided by the
Vespasian expended hugely on spectacles,and Titus probably
outbid
him.
in this
zealous
Trajan was
perhaps the most
respect. It is a sign of great statesmanship ', says a later
that Trajan provided for dancers
and
other
artists
writer,
'

'

of the

stage, the circus and

Roman

that the

people loved most of all

goodness of government
and

aspects
serious

its amusements

business

discontent
than

the

few

is shown
and

distributions

both

that

of

further, largessesof

games

knew

things,bread

two

harmful, neglect of

was

even

for he

arena,

and

games

of

caused
less

were

and

neglect

amusements

corn

the

in its earnest

whilst

money

individuals

that

desired

pacified

money

but

whole
only
only,
games
people '. Even the Stoic Marcus Aurelius prevailed on himself
decreed
that
to give splendid spectacles, and
the
richest
should
senators
provide them in his stead during his absence.
a

Severus

or

even

next

even,

Hadrian

to

were

thus
and

Tiberius

enormous

sums

of

the

to

the

is the

his proonly exception ; he showed

found
by giving no spectacles. Others
contempt for the mob
satisfied with
mum
lowering the actors' fees, fixing a maxinumber
of duellists in the gladiatorialcombats,
and
Tiberius,
; such
cutting down
Emperors were
expenses
also abolished
Nerva
several
Augustus.
spectacles in

circus

the

avaricious

most

fit to devote

Emperors, yet thought

games.

the

the

gladiatorialgames
of these

Pius

Antoninus
and

ordinances

and

Marcus

Aurelius

giftsto the actors.

their futility.

the

proves

limited

The

the

repetition

to
the games
under
the
importance attached
to assemble
there enabled
in mass,
Empire ; the people were
known
their attitude,
and, in the Emperor's presence, to make
and
inclinations, wishes
complaints ; these manifestations
tolerated
to a degree found
nowhere
else.
were
According
the theatre
to Tacitus, in the circus
and
the people showed

the

further

restraint

least

in the

utter

lack

publicmeetings and proclamations,the

significance.
No
and

less
the

statesmen

important

other

persons

valued

rejoiced to

was

receive

'

games

occasions

for

gained additional

the

reception given to the Emperor

highly placed. In Republican times,

enthusiasm

the

of other

wonderful

of the

theatre

cheers

without

Cicero

any

was

hostile

The

4
'

cat-calls

occasion

one

Under
for

the

Exceptionally,poets

games.

greeted with

Virgilwas

:
on

at the

Spectacles

when

such

recited in the theatre.

as

rule, reserved

great oflScers of State

The

entertainment.

the

provider of

were

greetingswere,

Imperial family, the

the

respect as Augustus,

same

of his

verses

emperors,

the

oured
hon-

thus

were

assembled

and

the

people,

as

dignitariesentered, rose from their seats and applauded :

had to express disapproval of his grandchildren
Augustus even
were
being thus honoured, whilst mere
boys : handkerchiefs
for the
them
waved
purpose); titles
(Aurelian distributed
shouted
and
out, partly stereotyped
congratulations were
often repeated, and even
and
and
set to music
song.
The
afforded
the
an
ing
opportunity of comgames
emperors
into personal contact
and
with
ingratiatingthemselves
at popularity,
the assembled
people. The more
they aimed
the
their
others'
and
more
own
frequently they attended
who
disliked
these
diversions,
even,
spectacles. Tiberius
often present at the games
at the beginning of his reign,
was
honour, partly to
partly, as Dio says, to do the entertainers
his sympathy
with
keep the populace in order and to show
their pleasure. Augustus
taught the people to regard this
that on
all such
occasions he
as
a
right. Suetonius
says
avoided
offence
ample
sedulously
giving
by following Caesar's exof reading and answering despatches and petitions,
and
interest in spectacles(which he
partly perhaps out of his own
his whole
to them.
attention
Marcus
acknowledged), devoted
and
Aurelius, like Caesar, used to read and give audience
in the circus, and was
scoffed at for it by the
sign documents
the games
people. Nero at first used to watch
lying down,
from
the window
of a closed box, but later from
the public
when
his
short
podium,
sight forced him to use a cut emerald.
Domitian
to have
afterwards
had
seems
the imperial box
rebuilt ; for Pliny praises Trajan for discarding it in his
these

rebuildingof
as

can

you

not

merely
and

games,
seldom

the
and

see

the

of
slaughter

their

Yomr

citizens

see

sittingpublicly amongst

emperors
anticipationof the

arena

can

you,

them,

'.

of the

contrary.
the

you
box

imperial
biographers generally mention

condescension
and

'

great circus

them

see

Historians
ness

his

Claudius'

offended

even

to the

the

graciouspeople at the

public desires
brutish
delight
Rome

; very

in

the

but his affability

The
in the

Circus, and

sending them
heralds, made

his habit

him

be

to

thorn

in Africa, and

m.ony
which

of

whose

handed

at

all round

he
the

on

and

employing
runaway

beasts,

had

was

drawn

on

testi-

personal

recorded

once

tablet,

Claudius, too, used

circus.

the

of

wild

foot

spared, the event,

was

down

Androclus,

pieces by

to

torn

of Alexandria,

Apio

When

lion, from

writing his answers

possible,instead

popular.

slave, condemned

was

of

when

hand

by

recognized by

Spectacles

as
gold pieces won
by the victors on his fingers,
did the spectators,
used to call the people my lords ',and exchanged
Titus, too, used to satisfy
vulgar jokes with them.
contests, and,
every popular wish, take sides in the gladiatorial
his
like one
of the people, jeer at his opponents ; neither
Domimajesty suffered, nor the impartialityof the contest.

to

the

count

'

tian,

the other

on

side

the

former

hand,

his

to

opposed

and

freedom,

truculent

was

no

favourites.

restored

Trajan

generallyaffable.

was

stricter,and, like Domitian,

silence

ordered

embrace

dared

one

Hadrian

by

bull ten

times

was

no

was

herald,

deigning any reply to a turbulent

request. GaUienus
missed
his
wreath
who
had
given to a bull-fighter,
announced
times ; the people murmured
; the herald
miss

the

not

had
bull
that

ten

to

matter.

easy

generally
popular requests granted by the emperors
certain
referred
The
to the games.
a
spectators demanded
charge
of famous
the appearance
sort of combat,
gladiators,the disactor
of an
of a brave
or
fighter,the manumission
charioteer
(who were
mostly slaves),the amnesty of a criminal
The

tavern

flowers

money
to the lion.

request.
the

to

while

another, and

after

Androclus

of

Hadrian

slave

emperors,

and

from

cord

tavern

to

not

Tiberius

only

his own,
to

free

his refusal

free Actius

the

seldom

enforced

manumissions

on

once

granted

his master's

with

charioteer

belonging

tablet.

Tiberius,

comedian,

their importunities.
and
games
Other
petitions of the most diverse
the

at such

freed

was

thin

invalid.

refused

circulated

being obliged

with

declared

by turbulence,

the manumission

consent,

Aurelius

Marcus

owner

beasts.

everywhere given him, and wreaths of

mals
who
Criminals
bravely killed their anipardoned and given largess at the popular

was

sometimes

were

on

wild

led his lion about

and

demand,

to

the

to

condemned

kinds

avoided

were

made

rejected. Josephus regards

the

to
the

The
rtainty of

petitionsbeing granted

such
the

why

asons

Spectacles

Romans

the

But,

circus.

the

valued

so

of

one

as

chief
in the

of a.d.
besought
riumphal Games
9, the knights in vain
At
a
le repeal of the
stringent marriage-law just enacted.
made
in the
eat dearth
in 32 for several days demands
were

leatre,with

violence

unusual

the

towards

Tiberius

emperor.

by Lysippus of the athlete

been erected
by Agrippa in front
his thermae, and, at the request of the people in the theatre,
id reluctantly to restore
it.
Shortly before his murder,
the taxes
asked
in the Circus to reduce
; he was
iligulawas
set up in his palace the
ith the scraper, which
had
ice

and
iraged,

had

ilfurius Sura

had

the

loudest

been

gained the oratorical

y unanimously called
!

,11sof the

statue

the

and

arrested

executed,

expelledfrom the Senate by Domitian

prizein the CapitoUne Agon ; the assemfor his restitution,but

people assembled

;pressionof

claimants

at the

wishes

popular

the

recognized
militarypraefect,

were

games

Titus,

These

as

suspected, distributed men

the people in the
Galba
the theatre
Under
to detK^and it.
the execution
and
the Theatre
reus
incessantly demanded
by an edict.
TigeUinus, until the etnperor settled the matter
execution

justifythe

is well

of

in vain.

he

men

outbreaks
a:plti-Christian

known, the

and

in the

following

amphitheatre.
But
in the great spectacles not
only could the popular
at priievances
be aired, (but gibes could be freelydirected
ite individuals
the emperors,
'.even
imprecations against
or
Tertullian
of the world.
autocrats
e
frequently mentions
than
ch outbreaks, and/ asks if there be anything harsher
nturies

their origin in the

had

Circus

the

Circus that

mplainants

were

to

nor

Individual

monarch.

detect, while

the

multitude

were

by

tied condemned

rish.

bard

citizen

Macrinus
was
thdi security of numbers.
Etruscan
for his cruelfty; like the ancient
Mezentius,

iboldened
ithed

neither
sparejs

One

day

craminals

hi^ son

to

corpses

Diadumenos,

and
a

left them

boy

thus

to

for his

beloved

auty, was
loudly applauded in the Circus, but voices were
ised, quoting Virgil: Egregius forma
juvenis
dignus
,triisqui laetior esfeetimperils,et cui pater haud
Mezentius
.

set.

Rome

on

ce:lebrated the

November20,

twentieth

of his reign
year
left Rome
in December,

303, but
Christian
writer, he

according toi a
outspokenness of (the Romans

cause,
e

Diocletian

(no doubt

could

not

in the

endure

Circus).

Th.e'^Spectacles

between
heard, in 196, during the civil war
in
multitude
and
Severus, a countless
pretender Albinus

Dio

lie himself

says

the

wonderful

with

the

Circus

the

continuance

of

the

utter

complaints

at

desire

of

he

unanimity
and

war

their

peace ;
could
otherwise

'

divine inspiration: how

a
regarded it as
moment,
myriads have begun at the same
many
for the same
thing,like a well-trained chorus, and

hitch,

rehearsals

at

as

'

Plautianus,

so

out
calling'
without

any

powerful favoui.'^

the

greeted in the Circus, shortly before his

than
the
wealthier
in 205, with
the jeer that he was
downfall
three
others
(Severus and his two sons). Caracalla drained
will krU the living,
the Empire's life blood, and was
told, We
ite of

Severus,

was

'

'

bury

to

the

of such

frequency.
performances will be

proves
theatrical

The

number

The

their

records
the

'.

dead

of

incidents

that

Dio
in

topical references

The
dealt

with

later.

and
other
great personages
emperors
irksome
tus
obliged spectators to take many
precautions. Auguspresence

the

knight drinking and had him informed that he

breakfasted
at home.
The
Yes, you have
knight rejoined :
'. The
seat
reserved
issued
early monarchy
express
your
ordinances
the
dress
of
varied
under
various
the spectators,
on
Roman
to wear
rulers.
citizens had
the toga, a heavy costume,
in the hot summer,
which
spoiled the pleasure of the
entertainment.
Whilst
Rome
is at
the Circus ', Juvenal
saw

one

'

'

writes

in his sixtieth
of the

rays
ever

anxious

refuse
and

April
to

ancient

to don

skin

shrunken

spared
custom,

except to those

had

garb, which

my
be

and

sun,

restore

admission

senators

'

year,

their robes, and

toga '.

the

ordered

wearing

can

the

oificiate

absorb

the

Augustus,
aediles

the

to

Knights

toga.

in their ofl"cial

pubUc mourning for a

deceased
Commodus
show
at a gladiatorial
given
emperor.
the dark
shortly before his death required spectatorsto wear
close-buttoned
also worn
rain-cloak, (which was
by mourners,)
and
this was
taken
his
death.
In the
of
as
a
premonition
summer
Augustus gave, and Tiberius repealed,leave to come
to the
Circus
barefoot
the custom,
:
Caligula reintroduced
and

in

37
Thessalian

for the

put

and
on

no

first time

parasol hats

bareheaded.
on,

only discarded

was

At
one

cloak

was

one

allowed

until

at the

then

the

they

senators
had

had

to
to

use

the

remain

came
spectacleof Domitian, a rain-storm
to go or change, whilst the
allowed
emperor

after cloak

many

fell ill and

died.

Domitian

Spectacles

The
strictlyinsisted
had

fallen

revoked

these

on

disuse.

into

parasol hats,

sunshades

law

at the

and

order

Praefect, who
could

regulationsand revived
The
indulgence of coloured

for white, scarlet

by him, except

spectacleswas

forbid entrance

the

should
consider
early Republic we
popular pleasures large. After 364 b.c.
held

for four

asses

200,000

and

this

The

other

But

with

sum

was

State

Games

B.C.

extort

often

the

their

demands,

the

the

own

Games

on

on

were

Punic

second

out

in

formed;
peraccount,

their

of the

War.

aerarium.

state-grant became

spectacles,the aediles, had

their
from
pockets, borrow

from
the
socii or
money
effort rendered
them
insolvent.
cost

of

pieceswere

the

great gladiatorial
games
this

the

paid

givers of

from

contribute

the

allowed

until

Besides

expended

sums

the Roman

also

were

increased

the

friends, or

increased

the

theatrical

September and
were
(;"2,i45)

not

insufficient,and
to

in

days

was

Even

folk.

seditious

the

dress

province of the City

of the military,and

assistance
and

that

enforcement

The

in the

to offenders

others

purple.

and

allowed.

were

have

could

over

30 talents

the

cials
provin-

About

150
Yet
(;f
7,050).

little in

ings
comparison with the giganticsquanderin the later Republic ; some,
such as the games
on
games
of Scaurus
(58), Pompey
(55),Caesar, can
only have been
his candidature
exceeded
by the emperors
; Milo in 53 spent,on
even

for the
the

was

consulate,

'

three

populace '. Cicero, writing

these

games

must

be

the

mad.

most

mouth

of

Quintus,

calls

inheritances, to stop the

to

extravagant

Yet, later, these

his brother

given ; Milo, he says,

spectaclesare not specially
ever

allowed
were
Empire larger sums
for the State Games
(which were
lengthened). According to
document
of 51 a.d., 760,000 sesterces
were
a
spent
{"?i,2,^o)
the Roman
the Plebeian, 380,000
on
Games, 600,000 (1^6,025)
on
the
the ApoUinarian, and
on
(;f4,i25)
{"^o" 3s.) on
10,000
do not include
These
sums
newly-institutedAugustal games.
the contributions
of officials,
the enormous
sums
spent by
or
mentary.
private individuals, as to which our information is only fragWhen
Herod
of
Judaea instituted quadrennial
him
Livia
in honour
of Augustus, Augustus and
games
gave
at 500 talents
all the essential'- properties: this was
reckoned
{;"i
17,900) In the earlyempire a good three days' exhibition of
gladiatorsin a cityof Campania cost 400,000 sesterces (;^4,35o).
be less.
in the municipia would
Generally, however, expenses

distinguished.

Under

the

The

lo

Spectacles

city of Pisaurum
(Pesaro) received a legacy of 600,000
exhibition.
sesterces to provide for a quinquennial gladiatorial
with less
The
of 27 a.d., forbidding any one
consultum
senaius
must
shows,
than
from
sesterces
giving gladiatorial
400,000
been
directed
clearly have
against penniless speculators;
be
for even
in the
municipia a larger expenditure would
Mother
(April 4-10)
requisite. At the Feast of the Great
The

the

praetor, under

had

Domitian,

contribute

to

out

100,000

of

then, underpaid the

("i,o?"'j
los.),and, even
performers, the charioteers especially. Generally the praetor
alone costing
the expense,
the chariot
could not meet
races
Hadrian
received
sesterces.
(;^2i,77i)
2,000,000
400,000
from
during his praetorship in 107.
Trajan for the games
his son's
The
on
seven
days' games
given by Symmachus
praetorship cost 2,000
pounds of gold (about ;f9i,35o),and
another
he was
the richest of the senators
;
by no means
his

monies

own

senator

of that
of

expenses

spent double

time, Maximus,

the

consulate

in

used

games

as

then

much.
to

cost

The
over

had
to give the lion's
pounds of gold ; the emperor
share.
Consul in 521 and outbid the record
Justinian became
of esistern magaificence in largess and
spectacles,spending
Aurelius'
time,
288,000 soUdi
(about 1^181,500). In Marcus
the total expenses
on
gladiatorsin the Empire, excluding Rome,
estimated
A
at over
were
speech before
^500,000 a year.
at about
the senate
this epoch states that the decrees limiting
this extravagance
did save
the municipia from
insolvency,
well
the prominent men
who
as
as
; they were
gave the games
the priestsbelonging to the provincialaristocracy and
the
city officials ; the law obliged the priests to provide the
2,000

custom

games,

and

their

fellow

citizens'

expectations the

others.
In

Rome

oppressive obligation fell almost

entirelyon
the senators, who
were
only partiallyrelieved from the fisc.
For centuries
the Roman
thus taxed
almost
aristocracywas
to the point of exhaustion
in favour
of the proletariat. The
order
tinsel dignities at
the
purchased rank, titles and
of outlay that ruined many
old families,or necessitated
expense
the support of their colleaguesand
the emperor.
In the first
centuries
the brilliancyof the senatorial
offices compensated
the
onerous
the
charges, and
comparatively few evaded
burden.

this

But,

as

time

went

on,

and

senators

came

to

mean

The

Spectacles

ii

only providers of public festivals,

losing all power whatsoever,
and
last competitors for curule
abstained
more
at
more
:
honours began to fall short.
Constantine
dates,
candihad to coerce
who
sought to avoid the praetorshipby flight; [hemay
not have been the first emperor
obliged to take such measures.
A series of edicts in the fourth century regulated the elections
to the praetorship and
nople
Constantiand
quaestorship in Rome
for periods of ten years, out of all the senators
had
who
attained their twenty-ninth year ; and specifiedvalid exemptions.
Sums

fixed

were

as

various

praetorships. Any
insufficient
grounds had to
which

games,

the fisc gave

fine, to provide
of

who

evaded

bear

the

number

Games

of
be

cannot

spectacles

were

incalculable.

ones

approximate
there
RepubUc
sixty-six days :
an

festival

days

in

for

ascertained

corn

made
before
the

for the

obligation
expense

of

on

the

had, further,as

and

of

the

The

games

whole

amount

capital. The obligation was

had
heirs of praetors elect, who
died

the
the

in their names,

considerable

for

minima

to the

granaries
a
charge on the
taking office.
devoted

year

the

the

regular
the
constantly shifted, and
extraordinary
of the Empire
The
calendars
only give
picture of the annual
During the
games.

were

any

which

seven,

epoch,

to

as

Augustus

under

lasted

taking up fifteen, after

fourteen
Caesar's death sixteen (September 4-19), the Plebeian
(November 4-17), those of Ceres eight (April 12-19), those
of Apollo eight (July 6-13), those of the Great
Mother
eight
the
3), and
(April 3-10) and of Flora six (April 28-May
Roman

Commemoration

SuUan
Out

the

Games

seven

(October

26

"

November

i).

of these

sixty-sixdays, fourteen were

given up to races, two
racing horses, two to sacrifices,and forty-eightto
in public games
; gladiatorsdid not usually appear
Republic. All these festivals, excepting the last,

to trials'of
theatricals

during

the

subsisted

After

in
the

some

measure

fall of the

down

to

Republic few

the

fourth

were
games
the eleven

century.
added.

Up

of
was
day games
only addition
Genetrix
(July 20-30, with four circenses dies),and the
added
Martis on May
Indus circensis
second
a
12
; Augustus
ludus circensis Martis
on
August i, and Tiberius the eight day
of Augustus, afterwards
festival in honour
prolonged to ten
of festival days
days (October 3-12). Later on, the number
Tiberius
under
with games,
87 in number, was
very variously
to

4
Venus

B.C.

the

The

12

the

and

on

reductions

given

been

have

judicialdays

the

increased

Aurelius

to

; then

230
In

exhibitions.

to

Marcus

growth.

constant

the

the

and

Severus

Nerva,

by

effected

scarcely affected

Macrinus,
must

and

by triumphs, dedications, imperial birthdays

increased
so

Spectacles

135
middle

at

most

of the

gladiatorial
century there were
175 holidays, ten with
The
theatre.
the
in
loi
exhibitions, 64 in the circus and
fourth

gladiatorialcombats
in the early calendars,
fourth

in the

and

frequent,to judge
inscriptions. Alexander
over
gladiatorialcombats
reason,

some

they

from

the

for weeks

lasted

days

in

however,
of

his intention

tolerably
At

months.

or

not

appear
ber
Decem-

have

been

literature

and

designed distributing the

a month,
year, giving one

carry

also

spectacleswere

ten

evidence

the whole
not

to

must,

Severus

did

do

hunts

beast

limited

are

century

very

but, for

wild

and

numerous,

the

out.

and

dedication

ordinary
Extratimes
some-

of the

day festival,and,
his second Dacian
on
triumph in 106, Trajan gave a 123 day
festival. All the greater spectacles began at sunrise
(the
Flavian

amphitheatie

in 80 Titus

gave

100

Celsus
dawn) and lasted until sundown.
(under Tiberius) speaks of attending the spectacles all day
long. St. Augustine says that theatricals and circus games
sometimes
were
given on the same
day.
in the Circus were
the most
important,
Originallythe games
filled before

seats

were

and

concluded

gorgeous

and

the

extravagant

popular favourites.
is the

voice

of the

assemblies, the
the

last

for its

festivals.

In

Roman

the

combats

of

later

Republic

gladiators were

the
the

places, says Cicero in 56 B.C.,

people most certainlyheard : in city

three

comitia, and

people of

In

all classes

combats
and
; at
games
gathered in the greatest numbers
at

the

principalpleasure. But, when in the early Empire the

Circus
partieswere
organized, betting interests set all others
in the
background. Theatricals, though still popular, took
laid most
only the third place. Like the people,the emperors
weight on the two first kinds of entertainment, and spent
them.
Coins
enormous
ments)
sums
on
(in the lack of other docuevidence
the
imperial generosity in this direction,
having on the obverse buildingsand games in the amphitheatre
and
theaties and
circus, and scarcely ever
dramas.
At the
Secular Games,
for three days and
nights scenic representations
in
the
were
given
Campus Martins ; but no indication

The

Spectacles

13

at the millenarycelebration under

given of them
Emperor
the
which
coins, on
lions, hippopotami, and wild
Philip on
animals
the
animal
recall
baitings.

is

Besides

Rome

these

three

main

borrowed

from

Greece

performances, partly for

afterwards,
festivals relief

and

called

partly

Varro

boys turning
Athanatos

by

is

is

rope dancer
invisible ropes

of the

on

the

Pliny

be

the

man

and

Carinus

and

The

of

reproduction
stable in the

these

buskins

already

armour

exhibition.

variety of

dancers,

strong

saw

tioned
men-

greater

theatre

colonnade

with

dancing

seen

At

stage with
Roman
pounds.

of it in the

illustration

an

musical

having fireworks, rope

weighing altogether1,000
Numerianus
gave an unprecedented
Palatium

Republic

and

the

across

features

combats

incidental.

as

in his book

shoes

of the

the

periodicfestivals,to

somersaults.

walk

under

athletic

certain

afforded

was

jugglers,acrobats.
mentions

varieties,even

side-shows.

thin, almost

on

clambering up a wall to escape

hundred
bear
he had
teased : bears acting a piece, and
a
a
players of flutes and
trumpeters in chorus, and a hundred
wind
athletes and
instruments, and a thousand
pantomimes.
and
The
provided with transformation
stage was
scenery
fireworks
these
are
only samples. Claudian the poet
; and
celebrated
exhibition
an
given by the consul Flavius Mallius
Theodoras,
animal
of
on

in which

there

chariot

were

baitings,theatricals,

jugglerswho
the

wall-climber

: a

flew
to

not

top,
with

harmless

of

are

and

contests,

several

pyramids,

transformation

flames,

of acrobats

frequent mentions

music, besides

and

like birds, formed

speak

athletic

races,

with

scenes,

kinds
a

boy

technics
pyro-

Manilius'

boat-races.

reminiscences

of

of

whom

spectacles.

hovered
jugglersone
in mid-air
whilst
the other
jumped to the ground from a
scaffolding,
leaping through fire,soaring like dolphins in space,
He

specifies
rope

unfeathered

dancers

and

birds.

was
an
tacles,
Splendid illumination
important part of the specas
usually in ancient celebrations, religiousor festive.
at night
decked
In ancient
were
days the forum and comitium
of the festivals
continuance
with
The
lamps at the games.
late innovation, beginning, possibly,
a
by artificial light was

in the

Feast

of

night-time. In

spectatorsof

Flora, the rites of which

32

the

a.d.

Lucius

were

Sejanus, as

Floralia conducted

home

best

suited

praetor, had

by 5,000

to
the

slave

The

14
torch-bearers.
also

lasted
and

men

the
of

248

go

to

of

At

elders.

millenary celebrations

the

At

them,

attend

young
unless
in

according to the chroniclers, the people did not

nalia
at the Saturilluminations
for three nights. Thus

A.D.,

bed

held

usual

it

about

festival

the

their

to

B.C.

17

and

custom,

to ancient

forbidden

were

women

of

Augustus

of

Games

night according

aU

were

year,

Secular

The

company

Spectacles

time

the
on

of the

December

of

festival

the

was

i,

the

of

turn

the

day, like Christmas.

shortest

88, given by Domitian

as

lowered
lights was
into the amphitheatre at dusk, turning night into day.
down
to have
Nero's
quinquennial feast (institutedin 60) seems
of possible
the score
lasted the night through ; objections on
the light would
with the reply that
be
met
immorality were
must
too
night celebrations
bright. In Imperial Rome

preliminary

have

to

the

Saturnalia,

'

been

circle of

spectaclesand

as

common,

illuminations

'

are

Italian

city records ; in a legacy found

the island of Ebusus
on
(Iviga)directions are given for the
certain
a
pitch-lightson
holding of spectacles with
day,
at
theatrical
the
whole
performances night ;
Caligulaonce
gave
chariot-race
lit
The
in Nero's
gardens
city was
up as well.
also a night spectacle.
with Christians
in pitch as torches, was
beast shows
Domitian
held
and
wild
by
gladiatorialgames
from
to the night wave
artificial light,
reference
and Martial's
which
Leander
a
performance of Hero
escaped, indicates
Leander
at night.
and
under
the Empire, the spectaas
During the Republic, even
tors
received
hospitalityand largess at the spectacles. The
lasted all day : about
and
a
midday there was
games
pause
for lunch, or had
scattered
the onlookers
it supplied in the
circus by slaves
theatre
or
staggering under
huge baskets
of food and wine ; permits for food and drink were
also handed
be raised of gluttony or cheating.
round, and complaints would
At the greater games,
which
lasted several
days, whole days
would
be
for general feasts.
reserved
The
distributions
of the two
were
taking place at the Games
City Praefects
abolished
in 217 a.d., excepting those at the
Floralia.
At
associated

the

in many

Floralia

pacifiedthe people
delicate.
the

young

allowance

generous
;

at

At the December
and

beautiful

of

mash

imperial games
i

of peas and
their taste was

beans
more

festival in 88, according to Statius,

imperial servants,

in

rich

costume,

i6

"The

admitted
he

and

one

every

Spectacles
keep what

and

to seize

allowed

was

could.
At

great festivals

the

assembled

in

large numbers.

flocked

cipia
became

the

share

to

Julius Caesar's

At
that

had

most

to

the influx was

games,
in the
tents
shanties
and

in

stay

many,

naval

fight, as

West

flocked

Ovid

says,
together, and

at

and

men

the

great

so

streets,
For

city patrolledto prevent

the
;

Rome

to death.

crushed

were

muni-

all nations.

triumphal

including two senators,

his great spectaclesAugustus had
burglariesin the deserted streets
and

the

when

Rome's

the

strangers

times

Republican

and,
games,
world, the curious of

in

of

centre

In

but

Romans

only

not

presentation of

his

from

women

world

and

Rome.

to

came

East

In

of
description of the spectacles at the dedication
Flavian
barbarous
people, however
Amphitheatre, no
from
foreign,failed to send, its Contingent. The farmer

Martial's
the
or

of

foot

the

milk, the
of

the

Balkan,

dwellers

the

at

ocean-marge,
hair knotted

their

on

the

motley languages

the

emperor

which

as

the

at

pater patriae.

Volcanalia

frequent

Roman

Sicambrians, with

curly-hairednegroes
acclamation

common

Dio

that

to

but

says

the

all the

world

which

used

it.

people.
to

after

217

facts illustrate

These

one

mare's

on

lightning
(August 23) destroyed the amphitheatre,

only Rome,

smote, not
to

in

fed

Nile, the inhabitants

Arabians,

heads, and

united

who

of the

sources

Sabaeans,

the

their

Sarmatian

the

The

greatness,

the
Roman

as

huge attempts
populace was

none

century, its Circus

other.

It

filled with

to

entertain
indeed

had

seen,

the

tomed
accus-

century

triumphal processions

conquered kings of distant lands, and the treasures of the

earth
heaped up for Rome.
They, the heirs of this great
the
world
and
:
past, still commanded
things marvellous
incredible they daily heard, and Rome
the eternal, the wonder
of antiquity and modernity, was
before their eyes.
But
ever
the spectaclesdid not occupy
for whom
only the masses,
they
The
intended.
were
of
impression of these exciting scenes
the
night fascinated all, infected the intellect of Rome, even
highest and most cultured circles,and especiallythe women.
How
the games
pervaded every man's thought, the proverbs
When
show.
they drew breath, they breathed in the passion
of

for the

circus, the

stage

and

the

arena,

'an

originalevil

The
the womb

begotten in
effects

of

the

games

Spectacles

'.

But, certain

even

of it in detail is

on

the

the

are

as

upper

17
evil moral

classes,the

stration
demon-

impossible.

One

sign of this decadence, sufl"cient in itself to show the

:
prevalence of these degrading influences, must be mentioned
of men,
the public appearance
of noble
and
even
women
the stage, in the arena,
and
in the racecourse.
family on
to produce
Various
this unprecedented
motives
concurred
of law and
contravention
morality the decay and poverty
of a part of the nobility,
the compulsion of the emperors
;
of the emperors
but this is not cause
The
enough.
presence
mania
at the
the aristocratic
spectaclessufficiently
proves
for them, uncurbed
by law or custom.
Many emperors not
only aimed at proficiencyin acting,dancing, music, chariotbefore
their prowess
driving,gladiatorship,but exhibited
Nero
traversed
Greece
as
a
companies of var5dng size.
artist ; Commodus
left the palace to live in the
professional
gladiators'school ; Caracalla in a blue liverypublicly drove
his chariot ; it must
have been an infatuation
that compelled
of noble birth to this degradation.
men
Even
the
last refuge was
under
Augustus a wastrel's
and
school of gladiators; but this last dishonour
was
rare,
than
rarer
amongst the senators
amongst the knights,and
the emperors
seldom
directlyor indirectlyforced knights or
few
senators to appear in public. Apart from the wish of some
"

diminish

to

the

ofiensiveness

of their

own

in the
appearance
of
with
its hatred

by a general imitation, Caesarism,

and favouring of the populace,
aristocracy,its class-levelling,
would not regret the degradation of the upper classes ; "and
the mob
would
be delightedat seeingthe noblest of the State
exhibit
themselves
like slaves
and
hirelings,to provide a
holiday.
But
of the
most
Emperors had no such thoughts, or
of respect to custom, law or
their own
out
restrained them
arena

intimacies.

The

disrespectfor
and

Laberius

and

others

senators
time

the

were

16

senators
"

rank.

U,

and

his autocratic

show

there

young
games
bribed and forced

But

arena.

forbidden
b.c.

did indeed

In his Circus

knight was

into the

after

R.L.M,

first Caesar

to

soon

appear

followed

knights from

the

nobles
on

to the

after his death

in the

senattis

stage

arena

consultum
as

well.

raced,

stage,

(38 B.C.)
and

some

ing
prohibitSuetonius
C

The

Spectacles

ties,
Augustus did employ knights and senators in both capaciIn the
but
spectacles given
only before this decree.
by Augustus in 29 B.C. at the dedication of the Temple of
chariot
and
horse
Caesar, patricians and knights ran
races,
and
a
senator, Quintus Vintelius, appeared as a gladiator.
Domitius
Ahenobarbus,
Nero's
during
grandfather, Lucius
says

his

married

and

knights

allowed

aristocrat,
the
he

consulate

praetorshipand

had

to

youth
convicted

had

acted

10

a.d.

knights

by

were

pressly
ex-

gladiators. Tiberius, a thorough

than
hatred of
contempt for the mob
not
would
classes ;
degrade the upper

appear

more

of both
of

mime

B.C.

In

women.

aristocracy, and
sternly enforced the

decadent

16

as

consultum, and

senatus

who

orders

dishonourable

some

it

evaded

act.

punished the
selves
by gettingthemIn

15

a.d.,

at

knights fought. Tiberius was

had
the
other
fallen, forbade
present, and, after one
continuing. In Caligula'sspectacles,senators drove chariots,
in the
and, as a punishment for alleged public appearances
the stage, many
on
arena
or
knights and senators were
put
forced to fight as gladiators. Claudius
to death
or
apparently
of
the
not
had
the
intention
abuse, but succeeded.
only
stopping
one

of Drusus'

Under

pubUc,

the

Marcus

Aurelius

spectacles,two

Nero,

however,

the

first emperor

to

act

in

its highest point :

rank, sex,
passion reached
wealth, reputation, all availed nothing against the imperial
whim
them
to drive
to the degradation of the stage or the
VitelUus
issued
a
arena.
sharp edict against this degradation
of the knighthood ; and
Domitian
made
tion
ostentasome
of rank ; he expelled a man
of anxiety for the honour
of quaestorian rank
from
the
Senate, CaeciUus
Rufinus, for
his love of dancing. In 91 AciUus
Glabrio
had
to fighta
lion at the Alban
villa, or, according to another
account,
volunteered
there to fight a bear ; one
tion
ground for his execuin 95 was
this combat.
the succeeding
Up to Commodus,
did not force senators
or
knights to appear in
emperors
of ill fame
in
the
tell
Senate
could
pubUc. Yet a man

fought

with

him

he

saw

in the

about
arena

him
;

and

praetors who

many

Severus

could

answer

had
the

Senate's

as

complaints at Commodus'
appearing in the amphitheatre,
of the senators
none
had
by asking whether
fought
else
should
certain
of
them
gladiators;
why
have
bought

Commodus'

shields and

golden helmets

'

Wheij

the fore-

The
head

is scarred

heknet
cithara

in

Juvenal.

'

Seneca.

pubUc,
'

with

enough

', says
The

Spectacles
Under

noble

the

mask,

an

19

it

may

for

the

who

emperor

comedian

is used

be

plays the
expected ', says

stage is the gladiators'school '.

next

not
most
to
are
excepting for Nero, the emperors
blame
for this degradation of senators
takable
and knights ; an unmissign of the irresistible influence of these marvellous
spectacles upon men's minds.

Thus,

THE

CIRCUS

"
Between
there
for

is

the

and

races,

the

slopes of
parallel

valley600

chariot-races
for

Aventine

and

long and 150 broad,

especially. During

metres

accommodation

the

the

and

races

the

Palatine
ideal

an

the

arena

Republic

spectators

was

extremely simple. The constructions

begun by JuKus Caesar
and completed by Augustus first made
the Roman
Circus one
of its most
splendid buildings. The seats for the spectators
were
separated from the course
by a ditch ten feet broad,
and

in three

rose

lowest

of these

wood

and

used

the

Augustus
view

to

on

around,
which

the

to

late

Antoninus
under

structure
Circus

of

an

the

times,

as

not

was

from

two

very

and

of wood,

upper

often

collapsesare

Pius, in which

Diocletian

The

amphitheatre.

1,112

Maximin.

lofty,and

there

lives
Under
was

stories of the houses

upper
first large reconThe
liked.
struction

the

position Augustus
undertaken
was
by Nero after the great fire of 64
destroyedno small part of the Circus, whence it started ;

also

had

Another

which

also

form

of stone, and

up

under

one

lost, and

were

he

consisted

was

mentioned,

tiers in the

the

fire under
was

moat

filled

Domitian

in

and

occasioned

completed by Trajan.

The

utilised
a

for

extra

seats.

further reconstruction,
Circus

was

then

further

scheme
of decoration
with
an
:
a
enlarged in connexion
of having
inscription makes
provided room
Trajan boast
enough for the whole Roman
people. According to Pliny
in harmony
the Younger
(a.d. 100) its endless length was
of the temples ; it was
with the gorgeousness
worthy of the
than' the
sovereign nation, and, in itself,no less remarkable
in it. We
exhibited
have
only scanty references to
games

The

20

and

extensions.

from

180,000

later restorations
last

the

at

those
the

was

Women

sat

with the

and
emperor
built their boxes

his

The

decorations

The

rich

seats,

senators,

commonalty.
spectacles.

other

at the

as

the

the

to

the

amongst

senators,

or

tier.
An

throughout.

principalfeature

the

But

seats.

apart

lowest

were

rest

the

century specifiesthe

fourth

the

from

and

lowest

to

assigned

family sat

in the

The

190,000.

were

not

men,

seating accommodation

The

to

course,

knights

the

tier to

next

the

to

nearest

Spectacles

bronze

dating

the

on

of

rows

obelisk

Augustus
Popolo) ; Con-

the

was

account

(now in the Piazza del

another
(now in the Piazza del
larger one
surrounded
by a one-storey edifice
Laterano). The circus was
and exits
entrances, affording easy access
with staircases and
at
for thousands
once
; containing in its cellars shops and

up in the
added
stantius

centre

set

served

two
as

shops

as

This

the entrance.

and

seldom

made

the

pj"per.
Circus

about
of

the

stones

cookshops in

in the
in

his

with

fruit-dealer

inscription. But
and

the

remarks

Stadium,
that

the

the

The

great

next

to Mons

their

of the
these

Circus has

used
the

as

Circus

of

the

ing
perform-

broke

The

round
a

were

out

the Palatine,

and

down

little

there

Nero

come

brothels

with

extent

wares.

seers

amused

there

CaeUus

cellars,as also those

to

such

day,

fire under

inflammable

Great

were

road

in Cicero's

even

ing
walk-

evenings, speaks

in

players,who
by Augustus to the

guests.

shops

in the

liked

Juvenal's time,
predictedtheir fortunes

part of the Circus

the

one

honoured

were

before

Circus

who

Horace,

there

and,

Further,

the

hence

augurs

circus

'boards.

on

rabble,

resort

folk advice, and

mean

gave

cellars

places,and the third

low block of buildings
was
always Hvely,
In Ennius' day street-corner
astrologers

the

amongst

; of three

residence

refreshment

and

their

deceitful

owner's

above, the

conveniences, and

to

in

us

an

the Theatre

Christian

lay through

of

name

the

writer

brothel.

The

in
Oriental
women
Syrians and
prostitutes included
drums,
of kettleforeign dress, who danced
obscenely to the sound
cymbals and castagnettes.
of the centuries, become
The
performances, in the course
and
various
main
more
longer, more
magnificent. The
feature
But
as
there
were
was,
always, the chariot-races.
also

races

on

custom,

horseback,

the

leapingfrom

riders, after

horse

to

old

an

horse,

or

tary
mili-

Roman

plying

arms

on

The
horseback,

picking up

Spectacles

21

their

prizes from the ground in full

on
gallop,and other similar exploits. They would lie down
four-in-hands.
ners,
galloping steeds, leap over
Pugilists, runwrestlers
too
was

in

stadia

the

speciallyconstructed

athletic

an

in

common

were

contest

in the

earUer

epoch, and

thus

Circus.

in

An

of the
Arvales
mentions
grove
Fuscus, who died at the age of 24, and won
twice
of the Arvales, and
in the Circus
one

of these

best

runner

won

the

Circus

he

races

only

won

Green

53 times
at

once

second

runner

at

Bovillae

he

lap :

Rome,

was

the

of his time, and, at his first appearance

in 35 a.d.,
the long runs
race.
Pliny mentions
frequent in the

of his

day

his distances

years old ran

75 millia from
millia ; an inscriptionof an
94

at the

there

a. D.

44

found
inscription

the

near

later

millia

on

Englishman,

one

is said

day
to

one
fabulous';

seem

midday

to

evening

imperialrunner

as

wonderful

done

have

60

miles

boy eight
another

tells of his
feat

160

doing

Fletcher, the

in

14 hours, and
of the Incas ran

2i\ ; the Peruvian

messengers
miles)in 24 hours.
50 leguas (about 200
In Republican times
to be mock-fights in the
there used
undertaken
Circus, and other miUtary exhibitions
by young
citizens in full armour
of
foot
divisions
or
cavalry,
troops,
;
them
under
the
Or
the
again
Empire.
replaced
equestrian
order in its six turmae, each led by its captain, and the whole
First of the Youth
by the
(generally
troop commanded
the heir to the throne) used to perform in gala-dressin the
Circus.
Boys of noble descent, too, used to figurebefore the
people in the Circus in the so-called Troy-play, an old custom
with
revived
in favour
the Juhan
by Augustus, and much
sionally
Emperors. The boys, mainly of senatorial family, and occathe young
according to age
princes,in detachments
(ofboys under 11, or under 17) went through cavalry exercise
in gutteringarmour.
Baitings of wild animals and gladiatorial
for the amphitheatre,were
given,
generally reserved
games,
if
in
the
on
a
scale,
Circus,
perhaps invariably
especially
large
before the buildingof the Colosseum
the performances
; as were

Barclay 90

in

'

in which

Androclus

and

'

his hon

appeared.
these circus-games,however
But
splendidin accoutrement
ranked
and
as
high as the
dignifiedin the performers,never
felt an
chariot-races, in which the masses
absorbing interest
in the so-called factions of the charioteers, not, like the

Greeks,

The

22

in

the

horses
led

of the

persons

In
took

ancient

and

races,

honourable

as

and,

the

in

part

like it, laid

that

as

the

on

of victory

wreath

the

triumphant

of the

funeral

races

and

chariots

their

with

the

horses.

in the

interest

citizens

times

the

growing passion for

the

intense

an

in

modems,

like

competitors,or,

Yet

themselves.

gradually to

Spectacles

it

But

hearse.

slaves

was

sidered
con-

conqueror,

always

was

for the

popular
dignity to expose one's own
person
not
as
contemptible
pleasure,even
though the charioteer was
and dangerous occupaactor
as
an
or
gladiator; this arduous
tion
and
therefore relegated to common
folk, freedmen
was
with
their freerewarded
dom
slaves, the latter being sometimes
and, later,
palms and wreaths, money,
; the priceswere
valuable
dresses.
These
races
were
promoted by the public
by the competition of the
spiritof their givers,and yet more
a

loss of

performers,who often made their fortunes.

known
only one,
thiough jascriptions,
tiig^harioteers

factions for the best

Of

(the White) for

thirteen years.
Another
charioteer. Diodes, joined the Red
faction only after trying the three others ; from inscriptions
Scirtus, served'

learn that

we

the

and

one

others

for all four, and

victories

won

faction

same

earned

some

prizes. Scorpus, the famous

Domitian, according to Martial, in one
hour, won,
victory, fifteen purses of gold ; Juvenal estimates

large

share

of

charioteer

the

under

for

his

the

income

of

that

as

of

increased

that

gorgeously

mere

rewards,

but

celebrated
but

landed

Placidus'

The

heroes

attention.

On

after the

manner

'

charioteers
of

the

the

received

charioteers

had

horses

this

wore

half -silken

whereat

honest
the

time, mentions

much

personally attracted

they

no

East.

in the

racecourse

track

the

about

in the

voice

later

properties; they

linen, and

much

as

Empire, their
jockeys gain larger fees.
consulate
(?343A.d.) was

modern

that

times
had

they

Yet, in the

people groaned'. Libanius,

of the

hundred

Sometimes

Furius

tunics, embroidered
wealth

as

of the Faction.

Vopiscus says
so

charioteer

advocate.

an

management

earnings

Red

one

greeted with acclamation

and
of this applause may
Much
have
been
good wishes.
purchased. St. Jerome speaks of the bujdng of popular favour,
a

really devoted

Martial

wrote

of

charioteers.

number
two

were

poems

But

of adherents
to

the

more

always

Scorpus,

'

the

had

famous
in their
lustre

train,
of

the

times, and
the

three

with

51 times.
with six or seven

been

had

races

from

horses

win
'

of

out

fashion

had

118

won

chariot to each

one

great rival

his

he

Thallus.

first

the

was

signia
'in-

one

year,

approved
surpassed

had

thus

nine

his

most

the

in

horse, and

He

made

In

beating previous records.

victories

134
with

had

prizes

amounted

hundred

two

one

for

92

earnings

total

His

and

races,

in

consisted

and

in hand,

of

1,064, some

(more than ;"375 ,000).He

hundred

of the

Out

sesterces.

60,000

to

30,000

35,863,120 sesterces

to

Spectacles

The

24

since

man

the

sesterces
for 50,000
eight
had
with
the same
three
horses ; and
times
won
29 such
of his predecessors. On
than
one
day
prizes,one more
any
six-in-hands
for 40,000
raced
twice
with
he had
sesterces,

foundation

of

winning both,

Rome

fame

for

with

the

to

he

horses

seven

these

race

hke

are

sporSSg circles

modem

of

had

Europe,

then

as

paper
The
'

reads

much
very
celebrated
and

most

he had

raced

in five

races

126

570 times,
he

times, third

"1

fees at

gifts from
;"io,ooo.

and

80

^5

times

would

he

Wherever

six years,
and at all the

In

as

the

head

French

Archer

age of
fortune.

twenty-nine, he

Roman

When

Society,even

partly because

of the

men,

and

high

He

modern

after

barrier

was

times

dead

heat,

His
placed 165 times.
tO;"2,io8. But, with money
income
from
was
;"8,oooto

was

average
of his

died
had

the

his train

he
profession,
Next

of bookmakers.
won

not

won

as

November

2,749

best, took

keen

Charles

came

The

first six

much

and

Fred

as

8, 1886,

races,

races,

1,172

to Archer

89 times.

won

on

won

in second

come

not

he had

went

left

interest

in

at
a

the

large

racing,

factions, and

a
passion for chariot-driving,

moderate

sporting

and

meetings.
principal

'.

their backers

of

once

Roman

the

raced

Archer

and

appeal

passed

458 times and

jockeys altogether have

who

Wood,

years

times,

199

the

to

monuments.

jockey

fortunate

amount

his

owners,

hke

won

had

won

these

for

race

their

description in

Archer's

Fred

sums.

jockeys in

factions, and in their winning for themselves

enormous

won

yoked together, also

a whip ; had
gained

not

for 30,000
without
novelties, and so on.

charioteers

These

races

unparalleled event

an

sesterces
50,000
a record
; won

win

to

in the young,
position,and

also in consequence
of the
feehng excusable, in the eyes of
but blameworthy in men
of ripe

in the

emperors.

Young

noble-

The
not

men

put

drove

only
the

on

break

like coachmen
Nero's
a

often

favour

of the charioteer's

in the

Blue

Caligula'sfavourites
and

horses.

Lucius

Elagabalus,
selected
made

and

were

mother

feast,

one

Praetorians

Verus,

ViteUius, who

to

Commodus,

from

CaracaUa,

with

was

million
for

Geta,

his
and

this

passion. Elagabalus
professionalracers, and

amongst

of Hierocles, his

turned

him
two
gave
build
stables

once

charioteer,Gordius, Praefect

Circus-drivers

horse-goddess Epona.
had
been
in his youth

art.

had

all affected

his favourites

the
a

the

swore

the
currying the horses, won
through his zeal for charioteering,
Nero
being an expert. Amongst
Eutychus, the charioteer of the

was

Caligula,after

sesterces,

and

mangers,

stables

Caligulaand Nero
CaUgula playing at it, but
;

the

by

25

country roads, but also

Ahenobarbus

of

Greens

in the

muleteers

Domitius

devotee

seen

horses

themselves, filled the

and

father

famous

the

Spectacles

chief

minion,

of the

consular,

Watch.

their

pre-eminence into an opportunity

for impudence.
In the early Empire, probably on certain
the city masked,
and, as
days only, they might go about
Nero
practicaljokes,pilferand cheat.
prohibitedthe custom.
But
who
received
nothing could restrain the Ucence of men
conscious
of being indispensable.
imperialfavour and were
The
best
racehorses
reared
in the
were
provinces. In
also breeding-stations,
Italy there were
especiallyin the wide
lands
in
valleys of Apulia and Calabria.
TigeUinus owned
these
bred
circus-horses
he
is said to have
regions and
;
incited Nero's
passion for racing. The Hirpine horses were
considered
the best ; and PUny asserts that for three-in-hands
the

Italian

sort

could

not

be

beaten.

In

Sicilythere

conversion
the
stud-farms, where
into pastures had begun in the early Empire

of

enormous

the

Great

sellingofi the

was

Church

in

seemed

too

race-horses

a
Sicily,

mere

four

inconsiderable
were

desolation

also
also

to

horses

hundred
take

highly esteemed.
converted

wide

the

on

that
into
In
areas

corn

were

land

; when

Gregory
property of the
to

were

account.
Greece
into

be left
Sicilian

the increasing

pasture, and

Thessaly, AetoUa, Acarnania, Arcadia, Epidaurus and Sparta,

from
other
all furnished
horses
Of
good horses.
provinces
and Cyrenaic,
the African, to be distinguishedfrom Moorish
most
horses of Spanish blood were
frequently occur
; African
though this title fell in the third
reputed the best runners,

2$
and

fourth

centuries

At this time

distance

in

Guadalquivir

no

gave

its

races.

be

their

best,

were

old, and, judging from their

documents,
they were
mostly male.

names

to

at

years

long.
the
Gutta

often
the

Tuscus
and

Greens,

the

was

based

sourceSj

Great

victories

our

Circus
was

was

'

have

four-in-hands,

mile

or

great achievement

Yet

such

times

and

hundred

one

horse

to

lation
any calcufour times
as

1,700

round.

of

on

least

at

ingly
surpris-

was

belonging

they must,

run

other

Fortunatus

of

Victor

1,600

some

over

life

Their

five

or

lists and

on

leading horse

hence,

429

on

either three

386 victories, and

won

Calpurnianus,
in the

famous

capitalof Syria,was

thought to the frightfulexpense

importing Spanish horses from the Tagus and

to

Racehorses,

Spain.

Cappadocia and

from

horses

to

Antioch, the luxurious

for its circus, and

and

Spectacles

The

called

was

probably had
specialharness '. Naturally
than
slaves ;
fetched
high prices,and cost more
racehorses
sought
carefullybred, and victorious

centenarius, and
such

animals

they

were

staUions.

Connoisseurs

out

as

the

pedigreesand

records

tale to tell of their

Secular

Games

thrown

the

dances

races,

on

their

the

White

one

many

says that at the

charioteer
was

and reached
led the way
Another
writer
exertions.
marks
re-

own

Circus

horses

ribbons

(?),gay

in-hand

put

in

Claudius

Pliny

had

start, but his horses

goal first, of
that

horses, and

intelligence.Thus

under

at the

out

of famous

acquaintedwith

weU

very

were

the

and

most

burning

left outside,

the

victory ;

as

and

torches.

In

the

four-

always
mined
its speed and skill in turning deterthat horse
was
anxiously watched

common,

the

encouraged by flutes,

were

the

best

horse

was

of them
on
were
by the spectators. The names
everybody's
with
acclamation
in
the
Circus
were
lips; they
greeted
; every
knew
which
Passerinus
one
was
Martial,
or Tigris ;
running,
in spiteof his fame
the
better
than
not
known
as a
poet, was
foal Andraemon.
still
Monuments
are
representing them
extant.
The
mania.
a
passion often became
CaUgula is
said to have aimed
at making the horse
Incitatus a consul ;

and,

on

days

command
one

spectator, who
in

his

cloak

in first,he

to

was

silence and

himself
came

he'

had

race,

quiet for
saw

and
to

his

soldiers

his repose.

favourite

fainted ;
be

revived.

sent

were

abroad

Epictetussays
left

when
Nero

to

that

behind, wrapped
it

picked

awarded

up

and

veteran

The
racehorses

Spectacles

maintenance-money,

did

also

as

27
Verus

and

Com-

modus.

providersof

The
the

and

men

the

festivals could
and

animals,

the

and large owners

capitalists
there

business

of slaves

themselves
taken

was

and

find

over

stud-farms.

by

ally
Gener-

competitions, and there were

four firms for the four colours
or
parties. At the head of
each
the domini
faction were
or
factionum, there being one
several, nearly all, like the business
classes, knights,though
The
charioteers
this rank.
occasionally attained
providers
of the festivals had to arrange
these
with
companies, whose
When
Nero, at his
prices varied, according to occasion.
the Games
to performancesof several days,
accession,extended
these directors declined lettingout their men,
except for short
and
the consuls
periods, and treated
praetors with great
were

to

dogs.

The

who

in

the Praetor
54 a.d.
firms' demands,
and

the

accede

Reds

increased

often

the

and

after

only

to have

chariots

In

arrogance.

Greens

four

seldom

Nero
the

received

fixed
games,

gifts.

hundred

one

Whites

Aulus

Fabricius

his chariot with

ran

gave

the

way

in order

Cappadocian

enrich

to

I,

as

and

the

the

and

is said

directors,

private man,
hundred

one

not

trained

Blues

Commodus

price.

Gordian

would

tributed
dis-

Sicilian

imperial
obtaining the necessary
of his
Ucence
at the
Symmachus
Quaestorian Games
; and
five slaves.
Once
son
only (6 a.d.)is there
gave each of them
at their own
mention
of the directors
institutingGames
any
and
then
together with the pantomimes ; but in
expense,
later
times, shows
given by the pantomimes, perhaps in
horses

them,

amongst

conjunction

with

the

directors,

are

mentioned

on

several

occasions.
The

stafi

numerous

of

the

factions

consisted

partly

in

for
the grooms
slaves, partly in paid freemen, and included
the stables and the Circus, besides artisans, artists,and of"cials
of all sorts.
Wheelwrights,shoemakers, tailors,pearl-workers,

physicians,instructors, messengers,
administrators
shifted

from

were

in the

near

the

had

been

mentioned

are

faction

one

IXth

Flaminian

built

in lists of the
another.

The

employees, and

stables

of all four

Region, probably at the base of the Capitol

Circus.
In part, at least, these quarters

by

reign, contributed

to

cellarers, and

runners,

despitehis short
Emperors (Vitellius,
were
splendid;
large sums), and
very

the

The

28

Caligula used

Spectacles

frequent the

to

relation of the factions to the fisc and

The

there.

dine

stables, and

Green

tion
city administra-

the

is obscure.
The

Red

colours

there is

them

Referenceto

contemporary
Green

Perhaps

B.C.

early history is

their

originalparties;

the

were

Blue

and

White

Blue.

and

White, Red, Green

were

century

Empire.

the

under

arose

unknown

first

in the

and

Purple, which
have
been purely imperial : these two
soon
completely
may
disappeared. The Greens and Blues, from the Early Empire
onwards, thrust the older partiesout of view ; possiblythey
with the Greens, and the Reds with
amalgamated, the Whites
stantinopl
the Blues, without
altogether losing their identity. In Conthe four colours,
of the eighth century these were
but a writer
of the twelfth speaks of the factions
as
things
Domitian

of the
The
the

added

two

and

past.
factions in Rome

Circus

most

remarkable

proletariatand

the

Constantinopleare amongst
The
whole
of the Empire.

and

phenomena

population,from

huge

colours. Gold

new

the

rulers

slaves,

were

of

the

world

divided

into

down

four, later

unnatural
two, hostile camps.
and the growing demoralization
and brutalization
hereby clearlyexemplified. To the Government
of popular passion was
extremely useful, and no
into

The

endeavoured

to

Vitellius

stem

and

Domitian,

Lucius

maintained

the

Emperors

not

it.

Several

Caracalla

Verus

and

leadership in
only incited the

time

of Rome

are

Blues,

Elagabalus
the

on

of the
politics

Emperors

for the

the

to

this diversion
it seems,

one,

Caligula, Nero,

for the

Greens,

Early Empire.

factions, but

sans,
parti-

overt

were

But

terrorized

who
the

their

antagonists. The factions found great support amongst the

their organization employed ;
people in the large numbers
influence they no
doubt
But
confirmed
an
to the
utmost.
stillmore
the fact of the four colours ; a partywas
significant
supplied to the populace, which could not understand
cry was
horses and racing,but could always rally to the meaningless
colours.
For five hundred
this party-cry was
inherited
years
from generation to generation,in a decadent
population, and
at the one
and
shed
bloodspectacle,the Circus, where excesses
were

of

rife.

Nero

or

Marcus

Aurelius

might

the

world, the Empire might be at peace

civil war
and
insurrection, the barbarians

or

on

be

the

master

tottering in
the

frontiers

The
advancing
slaves,

men

or

of

anxiety

the

Circus

not

driven

or

should

Why

Heaven

to

the

they
in

by

disdain

the

his

people visited

mart5rrs,who

had

high

Blue

lived

their

God's

low, free

or

the

was

saved

Gods

Christians

Had

one

the

preachers from

boons

Circus

the

on, the

or

theme
of
were

the

arena.

Elijah gone
Could then charioteeringbe sinful ?
Rome
from 442-460, complained that

Great, Bishop of

Leo

and

Factions

chariot

for

29

Christianitydethroned

restrained

always

Rome

; at

Green

hope.

but

back

women.

and

Spectacles

than

more

from

Rome

not

shrines

the

of

the

by Attila.
When
the barbarians
were
ing
threatening Carthage (439),accordto Salvianus
the presbyter, the Carthaginian
of Massilia
mob
flocked
Treves, thrice conquered
madly to the racecourse.
its few
and
destroyed, found
surviving noblemen
demanding games from the Emperors to be celebrated on the
of their

charnel-house

dead.

own

this infatuation

But

utter destruction

reached

its

height, not at Rome, but,

in the East, at Constantinople, where, as early as the middle
of the fourth
century, this passion led to riots. At the time
know
in Rome,
of which
we
despite the continuance
more,
and
the
of the Reds
Whites, the struggle was
only between
and
at Constantinople the conflict was
Greens
Blues.
But
often religiousand
and
political,and all the more
savage
endemic.

his

For

death

and

home,

faith

never

attended

faction

committed
or

crimes

the

tainted

Nika

broke

532

Belisarius

in

the

sole

should
it

the

Circus

adherents

wear

might shake
Contemporary

scarlet

his

says,

toga

out

his

of

that

; should

then

it became
in the

Circus

Justinian his
wife, and
said

are

of the

epigram

cost

thousand

thirty
an

have

who

women,

of Theodora

of mind

authority,which

not

would

a.d.,

perished. Probably, too, the

colours

the

riot, which

and

torture

country, kin, friends,

Party ; even
spectacles,were

life,but for the presence

of

above

law, stood

The
general mania.
of Constantinople in

loyalty

endured

man

every

to

the
have

parties wore

the

is

Martial, however,

Green
he

or

get one

Blue
in

devotee
a

lottery,

loyalty.

references

to

the

Roman

Circus

and

the

scanty to enable us to trace the growth of the

giganticevil. We can only deal with isolated indications of
of the passion. In the last century
the magnitude and extent
Factions

of the

are

too

Republic, at

the

funeral

of

Red

charioteer, Felix,

The

30

Spectacles

Plinj
pyre.
supporters threw himself on the same
of
the
the Elder
reports this on the unimpeachable authority
preciate
Official Journal, and
adds, that the oppositionparty, to destupefiedby
the artist's fame, alleged the suicide was
with the body.
But, despite this case,
the fragrances burnt
been
have
cannot
as
in Augustus' time, the Factions
even
fiftyyears later. Ovid
developed and organized as they were
places one of his elegiesin the Circus ; he is looking at the races
in his lady's company
; a motley throng is bursting out oi
regardin
charioteer, disthe carceres, but he and she gaze only at one
of his

one

his colour.

gladiators,hardly

the

factions.
a

It

of the

consequence

hus, that

the

system

Greens

has

been

the

charioteers

Blue

course

of the

infatuation

of

grew
mentioned

and

Circus,

the

to

ever

in the

was

refers to the

often

Horace

Theatre

and

to

never

the

century, partly

first

Caligula,Nero

as

Vitel-

and

Caligula'spartisanshipfor

up.

according to Dio, he had the

poisoned. Nero, as a schoolboy,
;

horses

talk about
the
by his teacher for his incessant
the fate of a Green
Circus ; once
he disobedientlylamented
charioteer
dragged along on the ground by his horses ; and,
and Achilles.
when
speaking of Hector
reproved, said he was
than
the
Greens
As
merely favour
Emperor he did more
Green
in the Circus, and
had
the Circus
actively; he wore
with
strewn
green
copper dust (chrysocoUa) instead of sand ;
of Tiridates, the King of
also at the spectaclesin honour
as
Vitellius even
for the Blues,
Parthia.
deigned to act as groom
was

blamed

and

owed

to

Germany
and

Blue

Titus

also

he

As

partisan.
had

by

some

post of Governor

the

to

Vinius,

in the Circus

favour
but

his nomination

favourite

at the

emperors
for

took

no

who

men

decried

first

Rome,
much

matter

lectures
to

part, the

factions

discoursed

condescend

educated

for

men

to

the

the

at

the

mania

rate

same

obsessed

for culture, and

thought.
of nothing else ;
take
part in such
feelingthat it was

earnest

Blues

out

execration

an

Though

direct

century,
leaving no room

the

revolution.

spectaclesdeveloped

of the

of Galba,

sought for popular

degrading exhibition of partisanship;

of

herald

Coiurt

he

emperor,

executed, interpretingthe expression as

and

of Lower

the
and

the

the

at

whole

mind

giving deeper

Youth

at

even

the

home

safe to

end
of

thinkers
and

teachers

discussions.

self,
{him-

succeeding
the passion

and,

of

loud,

at
had

Amongst

talk about

the

The

32
the
of

to kill the

Guard

and

within, and

decay from

utter

describes

Marcellinus

the

North

but

and

contempt

the

Factions.

for the
To

danger from

imminent

he, filled

even

morals

Roman

he

as

passion for

Circus,

Circus

the

mob,

the

the

with

was

the

scene

fiftyyears later
at an
epoch of

and

hundred

One

Circus

the

made

and

oSenders,

confusion.

slaughterand

Ammianus

Spectacles

was

East

ment
astonish-

never

tions
men-

its

temple,

assembly and ideal. Ever3rwhere groups of

would
stand
men
eagerly discussingthe events ; grey-haired
the
that
Empire
men,
boasting of their experience, swore
out
if their
On
doomed
was
predictions turned
wrong.
before
sunrise,
Circus-days the people flocked to the course
It
in
ful
wonderwas
a
or
anticipation.
passed sleeplessnights
this
immense
absorbed
in
the
But
races.
sight,
throng
received
less keen
the haughty nobilitywho
no
were
gers
messen-

home,

of the

to hear

And,

thing of

the

Rome

there

and

was

fight in

Theodoricus,

one

man

King,
on

as

; it was

faction

despair ; there
but
they lament
as
though they

so

win

is

no

the

took
Two

models.

as

the

the

triumph,

one

509

Greens

the

Circus

half

of

but

the

they exult
quarrels are

Circus, and

private secretary of

greater tb'in in other

lose,

or

In

senators, Importunus

Blues, attacked

learned

barbarians,

the
Goth,
by Theodoric
Theodoric
left
passions.
hence
often
greeted as

passions in

much

these

of

stream

rescriptrelatingto

of the

excitement

he

of the

by Cassiodorus,

strange

Whichever

In

the

was

Circus.

the

adherents

killed.

was

up
the

whom

Valentinian,

and

drawn

victory over Tarquin.

the Empire was
still,when
a

half later

drivers, like the

and

of the

news

still rang
to the
same
beloved
and
games,

her

Trajan

horses

new

in
past, swept away
was
being governed

Rome
Circus

of

brought

century and

when

arrival

of old, who

Dioscuri

the

of

place

the

is remarked

spectacles.
people is in
no

disaster,

keenly felt
national
losses.
The
were
deslroyed
games
moral
incentive
to
an
paltry disputes; uprightpurpose,
gave
ness
flourished.
vanished, and discord
the
Finally,
rescript
it
is
said
that
a
rightly
runs,
spectacle involving so much
dishonour
is aptly dedicated
to idolatry. And
the King tolerated
it only to afford the people some
relief ; he had sometimes
to act foolishly,
if he was
to please them.
Further, under
Theodoric
of the Circus
the
whole
was
no
longer used for
;

chariot-driving.One

petty

of the

mentions
rescripts

as

that Volusianus

The
a

senator

owned

the

Empire,

and

last

race

seat in the

(and a

theatre)
amphi-

was

was

in 549

the Circus

33

taken from his children.

illegally
the
Western
rivalry of the colours survived
died out only when
the
Circus vanished.
The
held
in the deserted
and
impoverished city

which
Thus

of

tower

Spectacles

the

Totila

under

Goth.

"2
of the fourth

was
century, Symmachus
engaged
the preparations for his son's Praetorian
in a correspondence on
This
Games.
source,
though late, gives a standard
in the earlier
of the magnificence which
high officials,even
For Rome
can
Empire, lavished on their celebrations.
hardly
senators
luxurious
in the earlier
have
had
less wealthy and
Empire than under Theodosius, and the preparationscan only
varied in kind, in the stagings,the horses and attendhave
ants.
In the early Empire the factions apparently undertook
this work, whilst Symmachus, to judge by his letters,himself
Symmachus, as above
bought or hired charioteers and horses.
mentioned, was
only moderately opulent for a senator of his

At

the

end

; but

time

his games

for the

sense

gorgeous.
Aurelius
Symmachus
held

had

every

of the

one

great attention

and

owned

highest ofiice

of State, and

of his

greatest men

three

effort to
spiritshe made
every
paganism againstthe victorious onset

of

The

of himself

aims

classical literature
were

and
as

his associates

so

as

idolatrous

an

by Symmachus

and

the

horror,

were

assert

of

as

were,

classical faith, with

closely connected

Christians

ard
stand-

palaces
was

With

day.

like-minded
cause

are

more

Quintus
Rome,

aroused

games,
all the

in every
number
of
fallen

the

Christianity.

much

which

in

to revive

the

spectacles
regarded by
treated

more

for his creed,

a great prop
holy obligation,
the more
he held two of the highest^priesthoods.
Other
so
as
also stirred his zeal ; a high conception
worldly considerations
of what
due to the majesty of Rome,
the dignity of his
was
and the wishes of his order.
He therefore strenuously
house
availed

himself

wealth,

and

as

his

of

every

resource

ship.
A

man

R.L.M.

horses

he

of his station
"

II.

his

connexions,
far-reaching

expectationsof splendour at
The

of

the

imported
could easUy

games
almost
obtain

great influence
to

outbid

and

the

great
for his son's praetor-

entirelyfrom
the

Spain.
using

of
privilege
D

The

34

Spectacles
agents of

the

numerous
imperial post for his agents. Thus
instructions
his, well provided with
money,

recommendation

the

to

of

connoisseurs,

and

breeders,

best

letters

and

duals
Spain, sure of the support of powerful indiviand corporations. Symmachus
thought he must satisfy
he requests a breeder
the popular desire for variety : hence
from
one
Laudacius,
Eupraxius to get him four four-in-hands
best
the
horses.
acknowledged
Eupraxius' were
though
travelled

to

Further,

his
of

racehorses

before

the

Southern

France

of disease

keep

to

four

or

But

the

winter

could

selected

to await

be

directed

horses

best

made

the

the

carried

spring,
To

out.

friend in

in his stables

and^^ should

months,

be' for sale

selection

had

the

secure

for

specially

any

Aries, to purchase them

near

as

long journey necessarilyinvolved the certainty

accident
; of four sets of
thinning the numbers
sent
him
as
a
Sallustius,only
present by one

this
and

four-in-hands
eleven

arrived

Hence

the

alive, and

of these

some

died

even

after.

soon

ofEers of

in Italy,were
Helpidius,a horse-breeder
Symmachus asks him to send the be^t of his chariotto consider
quaUty rather than quantity, as the

accepted.
and

certaintyof
Italian

he

Italy
eventuality,Symmachus

good racehorses

racers,

and

transportation to

three

well.

to

careful

This

slower

even

for this

provide

commissioned

were

all breeds.

business

arduous

the

agents

large number

horses

Defective

from

Spain

made

the

selection

of

narrow.

very

the
by sea made
irregularcommunications
arrival of the charioteers
from
doubtful, though these came
further than
his Sicilian agent advised
no
as
Sicily. As soon
him
of their departure, he commissioned
his son-in-law
in the
Gulf of Naples to send reliable men
all along the coast to Salerno
receive

to

and

them

ashore.

Then

anything
Rome.

But

Symmachus

thought

Whether

coast.
The

to
and
necessary,
time went
by, and no

turned
were

any

demand

ship

arrived

days preceding such

on

nothing

consulted.

keep

aloof from

party.

but

Firmicus

despatch
news

in

with

was

we

inquiry
do

Maternus

employed

not

know.

Soothsayers
astrologers

recommends

to be identified

to accelerate

the

on

tion
Conversa-

suspense.
bets.
and

not

to

tremendous

eager

disputes

nish
to fur-

of their arrival.

official

time,

was

by ship

them

came

an

the Circus, in order

Magic

friend

festivals,entailingsuch

filled all Rome

preparations,

to

the

fit to

mutual

or

retard

with
the

Th.e
Tablets

pace.

conjured

to

drivers.

Or

of lead

Spectacles

35

laid

in graves
and
the daemons
the speed of the
horse
and

were

injure or slacken
charioteer specified
of such tablets have been found
; a number
the Via Appia and at Carthage. The daemon
on
one
(soruns
of them) is to take the strength out of the horses, that they
might neither run, nor leave the starting-point,
nor
gain in the
at the goal-pillars,
but there upset with
turn
nor
their
race,
them

the

of

out

is to make

daemon

the

chariot, if possible near

the

the

drag them along, to the injury of themselves

Or again, a chariot-driver
fettered
be
must
of

charioteer, who

confessed

head

condemned

was

goal, and

thus

horses.

to-morrow

'.

in the

Ammianus

death

to

the

and

'

Circus, like this cock, hand, foot and

blind, or hurl

drivers

tells

364, since he

in

apprenticing his son, a boy, to learn forbidden

lore of a magician. Another
man
prayed to St. Hilarion for
his horses
protection against a magician, who had enchanted
that they could not run.
mentions
Cassiodorus
that Thomas,
so
at Rome,
Oriental
charioteer
an
was
suspected of magic by
of his frequent victories.
The
lead tablets on
the Via
reason
of the chariotat least one
eers
Appia date from 390-420
a.d., and
Christian.
The
named
Circus
was
a
employees, whose
superstitiousvein was
heightened by the danger of their
Besides
eers,
amulets, chariotprofession,no doubt used amulets.
athletes
and
other
performers of the fourth and fifth
embossed
centuries
medals
with high rims (contorniates),
wore
the
with an
was
Great, who
e""gy of Alexander
supposed to
ward
off accidents, a widely spread belief.
The
horses had
bells hung on
them, to guard against enchantment.
And,

to

the

on

before

great day, hours

disturbed
thronged. Once Caligula was
night by the noise of the crowd
going
them

cudgelled away,

married

and

women

Elagabalus

is said

into

this

crowd

and

many

were

and

senators

had

entrances

eager

large

have

number

thrown

the

to

of

third

never

estate
the

had

to

spectators. People

of

of

middle
Circus

he

were

the
had

perished.

the

poor
number
large

crush

Circus, at

large enough

streets

twenty knights,twenty

dark

people, bitten in the

Claudius
injured. Under
special seats, with easy

the

was

in the crush

in the

the

of the

centuries,

to

thousands
many

and

the

dawn,

any

for

moderate

of snakes

streets, fled,
Nero

and

access,

knights

whilst

the

into

theirs,despite

rate

in the

the

vast

means,

earlier

number

in

of

Trajan's

36

The

time, longed

to

with

rushes
the

could

space

and

women

the

were

the

dust,

and

increased

and

men,

there

sun,

ther,
public. Furwith
an
awning,

For

all that,

despite

frequenters,and came,
heat, in their best ; they sat

and

with

the

from
Down
games.
statues
the sacred

the

for them.

attraction

the

of

means

no

was

umbrellas.

and

carry
stuffed

the

to

devoted

most

crowd,

Cushions

covered

be

not

against wind, or rain, or

cloaks, hats,
protection, save

sold

to

slaves,

Circus.

the

been

have

to

seem,

whole

in

good place

also

sturdy Moesian

two

possess

safely to

them

Spectacles

preceded the
religiousceremony
a
great procession with
Capitol came
A

and

Forum
through the
gaily bedecked
; thence
the Velabrum
and the
quarter, and over
shops of the Tuscan
Cattle-Market, and so through the middle
gate into the Circus
and
round
the goal-posts. The magistrate giving the spectacle
led the procession; a praetor or consul
standing In the dress
went

the

over

triumphant general on a lofty chariot ; the folds of the

it
broad
him, and beneath
gold-braided,purple toga round
embroidered
with
a tunic
palms, and the ivory sceptre with
his head, a huge wreath
an
eagle'shead in his hand ; and, over
of golden oak-leaves
held up by a public
set with jewels,was
of

On

slave.
at

chariot

the

Musicians

triumph.

and

when

once,

not

order

trumpet,

the

carried

thrones

on

horses

or

the

mischance
start

new

one

day

rose

from

him

and

might

so

that

and,

as

the

and

the

their

invalidate
Those
some

the

who

at the

sedan-chair, in

sound

of

flute

statues

of

the

attributes, and

gods

panied
accom-

celebration, and
interested

of the

might
the

in

ceremonials

only

be

abuse.

and

by mules,

drawn

cars

were

breach

the

tus
Augus-

car.

religiouscorporations.
pedantic cult of Rome;

games
annulled
practically

renewed

The

The
the

make

tions,
repeti;

but
for

assembly

of the

magistrate,and cheered
in modern
of the
Italy at processionsof emblems
invoke
their patrons, so in ancient
Rome
folk
country-

their seats

saints,many
as

with

priesthood

essential.

decreed

the

litters,or gorgeous

easily cite

could
Claudius

and

To

entered

exactly followed

ceremonial

procession

the

in

also

sat, as
preceded him,

attendants

carried

honour.

elephants, decked

by
least

this

his children

toga surrounded

himself

ill,had
miss

to

other

and

of clients in white

host

horses

the

or

entry

greeted Ceres, soldiers Mars, lovers Venus,

Ovid hints, an unsteady statue was
nodding

and
to

believed,
them.

The
Political

feelingsmight

pictures of
carried

the

in

honours

also

and

emperor

be

the

bestowed.

were

well

Serious

reflect, and

thinkers

under

almost
To

determine
of

end

the

the

endless,
the

whole
with

walls

and

as

tedious

the

Titus

and

or

the
of

women

of the

most
and

spectators
slow, and

prelude.

bounds

three

course

divine

glimpses of

dismal

see

whom

upon

figuresof the beautiful men

Caesarian
But
family passed by him.
regarded the procession so decorous

past, whilst

37

expressed, especiallyas
also
imperial family were

procession, especially those

Trajan might
the

Spectacles

of

conical

the

the

at

races,

pillarswere

and

start

erected, and

for

these
two
length between
points a low wall (or
the two
lisks,
obestood
a moat) was
drawn, on which
also sacred statues, pillarsand shrines.
Originally

the

each
side of the great
great Circus had four gates on
central
possibly under
gate, that is, eight in all, increased

Domitian

to

he

twelve, when

Hence, after the four factions

might
were
races

run

three

chariots

frequent, but
with

created

system

; but

the

one

was

two

factions.

happened

usual.

most

new

restored, each

this seldom

chariots, 347 with

three

the

Diodes

two, and

won

1,064 with

party
; two

51
one.

The

ordinary four racing chariots started from the four gates

the right of the principal entrance.
To
make
the distances
on
the gates "was
equal for the cars, the wall between
the gates nearest
the middle
a
curve,
being farther back,
and the other
curving in ; further, these starting points were
probably assigned by lot. The chariots, starting from the
the right of the
on
entrance, proceeded through the road
wall up to the farthest boundary-pillars,steered round
them
and
the left of the wall.
to the starting-pointon
returned
This

round

taken

was

instant

spectators at any
seven

high
was

won,

drawn

dolphins
up on
taken
which
near

prizes were
The

number

and

the
down
at

between

at
the

the
also

how

seven

wall

times

seven

each

seventh
entrance

many

and,

to

circuits had

inform
been

the

made,

egg-shaped balls were

planted
the boundary pillars,
and
one
The
chariot
completed round.
first passed a chalk
round
line,
on

the

left.

Second

and

third

awarded.

of these

varied.
In the Early
seven-lap races
the normal
Empire ten or twelve a day was
; in 37 a.d., at the
inauguration of a Temple of Augustus, Caligula had twenty

38
on

The
the

first

day, and

which

made

evening,

became

festivals

were

Spectacles

twenty-four

the

usual

fewer

there

only at minor
than
twenty-four

More

races.

the

Nero,

after

and,

ber,
num-

untU

morning

the

last from

games

This

second.

the

on

only given on extraordinary occasions, if two festivals

coincided
(e.g.,in the fourth
century, Trajan's birthday
and
Constantine's
Licinius
on
September 8,
victory over
that
of
and
November
and, on
8, the birthday of Nerva

were

Constantius

II, both

double

festivals

with

celebrated

were

forty-eightraces). On three other days of high significance

when
over
twentythirty or thirty-six were
given. But
four were
given, the length of each may have been shortened.
Races
were
usually with four or two-in-hands, rarely with
The
three-in-hands.
Tiros
two-in-hands.
with
began
tombstone
age
the

of

slave charioteer

'

of 22,

of

art.

four-in-hands, though stillconfined

to

but

racecourse,

with

begun

died

who

bones

runs

In

Tarraco,

at

this grave
not
unskilled

the

are

in the

the

at

of

novice

already

had

horses

two

'.

(see p. 23) at the age of thirteen drove a fourThe

horses.
drove
two
in-hand, and
boys even
younger
drive
experts (who delighted in extraordinary feats) would
ten-horse
ten
horses.
Nero
drove
a
six, seven,
eight and
he blames
chariot
of his poems
at Olympia, though in one
the
received
for this practice, and
prize,
King Mithridates
driven
is said to have
Mithridates
despite an unlucky run.
But

Crescens

sixteen.
ancient
case
were

the

The

representations,

of

harnessed

reined

both

outer

in.

the

the

are

arms

foreheads
fall ; whip
the traces

bare,
and
in

with

with

cars
a

small.
light and
popular form, the

another,

one

numerous

the

best

In

the

horses

outside

on

yoked, or the three on the right

exacter
representations the tails of
fastened
together or docked, to prevent

On

horses

most

from

ones

entanglements
on

to

next
middle

left, the

were

the

four-in-hands,

only

stood

chariots, familiar

two-wheeled

other
short

helmet-cap

tunic
on

cheeks, to afiord

hand, and

chariots.

knife

braced

their
some

The

charioteers
the

round

heads

covering

protection in

in their

broad

body,
of

case

belts

their

to

cut

extremity, a precaution necessitated

As
a
by the practice of fastening the reins to the belt.
remedy against the constant
injury from being dragged on
the ground or run
the drivers used boar's dung without
over,
in

the

last

The

40
sprang

bent

up,

their

out

incited

handkerchiefs,

waved

over,

favourites, stretched

Spectacles
they

though

as

arms

their
could

gnashed their teeth, groaned, threatened,

The
exulted, triumphed, or swore.
winning chariot aroused
the losers
from
thunderous
a
applause and loud curses
of Rome,
the
deserted
re-echoed
streets
announcing
over
and
struck
of
the
to those who
at
end
home
the
race,
stayed
reach

the

course,

"

"

the

of

ear

the

traveller, when

vanished

had

Rome

from

unintermittently (except for short

but
the
at
midday) from
daybreak to sundown,
pauses
and
rain, and never
people sat there patiently,despite sun
the
of following their
idolized
wearied
same
sport with
passionate attention.
the Aventma-and
The
so
Palatine, once
valley between
The

sight.

lasted

races

ull of noise

life,is

and

solitary parts
vast

ruins

and

cloisters

ot

of

one~of

nov/-

ancient

Rome.

On

imperialpalaces ; on
stand

The

party system
in the

vines

dreariest

the

and

Palatine

the Aventine

are

few

most

the

churches

rubbish
gardens. Great
heaps of the once
temples and
palaces choke up
gorgeous
the slopes of the Aventine
tion
and
the valley. In this desolathere is a miserable
The
brook
cemetery of the Jews.
of Mariana
of the valley,and on its banks
at the bottom
runs
an
reeds, exceeding a man's
impenetrable forest of Roman
'^
height, whispers and rustles.

II.

amid

the

and

AMPHITHEATRE

THE
ensured

Circus, almost

the
its

closest

interest of the

participation,and

the

lace
popu-

tions
prepara-

comparatively inexpensive; at the other spectacles,

of the public was
to retain
the attention
more
difficult,and
various entertainments
to be lavishly provided.
had
In the
colossal
efiorts were
Amphitheatre most
made, ana
exciting
spectacles,fairy-likesplendour, a rapid succession of surprises
were

and
were

to

the

charm

of the

infinite,the bizarre

and

the

monstrous

always being offered, in order to surpass,

at least
or
and
meet, the claims
expectations of the spoilt capital.
1

Written

in 1864.

The

Spectacles
Gladiatorial

(i) The

41

Games

(a) Gladiatorial fightsoriginated in Campania, as a

after gorgeous
native to Etruria, but in
banquets, were
an

innovation.

city, Rome
centuries

of

like

not,
became

the

Republic

plays
In

for

Aemilius

264

after

first time

for

only

State

at

Latium

foundation

the

exhibited

of

the

first four

the

publicfunerals,

at

festivals.

The

rarity

and
prodigalof
gorgeous
Pera, his sons
B.C., at the funeral of Brutus
and

more

exhibited

in the

first time.

the

and

the

races,

more

216

Lepidus

forum

for

and

Decius

and

once

the

them

life.

Marcus

centuries

saw

usual, and

human

at

Five

dessert

b.c,

three

obsequies

the

duels

twenty-two
of Marcus

those

at

At

market

oxen

of

Marcus

fought

were

Valerius

duels

Laevinus

in

200

twenty-five ; and in 183 B.C., at the funeral of Publius

several gladiatorial
Licinius, sixty. In 174 there were
games,
Flamininus
at his
the chief of them
that
Titus
being
given by
father's funeral, in which
seventy-four men
fought for three
his
Gaius
Terentius
who
celebrated
Lucanus,
days. One
grandfather'sdeath with a three days' fight of thirty pairs,
at Aricia,
placed a picture of it in the Temple of Diana
In 105 B.C. the two consuls, Publius
probably about
145 B.C.

B.C.,

RutUius

Rufus

Gaius

and

for the

Manlius,

first time

innovation

gave

directed

against
gladiatorialgames,
and also designed to promote militarytraining.
for official combats
of this kind
made
Legal provisions were
in Rome,
the colonies.
the municipia and
In the
later Republic demagogy,
and
the
competition

official
Greek

for

an

culture

the

favour

of

greater lavishness.

the

mob

In

incited

and

decreed

number

Caesar's

maximum

diminished

Senate,

the

than

pairs

then

poem
one
on

120

and

combatants.
later

was

But

quite

an

that
a

his

man

of

320

praetors should

the

year,

even

aedileship
opponents'
suggestion,
might own.

still consisted

troop, however,

22
B.C.
pairs.
Augustus enacted
give gladiatorialshows
only twice

to

at his

their

at

private

any

In

more

ambitious

JuliusCaesar's games
gladiators that
many

(65 B.C.),he bought so

aroused,
anxiety was
the

the

and

with

never

private combats,
ordinary number.

at

100

In

mentions
that
probably previous to this decree Horace
Staberius
imposed on his heirs the obligationto inscribe

his tomb

the

amount

of his

property, or,

in

default, to give

The

42
the

people

makes
and

hundred

rich

duels

of

and

Caligula

with

Persius

public banquet.

of

exhibition

an

the

honouring

of

his intention

express

man

Genius

the

Spectacles
Gods

hundred

the
Germans.
Caligula'svictories over
Tiberius' Umitation
of the number
of pairscan
only have appUed
to private exhibitions
already held for
; Augustus' decree
In the eight spectaclesgiven by Augustus, he
public ones.
number
himself
that some
fought. This same
10,000
says
given by
spectacle at Rome
fought in the four months'
tions
of
Dacia.
Magistrates' celebraTrajan after the conquest
sometimes
were
as
magnificent. In 70 a.d. Caecinaand
ViteUius'
birthday (September
Valens, the consuls, celebrated
in all the
combats
265 districts of Rome,
24) with
7 or

pairs of gladiators,for

'on

of his aedOeship,
least

at

In

the

gladiatorialshow
at Julius Caesar's
at

of Nero's,

one

the
arena.

seen

were

of

of

natives

dusky

matian

with

Moors

confines

shackled

from
In

amazons

the

Probus'

(of Aethiopia)
fighttogether ; these
Isaurian

Saxons
if not

were

And,

bandits.
also

seen

the

as

(^"7,073)
;

aU

were

brilUant

talents

thirty

of silver ;

empire expanded,

dragged

were

of the

in

to

the

Roman

if not

triumph

the

over

hundred

the

Germans

Egyptian rebels, and

to fight in the
all, had
Germans

end

fightingin

the

and

Blem-

prisoners had to
Blemmyes, Sarmatians

of

Germans,
At

and

and

Palmyrenes

were

Danube,

Sarand
negroes,
in 274 a.d., in front

Suevi, Vandals

Franks,

three

the

triumph
marched
captive Goths, Alani,

there

some,

and

Rhine

Atlas, African

Aurelian's

myes

and

at

of

cost

Republic, Gauls, Samnites, Thracians

under
the Empire, the tattooed
savages

hands,

After

arena.

the

B.C.

paraphernaha

games
of amber.

Sarmatians,

Gothic

ten

the

emperor's chariot

Roxolani,

century

fair Germans

nomads.

of the

500

reckoned

was

During the
fighting;

Britain, the

the

second

the

every
each : some

at

year
with

4,000 or
of
the year.
been
required in the course
the style of the spectaclesbecame
more

must
have
5,000 men
With
the numbers

elaborate.

in the

month,

gladiatorialgames

gave

pailB; sometime^'

150

Gordiaii

unparalleledscale'.

and

vast

the

of

the

Roman

fourth

century

amphitheatre,

earlier.

and
brought their own
foreign combatants
weapons
with
their little round
shields,
styleof fighting; the Thracians
the Samnites
with
with
large square shields, the Parthians
These

The
;heir
md

chain-armour,
where

nented.

Spectacles

the

Britons

national

hahit

Gladiators

would

their

with

various,

not

was

43

in most

appear

war-chariots

fancy supple-

diverse

accoutre-

singly or in troops ; regular battles were

waged with
;housands
left covered
with
bodies :
fighting,and the arena
md
famous
be Uterally re-enacted
on
lakes,
sea-fightswould
nent,

the

3r

Yet

flooded

arena.

combats

bloodthirsty

soon

"ailed to excite

the

dulled

and

magnificent

of ,the mob,

nerves

scenery
aristocratic
or

/ulgar ; only things absolutely exotic, unnatural, nonsensical,

cickled their jaded senses.
Domitian
gladiatorialcomgave
3ats
and
animal
hunts
reflected
by night, and the swords
candelabra.

and

amps

set dwarfs

and

In the

December

festival

of

88

he

fighting. At the spectacles given by

S'ero to Tiridates, the King of Parthia, at
PuteoU, on one
of both
sexes
lay only Moors
appeared, and of every age.
Women
often fought in the arena
in 64, under
:
Nero, even
loble
late as
the practice had
to be
women
200
a.d.
; as
women

Eormallyprohibited.
Thus

in the

of centuries

course

gladiatorial
games
accommodation

had

become

for

from

small

immense

an

the

beginnings

The

institution.

correspondingly increased.
in the later
Even
on
hastily
Republic the people assembled
jrected scafloldingsin the forum, when,
in Campania
even,
bhere
stone
were
amphitheatres, which, duplicating the
semi-circular

A.ugustus
according
bwo

wooden

Before

of

name

they
seated

used

crowd,

sompleted amphitheatre
gladiators. The
by Caesar in 46
in

Taurus
3ven

ibout

29

built
90

its ruins

A.D.
a

B.C.

was

the

on

on

but

In

Curio

stone

in

one

at

Campus
of the

of that

53,
had

reversible.
with
the
for

afternoon

same

burned

the

Colosseum

gigantic monument

the

amphitheatre
; a

arisen.

back,

under

stage-pieces; then,
turned
on
pivots,and

were

probably
one

to

for

served

of wood

wooden
was

they

first real
B.C.

had

Scribonius

Gains

built, back

were

arena
elliptical

an

amphitheatre
Elder,

the

Pliny

above

rose

theatres

noon

bhe entire

theatre,

the
to

spectators

Rome

was

built

built

by Statilius

Nero's

fire ; Nero

Only

Martius.
Flavians

sunken

at

finished,in

world.

condemiied
from
recruited
criminals,
were
(6) Gladiators
Condemnation
slaves
and
volunteers.
prisoners of war,
of the severest
one
to death
by gladiatorsor wild beasts was

The

44

Spectacles

sentences, the latter being pronounced against non-citizens

Under
Marcus
and, in the later Empire, the third estate.
Aurelius
of

the

the

Lugdunensis,

of

governor
Emperor, had

citizens, beheaded,

Roman

condemnation

But

death.

the

to

rest

of

school

thrown

to

both

entailed

freedom.

of

loss

the arena,

manumission,

might

that

Trajan
media
of

and

in

and

cities

school, and

the

to

the

imperial;

chance
to

over

of hfe.

the

mines,

might

be

Phny the Younger informs

Bithynia, especiallyNice-

of

gladiator'sschool
without
city slaves for public purposes,
by a proconsul or legate. Trajan
the

within

spell

to several years
culpritscondemned
similar
or
punishments are used as

Nicaea, many

condemned

not

wooden

the

be obtained.

many

beasts.

sword, the token

after five the hat, or symbol of

obtained, and, after three years,

of relief from

the

release

But

were

handed

were,

and
partly to
partly to private estabUshments,
had
a
and, should
they not fall in the arena,
condemnation
The
with
punishment ranked
and

the

gladiators did

might fight well

who

Criminals

the

and

authority

Christians, who

condemned

the

the

with

last

those

ten

years

of remoter

evidence
of parany
don
decreed
that criminals
should

be

sentence,

and

sent

the

back
older

heavy work, such as the cleaning of sewers,

and
offences incurred
building of streets.
Only the worst
such
sacrilege
penalties,such as robbery, murder, arson,
often overand
ridden
mutiny, but the restrictions of the law were
were
by the imperial caprice, if men
lacking for the
turned

men,

to

on

arena.

This

abuse

the
enough among
provincial
under
the
that
Lucius
Republic. Cicero asserts
governors
Piso Caesoninus, when
proconsul of Macedonia, sent PubUus
of innocent
Clodius for his aedile games
a large number
men,
Lucius
Balbus
to fightwild beasts.
the younger,
as
Quaestor
in Spain (44-43 B.C.),
twice endeavoured
to force
Fadius, a
citizen and
Roman
Pompeian soldier, at Gades, to fightas a
gladiator; he failed utterly and the people protectedhim, so
he sent Gaulish
cavalry to capture him and had him burned
alive
the

in the

wild

having

was

Gladiators'

beasts
a

common

and

one

School.
man

from

He

cast

Roman

HispaUs

on

citizens to

account

of his

deformity.

Atrocities

Caligulaand

of

this

kind

Claudius.

occurred

in

Rome,

Caligula coerced

at

least

under

large number

of

The
citizens into
of

the

Spectacles
One

arena.

citizen, Esius

primipilaris and called

from
removed
a,nd beauty, he had
to fight two
and compelled him
3on

other

for his

law

; he

would

criminals

supposed

games,

during

the

heavily

armed

gladiators,

make

slightestoffences, carpenters
Besides,
change of scenery.

stature

and

both,

headed
be-

was

delighted in animal-baitings,
to this punishment, in contravention

great swindlers

of the

his

his seat

overcame

Claudius

pains.

condemned

and

Proculus

Proculus, the
for

Colosseros

after the

ane

45

for the

engineers for bunghng

extraordinary number

and
the

condemned

face animals

men

to

the

is

arena

of

itself

in

have
been
In the naval
even.
suspicious. Justice cannot
Claudius
Lake
both
on
Fucinus,
fight performed before
at arms,
fleets had
men
demned
according to Tacitus, all con19,000
criminals
consider
when
we
large even
; a number
brought out of all the provinces to Italy. In Rome
they were
of convicts
at the disposal of the arena
were
a largenumber
;
his contempt of the presents given by
to show
thus Hadrian,
the King of the Iberians, ordered
three hundred
Palasmanes,
with gilded cloaks, a portion
in the arena
criminals
to appear
of the gift. Herod
Agrippa, the King of the Jews (died in
44

A.D.), set all the condemned

in

number,

fightingin

his

criminals

of his

realm,

amphitheatre at Berytus.

1,400
At the

for
distinguished themselves
used
to be pardoned.
At the
amphitheatre on the Campus
the
accord, forbade
killing of any

popular desire, criminals, who

bravery, or on other grounds,
given by Nero in his new
games
Martins

he, of

of the

criminals.

of prisoners
campaign brought hundreds
the specthe imperial gladiators'schools, and
tacles
of getting
the readiest means
amphitheatre were
the Britons
Thus
it with
was
captured and

into

war

of the
rid

of

them.

brought

the

Rome

to

of

once

Great

beasts

followed

to

be
the

Claudius

Titus

sent

the

same

hands

of

The

savage

in this

'

the

too

slaves

at

way

Constantine

be

of

most

gladiatorsor

Bructeri
to

quest
con-

captives

; and

mines

Berytus.

example.

the

of all the

despatched

he

too

After

a.d.

portion
Egyptian

die at the

Philippi and

soldiers, and
wild

in 44

old into the

provinces to
a large number

Caesarea

to

to

thrown

years

the

to

rest

wild

under

Jerusalem

seventeen

over

own

successful

Any
of

his

liable
unre-

',

were

beasts, probablyin the amphitheatreof

The

46
Treves, and

the

annihilation

of

triumph
Part

Spectacles

Emperor
the

foe

exalted

was

the

making

for

general

what

amusement:

public

'

better

'

of the

slave

of the

armies

end

the

at

rich

of the

public
Re-

of

gladiators,serving
bravoes
their
as
or
owners
bodyguards, used for private
Sulla even,
A farce by a poet under
spectacles,or lent out.
words
called
The Hired
One
spoken by a gladiator.
',contains
of

consisted

must

have

not

belong

bands

'

'

do

Ebria

by

'.

Cicero

made

in

B.C.

Atticus

if Atticus

and,

recovered

his

the

men

at

56

great

turned

108), which

in

after

recorded

ancient

as

succeeded.

and

them

out, he

would

exhibition.

of

have

Many

of

escape

cavalry

gladiators. The

of Aurelius

is that

them
as

troop bought
they fought splendidly,

hundreds

Scaurus
In

in

105 B.C.
from
school
the

them

summoned

used

out

Caesar,

recommended

Consul

second

Munatius

or

the

after

them

under

the

too, had

his

only seventy,

Cassius

principally
private fighting-schools,

there

to

Batiatus

Spartacus,
Capua, and

the

is mentioned

gladiators resolved
Lentulus

hired

have

had

that

heard

he

money
then

to

or

specialinquiry

would

Capua, which

most

Memmius,

to

in 49
to
;

arms

this

to

b.c

in the
measure

73
of

sul
(Con-

B.C.

200

Gnaeus

leadership of
gladiators in
Cicero

lus
; Lentu-

cause

of freedom,

was

generally

deprecated, so Pompey distributed them amongst the citizens,

At
two.
as
Ravenna,
a
just
bodyguard, giving each man
before
considered
the plans of
crossing the Rubicon, Caesar
In the CatiUnarian
War, it was
a new
gladiatorschool.
posed
proother
and
to intern
the
Roman
gladiators at Capua
reckoned
them
on
municipia. CatUina
though they were
than
better-minded
Marcellus,
patricians'. Gaius
many
the Catilinarian, took
Cicero
flightwhen
despatched Publius
Sextius
to
had, whilst
there, practised with
Capua, but
the most
numerous
troop in the town, in order to win it over.
the largest number
In 65 B.C.
might
private individual
any
fixed by the Senate
own
was
(see p. 41). Cahgula allowed
'

this
State

maximum

to

be
the

exceeded.

When

under

Domitian

the

provision of gladiators,private men

forbidden
to keep them
have
been
in the capital. At,
may
train
the practice of going out
such
Rome,
a
pubUcly with
have
ceased at an
(as did Nero on his night excursions)must
earlier date.
But
in the provinces the private troops were
took

over

The

48
juristsin

the

hire, if

contract

second

if killed

the

not

combat

be

with
Pius.

of Antoninus
to

he

or

to

were

arena,

be

the

to pay

of sale

case

were

of

owner

01

gladiatoi

uninjured, or a thousand
the punSlaves, attempting to evade
ishment
themselves
to
similar crimes
by offering

should

for fraud
the

made

maimed.

or

it

century, whether
were

twenty denarii,

Spectacles

survive

wild

beasts

One

proof

his unreserved

their

to

returned

taken

had

whether

masters,

of Macrinus'

place, by a decree
sidered
concruelty was
of

condemnation

01

runaway

slaves

if caught.
fightas gladiators,
Manumission
exempted slaves who had served as gladiators
from
any further obligationto perform, unlike other freedmen,

to

liable to certain

still were

who

wish, freedmen

also

volunteers, they
consisted
says

that

were

largely of
a

gorgeous
in which
a

services.

But,

at their

patrons'
for, as

fought in the arena,

more
respected by the public (which
freedmen). One of Trimalchio's
guests
three
is
days' gladiatorialexhibition
may

have

of freedmen
would
large number
coming on,
perform.
sometimes
coerced
were
Unquestionably, too, free-born men
Fadius
to fight,as was
by Lucius Cornelius Balbus at Gades ;
that the rich
and it was
a grievance of the Early Empire even,
deceived
them, and
men,
profitedby the simplicityof young
best
for military
and
confined
the
handsome
suited
most
service to a fighting-school.
often
Under
the Empire free men
enrolled
themselves
; if
Roman
their intention
to a
citizens, they had to announce
Such
incidents
occurred
in the later Republic.
tribune.
even
of that period makes
citizen of Sassina
A document
a
present
which
volunteer
a
cemetery to his town, from
gladiators,
suicides
trades were
by hanging, or those pursuing immoral
In the Atellanae
to be excluded.
there
is frequent mention
most
of such
ancient
of the
applications. The
gladiatorial
from
Sulla
tokens
down
to
extant, ranging
Claudius, with a
free man's

name

is of 14

of

sixty genuine ones, there

At Pompeii there is
men.

out

born

wall, on which
Artorius, and Lucius

on

; but

B.C.

motives

favourite

may

subject for

the noble young

man,

names

this must

induced

romances,

who

list of

of free-men

Sempronius.
have

and

five

only

are

be

gladiatorsscratched

occur,

such

destitute

rhetorical

enrols in order

of free-

names

Sometimes,
the

chance

mere

to

as

Marcus

able
too, honourto

themes

join; a

is, e.g.,
pay for his father's

The
funeral
of the

authority, however,

; the

Scythian Sisinnes

his friend from

Most, if

ne'er-do-wells
few

; nor

into

of

But

such

of the

reign says

that

the

to find

arena,
:

sword,

the

these
an

from

the

with

rods, burnt

castaways

or

were

love
A

sell themselves

men

in time

How

Praetorians

the

pugnacious

ful
fright-

the

by no means
of fightingseduced
poet of Augustus'

men

troop-owners.

enemy

took

the

were

class whom

idle men
many
for love of combat'.

'

'

steel

hands

release

to

fighta gladiator

to

applicantswho
to be whipped

the

society.

he,

tale

drachmae.

killed with

it the worst

was

the

exclaims

of the

Lucian's

romantic

of 10,000

sum

nearly all

not

fire,and

with

also sounds

to suffer themselves

'

oath

fixed

49

is dubious.

urgent need, sold himself

an

for

at Amastris

Spectacles

to die in

of peace.
Tertullian
And
themselves
out
to
contract

WhenSeverus

began

ing
recruit-

it had
^up to then
Italians
in this force

legionaries
"

privilegeof the Italians to serve

in for
went
able to bear arms
or
joined the gladiatorsen masse
brigandage.
The
professionof a gladiator must have really attracted
its advantages, rewards, and
of rude
men
; it had
courage
victors
fame.
The
were
: the
generally rewarded
provider
bowls
of goldof the festival sent them, whilst in the arena,
been

the

"

number

pieces,the
or

signifiedwith

in

themselves

of
the

which

the

fingersof

valuable,

spectators shouted

the

left hand

also

were

part of the

bowls,

the

; and

loud

out

Tried

prize.

veteran
high prices: Tiberius paid some
fighterscommanded
Nero
sesterces.
gladiators for one
100,000
sented
preappearance
the myrmillo Spiculus with a palace and the possessions
of former
triumphant generals. Their splendid equipment
also must
have
had
its effect.
At Pompeii and
elsewhere,
been
artistic armour
have
fragments of their rich and

preserved; helmets,
designs,and

and

the

greaves,

shoulderpiecesof

etc.
belts, swords, breastplates

with

waving peacock
mosaics
gladiators are
with
nax

for
and
Rome

necklets

sold,

as

The

ostrich

In

feathers.

represented in gay,

part of the

necklets.
those

The
of

with

inheritance

gold

heroes
the

and

of

bossed
em-

retiarii,

decorated

were

casques

the

picture

and

gold-laced attire,

(perhaps,like palms, signs of victory).

gladiators,set
as

or

with
especially

vizor-helmet

one

Perti-

of Commodus,

jewels,
the

arena

racecourse,

not

'

weapons
of Hercules

swords
were

only

as

with

popular
the

'

in

lower

The

50
classes

; In

the

Spectacles
pupils,admirers

also, they had

upper,

and

imitators.
In
lius

Republican
mentions

Samnite

times

being gladiators. Luciwas

proficient in
Velocius, who
played

men

Quintus

at

Catilinarian Gains
The
good fencer.
Marcellus, as already mentioned, on the pretext of practising
joined a gladiators'
arms,
troop at Capua. JuliusCaesar had his
of Rome, who
senators
gladiatorstrained by knights and even

fighting,and

fighters; Suetonius

skilled

were

in

extant,
Several

which

he

begged

knew

them

of

to

of

letters

undertake

his,

this

si ill

tuition.

proficiencyin the gladiator'sart.

with sharp weapons.
Titus, in
Caligula fought as a Thracian
his youth, at a festival at Reate, entered
into a mock
fight

gla3^tors'weapons

with

AlUenua,

Caecina
this

fashion, and

while

he

sought

(.consul in

young,
societyof

Caesars, to learn

But

69)

Hadrian

(probably Aulus
also

Commodus

it

practised in

Verus, too, in Antioch,

Lucius

was

the

against Allienus

Didius
fighting the I^irthians.
for continuing these exercises, as

legions were
reproached

were

sought

emperors

excusable.

was

gladiatorsand
the
the

whilst

his

JuUanus
an

CaracaUa

old
and

circus-drivers,when

was
man

Geta

they

art.

pronounced sufferer from thiS'

passion. He had all his visits to the gladiators'school (where
he
had
a
room) announced
by herald ; on
January i,
intending to enter on his consulship in a secular's
193, he was
uniform
He
; his murderers
anticipated him the day before.
delighted in the honorary titles of gladiators,and he boasted
times
of having fought 1,000
(365 in his father's reign,and also
Praetor
in the
Albinus
at the spectaclesgiven by Clodius
as
forum
and the theatre)
Naturally he always won
; according
to Dio, he fought publiclywith blunt weapons,
and, to his own
great pride, left-handed, as a secutor, against troop masters
and
gladiators; and, at a fourteen days' spectacle given shortly
before his death, against Aemilius
Laetus, the Praefect of the
Praetorium, and Eclectus his chamberlain, who
were
already
For
his
death.
he demanded
a
plotting
every
appearance
from
the
million sesterces
chest.
Dio also mentions
gladiatorial
that the senators
(and Dio, as such) publiclyhad to applaud
was

most

him, and
Even

wish
women

practisedthe

him
wore

proper

well.
the

oppressive
strokes
against

vizor
a

and

armour

post, under

and

tuition.

The
Gladiators

Spectacles

51

of
Some
the
always ladies' favourites.
of a Pompeian house
scrawls on the peristylecolumns
dug out
in 1889 mention
Thracian, Celadus, as suspirium et decus
a
dominum
et medicum
as
ptiellarum,and the reiiarius Crescens
attracted
Ladies, however
highly placed, were
puparum.
by
Iron
in every
the
and
saw
irresistibly,
gladiator a Hyacinthus.
often of heroic
mould.
Certainly they were
Antony,
reminded
Cicero of a gladiator,was
who
by others compared
Hercules.
to his ancestor
Nymphidius Sabinus, under Nero
were

'

'

Praefect

Praetorium,

gladiator,of

the

tianus
had

of the

been

Aurelius,

said

was

fame

and

be

to

his

been

to have

of

son

Mar-

freedwoman,

consort

intimate

been

the

mother,

Faustina, the

have

to

gladiatorsat Caieta,

by

whose
And

enamoured.

taken

was

with

of Marcus
sailors

and

of Commodus

the mother

The

gladiatorswere
sung by poets, saw
their portraitson
dishes, lamps, glassesand seal-rings,
vases,
and
their exploits scratched
by idlers on walls with coal and
In Rome
the provinces artists were
nails.
and
incessantly
occupied in decorating theatres, tombstones, palaces and
and
sculptures, mosaics
pictures, designed
temples with
to
as
immortalize,
they actually have, the fame of the
of the

one

latter.

combatants.
it is easy

Hence

pastime

was

The

found

bold

hope

to

to understand

only widespread,

not

emerge
had
some

that

the taste for this

but

bloody
passion.
they might

became

its very danger an incentive

; and
from
series of combats
rich and
a
content

to

themselves,

free.

tainly,
Cer-

after their release,

as

priestsof Bellona ; but others hung their arms

up
Veianius, ended
temple of Hercules, and, like Horace's

itinerant
in

their lives

on

country estate

at

theatre.

; and

their

sat in the

sons

trian
eques-

Caligula might extravagantly

German
bodyguard, and one
Sabinus a tribune for his bodily strength : but gladiatorsmight
honourable
the Emperor
easilypass into more
employs ; even
been a gladiator. Thus
their
to have
rumoured
Macrinus
was
meaningless ; and
legal infamy to a certain degree became
of the
them
the association
classes with
helped to
upper
seats

the

Thracians

make

captainsof his

'

'

diminish

the

lowering
society.

the

In modern

idea of

disgracein

barriers

between

their work,
these

thus

pariahs

exercises
Spain bull-fighting

continuously

and

similar

respectable
magnetism,

The

52
and

for the

less

dangerous,

Spectacles

reasons

same

the

on

labelled

It is not

1883 it

In

whole.

many

More

great age.

than

the

high

and

in

that

Spain

all

attained

few

any
ranks

their

recruited

pay

is

and

calculated

was

killed

three matadores
two
or
were
year
retired early,severely wounded,

every

infamous

popular passion for the sport attracted them, though

Roman
harsh
the public was
the ancient
as
populace and
as
punished any trace of fear with hisses and whistUng. Some
server,
obcalled by a German
were
twenty years later, bull-fights
Theodor
the only powerful claimant
von
Bernhardi,
of the attention
ing
interestof the Spanish people ; the theatre
them
but slightly. No
victorious
general,or statesman,
attains the popularityof a famous
ever
bull-fighter All Spain
fame

and

'

'

'

'

knows

the

arena

beyond

extends

renown

Peru.

of

names

Europe

into

event
any political
his condition
; long rows

and

hourly bulletins

than

more

of

M6rim6e

saw

Schack

Count

garden,

and

blunted

horns

held

were

knew

by

The

with

in

was

an

and

to

inquire

Often,

amateurs
count

as

of

In

the

whilst

no

every

the

days
:
bull-fighting
at

Seville.

circus in his

bulls, their
young
winter
of 1869 there
dered
ren-

two-year old animals

traffic in them

dishonour
sold and

in the

as

matadores
buUt

house

were

girlsin a little enclosed circus.

of gladiatorsrequired every
year

provinces made

to

their

buU-fights of five-yearold animals,

number

But,

and

carriagesdefile past his

balls.

troops,who
disrepute. Martial

condescended
he

and

wooden

of the

owners

of

great ladies call

young

ladies

enormous

the

the

in this fashion, and

young

business.

was

dilettante

Italy and

torero

sometimes
in
appear
all Madrid,
disturbed

principe who
practised bull-fightingwith

innocuous
faced

noble

were

marquis

they

toreros

at first issued.

are

there

Cervantes,

favourite

of such

wound

severe

her

attached

let them

expresses
shameless
course,

informer, slandermonger, liar and

had

no

lanista

noble

profession

out, the

surprisethat

profitable
the

to

in

man

money,

who
as

(gladiator-

had
offices or
about
went
master). Lanistae
permanent
travellingin gladiators,buying them, sellingthem, letting
them
to providers of festivals,or
at a profit,
giving games
which
also considered
was
of business.
a dirty kind
Troops of
in Augustus' Rome,
gladiators were
for in the dearth
common
from
6-8 a.d.
they are expressly mentioned
as
being expelled,
along with other aliens and slave-dealers' families. A copper

The

Spectacles

discovered
inscriptionwas
new
light on gladiatorsand
of

valid
the

for

the

burdens

the

the

The

provinces.

editores
the

by

games
those

contracts

with

were

divided

into

given by

to

150,000

to

at

the

or

'

2,000

Marcus

in

to

was

five classes.
and

and

relieving
Italy and

in

in

the

by the
According to price
The

lowest

(including
assiforanea)cost
from

ranging

to

30,000

lastlyfrom
150,000, and
of this.
The
tum
consulsenatus
to

100,000
excess

maximum

prices for gladiators in the

to be paid for
were
{gregarii),

'

men

sesterces, and

AureHus,

announce

called

classes

us

in advance

lanistae.

lanistae

Ordinary

'

better

'

ones

were

further

divided,
sub-

price,from 3,000 to 15,000 sesterces :

2nd, 3rd and 4th classes, and 5,000 for the 5th.

according to
for the

under

pricefixed

the

other

and

200,000,

classes.

1,000

3,000

the

100,000,

prescribed
several

the

the

60,000, 60,000

a.d.

177

sheds

It informs

contractors.

then

games

sesterces, the

30,000

their

custom

of the

advertisements

Seville,which

near

Empire, excepting Rome,

giversof gladiatorialgames

whole
of

1888

of about

consultum

senatus

in

53

the

performance in the first four classes, half of the

every
the lanistae be unable
to be gregarii
combatants
were
; should
But

at

'

'

better
be promust
men
requisitenumber,
vided
of the gregarii. Further, these gradations
at the
rate
obtained
still higher prices
only for the larger cities, where
the rule ; for little towns
to be
had been
priceswere
average
from
the last ten years' games.
made
out, to be calculated
If, besides the pricespaid by the providers of the festival to
the conteactors,
prices were
stipulated for the victors, the
to receive
were
a
fourth, and
volunteer-gladiators(auctorati)
slaves a fifth of their price as prizes. A second
regulation
relieve
the
of
festivals
to
the
the
was
designed
providers
aboUtion
of the heavy poll-taxon the lanistae,the cost of which
naturally fell on their employer. It had varied, according to
the class of spectacle,
from a fourth to a third of the stipulated
of 20 or 30 millions
estimate, and brought in an annual revenue
of sesterces
the annual
to 1^326,300)
outlay
(;f2i7,5oo
; thus
those spectaclesmanaged
on
by lanistae for the whole empire,
A portion
excepting Rome, must have been about ;^i,
000,000.
of the arrears,
sesterces
(about
amounting to over
50,000,000
to

furnish

the

was
;^55o,ooo),

to be remitted

early as 63 B.C. there

Caligula kept a large number
As

to the
was

of

lanistae.

gladiators'school

gladiatorsand

in Rome.

also, it

seems.

The

54
a

school

according
of

his left ; and

weapon.
mentioned
often

henceforth

Flavian

the

and

Dacian,

the

school,
blink

not

schools
the

School,

Great

at
are

Gallic,

animal-fighters, round

for

one

longer

was

the

"

school

the

Chronicle
newly built (as the C-iiy
Their
ments
departonly enlarged by him.

; not

amphitheatre
but

says) by Domitian,

Elder, in that

the

righthand which
twenty pairs only two did
Four
great imperial

brandished

Pliny

Studiosus, had

Thracian, named
than

to

Spectacles

multifarious, including armouries, smithies, and

mortuaries, and a largestaff of instructors, physicians,actuaries
were

and

overseers

and, after Domitian,

the

Great

School

and

the

by procurators of
managed
Animal-fighting were
This post was
held as a promotion for
the equestrian order.
retired officers,such as legionary tribunes, civil servants, and
of a provincialfiscal department ; and was
the heads
a step to
of deathhigher financial posts, such as the administration
duties ; even
the position of a sub-procuratorat an
imperial
School

for

school

very
Outside. Rome

of which

Alexandria,
last named

sought after.

much

was

as

three

which

well

there

are

known,

also

had

ators,
imperial schools of gladiand
those at Capua, Praeneste

were

their

administration.

own

The

But,
already in existence under Augustus.
have been
generally,in the provinces imperial glad iatorsmust
fewer ; often several provinces had only one
procurator, as for
instance
Gaul, Spain, Germany, Britain and Raetia, and again
these
the provinces of Asia
Minor
and
Cyprus. No doubt
was

officialsmade
and

especiallyto

were

in constant

capital.

In
to

select the

combatants

communication

single provinces
carry

on

current

with
there

the

must

business.

gladiators and

could

business,
necessary
for Rome
they
; hence

circuits in their districts to do

procurators of the
have
been
curators
sub-pro-

Provincial

hestiarii from

governors

their

own
only levy
vinces,
proof
could
Severus
and
and, by a rescript
Caracalla,
only
them
the
beyond
transport
provincial boundary by imperial

licence.
Criminals

by

the

for their

condemned

to the

procurators, and, should

beasts
the

could

not

pardoned

be

prisoners be

'

worthy

',

to the Roman
strength and skill,of being exhibited
In 57 a.d.
issued
Nero
people, had to petitionthe emperor.
edict
an
from
forbidding provincial governors
giving any
spectacles(as they had done to win popular favour and silence

The

56

Spectacles

of the severest,
guards. The disciplinewas
The punishments were
scourging,branding
as the oath
proves.
in chains.
The
confinement
and
prison of the Pompeian
low that the captivescould only sit or lie down
school was
so
;
have
been
four
skeletons
found
ten
for
and
prisoners
leg-irons
at Pompeii.
Only in one respect did gladiatorsfare better than condemned
matter
of anxious
criminals
a
bodily well-being was
; their
for the
A
healthy locality was
always chosen
thought.
schools : such
as
Capua with its ideal climate, Praeneste with
the

vigilanceof

its pure
mountain
air, Ravenna
sea-breezes
tempered the heat.
to

muscle

develop

the

men

treated

gladiatorshe

day, which
Juvenal's

made
'

food

see

of slaves, looked
in ancient

encourage
for other reasons
allowed

were

of 177,
which

to

put up

barley

the
every

desired,firm.

was

with, shows

that

bad.

Their

meals

were

and

drank

what

quantity : they

and

in blood

"

ate

ators'
gladi-

was

highlyesteemed

well, gladiatorsand other imperial slaves

to form
guilds. Thus, according to an inscription
as

in the

of Commodus'
Silvanus.
'

arena

union, and

secutor

gladiatorsformed

At

the
(i.e.

Dea

(Die) the

hestiarii in the

thus, too, elsewhere.

also combined.

to him

also in the

Thus

one

The

guild

huntsmen

'

amphitheatre)

specialkinds

Thracian

has

of

grave

by the whole guild [armatura)of the Thracians,

by a brother-in-arms
(coarmio); but there were
schools

same

The

grave

put up

by

sets.

which

worship of patron-gods,and perhaps

common

number

combatants
erected

'.

after their massage,

worshipped
serve

form

and

as

that

times.

To

was

have

quahty

to return

were

their

who

and

hence

Distinguished surgeons healed

of their prescriptionshave
been prewounds, and some
served
Scribonius
in
attendance
by
Largus ; physicians were
their
diet
to
being strictlykept : unctores, a specialclass

they

to

not,

generally considered

was

prescribedin

designed

was

says

beans

ate

and

Galen

the

of the gladiatorial
school, which
{miscellanea)

'

spendthriftwill

the

Pergamus

at

given

where

for this purpose

used

their flesh loose

mess

food

hordearii.

nicknamed

were

The

barley was

Alexandria,

and

of
a

friendlyrelations
retiarius

of the

myrmillo of the

between

Great

same

School

school, his

the

several

at Rome
messmate

(fionvictor).
Each

class had

its

specialinstructor.

Novices

practised

The
with wooden
in

used
arena

swords

at

of straw

man

possiblythe

weighty

very

or

heavier

adept practicewere

more

Spectacles

57

post

than

those

found

ones

the

at

weapons

used

in the

Pompeii

were

a
fencing of the gladiators was
science,
and
its technical
understood.
expressions generally
Quinthe
of
counsel
with
the fencing of
tihan compares
speeches
the third, if the first
gladiators; the second stroke becomes
the opponent thrust ; or becomes
be made
to make
the fourth,

for

The

practice.

'

if there be
and

the

best-trained

RutiUus

had

the

'

fighting
himself

an

two

of ing
parryused
by
[dictata)

antagonistsin

sometimes

were

bouts

the

arena

of service

even

gladiators. In

instructor

105 B.C. the consul Publius

the schools to teach the legionaries

from

parrying

and

especiallyvalued

thrusting '.
Commodus

Left-handed

distinguished

in it.

The

schools

had

sort of

militaryorganization.

generously distributed,

were

are

command

to the

out

hints

these

finer art of

was

of

words

shouted

were

public, and

to the

The

riposte'.

the instructors

by

feint,so that there

double

combatants

of old revived.

position of
perhaps to some
veterans.
thus
they became
first decuno
second

consisted

was

mostly tiros.

commanded
At

the

the

and

Success

entitled

command

In

of veterans

over

the

of

names

Guild

in six kinds

titles

Fine

the

famous

gladiatorsto rise,
their
of

fellows, and
Silvanus

the

of weapons,

the

by a veteran, and the third were

end they received
the wooden
sword
of
release, they often would
fight for a

dismissal; but, after

good fee,or act as instructors.
of them

many
of the

would

not

have

used

in

exchanged their lot.

Many
imperial gladiators,says Epictetus, are indignant
if not allowed
to appear.
They pray the gods, and beset the
but
few
procurator, for permission to fight. Tiberius
gave
Seneca
and
heard
a
myrmillo complain of the days
games,
animated
passing profitless.They were
by a certain feeling
of honour
not
fight except with their equals ;
; they would
and a wild bravery, born of the certaintythat love of life made
of
their spectators merciless, rendered
them
contemptuous
Without
death.
a groan
they would bear the severest wound
;
asked
their
their blood was
when
master,
drainingaway they
desist
most
should they
or
perish : the
cowardly learnt how

Very

to die.

Gladiators

were

sometimes

civil

wars

and

fought

The

58
with

the

who

utmost

fattened

courage,
for the
them

Spectacles
and

those

to

of

battle

the

After

arena.

devotion

utmost

the

Actium,

small, and

deserted
only
was
Antony's lost cause
by great and
pated
he had practisedat Gyzicus for his anticithe gladiatorswhom
free will,
true to him.
Qf their own
victory remained
ofE to join him in Egypt ; nothing could restrain
they marched
them
they could not force a passage, they sent
; finding that
to Antony to come
to Syria, and
a
only abandoned
m.essage
and
he neither
him
when
came
nor
replied. Lucius Antonius
enlisted
Decimus
Brutus
also recruited from gladiators. Otho
two
thousand
a shameful
expedient,which in the Civil War
;
not disdained
was
by the sternest generals', says Tacitus ; but
of Vitellius'
not as trustworthy as the soldiers. Out
they were
gladiatorswho were
surprisedat Terracina, only a few stood
'

their
with

the

AureUus,' in the

Marcus

ground.

Marcomanni,

armed

the

war

corps

formed

slaves, and

even

of

pressure

of

Obedient
he
called
the
gladiators,whom
{obseqttentes)
the gladiDidius JuUanus, also, at Severus'
ators
approach armed
of Capua.
In these troops of despised and brutalized
the fate of
men
In
those
who
had
better
seen
doubly miserable.
days was
the rhetorical
enhsts in the gladiators
essay on the youth who
to be able to bury his father, he is described
as
standing in a
slave's costume,
and
death, and seeing
expecting a shameful
the pictures of his happier past ; thinking of all that he will
never
again see, his house and family and friends ; and that
education
he ranked, as
of family, wealth
and
once
a
man
in the
above
the giver of the spectacle'. And
to him whom,
woe
came
of vulgarity,vice and misery, such recollections overcompany
His life was
sheer torture, and death
the only happi1
ness
'

he

rare.

The

watch

him

over

Seneca

incident

of

tells in the

drawn

pretended

between
broken.

the

on

to

and

of Nero
of
year
of them, in the
One

chariot

Balbus

be

spokes

overcome

between

two

and

Mutinies, conspiraciesand

incidents

they

illustrates.
recent

heroic

early morning,

soldiers

waited

revolts

were

bers
torture-cham-

two

by sleep, let

of the wheel,

that

Fadius

last

suicides of bestiarii.

being

Lucius

in vain ;

was

such

heroic.
only the more
Though
it
not
does
follow
only occasionallyrelated,
What
barbarities
might go on in those
the

He

strictest

became

sidcide
are

desired.

his

to

the

head

arena.

droop

until his neck

were

was

was

frequent in

The
these

Spectacles

59

schools, although another

In
arose.
Spartacus never
to escape
64 A.D. an attempt of the gladiators at Praeneste
caused
suppressed by the
anxiety at Rome, and was
grave
the
Probus
garrison on
eighty gladiators in
spot. Under
itself succeeded
in escaping, and
Rome
were
only overcome
after

brave

incident

one

who

yet

ravaged

Romans.

Games.

another

letter

the

with

of

from

the

Symma^chus
of the
Baltic

mentions

brave
into the

Saxons,
ocean,

captured by the
of them
in Symmachus'
to appear
were
had
strangled
day twenty-nine of them

coasts

number

of

frightful. Some

more'

the first

On

in little boats

adventured

and

one

resistance.

their bare

Gaul,

had

been

hands.

announced
by advertisements,
gladiatorialgames were
painted by order of the organizers of the festival on the walls
of buildingspublic and private,and on the grave stones which
the
lined the main
roads
leading into the towns
: they were
of a specialclass of scribes who
work
used colours, and these
not to profane
sometimes
men
were
begged on the tomb-stones
outside
the Porta
two
the last resting-place. On
such stones
Nuceria
of Pompeii, notices
found
of amphitheatrical
were
at Nola
and
Nuceria.
Of the Pompeian
some
games
games
announcements
have been found
elsewhere, e.g. :
thirtypairs
Alleius
of gladiatorsbelonging to the quinquennalis,
Gnaeus
Nigidius Mains, and their understudies
(to replace the dead)
November.
will fight in Pompeii from
the 24th to the 26th
There
will also be baitings of animals.
quennalis
Long live the Quinof
!
Or again, The
gladiators belonging to
family
the
the Aedile Aulus
Suettius
will fight at Pompeii on
Certus
an
There
will also be baitings of animals, and
31st May.
awning will be provided '. Often, too, besides the awnings,
cool the air were
to lay the dust
and
sprinkling with water
allow
or
if the weather
promised. Or, instead of a date
without
of the principal
delay ! Often too the names
any
performers were
arranged in pairs, in order of combat, and
the organizers,
to keep the people excited, used to add new
pairs
day : then lists were
copied out, sold in the streets and
every
exported.
and men
of the spectacle,the fightersof animals
On the eve
with every luxury : the
free banquet
were
given a so-called
The
curious
rougher and brutalized
might enter and look on.
took
but many
with no thought for the morrow,
ate and drank
The

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

6o

The

sad leave from

to

the

care

their children

last

and

fightfor

to

were

they

wives, whom

their

of their friends, manumitted

Christians,who
a

Spectacles
commended

slaves, and

their faith in the

arena,

the
held

aydirr].

spectaclebegan with a parade of the gladiatorsin full

mentioned
uniform
through the arena, possiblyto the cry, once
ices
by Suetonius, of Ave, Imperator, morituri te salutant '. Novthe gauntlet,
had to run
apparently at their first appearance
in
a
frequent feature of the amphitheatre often mentioned
then
Christian
martjrrologies. The giver of the festival was
invited to examine
the weapons.
One
ators'
specialbrand of gladiDrusus
named
after Tiberius'
son
swords
was
; they
was
were
; Drusus
naturally cruel and
sharpened to excess
also made
careless
of life. Domitian
regulations to make
In 93 Martial is glad to be able
the combats
severe.
yet more
had been
of the Roman
to say that the good old customs
arena
in simpler combats.
But
exercised
revived, and courage
was
Marcus
Aurelius
enjoined the use of blunted
weapons.
The first^scene
lances were
consisted of mock-fights,in which
The

'

sometimes

thrown,
the

to

music.

The

sombre

tubae

announced

first

which
fight with sharp weapons,
began to the sound
of horns
The
and trumpets and the shriller pipes and flutes.
halfanother
most
varied episodesnow
succeeded
one
: retiarii,
naked, almost
armourless, mobile
figures with net, trident
and
dagger, pursued by secutores in vizor, shield and sword ;
the myrmillones half-cowering under
them,
hovering round
they sought to entangle their antagonists in the net, and
with
kill them
with
trident
or
dagger. Or the Samnites
their huge square
their whole
shields, that covered
persons,
met
with
short
their
straight swords, the scimitars of the
,

Thracians,

who

had

Cavalry fought
war-chariots,

the

heavier

with

habet.

one

horses

duellist

the

long

spears,
of which

standing beside the combatants.

but
are
occasionallymentioned,
When

but

armour,

was

essedarii

on

shields.
British

managed by a man
Other
species of gladiators
vaguely.
very
were

struck, the

of the

little round

festival

universal

cry

out :
rang
of decision,

had
the right
provider
but generally consigned the fallen to the mercy
of the spectators.
The
wounded
(according to a Greek custom) laid their
shield down
and lifted up, in sign of prayer for life,
one
finger
of the left hand.
The
spectators signifiedmercy by waving
The

The

Spectacles

6i

thumb
liftingtheir thumbs
: turning the
down
Brave
death.
meant
gladiatorsoften rejected popular
interference, and made
were
signs that their wounds
slight,
and
hearted
they could still go on : such met with pity ; the faintaroused
the anger of the populace, who
thought it an
insult a gladiatorshould
not be willingto die.
The
cowards
driven in with whips and hot irons to fight. The inflamed
were
:
Whip him on, kill him, burn him ! Why
spectatorsshouted
? why is he giving the death-strokes
does he fear the sword
so
he
does
die
?
?
so
unwillingly Why
sullenly Spectacles used
to be given in which
the missio of wounded
bidden,
forfighterswas
and the combat
to the end, until Augustus forbade
was
in an
edict the cruelty of Nero's
them, and publicly censured
after a confidential
father, Gnaeus
Domitius,
warning had
failed.
Very often, too, the victor had to fightan under-study
the
blood-drenched
immediately after. In the intervals
shovelled
slaves sprinkled
ground was
up by boys and Moorish
The victors brandished
their palms, and the fallen
fresh sand.
taken
were
by men
garbed as Mercury, the god of the nether
world
mask
of the Etruscan
daemon
; others, wearing the
ming
shamCharon, probed them with hot irons, to see if they were
Hearses
death.
stood
ready in anticipation,and on
borne through the gate of the Goddess
them
of Death
they were
into the mortuary.
Any who still showed
signs of life were

handkerchiefs

or

'

'

killed.
Factions

formed

in

to
amphitheatre, but never
extent
the same
in the Circus.
For the passion found
its
as
full exercise there, and there were
no
corporate organizations.
besides devotees
of famous
But
gladiators,the amphitheatre
formed
: for the
parties for the various kinds of combatants
bore
the
Samnites, who
myrmillones and
large shields, and
factions permeated
These
Thracians, with their small shields.
of society.Including even
the whole
the emperors
the
: to
former
Domitian
adhered, and Caligulaand Titus to the latter ;
hence
Martial
and
won,
speaks of the Thracians, who seldom
their adherents
with some
was
present,
contempt. Domitian

when

were

spectator remarked

one

the

that

who

Thracian

had

fallen

up against his antagonist,but not against the

arbitrarygiver of the spectacles: the emperor had him hauled

could

out

have

into

neck,

the

'

an

stood

arena

adherent

and

thrown
of

the

to the

Thracians

dogs, with
who

has

label

on

spoken

his
im-

The

62
piously '. In
Younger says
to

the

Spectacles
of

consequence
that Traj an
'

spectators.

Pliny the
libertyof party andapplause
of impietas for
accused
now

restored

No

is

one

incidents,

similar

himself made
hating a gladiator,or on that account
the spectacle,by sufferinga martjrr'sdeath for his
whim.

The

thought

arena,

deemed
considered

Marcus

have

Yet

in the

them

mad,

and

the

"

of

ignorant
between

attached

Thracian

honour

true

'.

between
impartiality

on

the
to

slave oil-dealer, Crescens,

Circus

in

treason

not
oured,
honfighterswere
insult to his divinity,and
an
that
his gladiatorsidentical

and

and

arena,

unfortunate

if his

congratulateshimself

great import

inscriptionof
Blue

been

shields in the

circus.

to

for

material

despised

gods, himself

Aurelius

the two

himself
insults

the

must

man

collected

who

man

part of

two

these
says

colours
factions
he

had

in the
:

the

been

in the

amphitheatre.
Great
battues were
hardly possible in the amphitheatre,
and
were
occasionally given in other places. Julius
very
Caesar, at his triumph, had a battle performed in the Circus,
the boundary columns
two
and
thrown
removed,
camps
up ;
five hundred
three
either
hundred
side,
on
fought
infantry
with
their
towers
and
backs.
on
garrisoned
twenty elephants,
In 7 B.C., in honour
of Agrippa who
died in 12 B.C., a battle
After the conquest
was
performed in the saepta he had built.
of Britain
in 44 a.d., Claudius
had
realistic representation
a
of the capture and sacking of a British town
and the surrender
of the princesperformed on the Campus Martius, presided over
A smaller fightbetween
two
by himself in a general'smantle.
equal troops of infantry was
given by Nero in 57 a.d., in the
of cavalry and infantryby
amphitheatre ; and larger combats
in his triumphal games
Domitian
in the Circus.
and

(2) Animal-baiting
(a).Marcus

the first known

B.C., gave

eighty years
though to be torn
was

sentence

NobUior, the conqueror

Fulvius

of

after

death.

exhibition
the

asunder

of animals

introduction

by

wild

Thenceforth

of

beasts
this

of Aetolia

in 186

at Rome.

This

gladiatorialgames,
had

been

form

of

took
spectacle,which
the Republic
place
great Circus, as occasionally
later, became
and
more
frequent, and more
splendid. The
animals
were
and
killed by
simply exhibited, or also hunted
under

in the

The

64

Spectacles

again seen, at the five days'

speciesof African ape, never
of his theatre ; and the girafie
venatio at Pompey's dedication
at his triumph in 46
at the five days' festival given by Caesar
and

These

B.C.

and

rare

costly animals

often

were

in Rome

seen

killed ; Cassius
Dio
large numbers, and even
kill on one
Commodus
saw
day five hippopotami,and on two
rhinoceroses.
other
days two elephants, a girafieand some
but
in 11 B.C.
had thought tigersan impossible capture,
Varro
both tame
and wild
and
seen
frequently afterwards
they were
afterwards

in

In ancient

Rome

such

modern

Rome

even

and

great excitement.
Isaac
al

Harun

African

an

of

; the

latter

in

the

climate

warm

receive

the

the
and

made

them

bear
are

medieval
roused

and

an

Moorish

and

in the

recorded

ape

from

lion

from

biography

of St. Gall, and

monk

by Eginhard in
also tells of an
and
elephant's voyage
Miinster
country.
Henry I had lions,

camels

Southern

beasts

rare

elephant

an

facts

less

; in

seen

sador,
801, through his ambas-

in

Numidian

These

Emir.

leopards,lynxes
from

received

Rashid, and

death

sudden

sight of

the

Jew,

the

often

were

Charlemagne

Charlemagne by

his annals

animals

at

Eastern

and

it all the

giftsfrom

Woodstock.

easier to

Sultans.

The

Mediterranean

buy

port
trans-

easy

Southern

The

and

the

animals,

Emperor
gardens camels, lions, tigers,leopards,and one
Albertus
girafie,a present from the Sultan of Egypt, which
and described.
Frederick
used to take rare
mals
aniMagnus saw
with him on his travels and campaigns ; at his entry into
Cremona
in 1237
On
an
elephant drew the carroccio.
great
occasions
the animals
set to fight each other or dogs, to
were
towns
the people. And
and princes took pride in keepamuse
ing
who
also
useful as public executioners
were
:
livinglions,
used
Florence
leopards for this purpose
comparatively early
(in1291).
Towards
the close of the fifteenth century several
of the
princely courts of Italy regularly possessed real menageries
at Naples under
Ferrante contained
a giraffe
{serragli)
; the one
In 1459 a girafie
and a zebra.
at Florence, and, when
was
seen
Sultan
of
the
Mamelukes, presented a second one to
Kayt Bey,
Lorenzo
il Magnifico, Antonio
Costanzio
described it in 1487,

or

II had

and

Frederick

in his

Politian

remarkable
mrnasa,

as

collated
animal.

and

saw

one

all

the

ancient

authorities

on

this

calls it
Johannes'Schiltbergerof Munich
about
1400 at Dily (Delhi),and Felix

The
Fabri, the
had

brought
to

preachingmonk

be

to

content

France

to

Thibaut's

alive

killing the
For

whole

take

with

cows

of Africa,

coast, and

they

who

65
at Cairo.

descriptions. It
before

the

1826.

Buffon
not

was

According

first to

capture giraffes
are
caught, after
; the
enterprise is incredibly difficult.
huntsman
remain
must
the steppes,
on

best

Arabs

needed

are

Alexandria

the

the

native

guides

from

mothers

him

Ulm, another

travellers'

steppes of

weeks

of

with

account,

the

on

Spectacles

was

Cordofan, the young

horses, camels

; otherwise

and

nothing

can

have

and

cows,

be

to feed the young

animals.
From
and the cows
are
brought by short

done

as

the

the interior

stagesto

the

thence

transhipped in specialcages.
live rhinoceros
On May, i, 1513,
a
was
brought to King
Emanuel
of Portugal from
Sebastian
Miinster
India, and
the event in his Cosmography.
Albrecht
thought fit to mention
Diirer
has
left us
an
imperfect reproduction of this first
often copied ; Chardin
rhinoceros, afterwards
(who died in 1713)
at Ispahan,and about
saw
one
1700 gave a better description;
but in 1664 and 1689 rhinoceroses
in London, as also
were
seen
later, e.g., 1739
shown

in

Germany,

is entitled

and

and

in

1741 ; the
mentioned
as

rhinoceros

1741 was
in Gillert's well-known

copper-plate the

In 1793 one
arrived at Paris, and
But no hippopotamus was
seen
before

May

the
25,

brought to the
1850. The British
one

all the pressure at his command

to make
this costly present.
in

capturing it

took

five

or

its

Cairo, and wintered

there.

; on

Behemoth

in 1816

another

also

tale,

(Job xl. 10).

in Germany.

in

Europe after Roman

days,
London
on
ZoologicalGardens
consul

at

to induce

whole

transport from

six months

of

the

Cairo

had

to

the Pasha

of

division
White

was

Nile

exert

Egypt
occupied
to

Cairo

November

From

14, 1849, it reached

forwarded
Alexandria
it was

tank
with
freshwater
a
speciallyconstructed
and
containing400 gallons,and dailyrenewed
; whilst two cows
These
ten
goats barely satisfied its requirements of milk.
facts serve
to illustrate the colossal outlay for the lavish arena
of the Roman
Empire.
a
huge variety
Yet, besides the huge numbers, there was
It must
be remembered
brought together at the great venationes.
much
that, according to Dio, there was
exaggeration,
and
further, that in two thousand
specieshave
years many
half would
extinct ; yet, even
constitute
almost
become
an
in

steamer

R.L.M.

"

II.

66

The
number.

enormous

the

on

of those

scale
there

games

lions, 410
and

40

and

bears

But

recorded,

African

the

who

statement,

own

and

unknown

days' festival
amphitheatre
various
the
of

sorts

Trajan
The

Science

also

physicians
heart

aU

studied

day

one

the

at

A.D.

by

animals

and

wild

months'

the

provide
whether
providers

the

of

wildernesses,

whelps

and

of

demand

cooks.

Europe.
Galen,

to

Drugs

animals.

were

Artists

adjoiningcage,

an

wild

the

animals

and

also
temporary
conone

and

parents had

hence,
animals

the

empire, in
must
the

have

empire,

private individuals,

merchants.

or

the

without

and

emperors

ground

new

for wild

within

festivals

centuries,and

wholly transformed,

11,000.

large elephant ;

given, throughout

hunts

for

was

sculptor,Pasitales, a
day modelling a lion in

out

of

festival

triumph,

of

of wild

Flavian

great festival,would

one

imperial

the

parts

also

were

them

capture the

hundred

his life.

incessant

for

tame

dissection

shapes ; the
one
Pompey, was
panther escaped

towns, and

necessitated

on

out

escaped with

to

wild

Dacian

for

famous

venaiiones

minor

the

at

of the

out

their

But

second

alone

of the

the four

at

the

the

taken

was

cage, when
he barely

At

5,000

9,000

at Rome

assembled

of

to

on

animals

of modern
Zoological Gardens
profited of this profusion. According

concocted

went

a.d.,

animals, consumed
stock

the

'

exhibited, and

were

in 107

am.ply

also

spectacles,not to speak of
animals, was, according to the
means
rare.
According to Augustus'
especialdelight in untold numbers
at

tot^^pf the killed,and,

sum

the

80

in

600

or

400 lions
of lions

of hundreds

shapes of beasts ', 500 African

in the spectacleshe provided.
given by Titus at the dedication

laid low

were

took

Caesar's

at

exhibition

animals

of commoner
larger numbers
imperial historians, by no

; and

ever

Pompey's

elephants, 500

18

or

17

were

At

Caesar.

and

animals

But

elephants.
and

Pompey

African

other

subsequent exhibitions

no

of

as

were,

Spectacles

These

to be

hunts

killed,in order

animal

kingdom became
extirpated and driven into
gained for civilization and

agriculture.
Even
the

in

Strabo's

Columns

nomads

time

of Hercules

could

turn

to

the
had

ground
been

the

Roman

far

agriculture ; and

against them, partly because

and

so

passion for

Carthage and
extirpated that the

between

they

could
were

venationes

defend

selves
them-

men,
proficienthunts-

supported them.

The
'Oh

distant

Nasamonian

'

poet,

Spectacles
Lands

of the

Libyans ',says a Greek

longer visited by flocks of

barren

plains are no
beasts of prey, you no longer tremble
the desert ; for Caesar
has caught a
nets, for one
single exhibition, and
wild

your

beasts

are

the

cornfields of

which

were

there

of the

needs

from

Egypt
in

common

of Nubia.
are

Roman

Thus,

in

exhausted
which

the
and

them, in

lofty lairs

of

amphitheatre relieved
of the hippopotami,

the

ravages
time
above
Pliny's

A writer

hippopotami in the
no
are
longer found

of the

and

the heart

and

of

to the upper

century regrets that

lions in

Nile.

Nubia,

Praefecture

the

banished

fourth

of the

swamps
in
even

Sudan

in the Eastern

roaring in

of

former

the

elephants in Libya, or

more

no

lion's

number

vast

Sais,and, in the fourth century, had been

reaches

the

at

pasturages '.

now

Thus, too, the

67

Thessaly,or

Now

occur

hippopotami
commonly
only

of Africa.

antiquity, the

hunting-ground in Africa became

Asia was
still prolificin wild
animals, with
; but
geries,
kings and satraps of Persia reinforced their menasupplied those of the Roman
Emperors of the fourth

century, who
in Ammianus'

laid out
times

their

in the

own

after the

Even

model.

same

jungles of Mesopotamia
there were
countless
of tigers
lions, and in Hyrcania swarms
At the frontiers of the empire, there
and other wild animals.
animals
was
an
Import tax on all Asiatic products, as on
intended
for spectacles,such
Indian
as
(i.e.Asiatic)lions,
calculates the
pards, leopards and panthers '. Symmachus
harbour-tolls
beasts at 2 J per cent., from which
senatorial
on
giversof festivals were
exempted.
law included
in the rights
Sporting rights were
by Roman
of property, for the owner
could exclude
; but the jus gentium
reeds

and

'

'

'

made
But

the

huntsman

elephants

the

of

owner

an

animal, wherever

it fell.

could

only belong to the emperors

; Aurelian,
after the fall of the Republic, was
the first private individual
of these
to have
one
imperial cattle which no subject might
taken
fore-token of his sovereignty.
own
', and this was
as
a
without
Elephants might not be hunted
imperial licence,and
In an
Edict
lions also, at any rate, in the later Empire.
of
'

Honorius
need
over

and

not

and
fear

Theodosius

indictment,

of 414
as

pleasure ; but, our

sellingof lions, though
our

'

a.d.,

man

who

kills a

lion

subjects'safetymust prevail
pleasure still forbids the hunting
our

not

their

'.
killing

In

271

a.d.

68

The

Spectacles

offered to
invading Italy,and Aurelian
should
the Sibylline
supply the Senate with
royal animals
must
have
books
their propitiatory sacrifice ; these
ordain
been
lions and
was
a
special procurator
elephants. There
for the department of the imperial elephants.
wealth
of the imperial menageries and
The
gardens in the

the Marcomanni

were

'

'

and

rarest

costly animals

be
may
under
Gordian

most

estimated

from

the

III : 32 elephants,
catalogue of those at Rome
10
elks, 10 tigers,60 tame
lions, 30 tame
leopards, 10 hyaenas,
arcoleontes
I rhinoceros, i hippopotamus,
10
(? archileontes)',
wild
wild
countless
10
horses, and
asses,
giraffes,20
40
all
of
which
devoted
to
the
other animals,
Philip
millenary
The
of 248 a.d.
administration
and
celebrations
upkeep of
these menageries involved
a
large staff, and a large annual
meat
when
them
was
dear, Caligula fed
outlay : once,
'

with
to

criminals
the

save

menageries
Church

fisc the

of San

owned

belonged

also have
may
Golden
House.

been

to them.

kept, as,

the emperors
animals
for

senators
received

for

his

son's

the

grandees

generally owned

utilize

the

giftof

Praenestine

shows.

Games

several

land

friendship of

of

the

vivarium

Gate

{porta

their friends and

gave

amphitheatrical

request,

imperial

vaults

the

Praetorian

Stilicho's

triumph

the

amphitheatrum casirense,
In the imperial gardens animals
for instance, in a park by Nero's

often

Probably

extensive

his

menagerie, possibly the

by Procopius, near
maggiore)justoutside the wall,near
also

at

Besides

keep.
the

mentioned

which

used

in part have served) there

may
the third century the Praetorian

In

Rome.

cohorts

City

and

those

purpose
e Paolo

Giovanni
in

sold
of their

cost

(for which

others

were

Aurelian

the

from

privileged
Symmachus

Honorius,

leopards. Further,

in Africa

and

at

Roman

Asia, and

could

provincial

and
thus
governors,
expedite the importation of animals ; but the Republican tice
pracof money
of making contributions
and wild animals
to the
tax on
the
spectaclesof the procurator'sfriends a permanent

provincials,had fallen into disuse.

had come
to regard the supplying
and

matter-of-course

procurator,
in 51

B.C.

Caelius

from

writes,

act
as

Marcus
'

The

of wild

of friendliness

Cicero's
Caelius

has sent Curio

higher Roman
animals

as

officials
a

trifling

the

part of the provincial

proconsul in Cilicia
the aedile show.
Patiscus',
on

letters when

'

ten

panthers

; it would

be

Spectacles

The
shame,

should

commission

only issue the

and
transport had been provided '. As a
exceedingly probable, such requests were

Cicero

food

return-favour

69

was

not

send

; he

more

need

lightlyrefused.

not

Thus,

of brave

thousands

huntsmen,

year in, year out, ran

the demand
of the amphitheatre

in every zone,
to furnish
for animals.
For one
great Roman

dangers

splendour,
the

the

Hindu

Rhinelanders

Moors
and

spread
hardy ponies encircled

in the

lurked

pits. Should

horrible

these

transport called
the

on

new

carpenters had

not

and

to be

and

wood

all her
the

and

enough

made,

efiected
there

the

lion-

devices

for

axe

of

hills

box

elm

with

hunted

nymphs
even

and

the

in

world, the

the

all the

beams

still green,

wood

of many
voyages
succumb
to death
or

of

heavy

the

at

were

by

came

for

might
of the Campus
wharves
the temporary safeguarding

mostly by

Republic cages
But
long trains

also

cages

reeds.
deserts,

by

Atlas

to make

in the late

of animals.
with

in the

visible.

Transport was
delay or wreck
Martins

the

rang and
last the terrible

and

wildernesses

cages had
the leaves

of the

elephants,

in

ostriches

anvil

patron, Diana

forests, the

solitudes

boars

at
hot ; and
grew
their rage on the bars of their cages.
Claudian
Stilicho describes
venatio given by him.
To
a

captives vented
in his poem
honour
his

the

over

catch

to

succeed,
perilous ventures
industry into being. The

grated, the

saw

elephants

tamed
nets

their

on

festival,with due Roman

The

land.

and

sea,

loaded
ox-wagons
necessidistances often tated

huge

in which

months,
disease.

might

animals

the

Edict

An

storms

of

Honorius

and

obligestowns through which imperial transports of

animals
passed to provide for their provision ; probably this
only regularized pre-existingpractice.This decision led to great
issued
abuses, for an edict was
by these two emperors that no
Theodosius

such
in

stay should

exceed

Hierapolis,the

for three

to

four

days, for

seven

capital
months,

of

all

precedent,required cages as
(6).In the amphitheatre the

fightone
and
as

the

another, and

rarer

though

sorts

for

decennalia

the

let loose

conductors,

well to be
animals
on

men

but

only paraded.
They
sacrifice or procession.

were
a

in

263

two

hundred

tamed

Euphrates,

the

contrary

to

supplied.
hunted,

were
:

train dallied

such

province of

the

and

one

used
At

few

some

to be

the

made

to

harmless

decorated,

celebration

of

animals, variously

The

70
bedecked, led the way

Spectacles
Capitol,and

to the

white

200

for

bulls

gilded horns, and broad coverlets of coloured

himself : and pictures
silk on their backs, followed by Gallienus
ing
of sacrificialand amphitheatrical animals
are
preserved, showthe

altar

with

them

decorated

prefersthe lion,

Seneca

in this fashion.

and
beauty, to one with gilded mane
glitteringwith plate of gold. Lucilius and Juvenal speak of
white-washed
bulls brought up to the Capitol,and
Pliny of
sheep with purple and scarlet fleeces. At the sixth of the
I as Aedile at Rome,
twelve
performances given by Gordian
there were
were,
tinged with vermilion, which
300 ostriches
to the people.
with the rest, abandoned
terrible

The
is

in his natural

number

of

the
the

amphitheatre

the

in

animals

tamed

ing
Plutarch, writ-

skill of their trainers.

astounding as
of Rome
under
Vespasian, says that the imperial games
intelligenceand docility. Under
amply exemplifiedanimal
a
regular
Augustus even, animal-training had so far become
that
than elsewhere),
more
profession (practisedin Alexandria
Manilius
ascribed luck in it to one
particular constellation.
home
escorted
Julius Caesar was
by elephant torch-bearers,
Aurelius
and Cytheris the dancer
drove in a chariot
and Marcus
drawn
of lions.
Lions, panthers, bears, boars,
by a team
and
wild, were
wolves, tame
kept in the palaces of the
and nobles.
Performing apes who acted plays, drove
emperors
Ancient
in chariots, rode on dogs, served to amuse
the rabble.
tamers
at
in directions contrary to
aimed
training animals
their nature.
Wild
bulls let boys dance
their backs, reared,
on
or,
together with horses, performed tricks in water, and,
as

and

motionless
in swift
two-horsed
charioteers, remained
bridled, and pards yoked ; cranes
circled,
Stags were
fought each other singly. Unwarlike
antelopesbutted at

one

another

like
cars.

to

the

Sea-lions

death.

people by looking at them,

Lions

were

they

set to catch

were

their

of their
of

tune

down
woman

Greek

the

table

to

let them

carry
loose

names.

spectacle

Domitian's

arena,

greet the

to their

answer

; in

dog

in the
and

in

to

them

back
At

anew.

to
the

elephants knelt, danced to

cymbals banged by a brother elephant, sat

; or

Latin.

barked

any

hares

dusky

in childbirth
and

as

In their teeth

master

command
the

obedient

as

and

trained

were

four
; or

teachers

would

they

Pliny asserts

carry
would
that

fifth in

walk
one

of

rope

litter like
and

troop which

write
was

faced

by

salian

matadors

on

their

under

made
officers

dragged

then

of

division

Thes-

after the

who,

horseback,

out, and

them

Claudius

horns.

Praetorians

foot,

on

wearied

custom,

their

by

down

them

mounted

the

panthers, and

fight African

fight400 bears and 300 Uons.

of the spectaclesof the amphitheatre consisted
another
But
less,
tied to stakes and defenceof men
executions
those frightful
armed
and
^to prolong their torture
^insufficiently
or

Nero

in

Spectacles

The

72

them

made

"

"

delivered
work.

the

The

blood

with

till the

beasts, who

to

were

victims

with

Or

their

speciallytrained

sometimes
limbs

begging, not

seen

morrow.

were

torn

for mercy,

wounds

were

and

asunder

covered

delay of

but

death

curious

huge that

so

for

thority)
opportunity (e.g.Celsus on Galen's auAnd
these scenes
of seeing the interior of the body.
of horror
were
episodes on a stage, possibly to lesson the
at
but
modern
feeling is doubly shocked
:
gruesomeness
mechanicians
and artists being called in to setoff and prolong
the agonies of the delinquents.
Selumentions
of these spectacularexecutions.
Strabo
one
of Etna, as he had
the son
a robber, called
practisedhis
rus,
to death
trade there, had
been
condemned
by the beasts : a

physicians

scaffold

had

an

erected

was

on

the

foundered, dropping Selurus

The

devoured.
for
A

Flavian

full theatrical

building near

forum,
into

on

the

cage,

where

Colosseum,

and

ncenery
erected, it may

stood, and
he

was

most

Amphitheatre provided

outfit of devices

the

he

which

for the

soon

amply
sights.

be, by Domi-

propertiesfor imperial spectacles,and

entrusted
the administration
of this summum
choragium was
also possiuiyappointed by Domitian,
to a procurator,who
was
freedman,
a
ranking, however, with the procurators of the
smaller
phitheatres
provinces. As at Puteoli and Capua (where the amthe
were
perhaps used for imperial spectacles),
Colosseum
built on
was
huge substructures, twenty-one feet
Into these underground chambers
the present level.
below
from
animals
and machines
could be conveyed unnoticed
men,
the choragium by outside entrances, and at the Capuan amphitheatre,
which
is almost
as large as the Flavian, there
room
was
tian, contained

for

thousand

Hadrian
and

to

Rome

for the

all the

men.

connect

with

those

properties.

ApoUodorus,
the

substructures

of the
Thus

the

architect, proposed to
of his

amphitheatre,

the whole

scenery,

temple

to allow

and

of Venus

more

all the

space
actors

The
and

Spectacles

73

to

animals, could be suddenly shifted, raised,lowered

disappearin
attained
and

and
arena

and

close them

At

together again.

discovered

into

of the most

mass

Severus'

ship,which

made

cians
mechani-

foldings
easilylift their scafbreak
them
noiselessly,
up

into the air

transformed

was

Roman

surprisingmanner.
very great skill,and could
the most

ante-rooms

or

all at

various

in

games
once

202

the

broke

up,

animals, bears, lions,

panthers, ostriches, and bisons, who

instantly assailed one
another
exhibited
seven
were
: during the
days 700 animals
and
At Nero's
killed.
performance, described
by the poet
Calpurnius, the ground repeatedlyyawned open, and a magic
of glittering
wood
into
bushes with fragrant fountains sprang
of foreignclimes,
view, immediately to be inhabited by monsters
who
emerged from the depths.
Theatrical
and
pantomimic performances also took place
in the arena
condemned
criminals, who
; only the actors were
were
They
practised in real and not illusionary torture.
with gold and purple
appeared in precious tunics embroidered
of Medea,
mantles
with golden crowns
; but, like the fatal gifts
these garments too suddenly burst into flame
consumed
and
Such
inflammable
stuffs were
called
their unhappy wearers.
tians
by the populace tunica molesta, and, when in 64 a.d. the Chrising
for allegedcomplicity in burncondemned
to death
were
tarred and resined, and used as torches
Rome, they were
TertuUian
at night,or wrapt in hides and torn by dogs.
says
men

hired

even

burning

themselves

to

out

run

certain

distance

in

tunic.

no
single torture or cruel
Perhaps there was
death
known
to divert the
to history or literature, not used
Roman
have
There
we
', says TertuUian,
amphitheatre.
the castration
alive to represent
of Atys, and a man
burnt
seen
Hercules'
Oeta' .- a Greek
epigram records
livingpyre on Mount
thief being burnt
Martial
in this tragic fashion.
saw
one
a
culprithold his hand over
burning coals to represent Mucius
'

'

Scaevola, till it
hero

of

animals.
the

well-known
He

body

temples,

or

the

how

and

shapeless,and
sufferer must

criminal

from
re-emer";ing

and

been

murder.

appeared
Hades.

the

asunder

by

torn

and

himself

consoles

have

Laureolus,

slowlydropped off, and

the limbs

arson

robber

crucified

farce, was

guilty of

spectacle,another
depths,

consumed

describes

became

reflection that
of

was

as

Nature

with

the

a robber
patricide,

And,

at

same

from

the

enchanted

by

Orpheus
was

the

The

74
his

playing,rocks

over

and

and

had

lasted

moved

trees

animals

him

Spectacles
greet him,

to

long enough, he

to

torn

was

hovered

feet, and, after the spectacle

at his

crouched

birds

piecesby

bear.

there were
mythology thus heinously interpreted,
indecent
scenes
Boys,
or
; Europa
Pasiphae and the buU.
proved
imas
Cupids, flew up to the awning. And mythology was
devoured
on
was
: Daedalus
by a bear, a Hercules
Besides

borne

up

Heaven

to

lake, in which
in

on

Leander

bull.

to meet

swam

and

charming groups,

then

And

stars

the

became

arena

Hero, Nereids

shone

over

the

assembled

heads,

of the

Dioscuri.

(3) The
Naval

early as
Campus

also improvised on the flooded

fightswere
the
amphitheatre built by
57 or 58 a.d.
Martius

swimming

set

Naumachiae

flooded, fish and

was

there, and

battle

naval

performed, after which the water

combats
and a land-fightgiven on
gladiatorial
Persians

and

Nero

the
was

the

on

the

animals

larger marine
between

As

arena.

Athenians
let ofi and

plain.

At

by land followed one by sea on the

feast
which
same
was
again flooded, and a luxurious
arena,
The
huge cisterns and pipes,by which
given on the water.
of the Flavian
the arena
amphitheatre could be turned into a
lake, were
ready in 80 a.d., as Titus at the dedication
games
naval
and
between
a
performances
naumachy
Corc3rraeans
gave
a

festival in

and

64

Corinthians.

a.d.

battle

Domitian

also

gave

naval

battle

in the

amphitheatre.
instituted by
large scale was
had
in 46 B.C.
He
a
Julius Caesar at his triumphal games
lake dug out on the Campus Martius, on
which
a
T5rrian and
consisted of
Each
Egjrptian fleet fought against each other.
and
and
biremes, triremes
quadriremes, with 1,000 marines
In 43 the lake was
filled in, to prevent an
oarsmen.
2,000
In 2 B.C., at the dedication
epidemic arisingfrom the exhalations.
of the temple of Mars
Ultor
Augustus gave a second
great naumachy in a lake dug out on the further bank of the
Tiber, probably in Caesar's
gardens : according to his own
account, it was
1,800 feet long and 1,200 broad : thirtybiremes
and triremes
with beaks, and a largernumber
of smaller ones,
armed
with
6,000 soldiers, without
reckoning in the rowers,
But

the

performed

first naval

battle

between
sea-fight

on

Athenians

and

Persians.

The
But

both

of these

surpassed by the
the
di

naumachies,
with

one

completion of
Celano) through

dian

fleet of triremes
each
the

gave
was

surrounded

was

room

and

of the

breast-works
could
the

be

The

lake,

Rho-

warriors,

19,000

from

up

with

mounted

the water, and

so

Tacitus,

says

lake

in

from

and

Yet

there

Rome

unmounted

the surface

catapults. Marine
covered
ships. The

of theatre, which

kind

of

cohorts

constructed, whence

were

of the
a

dived

with

rafts, to prevent evasions.

Praetorian

reached

rest

formed

with

were

a
(Garigliano),

Sicilian and

years.

trumpet.

ones,

enough for heavy rowing, adroit steering,attacks

ordinary incidents of a sea-fight. On the rafts stood

all the

divisions

into the Liris

A silver Triton

signal with

subsequent

quadriremes,

and

75

in 52 a.d. Claudius celebrated

from the Lacus
Fucinus
(Lago

occupied several

other.

all

as

the mountains

which

met

which

conduit

the

work

had

Spectacles

of the water

soldiers

occupied

banks

filled with

was

hills

and

countless

titudes
mul-

to
neighbourhood, come
the novelty and
The
see
greet the Emperor.
Emperor, in a
with Agrippina near
him, presided,
splendid general'smantle
dressed
in an
with gold. The
ants,
combatgarment woven
upper
wounds
cured
sethough criminals, fought bravely, and many
men

remission

them
would

not

from

flow ofi,and

this reconstruction,

and

caused

Nero
Titus

used
at the

On

in 52
erected

that

this

there

carried

away

the Athenians

fortress erected

on

to be

for

were

water

After

gladiatorialgames
fightingon foot.
water, but

the

buildings,

the wooden

banquet-room,

and

in 80 for brilliant tacles.

specand
boarded
a
over
the
the

second,

chariot-

Athenians

and

the

victorious, and

little island.

spectacleeclipsedall others,

close, the

enlarged.

for the purpose

of
the outlet of the

was
day the water
beast-fightheld ; on
between
a sea-fight

which

at the

were

first

third

Syracusans,in
stormed

near

a.d.

had

days' celebration

hundred
the

the

; on

But,

panic.
Augustus' naumachy

and
gladiatorial
race

death.

strong and

too

was

the

the channels

given,bridges being
A banquet was
given
current

and

even

finally
poet opined

court

the

one

on

naval

Lake

fight
lake dug
of the amphitheatre, and also had a new
in the arena
out, and a naval fightrepresented with ships approximating
burst
to a real fleet in number.
During the performance a cloudthe
to continue, and
occurred, but the spectacle had
Fucinus.

Domitian, eager to out-do

Titus, gave

Spectacles

The

76

in
spectators to remain
died.
Philip the Arabian
of Rome,

Augustus

and

naumachies,

region

clothes

wet

naumachy,

gave a
Domitian.

The

St. Peter's

In

perhaps

tradition

the

of

lakes

the

was

Ages

five
the

called

of

scene

lenary
mil-

dug by

estimates

Middle

Angelo

Sant'

of the

of the

one

on

DescriptioUrbis

and

fell ill and

; many

celebration

also, at the

perhaps erroneously.

between

naumachiae,

their

regto
several

naumachies.
Summary
the
thought and feeling of Rome
(a) The
gulf between
of cultured
in the attitude
and
modernity is best instanced
Uterature,
the amphitheatre. In all Roman
society towards
of the deep horror of to-day at these
note
there is scarcelyone
are
inhuman
gladiatorialgames
delights. Generally the
Children
with indifference.
played at gladiators,
passed over
at bull and
in Andalusia
matador, or formerly
as
they do now
was
in Rome,
passionately
brigands and sbirri. Adolescence
who
to the gladiators,
addicted
were
a
staple stopgap even
the arena.
in cultured
conversation, and proverbs sprang from
It

is madness,

Horace,
says
fight the better ; or

dispute whether

to

Castor

or

again, that Maecenas, his supposed

in the morning, it
intimate
friend, deigned to remark
too cold for lightclothing,or to ask the time, or whether
was
match
for Syrus. Epictetus
a
Gallina, the Thracian, was

Dolichus

reckons

among

the

trivialities of conversation

gladiatorialfights. Ovid
the spectaclesof blood
A

man,

asking

to

avoided,

be

ing
nothing strange in recommendas
good occasions for love-making.
the lady'shand
next to him, while
or
betting on the result, is often

saw

he says, who
touches
for the programme,

smitten.
The

grounds

of condemnation

are

not

oursi

but

the

grounds

grounds of disapproval. In the

for surprise at this.
adulatory court poets there is no reason
Statius
Martial
and
prostituted their talents to panegyrize
Domitian
and
his spectacles. Martial
says that the feats of
the
those
of Hercules.
Statius
beast-fightersout-rivalled
the
with
the Amazons,
and
compared female
prize-fighters
for Father
sight of dwarfs hacking one another about, was
one
Mars
and the bloody CJoddess of Bravery to laugh over.
Also
of

commendation

sense

of defiance

are

our

of Greek

culture

created

some

lame

and

The
one-sided

Spectacles

77

Cicero

objected to the crude slaughter,

but says, cruel and barbarous as gladiatorial
fightsmay appear
to some,
the
and reallymay
be,
sight of criminals fightingfor
life and
death
the most
effective
was
training for the eye,
of pain and
though perhaps not for the ear, in the endurance
death.
tion
Pliny approves a friend who gave a brilliant exhibiof panthers at Verona
of gladiators with a large number
in his wife's memory,
and Trajan for granting the people this
spectacle: no enervating and depraving sight,but one that
wounds,
inspired disdain of death and love of honourable
and
ambition
in
aroused
slaves and
even
culprits'. Gibbon
rightlycalls this a vain and cruel prejudice,so nobly confuted
by the valour of ancient Greece and of modern
Europe '.
Worse
than these apologiesis Cicero's pronouncement
even
on
the beast-fights
What
have
:
pleasure can a cultivated man
tear a weak
to pieces,or a splendid
in seeinga huge animal
man
Varro's
animal
pierced with a spear ?
phrase in one satire,

apologists;

'

'

'

'

to the wild beasts

criminals
?
ye not barbarians, to throw
is out of its context
and
inconclusive.
Marcus
Aurelius, who
'

Are

stemmed

^the

Meditations
the

bloodshed

that

the

Tacitus

same.

as

much

as

he

could, said

amphitheatre Is wearisome
says, whilst blaming Drusus'

in

'

his

and

always
(the son of

Tiberius)lust in murder, that he was too fond of blood, however

cheap. Symmachus, the last of the Romans, characteristically
of his captive Saxons
in the Gladiatorial
says of the suicide
restrain
School,
efficient,can
evidently,no guard, however
this desperate race
'. He
puts the suicides on the same
level with
Spartacus and his troop, and resigns himself to
the mishap with
the self-consolations
of Socrates.
Roman
writer attains the ground of common
Only one extant
Seneca, in a
humanity, and he only in his latter years.
calls the gladiatorialgames
a
composition of his manhood,
not
does
banish
grief. But, in his
light distraction, which
latest writings,he repeatedly is indignant that
who
a
man,
'

be

should
once

sacred

to

out

at

breaks

man,
a

should

be killed for

particularlybarbarous

mere

sport, and

dently
exhibition, evi-

sincere

Once
he went
despitehis rhetorical language.
about
almost
midday into the amphitheatre. The house was
the few onlookers, a few unpractised
empty, and, to amuse
and

such

almost
a

unarmed

fight would

criminals
not

have

were

forced

interested

to

the

kill each

other

general public.

The

jS
'

In

pure

comparison ', says

mercy.
and
no

to the

This
stroke

of

And
and

all the

the

Yet

why

preceding games
These

butchery.

fail.

can

defence

'

Seneca,

is sheer

regular duels.

weapons
In the

Spectacles

not

men

are

were

less,
defence-

populace prefers this

Helm

skill

swordsman's

and

shield, and

prevent death.
and
bears, but

to Uons
are
morning men
only thrown
at midday, to their hardest
fate, to the spectators. They are
this much
And
for the
whipped into wounding naked bodies.
be utilized for slaughter '.
Intervals, which can
is to us a needless
This singleexpression of what
place
commonfrom
point
a standproves that the noblest regarded the games
The
main reasons
miles apart from ours.
three : the
are
had rights,and
division of mankind
into those who
those who
and
the intoxicating eSect
had
not ; the effect of habit
of
to very
down
late times
there
splendour. In ancient Rome
of the sanctity of Ufe, or
idea of the rights of man,
was
no
of thought for its preservation. International
law was
almost
wide
non-existent
and
tween
a
; slavery fixed
impassable gulf bethose with rightsand those without
them, and fostered
the regarding of slaves
by a slave-standard, as negUgible,
their sufferingsand
death
and
as
unimportant. The fighters
in the arena
were
pubhc enemies, barbarians, criminals, slaves
or
ne'er-do-wells, either indifferent or dangerous to society.
times Etruria introduced
In rough warhke
her sport into Rome
:

at first it
and

was

occasional, but, with

frequent.

The

acquired

love

the

centuries,became

usual

of

brutality was
ated
perpetufrom
irresistible spiritof the time, which
age to age, an
convert
can
original loathing into pleasure, and
pervades
And
individual.
at
aU
torture
and
besides,
epochs,
every
executions
have
been
attractive.
In
1787 (according to
witches
in Palermo
the
Tischbein), at a burning of some
ladies
had
fashionable
sherbet and ices served.
present
Lastly, the amphitheatre, apart from the fights,attracted,
the most
as
In
giganticspectacle the world has ever
seen.
the Empire, nothing could
the vision of Rome's
arouse
past
much
the
the
of
as
as
in
the
sight
greatness
people assembled
Flavian
it
amphitheatre. Contemporaries rightly esteemed
the
world.
of
of the wonders
It stood
one
on
eighty mighty
arches, rose in four floors to the height of 150 feet and seated
spectators. The Senators sat on the inmost
40,000 or 50,000
or

lowest

row

nearest

the

arena.

Here

there

sat

the

scions

The

8o
severer

wound

he

more

than

the

Spectacles
of the

body

wished

he

man

to

see,

and

whose
fall had
aroused
pitiably than the man
the shout.
him
inhuman
made
For the sight of blood
; he
looked
on
steadily,and was
possessed with lust of blood.
And
what
fired with passion,
He saw, shouted, was
?
more
and came
for it in his blood.
again, with the enthusiasm
in point of splendour
cannot
Spanish bull-fights
compare,
fell

excitement, with

and

indicate

sight

some

of the

Corrida

and

new

craft and

In

the

of the

amphitheatre,yet they

Toros

1804

the

and

throngs

like Rist

man

charm

The

impression produced.

in the

overwhelming, though only

wonderful

fury of

charm

de

to be

accommodated.

shows

of the

measure

is said

the

the

bulls attracted

found

theatre
amphi-

be
9,500 can
in bull-fights

beauty

and

him,

also the

as

very

strength, the
'

ful
wonder-

elsewhere
really popular spectacle, unknown
in Europe '.
tion
Prosper Merimee
speaks of the irresistible attracof bull-fights.He
refers to St. Augustine's tale, and
confesses
that no
excited
him
so
much, that he
tragedy ever
missed
whilst in Spain, and
never
a
bull-fight,
preferred the
also was
of Mexico
an
bloody ones.
Emperor Maximilian
enthusiastic
admirer
of bull-fights.
succeed
(6) Only very slowly and gradually did Christianity
in weaning the ancient world
from the bloodshed
of the arena.
Christians
Very many
frequented it ; and their imagination
stirred by it ; thus, one
of the visions that tempted St.
was
Hilarion
who

of

in the desert with

sprang

the desires of the flesh,was

his back

on

and

rode

him

like

fight,in which one combatant

gladiatorial
to bury him.
entreated
him
Constantine
from
in an
edict dated
Berytus censures
bloody spectacles in times of peace, and
a

'

be

'

sent

to

the

mines

prohibition. For,

in

instead

; but

this

was

eer,
chariot-

horse, and

also

fell at his feet and

October

on

the

holding

orders
not

i,

326,

of the

convicts

intended

to
as

later

Epistleto the town of Hispellum

(Spello)he accedes to the request that the priests of Umbria
should
be allowed
to continue
their scenic and
gladiatorial
of
but
the
should
still
hold
priests
theirs at
Tuscany
games,
Firmicus
Volsinii.
Maternus, the astrologer(about 350 a.d.)
states the constellations
under
which
gladiatorsand athletes
which
were
bom, and others,
predetermined them to a horrible
death in pubUc view.
In 365 a law of Valentinian's forbade the
condemnation

of Christians

to the

School

of Gladiators.

Pru-

The
dentius

vainlybesought

Spectacles

Honorius

to

8t

abolish, the

practiceof

to
and
turning a death sentence into a public amusement,
allow
in 404 the same
only beast-fightsin the arena
; but
at Rome,
the immediate
Emperor prohibitedgladiatorial
games
cause
being that an Asiatic monk Telemachus, who had rushed
in amid
the combatants
to separate them, was
torn to pieces
schools
by the irritated populace. The imperial gladiatorial
had already been abolished in 399.
But in the West
the gladiatorial
stiU lingeredon.
In 410 St. Augustine speaks of
games
In the East
gladiatorsas still existent.
they ceased by 400
in his sermons
A.D.
; St. Chrysostom
constantly reprehends
and
the Circus
Theatre
sinful and injurious,but never
as
mentions
the gladiatorialgames,
which
he would
certainly

have

attacked

with

other

Christian

teachers

greater zeal and

But

reason.

and

he

fulminate

against the beast-fightsas

seilles
So, too, presbyter Salvianus of Marspectaclesat which the main dehght
devoured
torn to pieces and
see
men

inculcatingcallousness.
complains of the
of the spectatorsis to
by animals, and of the futile trouble of penetratingforests
and
deserts, the Alps and snow-clad
vaUeys to capture the
animals.
The

ludi bestiarii

into the sixth

the

in
persisted

century.

lacrimabiles

In

both

469 Leo

venationes

on

East

West

and

prohibited

Anthemius

and

Rufius

Turcius

Sundays.

least

at

of Virgil
Apronianus Asterius, consul in 494, in his MS.
(now at the Medicean
library at Florence) boasts of having
instituted
in the
venationes
and
stage-plays,chariot-races
Roman
Circus. In 536 Justinianexpresslylegislatedthat the
consuls were
to give venationes besides other games.
January
devoted
to the solemn
I was
office of the new
entry upon
in the
magistrate, the second
(calledmappa) to the games
Circus, the third to a venatio, the fourth to a very popular

speciesof

venatio

called

could

enjoy the courage of men

to very dissolute plays,called
and

chorus

second
Two

were

also

seen

the

at
which
iLovrifx,ipLov,

fightinganimals,
-n-opvai, on
on

the

which

sixth

mappa ; on the seventh the office

before, Justinian,writing
years

was

to

and

people
the fifth

day tragedians

a
day there was
solemnly resigned.

the

archbishop of

complained of clerics not abstaining from

Constantinople,
at Rome
was
epoch, Cassiodorus
spectacle.At the same
the skill and
R.L.M.

"

II.

speed

with

which

this
miring
ad-

the bestiarii escaped the

G

The

82
animals, and
of which

the

have

invitations

down
the

by

of

ingenious means

many

come

sent

Spectacles
to

us

on

consuls

the
thus

carved

protection,some
ivory Uds of the

Rome

at

efiorts

some

at least a little less

to make
the venationes
being made
bloody.
Roman
civilization set its mark, the amphi(c)Wherever
theatre
also spread ; from
Jerusalem to Seville, from Scotland

were

borders

the

to

annual

victims

choice

of games

of the

Sahara

of the

arena.

had its
of consequence
any town
The yearly magistrates had
the

they should give,and would often enough defer

to the popular desire for gladiatorial
fights. Officials and priests
at their own
also gave
them
in acknowledgment
of
expense
anxious
to make
the honour, as did rich private individuals
show
win
the popular favour.
In some
or
a
cities,such as
to administer
curatores
Praeneste, there were
special annual
the communal
or
gladiatorialgames
bequeathed for
moneys
Such
the purpose.
were
subject to legal restrictions,
games
relaxations

of which

Emperor.

Besides

the ruins

and

indication

of

Italy was

to

textual

be

sought from the Senate or the

information, various
monuments,

amphitheatres

of the
the

had

extent

in various

provincesgive some

of the

games.
in
prohfic these

and
games,
town, however

most

still exhibits

amphitheatres. No
small, had
not a periodicalshow
of prize-fighters
wild swine
and bearor
baiting,and the largerthe town, the largerits expenditure on
gant.
popular amusements, on a scale we should consider extravathe
restricted
Law
sum
outlay to a reasonable
(e.g.,
sesterces
at Urso to 14,000
but
or
custom
and
^^152 los.),
from
the officials.
more
pubhc opinion no doubt exacted much
ruins

most

At

Urso

but

the

there

games

and

of

whole

of the

is evidence
vena

Hone

to last three or four days,

were
games
to show
that in Italian cities gladiatorial

shythem.selves

Bulls, stags,hares, wild swine

and

lasted

bears

three

were

or

four

days.
enough

common

in the

often hunted
Apennines, and were
; but
they also had
leopards, panthers and ostriches
(called popularly 'oversea
'); and, according to Pliny, in the municipia the
sparrows
bestiarii

fought in

extravagances
smaller

or

in

poorer

silver

armour

Rome

one

towns

three

larger, ten, twenty

Flaccus in his second

or

; this had

hundred
or

thirty.

duumvirate

four
At

been

years

one

of Caesar's

before.

pairs fought

In
;

the

in the

Clodius
Pompeii Aulus
(thehighest municipal office)

The

Spectacles

83

exhibited

thirtypairsof athletes, and five of gladiatorson his

own
account, and, with his colleagues,
thirty-five
pairsof gladiators,
and
chase
and
other
animals.
of
a
boars,
bears,
bull-fights,
the advertisements
Further
of Pompeii tell of five honoratiores
as

institutors

One

Numerius

as
troop is announced
appeared there, and probably

Ampliatus
world

gladiatorial
games.

of

and

'; he

his

In

contractor.

of

Petronius'

'

the

Festius

desire

was

of the

itinerant

an

Trimalchio's

romance,

combat

guests

given by
In
Tiberius'
a
days' one.
reign the
pending
forciblyprevented the burial of a primipeople at PoUentia
had
extorted
from the heirs for a gladiapilarisuntil they
torial
money
Martial
at Bononia
contest.
who
jibesat a shoemaker
converse

and

recent

one,

and

is to

keeper

honoratiores

three

of

gave

of the

one

fuller at

give

held

Mutina, and

next.

one

In

where

asks

Italian

one

tavern-

honoratior

city a

with
honoured
a
highest city offices,was
statue
on
a
chariot, for his generosity in general and particularly
for having given eight gladiatorialcontests, and Floral
tion
dedicabesides, by imperial permission ; at the solemn
games
of it, his son, in his father's presence,
exhibited
thirty
At
AUifae
citizen of
a
pairs of gladiators,and a venatio.
of
made
duumvir, gave
splendid generosity ', when
games
thirtypairs of gladiators,and a venatio of African animals,
of 13,000
and, during his official year, received a contribution
sesterces
from the city,gave
complete venationes, a combat
of twenty-one gladiators,
and, one year later,theatrical plays

who

had

the

'

'

'

at
on

his

Similar facts are

often recorded, graven
expense.
and
grave-stones,
pedestals of statues, monuments,

own

the

perpetuate the generosityof the giver of the festival ;

how
and
individuals
inscriptions show
municipalities vied
The
in shedding glory on their native city on such occasions.
On
deemed.
more
murderous, the more
splendid they were
the pedestal of a statue erected
in 249 a.d., to a citizen who
had
held
office,and given magnificent spectacles,we
every
and
read :
At Minturnae
he let eleven
fight,
pairs appear
the
until eleven
of Campania's best gladiatorsremained
on
so

as

to

'

field ;
noble
of the

he

also

had

ten

burgesses, well
highest

civic

wild

know'.

And

on

of the latter

four

the

criminals

being regarded

as

death,

to

hunted

officials of Peltuinum,

fight and
days' gladiatorial
execution

bears

tombstone
his
'

givinga

is

as

you,
of
'

one

three

recorded, the

choice extra.

Very

The

84

Spectacles

probably, providers of festivals requested the corporations

animals.
to provide criminals
for their gladiators or
most
In
the provinces the amphitheatre was
splendid at
the capitals,
and organized by the provincial
priestswho held
and
office for one
in many
respects, the most
were,
year,
their own
Often, it is clear, they owned
prominent men.
bands
cessors.
of gladiators,which
regularly passed on to their sucmost
North
Africa possess
After
and
Italy, Gaul
amphitheatres; and these two provinces and Spain favoured
The
oldest evidence
of the
the sport more
than
others.
any
token
of 63 B.C. ;
existence
of Aries (Arelate)is a gladiatorial
mentions
the town
hterature
Roman
hence, long before
(in
An
combats
there.
inscription at Jerez
Caesar) there were
de la Frontera
records
a spectaclewith
twenty pairs of fighters
In the North
of the Emperor.
given by an official in honour
there are
hardly any stone amphitheatres, and the combats
must
have
been
but
the poverty and
only because
rarer,
rudeness
of the inhabitants, the sparse
population and the
hindered
towns
isolation of the Roman
the spread of Roman
influence.
In

Greece, superiorcivilization

at

least

caused

less

general

than

combats
elsewhere
there
; yet even
acceptance of armed
they proved irresistible. The first proof of this is when King
Antiochus
for the
first
Epiphanes gave gladiatorialgames
time
in Syria, and
The
first impression
perhaps in Greece.
was
disgust,but repetition
changed the feelinginto approval ;
at first he only allowed
fightsup to the point of wounding ;
to

later, up

engaged

the

themselves

of Rome
the
the

centre

Greece

Caesar's

non-Greek

one

combatant.

triflingpay.

of this and

being

was

of

for

with

introduction

Corinth

death

in

after
other

the

Then

And

the

volunteers

close

tion
associaeasier

conquest rendered

Roman

Roman

customs

colony

character,
hence, the

and

of

Greece,

into
Corinth.

For

wealthy port with

there be
would
large corrupted mob ;
games
popular, and it is the only town in Greece where
(beforethe
second
be traced
century) an amphitheatre can
; its ruins
still exist.
Athens,
too, for jealousy of Corinth, followed
suit ; and, at the end of the first century, there were
only a
few
had
not
places, such as Rhodes, which
seen
gladiators.
a

Plutarch

recommends

combats,

or, at

the governors

of towns

least,to limit and

to

hamper

abolish
the

torial
gladiademand.

The
But

his

complaints
this

even

Venationes

to have

the

people

been

not

and

gaining
despair.

of

counsel

dain
dis-

fights
introduction, especiallyas bullAny one who would gain popular
must
Prusa,
get not only jugglers,
'

'

actors

and

should

he

', says Dio of

athletes,but a wild lion or
desire to please the mob,

(gladiators).
stadium

corrupting

did

easier

an

already common.

favour

the

of

85

rich, who

uneducated

his counsel

found

were

only

of the

mode

honour, shows

Spectacles

had

the

Hadrian

at

hundred

animals

of Prusa

and

from

venationes.

Lucian

bulls,or

even,

the

hunted.

liked

people
unanimously condemned.

scum

educated

hundred

unspeakable thing
spectacle in the Athenian

one

of the

the

in

But,

'

Greece,

pleasure ;
gruesome
Like
Plutarch, Dio

abhorrence

of

the

gladiatorial
and
combats, as barbarous, brutish, murderous,
injurious,
A Neo-Pythagorean,
as
depriving the country of its bravest.
zealot
a
against meat, says that the degeneration of taste
infected
the other senses, and the eye no longer took pleasure
in dances, picturesand statues, but in death
and
and wounds
the philosofightsas the most precious spectacle. Demonax,
pher,
advised
the Athenians, before introducing it,to demolish
the
altar
of pity. Julian forbade
priests to frequent the
theatre
considered
and
should
abstain
they and their sons
the

express

Gladiatorial combats
Asia

Minor

with

found

their

its mixed

East, except Palestine.

the
an

the

amphitheatre at Nysa
built in 79.
Lycus was

{d)In
are

the

aR

parts of

found, the most

fewest

in

the

Asia

In

in

Caria, and

Empire

largestin

Greece

the

and

Catania

under

manner

of destruction

permission.
the Middle

This

Ages

demolition
and

feuds, and

Ages, they

were

and

of

amphitheatres

Southern

France,

into

Their

provinces.

fell into
history. Some
ceased, and
gladiatorialgames
other
buildings,as at Verona

Theodoric, with

times, and
of the greater number.
in the stormy centuries

on

tus.
Augus-

under

their

modern

turned

Laodicea

at
one

Eastern

in

Gallienus, and

of

Italy and

for

was

knew

Strabo

ruins

used

masonry

all

had

with
the

population,and
one

preservation varies
in antiquity, after

easilyinto

more

Minor

Alexandria

Roman

and

far

way
half-Asiatic

lasted
accounts

his
all

disuse
their
under

express

through

for the practical

Often, too, in
of

the

early
fortresses, especially
by the

wars

Middle
Arabs.

86

The

The

fortified

defenders

and

thundered

rams

them

with

firebrands

and

arrows

and

moats

and

towers,

directed

were

entrances, through which surged the gaUyof old.

Or, in times of peace, poverty crouched

against the
clad

Spectacles

arched

crowds

In many
fresh destruction.
by the ancient walls and worked
ering
and in the mouldthe resorts of prostitution,
placesthey became
clandestine
of
means
arches
the dregs of men
found
Or
treasure-seekers
crime.
dug up the refuse, in the hope
wealth
of unearthing the remains
of ancient
magicians
; and
Now
ruins.
found a fit place for their craft in the gruesome
ordeals.
Or
and
used for tourneys and
was
again the arena
the bloodstained
elsewhere
ploughed over and the
ground was
vine

and

the
these

of

was
one

and
after
old

ancient

sites

Moorish

Princess

and

went

tourney. An old
palacio de GaUana.
the Emperor Gallienus.
The history of some
When

the

dug

with

them

not

inside

of these

was

round

of their

own.

amazed

at

with

is still called

Tagus

el

with

it

connected

in outline.

be traced
may
in 508 invaded

The

brave

Southern
Nimes

at

remains

resistance.

the

for

Francis
of

were

driven out

attempt

His

of the

several
2,000,

castri

milites

the habitation
was

From

arenarum.

amphitheatre remained
fourteenth
century, and

population of
1533

castrum

Saracens, who

knightly order,

In

the

of the

Then, in time, it became

filled with
hovels, and
arines

his rival at

amphitheatre

called

was

after

end

guised
dis-

which

failed.

the
of

the

fortress of the

it down

kind

Chlodwig

he

an

it,erected two square towers,

till 1809, and
quarters for the garrison

it

Martel

to

ruins

sake

her

overcame

tradition

fortified

henceforth

down
a

Learned

pulled down

it
720-737
by Charles
burn

Goths

the

near

(according to

for

Toledo, and

well

under

moat

deep

were

Franks
the

France,

des

tions
tradi-

new

peopled

loved

GaUana,
to

the

by

and

arose,

Spanish legend) by Charlemagne

himself

to

And

the walls.

on

called
spirits: they were
fairy grottoes. At
within
ruin ;
the amphitheatre is perfect without, and
a
to build a palace
said to be the work
of a fairywho
was
At Bordeaux
night,and was
interrupted at cock-crow.
Poitiers
the
amphitheatres are called palais GalUenne

Pola

in

luxuriated

and

ghosts
it

olive

antiquity.

spoke
Nimes,

visited
He

ress
fort-

was

held

arenarum.

poor, its interior

centuries
who

knelt

quartier

a
a

dialect

and
down

was

to

The

88

arena,

in those

large sum

1376, orders

Spectacles

the

Statute, before

second

keys kept by

the

and

locked

be

to

arena

days

in it ; any
committed
crimes
was
community, as many
to be
damage to the walls or pollutionof the building was
of stones
punished. In 1474 a Statute forbids the removal
and
; in
steps. But most of the latter had already vanished
In the sixteenth century
1480 a poet calls it gradibus vacua.
the restoration
periodically
began. After 1545 a citizen was
ruins
to supervise the preservation of the
elected
; in 1568
the

collected

was

money
a tax

to be

raised

for the

devoted

this

to

the

passed by
seventeenth

as

also

In

in

Councils

which

city,from
the noble

beseeches

time

from

visited

Napoleon

youth
to

in

to

1805,

of

the

1820

drove

fireworks

this

use

the

greatest of these

fanaticism

survived
and

as

Rome

the

Cohseum

fall ;

the

first

devastated

the

internal
the

feuds

twelfth

pani, the
thirteen
to

the

and

Rome

destruction
town

thirteenth

and

leading family
divisions

resign part

to

of Rome.

the

began,
Mons

further

In

its walls

wiU

world

when

and

fortress

regione di

1244
Annibaldi, who

As

it falls,
In

Guiscard
the

Capitol;

it became

of the

in

Frangi-

Colosseo, one

Frederick
gave

'

fall '.

Robert

CaeUus

the

century,

; when

destruction,when

centuries
of the

Avarice

a
many
admiration

stand

faJls, the

between

produced

wiU

circle

huge

of its decorations, but

stands, Rome

when

'police

Colosseum.

Empire in their entirety for

this cry of
eighth century evoked

wiU

1084

strippedit

soon

is the

the

in the

long

ruins

When

buU-fight was
voices
greeted
the Congress

neighbouring
the guests '.
duly honour

But

history of

unique amphitheatre

population to fill the

the

up

and

and

there

1222.

Elector

courage.

and

dog

held

were

races

or

in it ;

of his book

end

performed in the amphitheatre, and 40,000

him, a striking incident at such a place. At
of

held

of the

their

ated.
nomin-

were

were

the

at

exhibit

to

the town

the

author

of Verona

time

frequently
Fifty. In the

honour

quote,

we

be

to

earlier, e.g.. In

and

Mafiei, the

provide

also

dell' Arena

place in

ring took

to

were

1654, tourneys

century

in 1579

were

and

Twelve

and

sixteenth

fines

resolutions

Presidenti

in 1622

as

the

his native

of the

two

7 16 a tilt at the
Bavaria.
Marchese

of

Similar

end.

century

Often,

year was
quarter of the

steps

introduced

fourth

every

for restoration, and

of the

restoration

II forced

of the
them

refuge to Conradin

TKe
in 1268

Spectacles

after the battle of

the

fourteenth

and

Senate

of the

All

the

barons

ladies

noble

three

ladies

it.

city their

who

fell were

eleven

had

the
the

places;

buried

people,inSanta
In

and

their

as

the

fighters,

colours

field,nine

bodies

the

by

and
were

Paladins

of the

attended

great pomp,

the

thronged

Maggiore
seum
People presented a third of the Colosthe Fraternity of the
torum,
SancChapel of the Sancta
return
for their work
in restoringorder in that region ;

to
in

for the

with

of

names

killed ; the

Maria

Senate

the

381

bulls

held

3, 1332,

neighbourhood were
duty of assigningthe

well
announced,
as
by lot, were
mottoes.
on
Eighteen of them remained
and

People
a
great

of the

taken

wounded,

beginning of
of the

power

September

on

the

In

into the

came

who

of Rome,

in
bull-fight

invited

century it

Tagliacozzo.

89

ruin

had

San

Giovanni

del Laterano.

and

become

walled

some
up
corridors
for

of

robbers'

mere

the

den.

The

arches, and

upper

hood
Brothermade

thus

with
united
the
hospital, afterwards
and
Lateran
foreign pilgrims flocked in
hospital. Native
to kiss the soil of so many
martyrdoms, and, out of their alms,
built on
the height of the ancient
a
chapel was
podium and
hermit's
the
beside ; above
a
dwelling erected
Chapel was
built a waUed-in
stage, on which every Good
Friday a Passion
in many
documents
Play was
performed, which is mentioned
some

of the

fifteenth

and

discontinued.

was

sixteenth

centuries

Meanwhile

the

reduced

the

remains

used

of the

the squares
di Venezia, and

of travertine

Bramante,

Paul

Cardinal

and

Riario

III

for

At
that

Colosseum

to build

the

'

Roman

being
beginning of
stupidity'
was

ashes.

to

palace of

the

for

the

Paul
San

Cancellaria

the

Palazzo

it

III

Pius

amphitheatre

steadilystripped for building purposes.

the fifteenth century Poggio complained
had

; under

Marco

built

Farnese.

II

by

Sixtus

and workmen's
designed erectinga cloth fabric in the Colosseum
dwellings,but died before carrying out his plan. A
concession
for holding bull-fights
in it was
given in 1671 to
himself
availed
two
competitors for two years ; but no one
and
of it. In the Jubilee of 1675, to prevent further misuse

profanation,the
we

of

read

in it.

But

XIV

was

1741

to

licence

all

measures

induced
make

arches

entrance
to

the

hermit

for its

bricked

were

to

up.

sell the

grass
securityfailed, until

by a murderous
ampler provision for

assault
its

on

the

In

1727

that

grew
Benedict

hermit

preservation. Under

in

The

90

Spectacles

ceeded
began, which, unfortunately, has prothe
the
usual
Italian disregard of
with
style and
character of the original.
no
In 1864 the Colosseum
was
longer the building that
who
drenched
the
for Byron the ghosts of the dead
evoked
ruins.
in the moon-lit
about
ground with their blood, flitting
Pius

restoration

VII

luxuriant

The

brick

modem

and

afternoons
to

arena

an

French

in every
audience

walls

and

the

and

penance.

then

sentry stood

week

theatre, the
the

was

ancient

re-echoed

THE

Two

preached

in the

with

classes,

lowest

songs

of

praise

THEATRE

least

most

more

tine
traver-

entrance.

of the

women
once

monk

the

telegraph-

were

the

at

Capucine

of devout

III.
The

disappeared,and

had

staringcontrast with the

there
the top of the walls

On
a

the walls

in

was

squares.
wires

on

greenery

costly and
frequent and

troublesome
the

least

of the

tacles,
spec-

appreciated.

had three permanent

beginning of the Empire Rome
the amphias
theatres, which all together did not seat as many
theatre.
all
at
in
three
once
Probably plays were
performed
of Pompey
only very' exceptionally; usually the theatre
the
sufficed.
What
with
of circus and
powerful excitement
the stage could
its audience
only draw
arena,
by ignoble
means,
rough jokes and sensual
by-play : thus, far from
counteracting the corrupting influences of circus and arena,
it heightened them.
then existing,under
the Empire the
Of the types of drama
two
lowest prevailed,the atellana and the mimus.
The
atelsort of Punch
and
lana was
a
Judy show ; it originatedin
Campania, where it stiU flourishes,but was
earlytransplanted
From

the

to Rome

from

literary.A

an

in
improvisation,

Sulla's time

it had

become

act was
piece generally in one
performed
the
stock
by four
figuresor masks,
prototypes of the modern
Italian comedy of character.
These
were
Pappus the dotard,
the pantaloon ; Dossennus
the wise man,
now
the dottore,
now
a schoolmaster
or
soothsayer ; and the glutton and the booby,
and
Bucco
Maccus.
down
Many titles of atellanae have come
indicate the subjects treated
from earlier times, which
: probably
the
the
remained
under
the
same
subjects
Empire.

short

The
There

the

on

Gauls
doubt

the

Sick

as

by

tickled

the

titles
the

give

the

Or nationaUties

Macci

', and

the

publican, in exile ; the

Pappus' bride ; Bucco
often appeared as well.

two

full of broad
The

was

Ufe,
Like

types.
to

popular;

short

the

other

plays,

mentioned
survived

the

the
;

Justinian,had
juggling wearied

city was

no

manners.

occupations of

was

above

stage.

comic

Other

situations, e.g.,

the

gladiatorialschool
popular comedy was

the
it

the

aU

maid, as a soldier,as a
Dossenni, Pappus the farmer.

used
in

was,

the

the

Ghosts

'.

grotesque,

references.
character-sketch

atellanae, but

was

Empire
it

alpine
Trans-

old

indecent

and

Empire

of

various

an

This

as

atellana

under

the

and

the

or

loosely constructed

as

in

and

humour

mime

common

were

rural

'

in

actors
as

two

'

Campanians ',

from

Woodcutters

four

of Pen-

life,e.g., 'The Kid,

in Health, the Cow, the Poultry-yard,

Maccus

the

stories

fishermen, painters,criers ', and

played a large part on the Roman

e.g.,
fullers,who

and

; the

'

town,

time

the

91

provincial speech

drawn

Boar, the Boar

Vintagers,

and

'

','the soldiers of Pometia

subjectswere

more

the

'

stage, such

much

Still

of

myths, e.g.
Agamemnon.
supposititious

theus, or the

brought

travesties

also

were

Spectacles

as

without
interlude

an

Cicero's

mime

is

time,

more

of

its stock
or

piece
after-

the

often

more

fically
speci-

longest lived speciesof drama,

of the

west, and

in the

East, in the

full sway of the stage, as tragedy, music

the public. Surviving titles indicate

drawn
they were
from town
rather than country life,especially
that of the lower
classes and artisans ; they also represented scenes
from foreign
and
Lentulus
life,and, occasionally,
mythological incidents.
Hostilius'
mimes,
according to Tertullian, ridiculed the
Anubis
an
a man
adulterer, and Luna
gods ; made
; whipped
Diana
o"E the stage, read the will of Jupiterdeceased, or quizzed
the three
Anubis
adulterer
as
famishing Hercules.
sibly
posreferred to the seduction, in Tiberius'
reign, of a noble
lady, by a lover in the disguiseof Anubis, or something similar.
In a mime
of Caligula,the
played on the day of the murder
crucifixion of the famous
was
acted, the
brigand Laureolus
flow
of blood
imitated, and scoffed at by bystanders. In
in the
another
mime
performed in the theatre of Marcellus
of Vespasian,a dog played the principalpart, took
presence
awoke
a
narcotic, and slept and
regularly,to the general
same

subjectsas

those

of the atellanae,but

'

'

The

92

pettifoggery and
love
often
adultery and
represented, but
The
surprisedlover escaped
principalthemes.
in
box ; the
a
by being trundled
away

astonishment.
were

affairs

the

the

were

husband

husband

pretty wife

his

sent

of

motives

with

Plays

demagogy

Spectacles

to

dangerous

Or

purchase safety by her charms, and so forth.

or
miraculously generous
just,as in modern
across

their

fat-cheeked

The

horse-play.
the

scurrilous
the

language

humour

the

comedies

ousted

action.

But,

common

detected
marked

above

the

the
away,
The
scenery

ran

end.

of

of

the

sion,
expres-

grimaces,
dances
from

actors, and
easy

pursuers.
of
ears

of

borrowed

of

except

their

turns

all, grotesque
mimes

Empire

terminate

lover,
the

head,
for

abundance

before, pieces with

as

vulgar

an

larger number

to

with

coarse,

Under

full of

was

gestures, and,

flute.

flee,ran

they anxiously
the
and blows, and resounding slapson
boobies
{stupidi)were
regular incidents

Abuse

and

beggars

to

their

listened

which

with

ears,

farces

forced

suddenly enriched, and rich men,

round
the stage with their cloaks

were

to
enemy,
Fate proved

to

the

sustained

denouements

were

character, e.g., the

piece, one
music
stopped, and a dance
The
mimes
was
very simple.

the buskin
of comedy
stage, without
or mask, in a motley harlequin's
dress,with a mantle
flung over
it; a curtain cut off the back of the stage. Next to the principal

acted

in the

front

of the

whom

the

of the

depended, ranked
the character
of the booby or the parasite,distinguishedby
fat cheeks, bald
head, and probably " special costume.
The
mime
the most
was
frankly outrageous of the farces
in immorality and
obscenity. During the Republic this
licence was
excused
of Flora,
of the Games
by the character
at which
they were
mostly performed ; later, this excuse
failed them.
nowhere
In the mimes,
and
else, female parts
who
would
dance
the request of
at
were
played by women,
the audience, throwing off their upper garments, and appearing
almost
naked.
Ovid
quite rightly objected to his poems
and
being called immoral, when emperor
senate, women,
girls,
actor,

even
was

on

children
the

women

the

to

best
who

And

the lewdest

paid by
went

see

where

cuckold, and

indecencies.
and

went

success

to

the

the

mimes,
eye

and

scenes

farce

where
ear
were

alike

the

and

saw

the most

theme

one

heard

applauded,

praetors. Martial, too,

need not object to
mimes

said

that

his most

The
indecent

verse

93

eighth book, which

in his

Spectacles

the

dedicated

was

his

'mimic
licence
he restrained
emperor,
Hence
the Christian
pulpitunsparingly denounced

ineffectively visits
"

readers
there

be

festival and

church

prefer the

Christians

many
mime

Salvianus

taints

the

probably
his Christian

the

day,

same

performance,

Christ

of

speech'.

"

asks

and

one

theatrical

words

yet, the theatre

and

theatre.

their conscience, if,on

on

to the

of

those

to

to

soul, the eye

of
and

how
the
the

with

ear

of this
of

unspeakable presentations of immorality. A proof

licence is afforded in Aelian's characterizinga courtesan

the

lowest

kind

'

as

less restrained

than

And

of Theodora's
Procopius' accounts
give the same
impression,if she, who was
the
Empress of Christian Byzantium, out-shamed

mimes'.

of Roman

the

mimic

formances
perafterwards

most

less
shame-

sixteenth

Further, in the fifteenth and

dancers.

in

actress

an

the
not
centuries, female dancers
infrequentlyperformed on
stage and elsewhere
absolutely naked.
A speech in defence
of the mimes, composed by Choricius, a
that
in the Eastern
Justinian, shows
Empire
of that
of these
farces were
date, the subject and manner
There
been
in the west.
as
they had
essentiallythe same
ordered
the husband
of adultery,in which
were
a slave
scenes
rhetor

bring him

to

it

under

better

was

The

enacted.
melodies

and

Trojan War,
have

been

sword

to

kill the

to

prosecute

indecent

songs

heard

in every
of fightsbetween

travesties.

In

or

adulterer, and
of

scenes

then

sodomy,

decided

frequently

set to easy
plays were
street.
Representations of the
Trojans and Myrmidons, must

the

in these

mimes

the

most

various

sonages
per-

represented, masters, slaves, pedlars, sausagerelations,

sellers, cooks, hosts, guests,people in commercial
and
men,
stammering children, lovers, hot-tempered young
others who appeased them.
Some
out
pieceswere sensible throughwere

and

husbands

good

were

fame,

or

made

to incite their wives

good

and

bad

soldiers

or

to

continence

rhetors

were

hissed, the good applauded. The

to dance
how
and
had
mimes
to have
good voices, to know
heads
of boobies
and
look bewitching. Further, the shaven
regular features, and resounding boxes on the
parasiteswere

opposed,

ear

to

and

the

bad

ones

lavishly distributed.
and atellanae were
Mimes
liberallyused
public affairs and to the Emperors
were

in Rome
even.

for allusions
Actors

and

The

94
to

public came

Spectacles

understanding

an

ting
rela-

significant
passages

accentuated, so that there could be

present were
and gags were
the meaning ; improvisations
mistake
about
no
reception made
Inserted, and the certainty of a clamorous
But, generally,
actors, and poets even, careless of the risk.
the

to

the

possible. Julius
the

Laberius,

Caesar

writer

had

and

allusions

such

at

to wink

even

tolerate

to

asked

Atticus

as

allusion

an

report

to

far

as

his coup

to

of mimes,

actor

Cicero

his murder,

after

it best

found

emperors

d'etat;
him

to

of
the

Once
a
receptionthey met with.
mime
was
being performed in Augustus' presence, and tjhe
recited ; / a
Oh
the good and
were
words
gentle master
general burst of applause broke out to interpret the woMs
vthe
as
an
appreciationof the emperor ; Augustus received
the following day rebujked
outburst
in stern
silence, and
on
edict.
such flattery
On another
occasjio
by a sharply worded
the audience
as
an
interpreted an inofiensive verse
aUupion
Tiberius'
residences
to
at
effeminacy.
During
Augustus'
in an
atellana, hinting at his debauchyery,
Capri, a passage
V"ears
received
with wild applause. In 22 or 23 a.d., some
was
before his leaving Rome,
Tiberius
induced
was
by the reyports
of some
praetors as to the impudence of the actors, to ad^dress
intimation
to the Senate
an
they must
proceed againsftthe
of the entertainment
atellanae; as the frivolity
surpassed the
bounds
How
this was
effected there is no record ;
of decency.

gibes of

mimes

the

and

the

'

'

historians

for

only mention

quite

burnt

atellanae
intended

alive in the
upon

for

arena

him.

with

and

swimming, hinting at
and
the
drowning of Agrippina :
from
banishing him
Italy. Galba
avaricious

when

atellana,

well-known

family complained
country

; the

times.

At

even

with

archimimus

entered

he

choral
the

of

audience

this

Favor

in
sung,
old master

and

repeated the

stage licence

funeral.

acted

Emperor,

was

At

words
a

seemed

man

Claudius
with

content

was

reputed

was

of his

gestures of

Nero

been

the

poisoning of

of the

return

this

the

have

murder

accompanied
the

of

composer

one

Nero's

as

song

joined in

epoch

solemn

Rome

pantomimes

jestthat might

After

'

Hail, Father, Hail, Mother

drinking

actor, Datus,

atellana

one

of the

Caligula had

reasons.

reflect

to

mother,
'

different

banishment

the

harsh

and

at the

next

which
from

verse

the

the

several

compatible

Vespasian's obsequies, the

Vespasian,

and

endeavoured

to

The

g6

Spectacles

allowed
great festival given by Nero, and the actors were
the plunder of the real house
which
burnt
the stage.
on
was
the boards.
Of
on
Probably this style of comedy remained
artistic dramas,
of the
Greeks
however, the New
Comedy
by Plautus
(representedchieflyby Menander, and imitated
the firmest hold on popular favour.
and Terence) retained
In
Rome, in Italy and the provinces,the stock figuresof travestied
gods, doddering kindly fathers, mawkish
sons,
cunning slaves,
for
centuries.
braggarts, whores, etc., delighted audiences
To keep interest aUve
in these well-worn
to most
plays, known
of the spectators, at least at Rome,
good acting must have
at the end of the
been
essential.
A comedian's
training was
first century, and
toricians
probably later, a strict tradition, and rherecommended
their pupilsto learn their correctness of
of the voice, deportment,
expression,apt delivery,modulation
and
and
the play of eye
hand.
One
of Marcus
Aurelius'
first teachers
the comedian,
was
Geminus,
and, probably,
a

all-round

an

comedian.

education
The

included

elocution

lessons

from

studied

the
Ciceronian
elegance, which
in Roscius, had
become
old-fashioned
and
epoch admired
ridiculous
a
a
sombre, undecorated
century later :
pieceof
would
have
been
intolerable
as
antiquity ', says Tacitus,
'

'

to

the

audience

Roscius
more

Ambivius

or

realistic, but

German

often

at

them

The

scene.

Turpio on

the

still less

so

Actors

stage.
saw

judicialproceedings, as

manner

took

stage '.
than

the

Acting
the

on

gestures of
had

become

contemporary

their

:
parts seriously
Quintilian
leave the stage weeping after
an
affecting
of declamation
approximated to everyday

no
mere
speech, but was
style and
copy ; it added
followed
exact
school ;
an
nobility. Gestures
Quintilian's
precise precepts for an orator's gesticulationsimply similar
conventions
for the stage on
a larger and
sharper scale. The
Ipace of walking was to follow the nature of the role, to be
for youths, old men,
and
soldiers and married
1 slower
women,
quicker for slaves, maid-servants, parasites and fishermen.
In the time of Juvenal and
Quintilianthe great comedians
the
Roman
on
Greeks
stage were
Juvenal calls them born
;

actors

Demetrius

and

Stratocles

Quintilian'ssketch

of both

shows

drawn

licit and

and
illicit,

between

gression

was

the
felt.

Demetrius

had

the

were

how

most

sharply the
how

famous.
line

was

keenly any trsinssplendid voice, great

The
beauty

and

fine

Spectacles

97

and
figure,

played quiet parts best, such as

gods, youths, fathers, wives, and respectableold ladies ; in
exclamations
passionategesture, prolonged and harmonious
he was
unrivalled
his garments
; as also in his skill in inflating
his right
on
by respirationas he walked, and his movements
side.
Stratocles
had
a
sharper voice, possessed great
could
and
venture
on
a
vivacity
adaptability,
laugh, out of
with
his mask,
He
or
even
harmony
shrug his shoulders.
best as decrepit old men,
was
rascally slaves, parasites and
to break
the rules,
pandars. Both actors allowed themselves
not out of ignorance,but in complaisance with popular taste.
be frightful
in the
Further, the best efiects of the one would
other.
Antiochus, and
Juvenal, besides these two, names
Haemus
for his adaptability,
as
as
great artists,and mentions
characters
of the
perfect performances the three female
palliata the matron, the courtesan, and the maiden.
Far more
than comedy, tragedy found
audience
an
among
the educated
The
the
of
attuned
nerves
mass
were
minority.
to the arena,
most
and unaffected
the
horrid
realism.
even
by
The
mimicry of the stage could not affect them, and ideal
should
how
figures were
meaningless shadows
they care
;
for Hecuba
?
in cultured
few
But, even
circles,they were
who
did not
of Plautus, which
all
scenes
prefer the merry
seemed
drawn
from
their own
actuality,to the fates of the
rulers and
heroes of primitive Greece.
Besides, the costumes
made
tragedianslook like ghosts from a dead world ; strange
figuresin cothurni, as though on stilts,padded out, and wrapped
in long trailinggarments, with
with
lofty wigs, with masks
mouths
big enough to swallow the audience : they must have
at
seemed
that
one
ugly or laughable. Philostratus
says
a

"

town

the

in Baetica
first

the

inhabitants

had

never

frightened them

seen

tragedian

of. the

theatre.

they saw
RepubKc, magnificence of scenery had become
in a
the best or the only means
of keeping public attention
of
tragedy. Military evolutions
great companies of foot
and
horse, huge processions,
triuniphalor otherwise, with all
sorts
of costly foreign garbs and
exhibitions, such as ships,
chariots, booty of war,
giraffesand white elephantseven
such were
the piece lasted four hours or more
in consequence
Even

one

out

in the late

"

"

the
even

devices
in

R.L.M.

that

the
II.

time

constituted
of

Horace.

chief

the
'

Even

attraction
among

of tragedy,

the

knights ',
H

The

98
he

'the

says,

cozening

to

poet, but
which

into

best

drama

artistic

an

single

effective

the

sacrificed,

as

in

scenes,

skill, and

their

exhibit

was

tion,
produc-

lapsed ; tragedy

interest

of

mere

mise-en-scine, not

the

dramatic

could
the

of

enjoyed

who

succession

degenerated into

has

ear

play, but

Hence

actors

development

the

not

see,

the actor.

the

Those

'.

eye

dissolved

was

the

delight of

of the

came

Spectacles

the

matter

of

perfect tragedies, in
in the provinces
and
at Rome
still acted
abridgment, were
the Greek
ones),but probably only until the second
(especially
and
replaced by choric scenes
tragedy was
century, when
pantomimic dances.
For
and
music
dancing had of old been essential parts of
the stage, Greek
Pure opera, without
Roman.
or
any spoken
to antiquity, for iambic
unknown
dialogue was
parts, was
had
almost
as
large a
always spoken. But the composer
In the dialogue
share as the poet for a great part of the drama.
and
the
actor
welded
gesture, but in
together elocution
elocution
dance, and
lyricalmonologue, gesture became
song.
indifference

Hence,
two

or

either

mode

one

of

expressionhad

exponents called into play.

performed
ancient

spectators. True,

the

to

this

drama

desired, illusion

the

after, and

stage

fact, two

than

better

proves,

strove

In

be

abandoned,

different artists

aught else, how

little ancient

how

never

to

Uttle

audiences

of any false idea

stage,of set purpose,

permitted

that

in progress.
The
anything real was
and criti'
to be understood
rejected realism ; the acting was
cised only as a product of art, which
not only had
no
reality,
but
excluded
notion
of it. Certainly,tragedians must
any
always have been skilled singers,and often, if not mostly,
have kept their vocal parts, but it also often happened that
they played their parts in unspoken
pantomimic dance,
whilst
a
singer stood quietlyby and spoke the words which
should
have
This strange separation of elocution
been theirs.
and
action
seemed
quite natural ; in Pliny's time poets had
their works
recited
before
with a
a
large audience
by men
better voice, and accompanied them
by play of countenance,
of applause '.
gesture, and murmurs
'

This

severance

and

of song

dissolution of tragedy into

feelingfor drama,
and

song,

the

and

process

the
was

dance

on

the

its elements.

stage heralded the

By the decay of

greater appreciation for

completed

at

the

close

dance
of the

The

Spectacles

99

Republic, performances of vocalists, dancers

given as
accompaniment, were
complete
At

with
in

flute

themselves.

this

which
retain
point only those pieceswill be considered
some
vestige of the dramatic, namely, the pantomimes, and
the former
connected
was
tragedians' recitations, of which
and

the
self-complete,

latter

rhapsodical. We

know

little of

these

even
tragic performances, as they never
approximately
had
the vogue
of the pantomimes on
the public stage.
Tragedians, as in the real drama, appeared in masks and full
But
costume.
to song,
they practicallyconfined themselves
with
some
a
action, which, however, remained
secondary
unless
full
with
second
a
feature,
a
performance were
given
actor.
It is absolutely uncertain, whether
this actor, who

is sometimes

mentioned,

the

had

soloists

stood

choir

beside

the

vocalist

; whether

them
whether
;
accompany
the same
tragedianplayed several parts in succession ; whether,
and
solos
linked
how, the various
were
together ; whether
mutae

to

personae completed the

how, spoken dialogues went

is clear, that

representation; whether,

with

the

This

solos.

much

and

only

the

the
kernel
of the
tragedians' solos were
This was
the
performance, and monopoUzed public attention.
drama
Nero
to appear
loved
in, relying on his imagined skill
vocalist.
He
as
a
sang, according to Suetonius, tragicscenes
in masks, which, if male, and
representing gods and heroes,
made
like him, and if female, for goddesses and
were
heroines,
like his lady-loves. He
Canace
as
pariunens, Orestes
sang
the
and
It is
Hercules
mad.
matricide, Oedipus bUnded,
said that a young
was
soldier, who
standing sentry, whilst
he was
him
acting Hercules F wrens, saw
dressingfor the part
and being fettered, and rushed
It was
in to set him
free.
also
observed
an
as
that, in his last public appearance
actor, a very
famous
with
version
ended
the
of Oedipus in Exile, his song
words
:
are
My wife, my father, and mother
driving me unto
death
'. The text is in Greek, and Roman
tragedy may often
have
been in Greek
not
; a foreign language in opera would
'

disturb

the

outside
heard
all
in

hearers, any

Italy.
on

the

In

fact, Greek

Roman

stage

'

languages appear.
age
59, 'nobilitynor

appearing as

more

Greek

or

At
nor

than
and

; Caesar

opera

other

languages were
and Augustus let actors in

even

Nero's

'

festival

past o"5ces

Latin

Italian

modern

actor

'.

of

excused
But

the

Juvenalia

from
any one
it is not certain

The

100

whether

entire

Greek

semi-dramatic,

or

vocal
of

good
in

played, which

were

semi-musical

of Greek

recitals

tragediessubsisted
least, when
they wearied the

cius mentions
a

dramas

recitals from

Justinianat

says
than

Spectacles

voice

of far

was

Orestes

the

from

scenes

possible,
ther,
Fur-

texts.

down

the

to

audience.
the

and

in

consequence

more

is

Chori-

Medea,
a

time

and

tragedian

mime.

Pantomimic

performances

significance. Pantomimic
more
important means

on

stage attained to far greater

had long been regarded as a

the

action

representation than recitation and

either
the actor, having to renounce
song, for, in the drama,
acting or singing,left the singing to the vocaUst who did not
As
of the poetry himself.
act, and expressed the meaning
to be effected by
had
masks
were
play of countenance
worn,
vated
cultiaction ; and
the use
of gesture was
ampler, finer, more
vivid

and
and

the

livelier

than

of

to-day,

as

references

numerous

gesticulationsof

Southerners.

prove,
in the

And

cosmopolitan populationof Rome, this form of language was

favoured
universallycomprehensible, and hence was
by the
it soon
monopolized.
stage, which
Dramatic
dance
was
developed into an independent art
under
Augustus about 22 B.C. by Pylades, the Cilician,and
Their
rivals were
most
famous
Bathyllus of Alexandria.
the Syrian, Hylas the
Carian
frora Salmacis, Pierus
Nomius
of Tibur and one
Gains Theoros, who, in an inscription
recently
the light and
of the pantounearthed, is called
mimes,
conqueror
who
enchanted
the
God
even
(the Emperor) ; how
hesitate to follow the god ?
should
This new
men
tion
specializato
restricted
was
tragedy ; the pantomime
replaced
and
The
comic pantomime fell into disuse.
expiring tragedy,
to link together the sensational
in a
moments
practice was
series of lyricalsolos, acted by a singlepantomime, who
acted
several
parts in succession, male and female, whilst the text
was
by a single vocalist, but by a
sung, not as in the drama
The
text-books
of
chorus.
sometimes
were
pantomimes
but
often
and
Greek
more
adaptations from Roman
original,
literature.
Great
condescended
such
to write
poets even
'

'

fahulae salticae

pantomimes
but
text

an

Lucan

is said to have
them.

for
paid liberally

praisefor
for

his Thebais, but

Agave

to

written

fourteen.

Statius received

largesum

Paris,the celebrated

for

an
selling

dancer.

The

nothing
unknown

Generally,

The
however,

and

worthless.

Spectacles

probably rightly,such

texts

loi

regarded

were

as

Plutarch

that
associated
with
dancing was
says
in senseless,
spcond-rate poetry only, and therefore held sway
uncritical theatres, but was
spurned by all intellectual and
The subjects,being borrowed
from tragedy,
lofty-minded men.
were
historical.
True,
nearly all mythological, very seldom
the
of
the
Lucian
world
from
the
history
beginning down
says
to the death
of Cleopatra a Umit no
poet under the Empire
might transgress was
grist for the pantomime ; but the
tragedy of Polycrates and his daughter, and Seleucus' passion
for Stratonice, his son's
bride, are the only historical subjects
he mentions, excepting the death
of Cleopatra ; no
such subjects
"

"

mentioned

are

mythological
from
to

Roman

the

number

known

is very great. A few themes

legend, from Virgila Turnus, in which

and

appear,
the stage

elsewhere, whilst

Dido

the

taken

were

Nero

was

(alsoafter Virgil),popular

Macrobiiis, and a few from Egypt, such

the story of Osiris,and
the Transformation
as
of the Gods
;
but
Greece
the source
of nearly all the legends, some
was
of
on

which

may

as

late

pantomime

of

have

as

been

first dramatized

in, this form.

of

utilized,such as Atreus
deep tragedy were
But
Ajax, and Hercules furens, Niobe, Hector.
selections

were

the

cycle, the adventures

divine

Venus
and

and
so

forth

love-stories,

Mars
;

from

the

favourite

morality, from

of

heroic

Thyestes,

the

Jupiter,Venus
by Vulcan, Apollo

enmeshed
or

of doubtful

some

Subjects

and

and

and

tales, Phaedra

and

Adonis,

Daphne,
Hippo-

Protesilaus
and
Atalanta,
Laodamia,
lytus, Meleager and
Jason and Medea, Achilles at Scyrus, Achilles and Briseis,
Ariadne
at Naxos, Pasiphae, Cinyras and
Myrrha ; Cinyras
at the feast given by Caligula on
and Myrrha was
acted
the
blood
that fell from
day of his murder, and the abundant
the suicide hero was
of the Emperor's fall.
taken
as
an
omen
Such
of the Empire, were
acted
subjects,during the whole
by pantomimes on every stage, and drew the best audiences.
The
libretto of pantomimes
derived
from
was
tragedy, or
in form
have
been
was
tragic, but unity of place must
served,
preand no
change of scene made necessary ; at least, there
of such
mention
which
must
other scenery,
is no
a change or
been
have
as
simple as in tragedy. The choir,besides singing
have
the text, may
sung in the intervals, as the performance,
like the

recitative

in

modern

oratorio, must

have

had

some

The

102

story, and

continuous
to
a

change

in

chorus

to

'

('the sound
In

this

of the

of

in
his

would

dancers

the

costume.

stead

the

Homer

from

thus

accompaniment
question what

orchestral

reply

and

mask

Spectacles
have

time

had

Pylades in 22 B.C. introduced

single tragicvocalist, and a rich
place of the simple flutes. In
novelty consisted in, he quoted
'

t
o/n.a8ov
avdp"inr(i)V
(rvpLyymv t ivoTrijv
turmoil
of men').
flutes and pipes and
the

AuXSv

there

orchestra

and

flutes

were

and

crvpiyyfs

lyres,and time was

kept by a scahellum,
instrument
together and
an
consisting of two plates bound
attached
to the sole of the foot, which
were
clanged together
of course
also intended
at the start. The music
was
as a guide to
and

cymbals, citharae

the

dancer's

than

the

usual

texts

and

the

music

of

intended

was

better

no

triUs, effeminate,

and
to

please
thought

connoisseurs

earnest

more

kind

full of noise

; it was

unrestrained,

undignified and
ear

This

movements.

the

vulgar

the

rule

of

pantomime on the stage spelt the decay of music.

The
of music
and
to dance
increasing subordination
song
meant
the increasing monopolization by the pantomime of
The
dance
all the interest.
intelligible
might be made
by the
the

aim

of the

kind

chorus, but

the

dumb

a task
self-sufficient,

show
in

the

same

new

piece

had

of

all the
to

drama
harder

when
various

play

many
Athamas

make

to

was

tomime
pan-

parts.

instance, first as
furens, and then
first as
Ino
the cowed
as
Atreus, and then as Thyestes,
;
Aegisthus or Aerope, or as Bacchus, Cadmus, Pentheus, Agave,
and
He
then
or
as
Hercules, Venus
Cybele in succession.
He

appeared,

had

to

act,

so

for

as

to

impress

the

imagination

with

an

idea

of

whole, and of the other characters, and their relations to

the
playing ; thus, whilst acting Achilles he
part he was
had
when
to suggest Paris, or Vulcan
acting Prometheus, or
Demetrius, the Cynic
portraying Ganymede.
Jupiter,when

the

philosopher,who

lived

under

Nero,

of
spoke slightingly

once

pantomimes, as being ineffective without chorus and music,

but the principalpantomime
of Rome
at that time, probably
to the contrary, by dancing before
him
him
Paris, convinced
the adultery of Venus
and Mars.
His dumb
show
ally
effectuso
husband,
expressed the sun-god informing the deceived
the

the

device

Mars'
that

of Vulcan

entreaties,and
the

and

the

all the

invisible fetters, Venus'

other

gods

summoned

philosopheradmiringly admitted

his

shame,

by Vulcan,
error.

In

the

The

I04

Goethe, and, probably,

great skill.
remarkable

had

was

exceptional exhibition

very

art, capable of performing such

Pantomimic
more

Spectacles

when

that

remember

we

tasks, is the

the

single dancer

ters.
represent other characmade
far greater
But, had not ancient art and stage-craft
the modern,
the
demands
on
spectator's imagination than
such
have
been
incomprehensible.
performances would
Further, under
pantomimes apAugustus, occasionally two
peared
each
at once,
an
but,
independent
part,
performing
mutae

no

whether
it is

this occurred

again
pantomimic

never

The
;

head

personae beside

of

it consisted

and

turns

at

rate,

any

mentioned.
dance

not

was

dance

in expressive and
movements

leaps. Nomius

even

to

stage is doubtful

the

on

hand, natural

and

him

the

in the modem

ation
accept-

of
rhythmic movements
of the body, bendings and
Syrian, a rival of Pylades

and

censured
movements
of his
for the slow
Bathyllus, was
Galen
that the
hands, while his feet stirred too fast.
says
exertions
of dancers, the high leaps, quick turns,
strenuous

cowerings,

and

breast

shoulder, bends

and
jerks, contraction
stretching out of the
But such
legs, Uke all violent exercise,strengthen the body.
motions took place after the pantomimic dance
ing
proper, accordto Nonnus, whose
Silenus leaps up on
foot and
then
one
on
both, stands on his right foot, and lifts his left up to his
and

whirls
to

round, bent

circle

he

has

on

the

concluded

it round

over

backwards,

ground.

But

his

clever

his back
so

up to his neck,
fast that his head seems

this does

not

pantomimic

take

place
display with

until
the

hands.
This

manual

language, a common
language, as QuintiUan
richer in
speech, evidently was
says, in the variety of human
antiquity in significantand
generally intelligible
gestures
than the gesticulations
of modern
Southerners.
We
admire
because
their
hands
professional dancers ', says Seneca,
incident
and
represent every
feeling,and their gestures flow
Each
'.
as
fast as words
new
and
position of hand
finger
expressed something fresh,and this eloquence of dance
was,
no
doubt, improved, refined and
in
the
centuries
enlarged
of practice. Greek
enthusiasts
pretended that
philosophic
dancers, Neopythagorean in their silence,were
more
eloquent
'

'

'

'

'

'

than

rhetors

lecturing. But,

of course,

the

hand

was

aided

The
by

Spectacles

105

other

Mars, in Nonnus,
supplementary movements.
dances
eloquently silent with speechlesshand : glancing on
all sides ; weaving a picture of speeches with
his artistic
shake
his locks
rhythms, swinging his head ; and he would
he
not
bald '. Thoughtful artists sought to express,
were
the sense, rather
than
the words, and disdained
through movement,
to signifyillness by feelingthe pulse,or the cithara by
semblance
of strikingstrings. Once
a
Hylas, in a rehearsal,
at the school, expressed the words,
Great
or
Agamemnon
by standing tip-toe; his teacher, Pylades, reproved him, for
making him tall, and not great, and, whilst speaking, took
attitude
all ancient
of contemplation. Throughout
an
up
'

"

'

art

tradition

and

acted

far

was

constant

more

'

in

than

modem

times,

againstmistakes, and foolish attempts

at originality
this same
rule made
; and, in the pantomime,
acting easier to the artist,and to the onlooker, more
ble.
intelligiLucian
tells of one
when
pantomime, who,
acting
Kronos
his
the
children, represented
devouring
banquet of
Thyestes, and of another, who was
performing the fierydeath
of Semele, but gave
the idea of Glauke
being consumed
by
Medea's

as

corrective

bridal

venomed

vmthinkable

perception
such

fine

without
of

it

by

firm
the

with

one

',a Christian

in

and

idle

achieved

with

better

part, and
artists.

of the
he

is

quick

Pylades
Oedipus
affecting

Blind
In

saw.

ters
of their charac-

sorrow

'

tears.

ate
Effemin-

'

lated
inspiretheir simugods, by representing
your
false pain
of hatred
their
:

exclaims,

tears '.

your

owed

actors

much

the

of roles

descriptionsconfirm

spectatorsto

writer

gestures call forth

But, although the best

the

to feel

passion, cast aspersions on

as
lustful,sighing or full

them

All

performance
as
though
the

confusion

for each

audience.

by Hylas, since he moved

scenes
pantomimes seemed
and frequentlymoved
dancers

Such

tradition

characterization

dissatisfied

was

dress.

their

success

and

grace

thought

to

and

representation
art, the

charm

they exercised on their audience was

largelysensuous.
out
withfolds, and a mask
Splendid bright garments with many
the indispensable
the ugly tragicmouth-piece, enhanced
beauty of form ; according to Lucian, Polycletus'rule should
in the pantomime.
be incarnate
The
spared
spectators never
defects

of outward

Hector

appearance.
at Antioch
asked
was

little dancer
'

Where

who

is Hector

was

ing
act-

This

lo6

The
'

is

Astyanax
; and
Thebes
as
Capaneus
a

'

ladder

'

tall

preparingto

man
'

told, Climb

was

trying to

fat man,

Spectacles

stage ',and a lean

Antiquity requiredlong curly

to

the

spare

this
often

of

in

called

No

absent.

seldom

was

to

favourite

Lucius

of

rich food, secured

from

bodies, and
of which

Galen

Paris,

told

health.

toilette

and
was

gives a recipe
pantomime and

diet, especiallyabstention

careful

the

could

movement

every
These

better

of the

art

pantomimes
elasticityand
pliability,

need

youthful beauty,

Nature.
to

not

of

Verus.

training and

Incessant

wished

in
the

walls

high leaps,was

was

locks

do

you

some

man

doubt

supplement
good depilatory, ascribed

do

over

the

scale

be

full command

of their

readiness, by

graceful,elegant

and

means

inate.
effem-

them
qualitiesmade
especially successful in
feminine
roles, in which
they almost lost their sex.
Apuleius
he reproaches for
says of his step-son'sfather-in-law, whom
vice and lust of all kinds, that he was
so
pUable in his youth,
that he seemed
thews
to have
and sinews,
as
a pantomime,
no
but
his acting was
untrained
and
inartistic.
In the lewd
which
the spice of this drama,
seductive
were
scenes,
grace
combined

luxury and shamelessness

with

knew

no

Umits.

When

Bathyllus, a beautiful
boy, was
dancing Leda, the most
felt like a mere
impudent actress of mimes
country novice
on
seeing such mastership in the art of refined sensuality.
Pantomimes
were
generally accused of immorality and evil
zealous protagonistscould not rebut
influence,and their most
the imputation. Even
men
naturally austere avoided
young
them.
Ummidia
Quadratilla (who died in 107 a.d. almost
her interest
eighty years old) owned
pantomimes, in whom
than
keener
it should
have
been
in a lady of her rank.
was
Her
them
never
saw
grandson, a severely moral
man,
young
either
she
as

the

on

wished
from

might

stage

to

enjoy

affection
have

contributed

been
to

lurid

house.

She

sent

him

away

when

their

from respect
performances, as much
for him, according to Pliny the Younger.
It
presumed that the pantomimes essentially

the

addicted

at her

or

demoralization
to

the

of women,

spectacles,even
who

who
without

were

sionatel
pas-

Juvenal's

the
idea of the
description. Julian,
purificationof theatrical performances as impossible,
required
the
priests to abstain from
seeing or receiving actors or
of the
last heathen
historians
Zosimus, one
pantomimes.
abandoned

The
oi the

Spectacles

107

of pantoAugustus' introduction
mimes,
at the beginning of the monarchy, the beginning of a
St. Augustine, on the other
general moral decay of the world.
hand, ascribes the invention of pantomimes to the far-seeing
destructive
guileof the devils,who sent this more
plague,which
the
they loved, into the world, to replace the Circus, when
world

read

Empire,

should

There

grow

Into

of it.

weary
main

pantomime, ascribed to the

two
first artists, Bathyllus and
also
Pylades. Pylades, who
the
wrote
his art, was
of tragic pantomime,
founder
on
a
Bathyllus introduced
simpler, merry
species,allied to the
and
the
older
burlesque KopSa^of the Greek
comedy : the
lascivious travesties
of the myths of the gods,
subjects were
in the Old
and
the Middle
found
as
were
Comedy, and also
direct parodies of Tragedy.
Echo, Pan, a Satyr inflamed
by
Eros
the favourite
of
who
had
little
were
as
parts
Bathyllus,
the
and
for
solemn
aptitude
pathetic
pantomimes of Pylades
with their many
characters, as Pylades had for lighterdance.
As Bacchus, Pylades entranced
the spectators most
of all ; he
earth ;
on
seemed, says a Greek
poet, the god re-incarnate
writer, had Bathyllus then ascended
or, according to another
have
to Oljnnpus, Juno would
acknowledged him her son.
As Hercules Furens, he is said to have exaggerated the madness
At Pompeii, there is an inscriptionof one
of the hero.
of the
who
was
highest officials,
giving for a festival of Apollo, spectacles
with
kind
music
and
recitations (acroamata)
of
every
aU the pantomimes
with
and
to
Pylades : hence he seems
have
toured
through the cities of Italy, no doubt for a high
two

were

classes

of

'

'

Both

fee.
art

took

time.
Plutarch

artists founded
their

Bathyllus'
at

names,

school

least, but

the followers of

was

Pylades,

in his
stage : Lucian
Dancing) only mentions
The

schools, and
habit

later

exponents of the

maintained

artists of the
among
its ground, as
late as

early thrust

into the

who

common

soon

exhaustive
the

had

background by

absolute

essay

control

of the

(On
irepl
opxT^a-eais

tragicalvariety.

performance
the Roman
on
stage. Not only songs occurring in tragedy
acted
were
by pantomimes or accompanied by pantomimic
also set to music, and the singers
dances, but other poems
were
thus
might be their own
accompanists .t Ovid's poems were
acted, though not intended for the theatre, and his exile was
pantomime

was

not

the

only orchestral

The

io8
cheered

stage

by
:

on

of the

news

the

Emperors
who

actors

in whole

or

nature.

The

kind
in

of
sung

aimed

that

expression, boasted
A

were

at

their

of ballet,

danced

of his poems

success

thus, to the irritation

dances, and
danced.

Spectacles

an

austere

more
on
a

the

speeches could

interlude

caUed

the

critics,panegyrics

stage

nerveless

on

to

effeminate

overdelicacy of
be

sung

enibolium,

and
was

by women.
other
Besides
the pantomime,
stage-dance is at
only one
the Greek
all known,
signifiesa Doric
Pyrrhic. The name
the Empire
late at Sparta : under
survived
war-dance, which
the best
there were
several species of the Pyrrhic, of which
was
practised in Ionia and other provincesof Asia Minor, and
there publiclyperformed at festivals by children of the noblest
summoned
houses.
Such
often
boys were
by the emperors
to Rome,
and, after their performance, granted the civitas :
also trained
but
slaves, and
imperial slaves especially,were
in it.
Possibly, there were
Pyrrhics to be danced
by boys
only, and by boys and girlstogether ; the latter, probably,
The
Pyrrhic dancers
only by slaves or professionaldancers.
gold-embroidered
appeared with wreaths, and in gorgeous
lutions
New
tunics, and purple or scarlet cloaks.
groupings, invoand
another
one
disentanglements followed
; they
and
There
formed
circles, rows,
disorderly masses,
squares.
also mock
between
dancers
were
fightswith wooden
weapons
but
of a Bacchic
similar
of the two
or
sexes,
chieflydances
bants,
torches.

part danced

dancers

shepherds,
These

and

dances

acted
as

the

parts of Titans, satyrs, corybacchants

brandished
thyrsi and

dramatic, to
might easily be made
of Dionysus in India or the story of
represent the adventures
Pentheus"': but other myths were
also chosen, e.g., at one
festival of Nero's the story of Pasiphae was
performed in the
amphitheatre as a Pyrrhic : on that occasion Icarus fell down
with his blood.
from a flying-machine,and sprinkled Nero
such
a
Apuleius, evidently as an
eye-witness, describes
Corinth : it seems
mythological Pyrrhic at a festival in Roman
like a modern
ballet.
It was
preceded by a simple
very much
Mount
Ida,
P}rrrhic. The staging consisted of a lofty wooden
planted with live trees and bushes, with descending streams ;
and
dress and
Paris, a beautiful boy in a barbaric
a
golden
is
tiara,
herding some
goats. Mercury, a beautiful fair boy,
with only a chlamys on, and staff and caduceus
in hand, and

The

Spectacles

109

golden wings on his head, enters dancing, and hands Paris a

golden apple, tellingJupiter'scommand
by gestures. Then
with
diadem
and
Juno steps in, a fine woman
sceptre, and
Minerva
rushes in after her, with
a
bright helmet, wreathed
in olives, swinging her shield and lance ; and last,Venus, naked,
round
her hips.
for a transparent blue silken paUium
save
Juno, who is attended by Castor and Pollux, first expresses by
dance
to the flutist's accompaniment
her bribe of sovereignty
Asia.
and
of terror
over
Minerva, attended
by the daemons
fear, who dance a sword dance naked, promisesin wild rhythmic
Doric
warrior's
a
renown.
measure,
steps, set to a warlike
Lastly Venus, amid loud applause,steps on to the middle of the
stage, with a troop of Cupids with wings, bows, and torches,
and

of maidens

flutes

who

represent the Graces

and

the Hours.

The

Venus
to which
dances
a
Lydian measure,
seductive
dance
('sometimes
seeming to dance only with her
He
promises Paris the fairest lady on earth.
eyes ') and
her the golden apple : Juno and
hands
Minerva
anger
express
train
and scorn
as
perform a
they go off, and Venus and her
Then
last triumphal dance.
from the top of Ida a fountain
wine
and
of crocus
springs up high, fills the theatre with
sinks out of sight.
fragrance ; and the mountain
But
the pantomime
found
favour on the stage under
more
the Empire than any other kind of dance
or
play. The extent
it superseded all others, is shown
in that the word
to which
Philostrahistrio ('actor ')came
to mean
speciallya dancer.
the usual
form
tus, writing under
Commodus,
says this was
of play, eagerly visited by senators
and
knights. But this
at the bottom
preference for the pantomimes is least marked
The
of the social scale.
lower
classes
enjoyed the coarse

play

obscenities

soft

and

farces

of the mimes,

which

the lovers

of pantomime

measure
a certain
despised. For pantomime demanded
of knowledge of mythology and a very great sensibilityto the
fine pointsof acting : and was
nerves
best fitted to reanimate
the
exhausted
with
pleasure. In the higher society of Rome
the Elder
speaks of
passion for pantomime spread : Seneca
this
disease
it was
of the conone
genital
; according to Tacitus
the most
evils of birth in Rome
were
subject
: women
its
lovers ;
to
Public
exhibitions were
too few
to it.
satisfy
in the Early Empire every
and
even
great house Included in
freedmen
its slaves and
pantomimes and other stage-dancers
'

'

The

no

of both
the

; and

sexes

sesterces
In

that

masters

they

were

much

so

received

miUion

dowry.

as

the

A. D.

15

pantomimes

female

some

of their

favourites

Spectacles

decreed

Senate

that

pantomimes might only

letter : Domitian
a dead
publicly,but this soon became
forbade
and
a
expressly permitted their
public appearance
Such
a
general infatuation
performances in private houses.
in
dilettantism
dancing, however
necessarily led to
posed
opin the late Republic,
Even
to Roman
ideas of decorum.
be

seen

this dilettantism

was

so

scoffed

high positionwere

that

common

of noble

men

of

at for their love

dancing

birth

and

and

their

Caelius
Rufus
friends, Marcus
Licinius Crassus, the son
and
Publius
of the triumvir, and his
(consul in 58 B.C.): Gabinius' house,
opponent Aulus Gabinius

skill in it.

Cicero's

were

he even
songs, and
his upper
before his guests without
far as to dance
Afranius
Lucius
(consulin 60) is said to have been

Cicero, re-echoed

says
went

so

garment.
a

Such

better

dancer

with

than

cymbals

and

Under

statesman.

Augustus

good

in reality
society,and the cultured
Ovid
advises the
semblance
strove
after proficiencyin it.
or
with her,
he is with his lady, to dance
lover at a feast, where
who
is worrying
be flexible ; an importunate man,
if his arms

dancing

Horace
as

for

good

essential in

was

introduction

an

dancer.

to

Manilius

recommends

Maecenas,
reckons

himself

genius for dancing,

the accomphshments of the

lyre among
plaints
spiritswho prevail by grace and delicacy. Soon commerry
that these
arose
unmanning and unseemly exercises
serious studies of youth.
injured the more
Caligula'spassion
teachers
for dancing increased
this dilettantism.
Good
of
in great request ; and, though they
dancing and music were
were
foreigners,under
mostly freedmen
Augustus a Roman
citizen for the first time gave instruction
in dancing. Seneca
Bathyllus found numerous
says that the art of Pylades and
its stage,
teachers, and that nearly every private house had
the

art of song

which

echoed
times

passion :

men

the

to the

there

Lucian

part of the
eminent

and

feet of

are

many
states that

personnel

of

to dance

was

of
indecorous, some
skilled performers.

the

men

and

And

women.

quent
for subse-

of the
proofs of the continuance
a
a
dancing-master was
regular
house.
And, although for
great
unsuitable and
always considered

emperors

even

are

said

to

have

been

The

112

part of
not

singly or in troops : for a tragedy

personae were
were
required, but mutae
Martial
can
speak of a troop of young
would
do for
all so charming that none

great household,

three

only

also

Spectacles

needed

actors

hence

comedians

who
'

Menander's
Deceiver

were

Hated

', but

imperial

The

'.

Man

any
household

of them

for

the

had

'

his

best

Twice

and

the

transferable
Actors, like slaves, were
by
largest number.
their
master
and
bequest, gift,or sale, and served to entertain
also used for public exhibitions,
his guests at table : they were
let out and
a
hired, and were
good investment, after their
flatterers never
and
education
had
been
paid for. Friends
the theatre, and zealously applauded if the great man's
missed
slaves were
acting. Often their skill earned the slaves their
for them.
But, at
the public interceded
manumission,
or
their patron
to serve
manumission,
they pledged themselves
certain

on

conditions, to hire themselves

without

any fee at any

But, in spite of this
attained

actors

very
Aesop had

and

Roscius

him, and

to

to appear

play of his or his friends.

few pre-eminent
general disrepute,some
the
Republic,
high positions. Under
thus

risen ; both

amassed

great wealth,

granted the golden ring by SuUa, as was

Herennius
Gallus by the Younger
Balbus, when
Quaestor at
And
at a time when
Gades.
plays had far more
importance,
Roscius

and

and

Greek

was

against actors,
the

whilst

the

stage, great talent

The

difference

thought

and

manners

between

upper
the
found
the

had

diminished

classes
road

was

to

much

with

great position.

great and

greater than now.

Many
Creon, magnificent on the stage, and decked
actor

prejudice

infatuated

were

easier

position of

the

humble

or
Agamemnon
with purple,lived

an

small pay, if well

receivingsome
received, or even
whipped, if hissed (as often happened). For,
in Cicero's time, the public was
even
sharp enough to detect
fault of time
false note, any
or
rhythm in deUvery and
any
its disapproval in hisses, stamping
gesture, and manifested
in the
But the few sovereigns of the stage moved
and outcry.
nobles
wealthy and influential, and saw
highest society,were
Comedians
and
noble ladies striving to gain their favour.
and
pantomimes ',says Plutarch, who succeed on the stage,
admired
envied
and
and
are
even
by free men
by the nobly

on

monthly

ration

of bread,

'

'

born'.

Naturally,prominent

actors

were

awarded

recognitionand

The
honour

by

their

honour

and

the

sacred

respect than

Naples and

Tarentum.

ashamed

not

were

to confer

higher honours,

even

who

could

time

'.

Yet

such

Cicero

the Uttle town

who

Rhegium, Locri,
famous, cities of Italy
the insigniaof decurio,duumvir
or
the augurate, on
as
a
pantomime
as

the

'

of

says

'

most

of Bovillae,

was

comedian

'

title of the

and

director

of

first of his
a

troop of

tragedian,was made
of actors to hold city offices,
decurio,despitethe legaldisability
and
at the solemn
inauguration of a statue set up to him by
the Guild of Mimes
in 169 he distributed
largesseto all the
mimes,

both

even

were

arrogate the conventional

In

cities where

in
less generous
chises
squandered their fran-

towns

cities,which

travellingactors,

the

statues, and
inscriptions,

Roman

Greek

And

synods.

them

municipal distinctions.
on

I13

colleagues: they used to hold the ofSces of

priesthoodsin the societies and guildsof actors,

especiallythe so-called
they acted lavished on
this

Spectacles

inhabitants.
Famous
A.D.

high fees for performances (in 15

and also giftsfrom
found necessary),

received

legallimitation

the

actors

was

providers of festivals,who vied with each

generosity; their extravagance had to

law

Marcus

Aurelius

gold for such

The prizesof

gifts:
the

decreed
but

victors

such
in the

maximum

other in ostentatious
be

by
pieces of

restricted

of ten

have
legislationmust
actors' competitions were

failed.
also

wreaths
or
valuables, golden wreaths
copper
ox-gaU. Vespasian at the spectaclesat the rededication
of the theatre of Marcellus, gave every single actor
and
much
of golden crowns,
as
as
40,000 sesterces, a number
The favourites to whom
to Apollinaris
the tragedian 400,000.

in

or
money
stained
with

Nero

is said

2,200

million

athletes.
sum

"

by

sesterces

Galba

most

Plutarch

and

to

have

(about ;f
23, 925, 000),were
the

demanded

of it must

Suetonius

have

gone
amassed

dispensed

all actors

and

return

of nine-tenths

of this

to the

actors.

Hence

actors,

cumulated
Pylades acin his old age (2 B.C.) he himself
so
: a later
provided spectaclesat Rome
Pylades,who lived under
for having given at Puteoli gladiatorial
is famous
Commodus,
and
venationes on
a
Pliny the Elder
games
very large scale.
for a
recorded
says that the highest price (700,000 sesterces)
slave, Daphnis the grammarian, was
easilysurpassed by the
income
annual
of a pantomime who had purchasedhis freedom,

if

popular

R.L.M.

"

and

II.

famous,
much, that

great

wealth.

'^^^

114

Spectacles

stone
probably referringto Paris. Vitalis, the mime, on his tombfame
states that his art brought him
throughout Rome,
At
and
wealth.
Constantinople
reputation, a stately home
: according to
Choricius,
prominent actors earned large sums
in costlyclothing,
the mimes
with universal
about
fame
went
slaves.
had well-filled pockets, silver plate and
numerous
actors
As already said, the most
often belonged to
famous
the imperial household, and thus enjoyed general respect, and,
the pantomimes
and
especially,the favour of the emperors
For some
time Apelles the tragedian found favour
empresses.
in the eyes of Caligula,and after his death, Mnester, the beautiful
he passionately loved : Mnester
also
pantomime, whom
was

forced

of Messalina, who

lover

theatre

and

statues

in his honour

48

had

coins

the

he

Caligula melted

of

she

and

Paris, the pantomime,

debaucheries, and stood

A.D.

Nero's

him

withdrew

executed

were

high

so

boon

the

was

down

from

the

mould

to

together in
companion of

in his favour

that

he

to accuse
the empress-mother, but escaped
only ventured
the punishment meted
out by her to her other accusers.
He demanded
back from Domitia, the paternal aunt
of the emperor,
the sum
sesterces
of 10,000
which
he had
mission,
paid for his manuthe plea that she had not legally owned
him ; and
on
the emperor's intervention
him his case
won
"^Eleven
{56 a. d.).
later (67 a.d.) Nero
had
him
executed, as he himself,
years
desiring to excel in the art of dancing, feared a rival in his
former
teacher.
favourites
Latinus
was
Amongst Domitian's
the mime
of his time,
; another
pantomime, the most famous
not

who

relations

with

Paris,

Domitia

connected

rumour

liaison

of hers

Juvenal
which
as

himself

called

was

that

says
introduction

great

man

then

in

and
empress,
murder
of Domitian

pantomime.

banished

he

an

; this

for
the

for

all

spectacles,loved

loved

who
were

the

ranked
no

art

of the

high

less than

certain

support
post,civil

being

read

as

the

executed

was

with

or

an

passage
dancer

in his
is

more

military,than
allusion

; and

other

some

Probably during
of

with
high favour
frequently been
promoted.

'

stage convention, had

the

the

the

with

after

his

reign,

Satires in
effective

that

of any

pantomime
prot6g6s had

to

Court, whose

Trajan, too, a great friend of

Pius
a
pantomime Pylades. Antoninus
pantomimes '. Amongst the freedmen

at the

three

luxurious

of Lucius

court

pantomimes

these

were

Verus, there

Memphis

The

Spectacles

115

the
Apolaustus (reallyAgrippinus),whom
emperor
from
brought back
Syria, Paris
Maximinus),
(really
another
and
whom
some
:
Pylades
city gossip spoke

had

or

lovers

of

Faustina

the

dancer

Hence,
after

not

by

even

CaracaUa

pantomimes.

were

commander

of the

upper

classes.

There

of 15 a.d.
forbidding senators
pantomimes, and knights to form their
and

noblemen

behaved

of immoral

under

eagerlythronged

women

of

successors

and, under

part of the

the

Nero

critus
Theo-

useless

visit the

to

senatus

them

city rumour
prominent

greatest crowd

said

Nero
young
much

persons
followed

regularlypassed

many

of

house

Under

escort.

and

the

Antonines,

morning

to accompany

grooms
them

between

relations

the

them,

like their

eis

legions.
actors
was
sought

was

consuUum

men

of

Armenian

unnaturally, the society of

the

made

and

some

with

On
pantomimes or charioteers.
the spot where Paris, executed
of his
by Domitian, fell,many
admirers
flowers
strewed
and
poured forth fragrances, and
Martial
his epigram :
Wanderer
the Via Flaminia,
wrote
on
do not pass by this noble marble
The
monument.
delight of
the wit of Alexandria, art, grace, merriment,
Rome,
joy, the
glory and the griefof the Roman
stage, and all the goddesses
and
gods of love he here buried with Paris '. And ladies of
of
to the charms
high station were
reputed to be susceptible
the actors, and to bid high for their favours.
'

As
and
to
were

the

result

of this universal, intense

actors, the

theatrical

rivalries

factions

customary,

; the

of

interest

great

more

so,

as

with

the

in the

stage

necessarilyled
old competitions

artists
of

and
palms, wreaths
in
Republican times
this party attachment.

other

honours

as

actors
prizes. Even
organized
at
a
claque to secure
They aimed
influential adherents
as
getting as many
possible,paid their
applauders well, distributed them in the crowd, and tried to
gain popular favour
through professional clappers. The
instigatorof the revolt of the Pannonian
legions in 14 a.d.,
insolent
Percennius, was
a
soldier, an
agitator and skilled
demagogue, and trained in early Hfe as leader of a claque.
the influence of the Circus factions and of distinguished
Under
these
theatrical
the emperors,
sympathizers, including even
further developed ; their attempts to terrorize
parties were

and

suppress

each

theatre, despitethe

other

led to

presence

of

bloodshed
a

cohort

and

scuflfles in the

(1,000 men)

of the

Ii6

The
and

Guard,

the

of their

Spectacles
of tbe actors, and

frequent banishment

adherents.

spread from

disorder

This

ment
punishRome

to

provinces. The imperialprocurator of Epirus complained

insulted in the theatre
he had
been
to Epictetus that
by
side he had,
the opponents of a comedian
Sophron, whose
had
He
shouted,
however, taken, perhaps too
warmly.
the

risen

his seat, and

from

Epictetus, could
they treated him
it
in

these

under
men,

If it
caned

he

collegiajuvenum

who

jurist,writing

the

Callistratus

vinces
pro-

concerned

most

were

the

in

that

Severi, says

second

executed.

factions

kind

of show

and

tumults,

overshadowed

historians, who

Rome,
of

17
lenient

gentler

Only pantomimes

such

The

whom

of

due

the

as

to

cause

completely

how

proves
all others.

ascribe

those

mention

which

ened
hard-

fail, are

measures

mentioned

are

; and

banishment

shall entail

ofience

offenders, with

in

And

themselves

young
people, callingthemselves
of
the
in
the
tumultuous
pubUc.
applause
regularlyjoin
need
and
first
be their only crime,
oSence, they
only be
the
(a punishment for low-class free men) or forbidden
the

theatre

at

of

one

of disorder.

scenes

then, says
like the mob,

How

hkewise.

that, if he behaved

wonder
as

the

was

his slaves

be
of
this

to these incidents

importance

and

greater consequence,

tude
the atti-

The
rivalryof Pylades and BathyUus
emperors.
caused
in the theatre ; but Augustus was
uproars

the

B.C.

towards

the

actors,

as

the

of diverting
first,

causes,

from
popular excitement
public matters, and also because
the favourite
of Maecenas.
In 15 a.d., at the
Bathyllus was
festivals of the obsequies of Augustus, the rivalryof the pantomimes
occasioned
further disorder, but Tiberius, at the beginning
of his reign,did not dare to inhibit the theatrical Ucence
ing
the people had become
accustomed.
But the followto which
in the theatre, incited by Drusus, led
year a faction-fight
of tumult
to scenes
disregarded ; the Guard
; the of"cials were
intervened, and, in the scuffle, several of the people and a
centurion

fell, and

tribune

The
wounded.
duty was
empowering the praetors to
the

peace.

But

disorder

powerless ; in 22 or 23
against actors, guilty
crimes, and

of

result

was

Praetorian
the

still continued, and

had

to

Cohort

decree

on

consultum

senatus

inflict banishment

Tiberius
of

the

for breaches

of

the

praetors were
exile from
Italy

exciting these tumults,

especiallyagainst the pantomimes ;

or

and

of other
he

was

The
deaf

to

and

under

him

their

at the

to return

actors

heard

are

Cohort

popular petition for

any
the

Spectacles

and

Claudius

of.

In 55

very
decrees

no

Nero

117

recall.

Caligula permitted
beginning of his reign,
order
against theatrical dis-

dispensed with

the

Praetorian

the men
from
the
duty, ostensibly to witiidraw
theatre :
temptations of the
consequently faction-fights
became
more
violent, especiallyas Nero incited the combatants
by promising impunity and rewards, and took sides, first
secretlyand then openly ; at one fight,when stones and broken
benches
were
being hurled about, he eagerly joined in the fray,
on

and

wounded

the

Guard

praetor in the head.

indispensable
;

T,hen it seemed

again

the

once
pantomimes were
banished
from
more
Italy : the ringleaderswere
imprisoned
by the praetors,and the attempt of a tribunus plebisto hinder
this unpopular measure
foiled by the Senate.
But
was
very
66 a.d., pantomimes
soon
after, about
were
again allowed.
Titus
his favourite
sternly refrained from applauding even
who
the leading dancers
of the day.
Domitian
were
pages,
of pantomimes ; Nerva
prohibited any
public appearance
restored
them
at the earnest
request of the people. Trajan at
the beginning of his reign again forbade
the
it, but removed
after
of
Dacian
his
Hadrian,
prohibition
triumph
107 a.d.
and after him
Alexander
Court
Severus, made
pantomimes a
Lucius
Verus
public service.
especiallyfavoured pantomimes.
was

Prohibitions

second

in the

occur

century, but

not

afterwards

probably in those times of growing degeneracy,with the

not issued.
absorbing all public interest, they were

IV.
The
to

the

athletic and

acclimatize

THE

Republic, with

theatres

STADIUM

musical

themselves

contests
at

of Greece

Rome.

Not

were
common

the

last

under

and
gradual amalgamation of Roman
Greek
culture
and
they became
manners,
popular under the
Here
shall only speak of the athletic contests.
we
Empire.
This
first introduced
in
spectacle,like the venaiiones,was
186 B.C.
Fulvius
Nobilior, when
by Marcus
performers
many

crossed

over

later, Sulla
athletes

from
at his

at Rome

the

Greece

for the purpose.

triumph
in such

over

Mithridates

One

hundred

years

(81 b.c.)exhibited

numbers, th,atat Olympia only foot-

The

ii8
races

could

Spectacles

be held, for want

of

competitors in

other

contests.

in

Scaurus
58 B.C. in his
example was followed by Marcus
of scale, since Valerius
aedileship(probably on an unheard
of them),
Maximus
erroneously makes him the first introducer
Curio at his father's funeral
and Pomand by Gaius
(53 B.C.),
The

pey,

at the dedication

of his theatre

in 55.

But

the

feelingof

exemplified by Cicero, who, writing to

Marcus
Marius, says he will hardly be keen on the athletes,
he had
he disliked even
as
gladiators; and Pompey admitted
Caesar
in 46 B.C.
at his
But
spent trouble and oil in vain.
set athletes
fighting for three days on a
triumphal games
stadium
temporarily erected on the Campus Martins.
Augustus was
extremely interested in these exhibitions,
most

is well

Romans

'

and

'

also

instituted

contests

of

'

athletes, collected

from

all

and
name,
Campus Martins, twice in his own
in his nephew's.
not
He was
the first to ensure
once
only
As a perpetual celebration
frequent but also regularcontests.
and
of the victory of Actium
he renewed
extended
the festival
of old : he founded
of Apollo, there celebrated
from
the city
of Nicopolis,and instituted
gymnastic and musical contests at
of four years, probably on
intervals
the anniversary of the
victory (September 2): for athletes, after the Augustalia at
Naples, used to go to Nicopolis. Augustus was
present at
the Augustalia, shortly before
his death
(August 19). The

parts ', on

Actia

the

became

fifth

sacred

of Greece, and, in

contest

the

reckoned
sometimes
Early Empire, dates were
by Actiads
well as by Olympiads ; and
subsisted
these contests
until
as
ous
Numerlate, and ranked
high. Julian restored them.
very
from
the most
inscriptionsof athletes and musicians
various
of victory
Greek-speaking lands, prove that the honour
at the Actiads
of Olympia
was
as
great as that of the wreath
and
foot in
set on
Delphi. Similar periodicalfestivals were
of Augustus by princes like Herod
of Judaea in 8 B.C.,
honour
and, in many
provinces,besides temples and altars, nearly
held
town
Augustal games.
every
At Rome,
immediately after the Battle of Actium
(31 B.C.),
the Senate
decreed
a
quadrennial festival to celebrate the
victory,which was held for the first time under the presidency
of Agrippa in 28 B.C., the year in which
the Palatine
temple of
These
for Caesar's prosperity
',
Apollo was dedicated.
games
'

and

sacred

to

Apollo of Actium,

were

henceforth

given every

The

120

This took
a

talented
and

This

the

Nero's

the

the

festival
86

in

III restored

Gordian
before

setting out

called

the

'

After

the

after

them, probably

campaign

of 241

Thenceforward

of Minerva
the

imitators.

no

extended

his Persian

contest

instituted

Domitian

A.D.

on

and

maiden.

abolished

were

of the Neronea.

36th celebration
was

perhaps

ler,
wrest-

in 65, the Neronea

65, and its continuation

and

consular,

Spartan

dress.

Greek

assumed

many

mentioned,

death.

was

In

festival

feeling found

Roman

to

of

son

appeared as
with

says, wrestled

rumour

insult

more

in 240,

this

so

celebration

no

Sura, the

Palfurius

man,
morally irresponsible

tremendous

second
are

but
once,

During

One

placeonce.

Spectacles

'.

CapitolineAgon,

which

far greater and

a
Oljmipian, and obtained
also quadrennial, and
held
enduring importance. This was
that competitorsmight come
from
in the early summer,
so
main
beyofid'^'he
sea
speciesof competition were
; the three
added
the same,
few
and
the prize a wreath
a
; Domitian
unusual
Thus
the competition in
ceased.
soon
contests, which
Greek
and Latin oratory lapsed,but the unique prizefor Greek
and
Latin poetry was
a poet'shighest ambition
throughout the
ranked

with

Empire,

the

and

the

of

hope

receiving the oak-wreath

from

the

judicialpronouncement, brought the

most
talented
poets from distant provinces beyond the seas
of these coronations
to Rome.
The
of poets on the
memory
Capitol lasted down
through the Middle Ages, and Petrarch
of Rome.
was
proudest of his coronation
by the Senator
In the musical
test
competitions,originallythere was
only a conof solo and chorus citherists ; later in singingand in citharoedic (singingaccompanied by cithers),
and
the Pythian solo
flute, and also flutes in orchestra
; possibly also, in dramatic
had
representations.For these musical performances Domitian
built on the Campus
Martius
a covered
theatre, the Odeum,
architect
considered
by the famous
Apollodorus,which was
of the loveliest buildings of Rome,
late as the fourth
one
as
century.
The
tests
CapitolineAgon consisted of the same
gymnastic conin
for men
and
Greece
for girls,
races
boys, as
; the
emperor's hand,

introduced
disuse.
Greek

at

after the

first,after the

Naturally, as
athletes, whose

the wreaths

of

Spartan custom,

rule, competition

numerous

extant

was

fell into

soon

left

mainly

to

boast

of

memorials

Archibius
victory. One Titus_Flavius

won

in

The
four

successive

time

in

the

Spectacles

121

Capitoline Olympiads (94-106 a. D.),the first

other times in that of
the boys' pancration,and three
; and

men

Dio, the historian, mentions

Cassius

lius Hehx

the athlete

its

and

that

Aure-

victorious

ling
(in218) both in the wrestand
the boxing at the Capitoline agon : a feat achieved
at Olympia, and
at
only by seven
champions since Heracles
Rome
before.
Domitian
built a stadium
for athletes
by none
the Campus Martius, capable of holding 30,000,
on
or
33,000
it
of
in
remains
still
visible
the
Middle
were
spectators:
Ages,
and
Piazza
Navona
still
the name
(Campus Agonis)
preserves
name

festival

was

The

form.

Greek

character

of

the

entire

Domitian, if not
outwardly preserved under
afterwards.
The
Emperor presided in a Greek purple mantle
and in Greek
with images of the
shoes, wearing a golden crown
three
Minerva
the
:
Capitoline deities, Jupiter, Juno and
and judges were
the flamen of Jupiter and the CoUege
assessors
of Priests of the Flavian
House
in the same
dress, except that
the

was

priesthoods,under
the

was

artist

of

poet.

The

in

audience

wreaths.

of the

contests.

Games

These

their

presidency

the

brilliant

most

or

the

conduct

alternate

depicted in

also

was

emperor

Later

the

Emperor, had the

general assemblage
for any athlete,
to the very end of

the world

survived

down

antiquity.
Other

founded
contests, perhaps exclusivelyathletic, were
by different emperors, e.g., a Feast of Hadrian, instituted by
Antoninus
the

Pius

of

Games

Great, probably under

late

Alexander

as

III, and
Aurelian

the

Severus

quadrennial

having

in 274.
A Greek
beaten
the Romans

well

in the

as

Moon
wreaths
under

double

goddess,
at

and

them

; the
Feast

Agon
of

athlete

at the

and

the

of Alexander
celebrated

were

of Minerva

of

the

Sun-god,

boasts

in his

running, and

in

Hercules,
At

honour

Caracalla, which

course

all.

in

Hercules

contests

as

Gordian

founded

by

of
inscription

in the

of the

stadium,

as

Sun-god, the
prizes and
of the city

of

having won
millenary festival

besides
others
248, athletic contests
held.
were
Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (who died in 257)
writes :
Men
practisefor the race at the secular festival and
wreath
of the people and
account
received
in presence
the
a
Emperor as great fame '. In a Greek anecdote, a school pedant

Philip the

Arab

in

'

consoles

at

the

an

next

athlete

who

has failed in the contest

millenaryagon

',

Of

all these

'

he will win

agones

nothing

The

122

further
the

is known

CapitoUne. But,

especiallyin
Rome

the

third

Thus

common.

and

all kinds

Severus

gymnastic performers

the

represent
circus

of Carinus,

of the Circus

like other

Greek

After

fifth

the

thus

Theodorus

service
The

of

too

same

III in 244,
appears in the

the

At

great games

with

In

gladiators.
about

Maternus
less

Malhus

Flavins

of

games
but
no

athletes,

mentioned

great

Greek

; the

consular

find

often

and

Empire,

athletes

the

at

we

are

musical

summoned

at Barcelona.

of
Firmicus
astrologicalwork
nativities of gladiatorsare
far
who

more

presented,
performed, and were
artists,with gold and silver and silk clothing.
century gymnastics replaced gladiators,if not

thousand

at

of Gordian

those

as

and

more

parts of the

all

in the Circus

athlete

an

mosaic

before

from

of this celebration,

medals

doubt

no

triumph

his

of athletes

appearance

became

at

under

them,

century, the

of
spectacles

at

from

apart

repute of
the Empire,

the

anything hke

attained

none

Spectacles

frequent

their

masters

very

hostile

a.d.

350

of athletes,

than

in

being

as

the

the

men.

met

agones

with

reception at

Rome

from

who
Romans,
true-spirited
objected to athletic contests,
were
although some
customary in Italy and the West, and
public exhibitions of wresthng, boxing, and pugiUsm had been
at Rome.
seen
Boxing, a national mode of fightingin Etruria,
Latium, Campania and Africa, was
practisedin Italyby whole
of the high officials of Pompeii under
troops at a time : one
Augustus allowed Greek boxers to appear beside native ones
the forum.
This pastime was
on
always popular at Rome, at
the time of Terence
(whose Hecyra failed on its first appearance
in 165 because
of the superior attraction
of boxing-matches),
as

well

bear

in

as

or

the middle

of

'.

But

Italian

contests

unlike

the

sentiment
before
lessness

that

of Ennius,

fellow-citizens'.
:

the

to

the

the

so

shameful
'

the

did

not

often

lack

of science

to

Romans

fall of Greece.

for

its

been
and

own

very
grace.

primarily moral,

were

Cicero

beginning
ground was
tend

have

must

approves
of shame
is to
its

make

corruption of youth by the

the

asked

piece, following

gymnastics

Another

exercises

the fear of
lastly,
gymnasia, which,

contributed

Greek, especiallyin the

objectionsto Greek
considered
nudity was

mob
'

in

taste

for

the

time, when

boxer

sweet

Roman

Horace's

the

strip
practicalusegood soldiers ;
idle hfe of the

thought, had

principally

The
But,

123

despitethis generaldisesteem, Greek

in favour

much

Spectacles

complains,at
villa.

the end

towards
least

of the

gymnasium

one

These

served

Republic that,

was

for

exercises

essential

an

were
as

to

so

Varro
every

gymnasia
{iatraof Selymbria, a pupil of Hippocrates, had
devised
this cure,
and, according to Pliny the Elder, thus got
and doctors' assistants an income.
the rubbers
At a banquet
was
given by Apicius, a notorious
glutton, Junius Blaesus
the
staple of conversation
present, and gymnastics were
; one
curative

exercise

liptice) Prodicus
:

fine old
hale

of 91, Isidorus, was

to prove, as a
there, as it were
and skilled wrestler,its utility
in prolonghearty man
ing

man

and

strongly deprecatesthe
for healthy people, for whom
inadvisable
; but probably, Uke
Celsus

hfe.
exercise
athletics
made
his

and

more

bath

promoted

Nero

them
his

three

by

in

an

risingin Gaul, he
in a gymnasium
the

generals of

an

the

Court

on

"

and

accompanied

received

witness

of

far and

the art

news

of

performances

large presents to the

gave
Patrobius
copied
especially,

people. The

became

and

to

duced
vigorously,introgjminasium, manifested

day he

Alexandria

fashion

any
it

imported Nile sand

during a famine at Rome
Emperor's example and
wide.

was

'

declared

Greek

athletics

by its teachers
indispensable to perfect health and a perfectbody, and was
recommended
servative
as
a part of the
training of the young ; condreaded
the
of
Greek
depravity
Society
importation
Greek
then
with
gymnastics. For the ancient morality, even
declining,would collapsebefore foreignlicentiousness ; every
subject or object of temptation would be paraded, and the next
by gymnastics, idleness and disgraceful
generationenervated
And
these
amours.
ultra-conservatives, who
regarded the
the introduction
the originalsource
of all evil, considered
Greeks
as
of gymnastics as part of the dietary of the healthy
Rome
not only useless but immoral, and complained that young
was
cultivatingthe body at the cost of the soul. Lucan, too,
of his disfavour
with Nero's
Court, expressed the
at the time
the young
fresh from
view strongly,and deemed
man
same
now

the mode,

customs,

the Great, and

from

spread the

considers

all Greek
is

curative

most

interested

his freedmen,

Alexander

of it arrived

the

Naples

at

cargo
and
exasperated the
a

"

was

and

He

the

official festival;built

them

he

Trimalchio

massageurs.
Greek
athletics

preferencefor

athletes.

inroads.

more

of this

use

T'hc

124
the

Greek

unsuited

and

the wrestling-ground

through sauntering on

weak

gymnasium

Spectacles
for

Martial

'.

war

praises

one

simple running, and disdaining

the waste
of time
in gymnastic exercises, whilst other young
with cropped ears
men
(often
gave themselves
up to a teacher
represented in picturesof boxers) and paid undeservedly large
fees to a dirty rubber.
waste
Elsewhere
he asks, why
the
? a better exercise
on
strength of the arms
stupid dumb-bells
for men
would
be digging in a vineyard. So too PUny the
Younger is grieved that the old Roman
military drill under a
with
the mural
civic wreath, is being
veteran, decorated
or
superseded by gymnastic exercises, under the supervision of a
Atticus

Greek

for

being

Greeks,

gymnast.

the

corrupted by

were

with

content

confessed

even,

Greek

of

habit

the

that

Romans

nudity, but they repaid

damage with interest.

When
Domitian
ing
inaugurated the CapitoUne Agon, introducthe largestscale known,
this opposition
Greek
on
games
became
after the repulsive
lively,and continued, even
very
in a Council
had
been
aboUshed.
Once
of Trajan
race
girls'
the question of aboUshing an agon at Vienne, Junius Rustion
of great probityand firmness, assented, and added,
cus, a man
to cease
I wish
here
well
as
they were
PUny the
; and
this as a proof
Younger, who was also of the session, mentions
of intrepidityand
decision.
He
decided
to
goes on : 'It was
abolish the agon, which was
of Vienne,
corrupting the manners
morals.
For, if the Viennese
corrupt universal
just as ours
have
to themselves
but
vices
vices, they keep them
our
;
propagate, and in the empire, as in the body, disease is worst,
their teachers

for the

'

'

if it start
This

from

the

national

head

and

disinclination

lasted at least up to
agones
rate,had the eSect of making
of the upper
the lower.
and

stadium.

on

Sura

is the

True,
of athlete.

named
to
'

Gains

the

who

dealt Greek

we

mentioned

man

In the

meaner

blows

with

an

and
was

amongst

knights

many
the
arena

appearing
took

men

Titus

by

of
or

at

any
members

common

as

177th Olympiad

the

them

hear

stage, in the Circus

only

Greek

and

century, and,

participationin
and by no means

long race,
pancratist Regulus. Martial
won

athletics

the second

in Rome

even

'.

towards

classes very rare,

In the first century

senators

Palfurius

extend

up

the

but

in the

fession
pro-

a Roman
(72 B.C.),

the

gave

acquainted

Italian hand

with

',and

preference
one

Liber

obtained

The
the

wreath

for

boxing, and

have

the

best

25

that

says

'

-besmeared

opportunityfor

foreignmanners
of Quirinus carry
wrestling
necks '. But though Naples
regulartrainingin athletics,

Juvenal

the citizens

gone so far that

prizesround their wax

oSered

Spectacles

Italy produced mainly itinerant boxers, who, as Horace

says,
did not aspire to the pian
exhibited
at villagefestivals and
Olymwreath, while
the

Greece

there

athletes

hardly

are

The

Romans,
as

East,

to

athletes

'

of Roman

as

of Roman

any

as
are

as

tions
inscripmany
and gladiators,

athletes.

athletes,

to athletic

Domitian,
the

amongst

even

of this art

friends

before, supplied

charioteers

addicted
never
as
then, were
others, but, after Nero and

amateur
many
Nero's
time
the

In

the

great professionals.For, whilst there

of Greek

were

and

women.

the

welcomed

formances
perthere

'

latest

their feats ; and, in the great

eagerly watched
Such
slaves
households, there were
regularly slave athletes.
often
diet, and even
taught how
prescribed their masters'
the legs should
be moved
in walking and the cheeks
in chewing.
Under
their wrestlingdecorated
Vespasian rich men
schools
In Domitian's
and
grounds with statues of athletes.
men
time, young
exercising grounds ;
frequented the Greek
and
the

and

favourite

slaves

and

palaestra ; thus Atedius

Quintilian,comparing
tactics, exhibits
in other
female
to

even

was

branches.
devotees

the

tricks

of the
who

with

to

be

of

wrestling with

knowledge

art, who

took

sent
to

the

yellow sand,

trained

in

sent his favourite, Glaucias.

an

of the

mainly given by unsuccessful

In Martial
and
Juvenal's time

performers, and

amazons,

themselves

the

sent

were

Melior

considerable

wrestling,which

"

freedmen

them

teaching of
competitors
there

devotion

carried

often

costly gifts;

orator's

were

further

there

were

diet of athletes, rubbed

hard

and

wrestled

practised

with

In the course
of the second
century, the
heavy dumb-bells.
more
utilityof Greek athletics became
generally recognized.
in for exercise with
went
versatile
Hadrian, a
amateur, only
; but
weapons
the emperors,

Marcus

Aurelius, the

most

careful

liver of all

regular visitor of the

short days at sunset, in the long days
tenth
hour.
He
at the ninth
or
loved, says his biographer,
also enjoyed
Verus
boxing, wrestling and running. Lucius
the athlete,
Narcissus
the palaestraand the exercises of youth.
according
palaestra,arrivingin the

the

companion

of

to

Commodus

Galen,

in

was

his

exercise

and

also

his

126

The

murderer,

'

also

was

In

credited

was

with

Alexander

omnipotence.

of the first order

wrestler

civil rank

Spectacles
Severus

'.

than
higher at Rome
any other
reputation still clung to them, and

athletes

stood

public artists. Their Greek

the imperial holy
much
contests
so
distinction,
gave them
honour
than
that such
actors
or
competitors enjoyed more
like
infamous.
The
them,
not,
gladiators,and, at least, were
Sabinus
great juristsMasurius
(under Tiberius) and Cassius
Longinus (consul in 30) decided that athletes did not follow
demonstrated
their bravery. In
actor's trade, but rather
an
other sports,slaves frequentlyappeared : but, when
the victor
at the imperial
wreathed
of the emperor
was
by the hand
of Greece, only free men
might
agones, and at the sacred games
Severus, that only free men
compete ; for a law of Alexander
might run in the Sacred Games, was
probably a re-enactment
'

of

older

an

athletes
and

treated

were

confer

There

with

were

many

the

of

the

guildsof

principalwas

victors

the

at

'

the

Sacred

Guild

Games

and

presidents from

home

and

Rome,

at

their

appeared

century,

of the

one

wreathed

Hercules.

These

of"cials,priests

own

themselves.

amongst

life-longpost

second

honour

Guilds, like all others, nominated

emperors

athletes, who

of athletes

',who

the

the

was

in the

custom

by corporations

distinctions

itinerant

festivals

and

Greek

consideration

some

One

with

accordance

on

municipal agones

of

Also, In

pre-eminent athletes,
xystarchus.^

in

law.

governments.

might
of

'

This

guild had
times
apparently some-

its

principalofficer was
Hadrian
and
given the direction of the imperial baths.
Pius allowed
Antoninus
them
to have
places of assembly for
councils, sacrifices,and archives, especiallyfor the Capitoline
Games.

Antoninus

Some

Greek
extant.

are

In

375) put
from

boxing
that

up

east

'

and

he

people of

to

west

as

in

every

worthy

Rome

of eternal

the

to

Aihleiarum

statues

had
in

or

covered

athletic

Gratian
been

the

athlete

fame

', but

the

which

In

(367-

matches,

every

porticoin

guilds

victorious

only

assented.
enthusiastically
the xystus,

of Titus.

of great athletes

and

who

contest

baths

these

Valens

of Filumenus,
'

home

emperors

half -wrestling. Not

was

Valentinian,

statue

Superintendentof

winter.

curia

Thus
a

the

from

the

erected.

were

letters

them

gave

the

rejoiced

Senate
same

the athletes

half-

and

guild
in
practised

The

128

Spectacles

do

In
anything notable.
ProtrepHcus, 13) athletes
all the

summon

men,

animals

would

man

win

never

should

if Zeus

well as
as
agon in the Stadium
would
win in the simple
a hare

the

to

impugned

thus

are

(seeGalen,

lampoon

contemporary

a horse, in
deer, in the long race
fightsinvolving strength,elephants and lions, in boxing, bulls ;

and

race,

and

in the

in the

asses

the

victory of
But

Brayer

advise

to

useful

Greek

tries,
coun-

and

arts

sciences,

to
nor

astray by the great hope of popularity. Since Greek

led

it filled the

lost its real content,

of past greatness.

These

tenderness

touching
preserve
Hellenic

Olympiad.
earnestly not

men

young

the

record

in the

common

to the

career

21st

at the

men

would

annals

the

far from

had
as

the

over

were

Galen

prefer athletics
life had

race

pancration, and

views

such
for

to be

double

the

to

ruined

culture

pious memories,
practised in the
Greek
community

the

recollections, and

ancient

remains,

and
an

epigoni clung

gap with the shadow

with
natural
and
a

remains

often

tried

to

unrecognizable,of

the first of such

Gymnastics was
of education, actively
important means

fame.

institutes

the

of

ephebi, and

in every

found

Berytus to Massilia.
nobler
The
smaller
the circle of higher and
interests,the
the significanceof athletic contests.
Good
greater became
Greeks
cleave to the
', Trajan writes to Pliny the Younger,
In
Greece
could
one
gymnasia'.
practise 'the arts of play
with
honour
to men
of great culture, pre-eminent athletes
:
seemed
ideals of manhood,
strength, beauty and modesty,
still
All Greece
comparable with the heroes of olden times.
at the
assembled
the
Pythian and Olympian Games, where
and
customs
and
still the same,
consecrated
procedure were
stiU the highby centuries of use ; the Olympian victory was
est
prize,worth arduous, long and expensive training,or even
from
life itself.
also an
Descent
an
Olympian victor was
be
Skilled competitors would
for an athlete.
honour, especially
to be
heavily bribed by their opponents to allow themselves
defeated.
Pausanias
is surprised that
not
only Egyptians
and
Greeks, e.g.,
foreignerscould be thus tempted, but even
at the
an
Elean, who
192nd Olympiad (12 B.C.) bribed the
victory for his son in the wrestling bout.
opponent to secure
The
victors were
hired by the providers of festivals at high
from

'

'

'

fees

Dio

14s.). The

of Prusa
names

mentions
of the

payment

of five talents

paradoxonicae (those who

in

("1,1^!^
one

day

The
the

won

wreath

and

Spectacles

wrestlingand
throughout the

for

revered

the

129

pancratium)were

world

their

by

brated
cele-

grandsons and

Nicostratus at the 204th Olympiad

great-grandsons ; such were
the 7th or 8th after Hercules, Aelius Helix
was
(36 A.D.),who
the Phoenician, the first paradoxonicusat the CapitolineGames.
the wreaths,
won
Further, athletes, especiallythose who
and
privilegeswhich
Augustus confirmed
extended.
of them
was
Probably one
exemption from the
costly municipal offices and charges, a privilegerestricted
to men
who
all their life long had
by Diocletian and Maximian

enjoyed

taken
three

many

part in contests
sacred

at

one

had

been

Rome

or

The

suspicionof bribery.

any
for which

victorious
in Greece

sacred

In at least
out
with-

proper,

those

were

agones

accorded
the triumphal processionof
emperors
victors to their native city,and their life-long
maintenance

the
at

contests,

and

the

the

public cost.
appeared vied

decrees

of honour,

The
in

in

towns

which

famous

celebrating them

giftsof the

in

franchise

tors
competi-

busts, statues,

and

the

dignity of

councillor.
Sometimes
Mnesibulus

the

athletes

showed

their

in

prowess

war.

of Elatea, victor at the

235th Olympiad (161 a.d.),

volunteers
(probably about 178-9)
fought at the head of some
and repelledthe Costoboci, himself dying on the field. At the
in
gallant defence of Byzantium against Septimius Severus
194-196, a boxer played a prominent part. Hence it is hardly
credible that, in the Greek
considered
proper
improvinces,it was
for a man
of good, even
distinguishedfamily to appear
in conin public as an athlete, although only one
firmation
inscription
of such

Claudius

an

is found
appearance
Rufus, of the fourth

ApoUonius
family. Romans

consular

part with
Olympiad

their chariots

of

that

of

century,

athlete,

an
a

of

man

good family probably only

in the chariot-races, e.g., at the

took

195th

Tiberius
entered
a
four-in-hand,
(i a.d.),when
Germanicus
took part ; at the
at the
199th (17 A.D.),when
227th (129 A.D.),Julius Minicius Natalis, son of the consul of
afterwards
consul.
himself
106
or
Similarly the
107, and
senator

Roman
time

won,

Pausanias, if he

of

Generally,the

social

far better

was

Italy. But,
R.L.M.

who

"

11,

as

was

his statute

Greek

and

erected

there

in the

Roman.

positionof

in the

Greek

had

an

athlete

in the

provincesthan
Oriental

pire
Early Em-

at Rome

civiUzation

or

in

generally
K

The

130

broke

with
Dio
line

of

floor

long,

brilliant

in

esteem

his
the

Plinies,

the

two

the

worthlessness

in

pictures

double

annals,

capital
Tacitus
and

national

Roman

prejudice
room

of
the

mentions

agon

Roman

rows

in

dissolved

finally

proportion

same

the

and

up

Spectacles

Caracalla's

of

victory
the

in
and

depravity

of
the

Helix
stadium

the

West,

Juvenal
of

so

Greek

stood

than

decorated

when
at

when

Cassius
the

Capitoin

higher
Seneca,

unanimously
exercises

the

When

was

victors,

Aelius

of

abated.

thermae

athletic

heroes

and

have

must

in

feeling,

decried
and

tests.
con-

CHAPTER

ROMAN
GENERAL
In

luxu

wrote

Romanorum

number

LUXURY

REVIEW

1605 Meursius

de

II

OF

as

SUBJECT
'

monograph,

', which,

Roma

luxurians

general

sive

Impression

and

heterogeneous facts, of which

the most
the best known
are
strange and monstrous, conveyed
the idea prevalent to the present day, that
the luxury of
the later Roman
fabulous, unparalleled,immoral
Empire was
and
senseless.
This
treatise is the main
authority for this
The
view.
calls up
those
of imperial Rome
oftmemory
tales
built
of palaces
into the sea, of high roof garrepeated
dens,
of gold and
silver mules
shoes and
receptaclesfor filth
and rubbish, of baths in asses' milk and fragrances,of drinks in
which
dissolved, and dishes of peacocks'
costly pearls were
brains
and
flamingoes' tongues.
These
exaggerations flourish in an atmosphere which magnifies
to
a Titanic
everything Roman,
good or bad,
extent, as
the
even
compared with modernity ; a tendency to which
best
who
antiquarians are too prone,
e.g., C. G. Zumpt,
were
babies, as compared with the ancients, in
thought we
the art of enjoyment, and
W.
A. Becker, who
deemed
our
most
extravagant luxury poverty in comparison with the
But
Rome.
closer exa
amination
prodigal magnificence of Ancient

of

of

motley

THE

'

shows
or

several

facts

were

not

the

misconstrued,

with

them

that

as

to

authoritative
and

that

still

view

grains of salt. This would

fully credible, as their nature

be

been
be

must
so,

even

torted
distaken

if the

partiallyproves

be.

Further, since the first decades

and

this

facts have

more_siace

aebout

of the

nineteenth

century,

1850, throughout civilization

131

Roman

132
luxury has

increased

is not

of those

that

expatiated

French

second
the

world

who,

Empire

the

the

Compare

for

us

thus

first and

the

first astounded
Alfred

second.

the

to

the

of

luxury

modest

standard

generationsback,

two

or

luxury.

it seemed

one

the

and

enormously,

Roman

on

Luxury-

Austin

1883 said that, in the last generation, English luxury had

Gladstone
with prosperity,step by step ; and
advanced
says
last
the
in
that
far greater
fiftyyears
luxury has become
in

in all

than

the

of

preceding

centuries

is unlike

rich

1066, and

since

since

known

anything

that

the

life

decline

the

of

Rome.
traditional

This

conclusions

risk

Isolated

from

for the rule, has

been

not

the

But, further, after

tales

"

and

epoch

any

refined

of the

have

sort

of

extravagances
of

of the

of Meursius,

fashion

of any

debaucheries

consideration

antiquarianism, of drawing false

and mistaking the exception
cases,
avoided
luxury.
by critics of Roman

of

jumbled together
spendthrifts,and

been

notorious

voluptuaries without,

as

"

pointof

of the author,

view

from

statements

or

rule, any

the context.

luxury of individual
emperors
became
A Caligula or a Nero
have
been
excluded.
should
mania
to
abnormal
in this respect, because
a
they had
with
Idea
the
of their omnipotence, to
inspire the world
and
the
the
greatness of Caesardom,
superhuman
prove
and his subjects;
immeasurable
the world-ruler
gulf between
demonstration
that for him
a
impossible, that
nothing was
Caesarian
limitless.
his
will
Thus
was
Caligula, whose
been
tainted
with
actual
to have
madness
seems
insanity,
But, above

'

who

strove

all, the

of

most

', had

of

incredible

fantasy
But

at

lius'

what

possible
im-

deemed

men

during a storm, and

up in the sea
of three provinces (10 million sesterces,
day

', undertook

thus

he

to

Nero, the

and

the

realize

'

wildest

desirer
dreams

their feasts, in their

in the first two

exceptions.

realize

all to

buildingsset

squandered the tribute

about
;f100,000) in one
of the

of

tales

Not

the

luxury was
other
hand,

were

economical

centuries

even

Lucius

the

sating

Tiberius,
and

spendthrifts. And
luxury of Caligulaand

ships of state and palaces.

Caligula and Nero are isolated
Verus
is comparable ; Vitel-

even

it

is

Nero

of

Galba,

Vespasian

mean

doubtful
was

gluttony.

monstrous

more

the

rest

whether

On

Pertinax

and
were

even

never

the

extravagant and per-

Roman
nicious

than

that

seventeenth
of
on

of

Luxury

eighteenth

and

German

prince of the
Augustus the Strong

petty

many

centuries.

Saxony spent 80,000 thalers on one

at Miihlberg.
his pleasure camp

the

founder

the

of

wine

of

gold, dug

on

Karlsschule,

Europe, had the best

most
costly giftsby

in
gave

the

of

for

the

transported

snow

for this wild

taxable

from

miles

extravagance

wealth

actors
to

of

Wurtemberg,
the

his

at

that

fountains
ton

sledging parties

and

theatre,

half

cost

gave

around

liant
bril-

most

his guests, had

extorted

was

five millions

playing

of mountains,

out

and

his court

fireworks

multitude,

lakes

opera,
Charles

made

lot

133

from

all the

money
whose

countries

hardly equal to that of a single Roman

of Saxony
province. Under Augustus the Strong the revenue
six million thalers.
was
Wurtemberg, a country of 155 square
miles
from

and
the

was

about

inhabitants,

600,000

royal demesnes
It would

expenses.

of that
to infer

be

time

from

from

and

the

taxes

deduce

just to

as

the

the

habits
of

found

the

insufficient
the

of these

Caligula and

revenue

to
of

manners

absolutist
Nero

cover

many
Ger-

Courts,

the

manners
luxury
It is equally misleading to refer
of Rome.
to the
Roman
in their victorious
paigns
camgrandees of the late Republic, who
lands,
plundered wealthy and partiallyunexhausted
as

and

colossal
Caesar

home

returned

with

expenditure
was

induced

antiquity, and

of

by

vast
a

wealth

Scaurus,

conditions

and

Lucullus,
that

never

treasure.

Pompey,
recurred

The
and
in

hardly surpassed by the emperors.

Plutarch
says that the gardens of Lucullus, despite the great
increase
still among
the most
of luxury, were
splendid of
the
imperial gardens ; and, according to Pliny, Scaurus
of a private individual, was
theatre, the work
more
travagant
wildly excannot
than any buildingof Caligula or Nero.
We
tell whether
treasure-hoards
the spoils of the centuries-old
of the Oriental
despots,which fell into the hands of the Roman
of Asia, were
the booty of the Spanish
less than
conquerors
India.
of
The
conquistadores or the English conquerors
Inca
for Atahualpa, the
of Peru, was
ransom
23,300,998
its
at least
four times
francs
(the franc then being worth
Pizarro's share was
1,402,748 francs.
present value), of which
Clive, says Macaulay, could easily have
piled up a fortune
in Bengal, greater than any other subject in Europe possessed.
usual
from the rich natives than was
Without
extorting more
on

scale

'

Roman

134
the

under

mildest

have

ruler, he could

native

presents amounting

Luxury
made

sure

of

bouring
annually to ^300,000, since the neighwillinglyhave bought his friendship

princes would
at any
provincialo"5cials had
generals and
price. Roman
ings,
Hastthe same
opportunitiesin the East as Clive and Warren
A few facts may
and
were
as
grasping as the latter.
illustrate
the
Aristobulus,
enormous
sums
they amassed.
the King of the Jews, at the time of his quarrel with the high
Gabinius
the
Aulus
priest, his brother
Hyrcanus, bribed
Legate with

Scaurus

Aemilius

talents, Marcus

300

the

quaestor

Pompey with a golden vine worth 500 (a talent

:^"235 15s.). Ptolemy Mennaeus, prince of a predatory state
and
the Lebanon, bought his freedom
on
independence from
Pompey for 1,000 talents, with which Pompey paid his troops.
talents
a
month,
Ariobarzanes
of Cappadocia paid him
33
his debt.
Gabinius
which
to the interest on
hardly amounted
hundred
his proconsulate in Syria over
a
from
brought home
received
talents
million
denarii
10,000
{"^,^oo,ofio).He
in return
for his
Auletes
of Egypt
(;^2,
350,000) from Ptolertty
had
in Pompey's name
and
support, after Caesar in his own
robbed
mulcted
him
of 6,000 talents
(^^1,400,000).Crassus
and
valuables
the
to
the
Temple at Jerusalem of money

with

of

amount

of

and

400,

wealth,

10,000

and

talents.
rich

in

Gaul, too,

gold

was

in Caesar's

proverbialland

time.

In

io5

B.C.

Quintus Servilius Caepio sacked the temple at Tolosa, a city

over
of the Tectosages, and, according to Posidonius, secured
talents
500,000). In the whole region of the Rhine,
(;"3,
15,000
and by the Loire and Seine all coins were
of gold in many
places,
the
much
that
and
Caesar's
Gallic booty included
so
gold
in Italy
value
of the pound fell from
4,000 to 3,000 sesterces
and
the provinces, a depreciation of 25 per cent, as against
silver.
But
crimes

notorious
of position and
necessary
expenses
of the late Republic to spend as
obliged the Romans
the

Like
Warren
Hastings, their
they looted.
total or
a
acquittals might mean
partial sacrifice of their
takings,
underfilchings. And the huge expense incidental to political
of a
scale, the maintenance
bribery on an enormous
train of servants, the fabulously splendid spectacles,
numerous

large

sums

swallowed

exhausted

as

up
his

tremendous

property

sums.

and

involved

The

him

aedileshipof
in debt.

Scaurus

Thus

these

Roman

136
clients.

de'Medici

Lorenzo
1

gold florins.

in the

branches

Charles

out

English

Ages,

with

the

aU

richest

banking

ness
busi-

and

lead
copper,
VII
200,000

as

the

Middle

235,137

exports in his hands, and owned

many
French
in
of
the
most
and
towns, as
Levant,

imports

for

well

in the

in 1492,
the
(1400-1456) was

left at his death

Coeur

Jacques

in France

man

Luxury

and

silver mines

6cus

(16 or

20

Normandy.

of

he

able

was

lend

to

million

drive

francs),to
acquired more

He

than

and
castles in
and
casteUanies, had houses
twenty domains
the great cities of France
and fitted several of the castles up.
An
to 400,000
ecus.
Agosunjust fine against him amounted

Julius II, a Rothschild of his time,

houses
at
owned
than
roo
more
ships at sea, and commercial
and
even
Lyons, London, Constantinople, Amsterdam,
lon,
Babyhad 20,000
of over
in his employ, and an income
men
70,000
ducats.
The
Fuggers, according to R. Ehrenberg, in 151 1
and by 1527, 2,000,000,
possessed250,000 florins in round figures,
in 1546 their fortune
amounted
and
to 4f millions ; at the
beginning of the seventeenth
century, after a loss of 8,000,000,
estimated
Mazarin's
tune
forthey became
bankrupt. Voltaire
tino

Chigi, the

at

banker

of

francs.

200,000,000

Bernard

the

villiers,a

banker

was

Under

Louis

worth

10

roubles.

ecclesiastical
In

Little-Russia

he

Danil6vich
had

owned

villages,
99 villages,15 hamlets,

Ingermanland

stufis

In

worth

million

roubles,

72

dozen

of
Men-

either

four

or

cities,88

87 fisheries

and

estates, 98 villages,diamonds

16

Breton-

income

annual

francs
(modern
value). Aleksey
3,000,000
in
shik6v
died
(who
1729) at his banishment
million

Samuel

livres, and

33,000,000
an
tax-collector, had

former

XIV

precious

and

silver

plates, 105

gold
piids (i685 kilogrammes)
plate. Potemkin,
luxurious
despite a frightfulextravagance and
life,scarcely
rivalled in the Arabian
amassed
of 90,000,000
a fortune
Nights,
roubles in sixteen
the
State revenue
was
only 50
years, though
table

of

millions.

roubles.

300,000

estimated

was

notorious

for

;"25o,ooo.
the
1

Duke
The

the same,

the

Kutaisov,

The

favourite
annual

at

6,000,000

the

necklace

Of the

of Alba

expenditure
marks.
case,

Spanish grandees
had

revenue

intrinsic value of the Ducato,

modern
francs.
ii-i2

of Paul, had

Cardinal
had

an

of

an

income

Count

Bruhl

Rohan,

Louis

income

of

of

about

in the

eighteenth century
of 8,000,000 reales (more than

Zecchino,Fiorino

d'Oro, Scudo

d'Oro

is about

Roman
^80,000),and

the

Duke

Luxury

of Berwick

137
but

2,000,000,

these

comes
in-

chieflysquandered on a large train of servants.

in 1859 the Duke
had
of Ossuna
an
According to Bismarck
income
of millions, owned
splendid gardens and castles in
Spain, Italy,Belgium and Sardinia, of which he had only seen
pictures. Of the Polish magnates under Stanislaus Augustus,
Felix Potocki
could ride thirty miles on his own
land, and, in
of
despite of his father's debts, he still had an annual income
were

and

marks,

700,000

the

was

richest

in

man

Poland.

The

fifteen cities,eleven
domains
with
castles,
Czartoryskis owned
and the estate of Augustus Czartoryski
two palaces in Warsaw,
of ;^90,ooo. Karl Radziwill
left, after
brought in a revenue
worth
estate
a
mal-administration, an
thoroughly Polish
;fi25,oooto ;^i50,oooannually.
Up to 1863 the serfs, who comprised nearly a third of the
Catherine
population, formed a large part of these fortunes.
II is said to have given away
800,000 of them, and Count Peter
Borisovich
Sheremetyev, the son of Boris Petrovich, ennobled
the largest owner
of over
160,000 or
by Peter the Great, was
200,000

128,000 male

or

millionaires.
Frederick

William

Alexander

of

feast
the

and

Nicholas

Prince
III

in

II

had

visited

18 18

at

forty thousand

guests and

offer them

of

of whom

serfs, some

Borisovich
him
his

Yusupov,

Moscow

at

estate

at

themselves

were

after

the

birth

Archangel,

a
gave
to receive

serfs in festive dress

salt and

when

bread, the Russian

their estates

symbols

often
hospitality.
Yusupovs, though
confiscated
than most
for conspiracies,
in 1870 were
wealthier
German
princes,and, as two serfs, father and son, as stewards
had
earned
The
them
hardly affected.
3 millions, were
of malachite
of which
a huge rock
Demidovs, it is said, owned
worth
800 roubles.
Astashev, a very wealthy
pud was
every
in a singleyear (1843)obtained
in
pudsoigo\6.,i.e.,about
man,
the ensign,
^^255,244los., from his mines in Siberia ; Yakubov
in 1847
the Continent
was
man
on
'perhaps the wealthiest
The

were

'

worth
In

than

more

the

America,

1850

had

England in particular,as also in

since about
of capitalin a few hands
the accumulation
attained
Mme.
unprecedented heights. In 1818

rest of

de

Remusat

In

England,

spend

more

000,000.
^^15,

Europe

could
in

than

and

still call

fortune

of

million

'

immense

of eminence
Johnson's time, no man
;^5,oooa year ; according to Macaulay,

'.

could
about

Roman

138
1760
1

Income

an

840

in

of

Luxury

^40,000

854 there

was

as

rare

as

of ;"ioo,ooo in
of the House
of

one

only twenty members

were

but in 1888 five times as

;^io,ooo,
Ten
income
treble or
with
an
quadruple. Warren's
many
York
in 1846
In New
written
Year was
in 1841.
Thousand
a
million
a
there were
only sixteen persons with property over
millionaires
of these
was
modest
dollars ; one
John Jacob
Commons

with

income

an

of

'

'

died

Astor, who
immense

in

her Civil War.

of America

after

his

annual

income

407,000

income-tax.

750,000
had
on

dollars,and

birth

he

to

had

in the world, and

man

second

with

250 milUon
has
if America

of

come

Germany
greatest
had
the

worth

was

1884

deemed

was

millions.

275

the

richest

Mackay

J. W.

came

dollars.

comes,
inof individual
largest number
England is the richest country : in 1888 it had 200 of
in^
total
an
owning over
;"i,ooo,ooo; 2,418 had
700

But

the

1846

age of 81 in 1877 ; he said he

since his
million
a
year
every
millions, and legaciesamounting
in

Gould

Jay

in

the

at

made
average
left his heirs go

millions.

These

dollars.

began with the great revival

T. Stewart
In 1865 Alexander
paid
4,071,256 doUars, and
Vanderbilt

Cornelius

the

15

as

died

million

25-30

of individuals

fortunes

gave

1848 worth

in

;"io,ooo,and

over

only

144.
millionaires.

other

Northumberland,

list

France
drawn

was

Rothschild, the
the

and
;"40,ooo,ooo,

three

the

the

and

of Westminster

Duke

Englishmen

only 700-800, and in

up in 1884 of the twelve
in England
richest man

are

the

Dukes

;"i6,ooo,ooo;
and

of Sutherland

Marquis qf Bute,

who

last

comes

Americans.
In
others
seven
are
;^4,ooo,ooo. The
Prussia, at the beginning of 1900, the income-tax
registered
income,
forty-two persons with ^50,000 to ;"ioo,oooannual
fifteen
with
;"ioo,ooo to ^^350,000,and Krupp with ^750,000
to ;"8oo,ooo.
the
But
all these facts cannot
settle the question whether
richer than
the opulent of to-day,
opulent of antiquity were
of money
in both periods were
if the real worth
even
accurately
with

It has

known.
was

then

research
from

the

reign, but

far
on

been

held

higher than now,

the subject by

last centuries

only

throughout

that

the

in Rome
entire

of the

the
a

purchasing value
view

Robertus.

confirmed
He

by

admits

of money
the latest
it sank

Republic up to about
and
Italy ; and after Nero
Empire. But, apart from the

Nero's
it

rose

many

Roman

Luxury

side

Issues,the facts of antiquity by no

For, in ancient
sweeping conclusions.

139
sufi"ce for such

means

times, the

of

means

in
enhanced
enjoyment and the industrial
products were
of transport and the imperfect methods
price by the difficulty
the smaller
of manufacture,
as also by their comparative rarity,
in circulation
amount
in the Empire, and
of the noble metals
of the means
a
of enjoyment and
of
proportionate absence
The use
of paper
for money
objects of value.
only developed
which
slowly, and the rapidity of the circulation of money,
is

equivalentto

It

may
whether
has

the

increased

in the

whether

of wealth

comparison

Empire

the

this
and

then

in

more

were

they are now.

Anyhow, any
value
the
of
same
sums
purchasing
time
are
absolutelyarbitrary.
is abnormal,

Republic

which

of

some

under
60

are

million

100

credible

regarded

was

Apio wrote
proverbial

as

a
a

hundred

the

great

crabs

were

present

of the

men

dying

he

he had

other

in refined
suicide

could

on

live

not

exhausted

debaucheries,

every

and,

on

to
finding it reduced
such a pittance,or
on

kind

marvel

of

pleasure

; he

of

Elagabalus

later

took

him

Africa

from

Minturnae,

bigger there,

He

model.

was

following,possibly

because

returned

and

as

anecdotes, of which the

many
He once
from his book, will sufi"ce.

to

relative

the

antiquity and

subject of

voyage

of the

extravagance by his contemporaries.

became
his luxury : his name
learned
book
on
myth and a perfect type of the reveller ; two

years

borrowed

ordinary incomes

of

examples relied on,

reported as quite exceptional. Apicius
Tiberius
of
squandered huge fortunes

sesterces

millions, because

in

of

greatest fortunes

calculations

the

also

as

authority,committed

possibly because

the

and

Augustus

or

ten

and

luxury of emperors,

the

"

excess

than

The

principalmeans

is the
now

impossible),

imported commodities
the quantity of gold
as

or

measure

and

"

it is not

(though

same

be estimated.

of it, cannot

of manufactured

mass

silver, or

under

ascertained

be

never

not

and

greater abundance

took
he

at once,

had

when

dangerous
heard

the

convinced

lies
universallyfrom anomaand
especially for imperial
exceptions is unsafe, and
since reproduced,
Rome, where influences and conditions, never

of the

tended
and
Count

As

contrary.

to

thus

rule,

to

exaggerate vice and

Apicius

Briihl

or

and

his

Cardinal

infer

extravagances

compeers

Rohan,

to

have
may
who is said to

the

utmost

outdone
have

failed

Roman

140
to

understand

how

Luxury
could

one

any

live

less than

on

1,500,000

livres income.

delights,not in enjoyment,
in the destruction
and
but
degradation of the valuable, is
in Rome
than in
naturally rare, and apparently no commoner
modern
capitals,where at all epochs great wealth and licence
of pleasure has
arrogant vandalism.
produced satiety and
But

the

senseless

Examples

luxury

be

can

which

in

found

The

histories.

other

medieval

complete disregard of their property,

which
they thoughtlesslysquandered and destroyed. In 11 74
to Beaucaire
an
assembly of
Henry II of England summoned
had
Rambaut
a
piece of
squires and knights, and Bertram
sols in pennies. Guilwith
land
ploughed and sown
30,000
had a retinue of three hundred
laume
de Martel, who
knights,
all
had
the provisions in his kitchen
cooked
on
wax
torches,
and
de
Venous
had
Raimond
thirty horses burnt alive. In
nobles

1500
the

I of

Joachim

allegianceof

his horse

in the

used

to

their

horses

ride

price :
and

the

the
all

then

led

them

in

broken

porcelain,when
to

destroy

wealth

German

'

them

these

in

horses

malmsey

back

wine.

shore

instant

facts show

paid
the

Russia

double

the

Rathskeller
certain

if the

very
plate is

make

'

dresses
an

pearls. He also
his brothers, let

into

In

beside

incomplete,
a
point of dancing on
Creole women
in Habana
spread
the
wheels
their
of
over
carriages,

sailors

Paris-made

new

with

set

considered

are

on

boots

walked

Belkow

von

with
pottery market
the articles,and
then
their

to receive

to Frankfort

came

Herr

in velvet

smash

they

city,and

mud

festive occasions

their

Brandenburg

into

washed

not

in

sought fame

that

and

this

so

make

boast

perversity is

not

of their
hmited

soul.
epoch, but is implanted in the human
only strikinginstances of this form of luxury in ancient
Rome
of singing
are, apart from imperialextravagances, the use
birds and birds taught to speak as food, and
sipping dissolved
pearls. According to Valerius Maximus, the son of Aesop the
made
mania
a
a
great tragedian, who
large fortune, had
for the latter, and, according to Pliny, used to set before every
of his guests a dissolved
one
pearl. According to Horace, he
swallowed
the pearl Metella
had
once
worn
as
an
ear-ring,in
order
million
to drink
at a gulp. Maximus
down
ascribes
a
to the father, and
Pliny to the son, the roasting of singingand
speaking birds : Pliny estimates the cost of each dish at 6,000
to any
The

one

Roman
sesterces,and
the

two

the

and

show

anecdotes

that

100,000

variations

nightingales.The
similar

at

course

their

in

that

value

141

and

Quintus Arrius, who

of

sons

Luxury
used
the

the

to feed

in the

mentions

expensive

on

of

accounts

details

consists

Horace

these

and

untrustworthy,
general credence they
such
stories (including
are

only
The
obtained.
frequent repetitionof
that of Cleopatra'spearl)has led to the conclusion
that such
in reality these
incidents were
But
solecisms
common.
of
abnormal
considered
then.
even
luxury were
Augustus, it
is said, had his Egyptian procurator Eros crucified on a ship's
had won
its every
mast, for buying and roasting a quail which
Such
fight.
extravagances as
breaking a silver vessel of
'

'

Mentor,

old Cellini,in order

an

mistress'

uncultured
with

stuffed
his

wounded

luxury, than
by a Prince
diamond
who

the

shown

had

of

in

is relative.

But

'.

respect

were

life of the
now,

Hence,

'

ancients,
far

was

every

and

to

as

on

to

them

are

binding
purple

of

of

fire.

rank

For

of

have

symptoms
the

idea

of

and

not
of

forms

would

welcome

views

extent

with

banker,

of certain

even

those

not

Warsaw

examination

the

letter

ly
assenting unreserved-

it does

artificial satisfaction

civilization, appeared

of

writers

in accordance

more

of

sandal-wood

individual

some

ink

prosperity.

than

austere

for

instead

Tepper,

made

whole

the

on

more

of

luxury which

the

sensible,

Every

wastrel

cushions

whipped

contemporary
eighteenth century is indicated

is the habit

civilization

is

white,

bestrews

and

senseless

to

illustrate

by Roman
unprejudiced

an

commodity

every

of the

error

innocent

advance

slave

with

daughters

condemnation

the

more

their coffee

source

them

luxury

even

the

or

whereas

luxury,

no

luxury

up

di Conti, who

dust,

further

to

of

the

in 1790

arm

incidents

These

and

reliefs attached

Trimalchio's

riche.

nouveau

purple wool

master's

wool.

the

toilette-table,characterize

the

or

to have

age declares
pensable
indisconsider

antiquity in

of modern
that

of the

with

Nature

times.

this
The

Southerner
than

ours.

by greater
natural,
only superfluous,but unneeds, created

nations, who
highly civilized Northern
in the first place to compensate
have
industriallythe meagrein
of Nature, regard and often rightly every advance
ness
And
not only harmless, but
craft
as
a
sign of progress.
Roman
three main
authorities
on
besides, our
luxury happen
Seneca
and Pliny the Elder, men
Varro, Lucius
to be Marcus
whereas

the

"

"

Roman

142
simple
peculiarly

of

Luxury

strict

and

beyond the average

especiallytrue of Seneca, who

of abstemiousness
This

for

is
a

whole

denied
he

himself

gradually

contemporaries.
youth abstained

advice

the

principle

of

Attains,

superfluous pleasure ;

and

in his old age,

but, even
scents, wine
of oysters, mushrooms,

less

himself

in his

on

severe

in the few
practised great moderation
ness
The
eSects of his abstemiouspleasureshe permitted himself.
shown
were
by the condition of his body at the time of his
little qualification
death.
Varro, with very
He, Pliny and
condemn
comfort, every refined and superfluous enjoyevery
to
a return
and
ment
Pliny are inclined to advocate
; Seneca
wealth
!Nature.
of
Pliny, contemplating the inexhaustible
and
confirmed
in this tendency,
creation
if left to herself, was
fraction
ineven
stigmatizes the sailing-ship as an unwarrantable
Varro disapproves the importof the order of Nature.
ation
of foreign foods.
Pliny thinks the artificial growth of
monstrous
a
piece of gluttony ; he and Seneca
asparagus
Seneca
against the cooUng of drinks
repeatedly declaim
is now,
and has been
unnatural
with snow,
as
an
luxury : snow
son,
for centuries, indispensableto the poorest Southerner
; Addivisited Naples in the beginning of the eighteenth
who
and

"

became

of their

on

forbidden

every

avail

not

would

flesh, and,

from

year

acted

habits, who

baths, and

warm

"

"

century, thought
would
Galen

famine

cause

And

revolt.

recommends

of snow,

Rome,

as

snow

Sicily,the growing use of

of health.
general standard
In

Iced

by

the

fruits and

other

French

the

at

great spread of the

times

is

luxury

good

and

snow

flavoured

end

of the

manufacture

illustration

ancient, with

the
is

so

narrow

famine

desire

of

is very

corn

where,
else-

natural

easilyprocurable there.

is said

to

substances
seventeenth
and

of the
its

like

trade

difference
limits.

have

were

the

raised

invented

century.

The

in ice in modern
between
The

modem
American

thirtyyears ago reached its height,and

ice to the
of Arctic
annually exported over
^500,000 worth
almost
factured
everywhere given way before manuequator, has now
wiU soon
be an Indispensable
ice, and probably refrigerators

ice-trade, which

about

household

article.

ground in declaiming against the use

but on surer, when
of snow
as
a refrigerator,
protestingagainst
feather-cushions, which, although mentioned
by Cicero, can
Pliny was

on

insecure

Roman

144
by

tallow

into
with

wax-candles, and bed canopiesand curtains

and
So

use.

Luxury

Holinshed

too

complaint

prefaces his

at the introduction

Chronicle
in

of stoves

came

of

1577

England, and

ones
platesinstead of earthen and wooden
difScult
more
Finally,criticism of luxury has been rendered
excess
owing to its varieties not being distinguished,and
in one
being ascribed to all. But the same
people at the

of pewter dishes and

time

same

be

may
economical

very

Malmesbury,
lavish, but
moderate

dress,

the
their

direction
and
extravagant in one
very
of
another.
Thus, according to William

the

fitted

extravagant

use

in richness
Patriarch

up, but
laws
on

many

of

luxury

were

very

Normans

were

splendid castles.

In

times

the

shown

in

In

the

in

the

recent

to

century up

seventeenth

so

the

themselves

sumptuary
century Russian

as

Anglo-Saxons

whereas

sixteenth

meagrely

were

the

mean,

built

and

from

of

banquets
homes

eaters

Germany
homes

in

luxury

was

dress
was

prove.
exhibited

jewellery,and otherwise almost exclusively

silk.
The
stuffs and
attire, mostly of Oriental
of

Nikon

in

1652 in

months

seven

roubles

spent 700

pounds of rye on his dress, and hved otherwise

at Court, there
on
a peasant's fare, and
very cheaply. Even
were
teenth
golden dishes but no plates or napkins. In the sevencentury Spanish grandees similarly combined
finery
and
cheese-paring. Their luxury consisted in an enormous
expenditure of the huge supplies of gold and silver from
Mexico
and
Peru, mainly on plate; in accumulating costly
or

150,000

furniture

and

decorations, and

paid, starving

attendants

in

their

numerous

of ill-

retinues

vast,
Uving-rooms were
mules gorgeously draped,

magnificent,their
hoofed
and horses
at enormous
with silver ; they had coaches
dresses
were
escudos) ; women's
prices (e.g.,12,000-25,000
with
overloaded
fine Unen
was
jewellery and pearls. But
had
that many
so
only a single skirt, and had to do
rare,
without
In fact
or
stay in bed whilst it was
being washed.
all this tinsel concealed
was
great poverty ; ready money
and was
hoarded
scarce,
up, instead of being put out at interest.
and
President
de Brosses
French
that
(1739-40) observes
their sedan-chairs

Italian

ideas

France

reckon

of

table.'

his

servants, had

of
a

splendour
great house

The
three

rich
times

were

or

as

great

kept

difierent.

very

many

man

by

the

'

We

in

excellence

large Idtchen-stafE,hvery
courses

as

they needed,

Roman
had

the

their

wealth

fine

or

dessert

buildings,so

gUttered
sparingly, in the

also
feasts

at

their

that

says
with

simplest

of which

one

immortalize

to

Brosses

ladies

any

145

elaboratelyserved : the Italians used

very
bedeck
their native
city with monuments

to

De

taste.

Luxury

the

their

Venetian

of
seven

varieties

luxury of

and

the

and

domestic

luxury

of

the

proud palaces,

hours

could

table, dress, decoration

arrangements,

offer the

rooms.

of

burial, slaves, and

of

very

necessarilyconnected,

nowise

are

patrician

those

imposing spectacleof forty splendidlyfurnished

Thus

artistic

Hved

jewellery,but

rooms

in less than

and

name

the

home
in the

art

Roman

Empire depended partiallyon very diverse conditions,

and
require treating separately. In the same
public
way
and
be severally considered.
At this
private luxury must
point we deal circumstantiallyonly with the latter.
The
first period of vast luxury at Rome
the reign of
was
and
the nabobs,
enriched
with
the booty of two
LucuUus,
Oriental
kingdoms, could Uve like a Xerxes in a toga', and
'

was,

then

into

Rome

and

type, which introduced

extravagance in buildings and

after, regarded

the

fashion

of

as

the

under
such
isolated
the
banquets. But
expenditure was
least
to a hmited
confined
circle,and became
Republic, or at
general only under the Monarchy, when, as has been said,
wealth
became
Tacitus
is undoubtedly right
greater. Hence
in saying that
from
Rome's
period of greatest luxury was
the Battle
of Actium
up to the accession of Vespasian, who,
himself
old-fashioned, did more
by his example to restrict

laws
extravagance than
any
the
great families,under
many

or

decrees.

And,

besides,

JuHan Emperors, had been

in the
ruined
by their
attempt to distinguishthemselves
magnificence, and the survivors profitedby their example.
duced
introthe Itahan
cities and
And, lastly,
the provinces had
novi homines
into the Roman
aristocracy,who
many
ings.
surroundamidst
their new
preserved their native economy
For
to

the whole

diminish

of the second

luxury, as

century these facts tended

good example set by the

(with the exception of Lucius
Verus), and the
emperors
steady dechne of the old and rise of the new
nobility. Hence
latter
it need not be assumed,
that, after Trajan, in whose
made
his statement
(above quoted), there had
years Tacitus
been any material
change in this respect.
R.L.M.

II.

also

the

X,

Roman

146
LUXURY

I. THE

OF

Luxury

THE
OF

TABLE

The
be

must

of

censure

would

attitude

far

are

regard
towards

the

of

use

unmixed

ours

as

wine

is

The

excess.

instance.

one

the

first

The

precept.

Jupiter who

only Cythnian
hfe, and

could

At

Rome,

reduce

for

for

the

have

been

baked

censorial

tuary
cocks.

by

an

at

in

time

ordinance
wine

one

For
and

wealthy
fare, and

in

Italy

made

("d);

as

spent

Metro-

whole

as.

greatest simphcity prevailed

that

to

up
in

these, and

Greece
table

at

written
accustomed

them

eat

there

in

was

matrmae

of
fatteningl

forbidden

by

subsequent sui^pevaded
by fatterting
and

not

shell-fish

even

once,

facilities of

observes

B.C.,

munication
com-

fact testifies to

Posidonius

children

an3rthingthere

About

B.C.

than

more

were

forbidden

were

till 78

of the

that time.

their

,ind

canjnot

table

the

B.C.

Italy,this
100

then

the

B.C.

dormice,

view

accoun-|:ed

in aU

served

about

of the

art

any

even

was

perhaps

and

but

174

161

re-enacted

of 115 B.C., or
still never
was

of his notes

an

and

provision was
still,foreign birds

Rome

of the

this

to sustain

cooks, hitherto the least

splendid banquets, and,

modesty

the

knowledge

was

between
the

much

as

the

later

into

Greek

100,

his fare

great indignation, and

Much

imported

less than

bread

but

as

on

necessary

good prices;
years, the luxury

edict, which

laws

it cost him

great.

own

aroused

hens

of food

fetch

to

very

their

minimum

time

hundred

next

water

him

indulgence,allowed himself
supreme
hke
Pascal
at Port-Royal he tried

the

that

slaves, began

exalted

and

its

as

from
returned
Asia
Minor,
army
first time
with
Oriental
bauchery,
luxury and de-

with

; from

bread

with

'

Luxury

greatest

the

B.C.

the

and

cooking

long

188

In

acquainted

for

to the

not

table.

of

proud that

was

dorus

of

as

cheese

to restrict himseU

of

Teacher

satisfied

was

insisted, and,

rule he

at

'

less

drinkers,

the
philosophy of Epicurus inculcated
simphcity of pleasures,and the highest moderation

Even

table

much

and

eaters

diet of

seasonable

the

need

Southerners

moderate

more

of

luxury

the

on

cautiously taken.

very

nourishment,
and

ancients

the

ATION
IMPORT-

FOODS

FOREIGN

"

THE

AND

was

to

the

Stoic,

that

the

quite simplfj
at

hand,

antl

Roman
drink
ask

the

after

had

'

Yet

would

eaten

Rome's

'.

father
like

he

some,

fruit

some

satisfied

was

made

Egypt.
tendency,
Germany
excellent

The

kids

best

fish at

donkey

in

the

hke

and

home

attitude

Luther

dides

exalts

as

very
the

in

never

Athens

common

Hutten

of

sleep'.
articles

the

the

and
terranean
Medi-

Romans

Ambracia,

in

Tarentum,
in

and,

closer

soon

Varro

and

dates

disapproved
sixteenth

the

this

century

reprehensible the neglect of

search
for luxury. But
this
in antiquity. Thucyeven

receiving the

as

at

often
;

to

other

shores

hke

and

products
was

were

went

and

very
to be had

morahsts

considered

stern

the

Pessinus, oysters

severer

and

dinner

became

relations

oversea

would

for

foreignfoods

more

that

147

the mother

or

lively,and
exchanged their products

commerce

learned
best

the

flourishingtrade

necessities
wider

if he

son

he

'

water

mostly

Luxury

of all countries

imports

and

its own
the later
as
enjojdng foreign commodities
; and
Attic
like
Archestratus
of
comedians,
Antiphanes, and
Gela
a
(who supphed material to Ennius) made
gastronomic
of the world, and drew
tour
up Usts of cosmopoHtan dehcacies
with the same
complacency as Brillat-Savarin, who celebrates
the international
originsof the meals of Paris, to which every
its share.
quarter of the globe contributes
Varro
would
out
of court
be still more
a
to-day when
middle-class
German
cofiee from
the
on
family breakfasts
the West
East
Indies, Chinese tea, sugar from
Indies, EngUsh
cheese, Spanish wine, and caviar from Russia, without
being
I assured
accused
of luxury'.
that
him', says Gulhver,
this whole
be at least three times
globe of earth must
gone
'

'

round

before

breakfast

or

derive

our

blame,

much

one

easier

or

put
the

Asia,

female
In

it in '.
whole

less any sign of

be all the more

from
less

better

our

to
cup
food
from

would

Germany

of

'

America

Yahoos

and

in it ;

of

out

and

costly,than from the

which
was
practicallya

near

get her

time, every

our

world

luxury

could

and

place

Africa

see

as

is

day
nothing

Varro's

to

plaints
com-

transport

to

certainly no

Mediterranean
And

we

coasts

the

preference
for certain commodities
of certain
places is always a
of
of the
increase
prosperity and
consequence
necessary
The Paris, for example, of the thirteenth
commerce.
century
of
trade
and
the
first
in
was
Europe, yet
respects
city
many
with
wealth
were
scarcelyas great as in Varro's Rome
; yet
to

Rome,

harbour.

'

Roman

148
the

regard to

prevailed;
that

of certain

source

Vermandois

Corbeilles

Orleans

and
Brie
Champagne
and
Auvergne apples

shalots.

fish, Burgundian

greatly esteemed.
Malta

wines. Moselle

wines,

were

speciallyin

from

all

times

pears
best chestnuts

The

bardy, figsfrom

is

gourmet might fillhis larder.

Auvergne
turnips,
cresses,

the

Etampes

onions,

cheese, Bondy
were

what

whence

peas,

anything but indifference

district produced this or

foods

knew

one

every

article best, and

Thus

Luxury

and

Similar

sufficientlyknown.
makes

and

be
may
commercial

Nicolai,
German

foreign
ItaUan

ment
develop-

his

in

Lom-

collected

facts

countries, whose

and

of

Greek

Spanish, Cypriote,

demand.

'

the Levant

from

raisins

from

came

life

of

and

count

epicure
of
German
catalogue all the best
provinces alone,
could
endure
not
food.
since his patriotism
French
Every
large marenas
(a kind of salmon)
day by post he received
from
Pomerania,
three-quarters of a yard long, flounders
Sebaldus

Nothanker,

foods

the

from
tarts

from

sent

him

of

Isle

Hanau,
in

the

Hela, and

spiced

March

BerUn

from

brawn

(perch-pike)
; cold

Frankfort,

fieldfare

too

so

sandar

are

the

from

to

be

Harz,

in February ; crabs from

Sonnenburg,
pheasants from Bohemia
hams
cooked
in
caviar
from
champagne,
Westphalian
and
melons
Konigsberg, Astrachan
pineapples. And
then
and
a
was
commercially undeveloped
Germany
poor

country.
A

perusal of

what

Roman

writers

say about
land
and
sea

'

the

disgusting

for delicacies
explorations of
think
would
make
and
one
made,
huge preparations were
of men
sent out on
armies
whole
long, dangerous and difficult
expeditions, to fill the plates of Roman
epicures. With
Vitelhus
it certainlywas
the ingredients of
so
; for he had
fleets even
his famous
gigantic dish fetched by the Roman
from Spain and Parthia
flamingo tongues, mackerel
; they were
livers, pheasant and peacock brains, and lamprey-milk. But,
the emperors,
Vitellius only found
even
imitator,
one
among
the
more
Elagabalus ; there were
gourmets
many
among
French
of the
eighteenth century. Verdelet, for instance,

hunts

had

and

'

dish

one

carp, which
on

an

XV,

the

made
cost

omelette
and

made

out
1,200

of the

livres,and

royale invented
out

tongues of
Prince

by the

of cockscombs

and

two

or

three

de Soubise
cook

thousand

often

Martin

carp-mUk,

dined

for Louis
which

cost

Roman
100

But,

ecus.

orgies of
the

products
into

came

deUcacies

Rome,

market

from
most

the

their

foods

countries, which

hen, flamingoes and

others

some

Italy and cannot

maximum
pricesordained

among
dainties
also

and

And

excited
the

imperial

is, that

sale.

good

birds, pheasants and

are

of the

monstrosities

found

and

distant

149

simple explanation

all countries

of

the

from

apart

ancient

Luxury

of these

such

Numidian

part of them

were

indignation,
guinea
already

expensive ; in the
tariff of
by Diocletian, the pheasant
is only priced a quarter as
Both
much
again as a goose.
for feasts : at the very
roasted
birds were
frugal table of

being

in

bred

the

Emperor

much

game

Alexander

have

Severus

fowls,

two

and

hare

one

daily, and a goose on ordinary

and a pheasant only on extraordinary occasions
festival-days,
Tacitus
also fond
of pheasants.
the Emperor
was
of the
Further, only after the establishment
monarchy
did
of foreign animals
the
accUmatization
and
vegetables
will
be
dealt
with
and
their
(which
later),
acquisitionthrough
to
and
Varro's
censures
extent,
spread
commerce,
any
angry
the
directed
of
such
are
against
beginnings only
luxury.
in
his time, foreign dishes
at luxurious
For,
rare
even
were
meals.
A
list of dishes
eaten
at
a
priestly inauguration
between
73-63 b.c. has been preserved ; there are a few foreign
were

dishes, but
The

first

none

with

ragout

then

or

of

of

udders

different kinds

roasted
of

menu

with

of sows,

kinds

two

of

as

and

place

sea-urchins,
thrush

mussels,
of

The

August

plain oysters

on

a
asparagus,
black
and
white

shell-fish

and

on

and

marine

24.
ad

fatted
nuts
chest-

animals

boars, game-pie, and

wild
chief

consisted

course

of

pig'shead, fricassee of fish and sow's-udder,

duck
prepared), hares,
(boiled or otherwise
bread.
The
meal
a
pudding and Picentine
a

and

is lost.

women

Pontifex, and
the

does

becaficos.

game,
the dessert
men

Caesar

of

oysters and
of

It took

costly.

mussels,

becaficos, loins
fish

up

consisted

sorts

purple

aU

rare

course

libitum, two

hen,

served

been

fare

w"is

At

this

meal

the

most

guished
distin-

including Julius
six priestessesin
six priests and
for the proverbially
luxurious
even
of Rome

sat

down,

four
five cenwriter
or
turies
a
priesthoods ; otherwise
But
record
it.
later would
hardly have troubled to
still it would
be easy to select various
banquets of modern
attention
still hardly excited
times, equally costly, which
;

voracious

Roman

150
and

this sacerdotal

of

eighteenth

the

date

Luxury

dinner

and

comparable

is not

nineteenth

of this dinner

of

foreigndelicacies
the feast given by

and

may
the

increased.

rich

Nasidienus

Between

importation

the

censures

have

examples

luxury.

century

Varro's

with

to

describes

Horace

But

and

Maecenas

his

his
and
foreign dishes are mentioned,
of food, but
the
satire is directed, not
against the excess
to
absurd
refinements
of these epicures,a passion ridiculous
the poet, who
loved
simple dishes most and vegetarian fare,
in accordance
with
the precepts of Epicurus.
marks
the beginning
As Tacitus
says, the battle of Actium
flourished
of the
commerce
great epoch of luxury, when
to
with
extended
universal
by way of Alexandria
peace, and
India and
all Asia.
At last Rome
became
a
city into which

friends, at which

the

trade

bringing

of the world, year in, year out, poured in profusion,

and
when
what
every people produced and made

the

last

'

'

distant

most

At

'

no

could

products
and

rarest

be

costliest

close

examined

products

of all

hand

at

could

zones

'.
be

'

Now,' says
PUny in his
epicure's table.
so
commingled
pedantic fashion, different ingredients were
that
each perforce had
to tickle the
palate with a savour
the result was
fusion
a
nature, and
foreign to its own
general conIn one
of the
and
cUmates.
products of all zones
dish India
laid under
was
contribution, in another, Egypt,
not
And
even
are
Cyrene, Crete and so forth.
poisons men
lavished

the

on

'

loth

to

The
was

swallow'.

luxury

of

doubt

no

great, but

very

others
Younger and
its profligacy. Much
condone

much

that

that

etc.
to

than

more
:

the

is

cost

Kotzebue,

thalers, employed
architects

and

food
a

third, and

us

at

the

and

dessert

workers

drink

Vespasian

to

other

the

Elder, Seneca
its

heinous

and

extent

can

we

innovation

things had

is

different

consisted
very costly,but the expense
the decoration, the service,
; there was

florists.

and

final estimate

no

the

exaggerate
them

to

elegant

an

Pliny

Augustus

they utterly condemned,

was

food

the

from

doubt

no

everyday experience to
meaning in reality.
Great
banquets were
in

in Rome

banquets

in
the

At

cost

of the
at

Paris, which

sugar,
Lord

half of the

banquet

of

1853

According

luxury.

cost

10,000

decorators,

painters,
merly
Mayor's banquets fortotal, under George III
in honour

of

Na.poleon,

Roman

152
we

tell.

cannot

refinement
shown.
of

the

the

seventeenth

Mazarin

in honour

of the

and

greatest prize

at

into

feast

Queen

was

will

of

banquets and its

be subsequently

instance, when

one

introduced

century,

Roman

at

later,as

present, to take

rafflingfor giftswas

the

outlay

easilyrivalled

was

For

this

But

Luxury

at

England,

diamond

from

France
the

worth

the custom

Italy in
given by

Louvre

all numbers

4,000

won,

ecus

on

the
August 17, 1661, Superintendent Foucquet gave
king
with
a
banquet,
jewels, splendid costumes, costly weapons
1
and horses as prizes.
Further, extravagance in banquets and the high pricespaid
to be ascribed
not
for singledelicacies are, in imperial Rome,
only to debauchery, but also to fashion, ostentatiousness, and
the desire of being talked
about
gourmets ; and so too
among
with
other
forms
of luxury. 'Spendthrifts
',says
Seneca,
devote
their whole
lives to becoming the topics of conversation,
and deem
lack of notoriety failure.
Everything they do
must
be rumoured
abroad, or they are discontented.
Many
their
there
who
mistresses
or
are
property
squander
keep
;
'

but

have

to

committed

with
is not

such, the extravagance

eclat ; in so
gossipingabout

certain

worth

'

Tucca,'
one

amongst

name

and

says Martial, to be
'.
be known
as
one

spending

the

of

huge

busy
'.

glutton

This

You

; you

mulH

on

be

sipation
city ordinary disnot

are

want

strivingafter

sums

mentioned

'

must

content,

to

appear
duced
notoriety in-

(barbel)of

ordinary
extra-

proof of unexampled
luxury. Thus one Publius Octavius, an eminent man, bought for
a barbel
weighing 5J pounds (Roman), and the
5,000 sesterces
for the emperor
ius
Tiberglory of having something too dear even
thus gained much
and his rival Apicius ; and
repute with
determined
Such
his peers'
fancy priceswere
by the purse
look through
of the purchaser. Juvenal speaks of people who
all ingredientsand delicacies,and, regardlessof price,express
to
costs
most, ruining themselves
a
preference for what
worth
This sum
have
dishes brought to table
400 sesterces.
("4js)was considered prodigious proof sufficient of the lower
In fact, one
litre of
of luxury in food at that time.
standard
the rarest
tit-bits,only used in small quantities,a fish-sauce
size, often

as

'

"

called garum
at

In

1596, at

of the inside of the

factured
tunny fish and manuCartagena, only cost "1 13s. in present currency.
of famine, banqufetswere
a time
given at Paris,at

made

out

Raman

Luxury

which

the dishes cost 45 icus or 440 francs ; at

Marechal
de I'Hopital,in Mazarin's
day, each

as

St.

In

ecus.

much

Petersburg

under

roubles

300

as

for

Potemkin

fish soup

dish

the

at his balls in 1791,

fish-soupworth

roubles

1,000

spent 14,000
set

was

the

in modem

kitchens

Emperor
francs

Paris

or

London.

himself

Antoine

Alexander,

and

at

the

salary,and

Russian

his bills

silver dish

and

sent

sauce

assessed

was

with

some

than

aggeration,
ex-

erewhile

much

less than

Careme

Court

his

day on
night,when

in

served

Stewart, Talleyrand, Rothschild

of Lord

for

in

weighing 300 pounds. The cost of a giant trout

to Chancellor
Cambacerds
by the city of Geneva
by the exchequer at 6,000 francs.
Pliny says,
that
cooks
in his day cost more
work
out at
triumphs ; but their wages would
those

400

gave
sturgeon, the

table

on

cost

grandees
of

made

of the

supper

special delicacy at their banquets. Potemkin

time, when
low, spent 800 roubles
prices were
board, and,

153

'^,

the

and

received

2,400

80,000-100,000 :
monthly
that
show
cooks in Engsome
recentlypublished
land
received
Seneca
strous
;^i,2oo a year.
stigmatizes as monof
famous
the city ', containing the
a
dish, the talk
delicacies,such as were
usually served up separately
as

to

came

letters

some

'

finest

"

oysters and

other

shell-fish,
sea-urchins,boned

together with

one

sauce,

vomit

well

commingled '.
cookery must

were

so

interest, Neronian
than

modern

Sulla's

in

the

France

; this

Pliny's time)
Roman

Publius

gourmet
consisted
and

by

doubtful

us

Hadrian,
of

Aelius
and

pie of

such

excited

far

no

less refined

Servilius

"

all times

at

dish

been

have

luxury (much

makes

'

RuUus, in
the fashion
of serving whole
boars,
few
a fashion, too, of the
Regency

were

coarse

mixed

"

:
indistinguishable

If such

of

table, since swine, wild and

of ways, were
dish, invented

sows

guests

be

to

as

cuisines.

time, introduced

when

even

French

so

mullets

also

was

in

the

taste

Elder
of the

tame, prepared in all sorts

favourite

Verus,

in vogue
the refined

meal.
a

One

well-known

specialfavourite

by Alexander
pheasant, peacocks, boar, or
used

of

; it

Severus
the

the

udder

of

ham.

the

of emetics

after

so
by no means
convincing a proof of gluttony or intemperance, as it appears
Caesar
ideas.
to modem
was
conspicuously temperate, but
after a heavy meal
with Cicero, who
mentions
took an emetic

Further,

it without

any

use

meals

is

disapproval;it follows, not

that

men

com-

Roman

154

Luxury

regard
monly ate with bestial gluttony,but that what we now
only as a medicine, was then a usual dietetic,like bleeding and
purging with our forbears.
Every one
says Seneca, knows
will relieve his stomach
his own
bodily defects ; hence one man
with
emetic, or another
an
strengthen it with good food, or
another
tians,
empty and purify it with a fast '. The ancient Egypaccording
three

and

Herodotus,

to

in

days

of mankind,

the healthiest

were

month

every

'

'

'

used

emetics

clysters;

and

physicians,such as Hippocrates, recommended

curred,
and purgings, and later doctors
mostly conregular vomitives
Asclepiades indeed
only deprecating their abuse.
health ;
of emetics
the use
in his book
on
utterly condemned
him for being forced into this attitude
and Celsus did not blame
who
took them
daily ; he disapproved of them as an
by men
aid to gluttony,but he knew
that, as an occasional resource,
So too Archigenes, a famous
to health.
conducive
they were
their use two or three times
physician under Trajan, commends
Galen
and
before, rather than after meals.
month,
a
Pliny
in actual
emetics
disease.
Plutarch
and
But,
only advised
amongst those devotees of the belly who lived to eat, who had
great Greek

the

seven

courses

dishes

and

when

even
were

such

first taste

from

which

been

many

who

have

world

shore
'

that

the

writers
of

they

vomited

to

eat, and

ate

with

circles,even
Of

Nero,

from

Seneca

when

to

may

well

vomit, and
all
wrote

parts of
these

exaggerations and
generahzations of prejudiced
belief
do not
that
this
a
justify
disgusting

daily vomits

in wider

fine
prepare
could
tell at the
to

oyster hailed,there

an

', at least under

But

words.

habit

connoisseurs

how

deign to digesttheir repasts furnished

did not
the

alone, knew

all its evil consequences

mon
comwas
at a time of debauchery, let alone in

habits
the biographers
Emperors, whose
normal
described to the most
have
details,VitelUus, the abtrifling
glutton,and Claudius are the only ones who habitually
And
used emetics.
than Charles V,
no
worse
perhaps he was
to
heroics
in gluttony forced his
whose
horrified
doctor
and
recommend
rhubarb, after a four days'
plenteous senna
gorging.

later

days.

the

'

'

'

"
These

the

considerations

Empire

has

been

show

'

that

stigmatized as

luxury at table under

frightfuland unnatural

Roman
only because
and

the

facts
and

of the

alleged by

time.

The

luxury

has

what

to

exceptionshave

diatribes

without

Luxury

them

been

ancients

have

been

155

taken

to

the

prove

rule,

against gluttony, and the

accepted without
reserve,

for the
qualificationof the proper standard
question remains, whether, and how far, Roman
been surpassed since the fall of Rome.
In addition
the

been

has

stated, the

followingfacts

will

assist

the

argument.
In the

Early

Middle

Ages,

under

the

Khalifs, banquets

profuse in delicate foods and splendid appurtenances.

al Rashid, in the
son
of Gabryl, the physician of Haroun
to dine

used
in

in

conservatory

such

luxuries

as

juice.
Motawakkil
it

the

cooled

room

warmed

roasted
At

with

stuffed

the Circumcision

of

was

with
Feast

almonds
of

the

worked
gold-stuff,

The
mer
sum-

in the winter

by logs of fragrant wood,

fowls

carpet

and

snow,

were

and

ate

and

granate
pomeof Khalif

son

with

jewels :

of a paste of amber, aloes and

musk
figuresmade
;
each guest had heaps of gold and
fore
silver pieces poured out behim, from which he could fillhis pockets at pleasure,and,
In Moorish
on
leaving,each received a dress of honour.
Spain,
with
all its artistic luxury, cookery attained
a high stage of
on

were

refinement.
In

Christian

homes

Europe
good eating.

of

favourite

dishes

; both

and
At
are

Germany the
feasts pheasants
mentioned

cloisters
and

in the

the

were

peacocks

kitchen

were

accounts

century cloisters on the lake of Constance.

also imported ; at Hirschau
Foreign foods and ingredientswere
under
Abbot
William
of foreign fishes
(1069-1091) a number
and fruits (lemons,figs,and chestnuts)and roots such as pepper
and
known
and
used.
Peter
of Clugny about
ginger, were
with home
not content
monks
1 130 complained that many
were
barons
And
medieval
foods, but sought for foreign ones.
(likeNero in his Golden
kept a sumptuous table, having even
down
House) ceilingsthat showered
fragrances and sugared
the

of

cakes
In

eleventh

the

on

guests.

France

the

art

century, and
cooks

of the

aimed
the

at

nature

sweets,

famous

making
of the

In the fourteenth
cooking was well advanced
The
in the fifteenth.
progressed more

of

school

dishes
viands.

of Charles

VII's

cook

attractive,
artistically
The

peacock, a pheasant

or

principalcourse
swan,

Taillevent,

disguising

and

consisted

in its skin and

of

feathers.

Roman

156

Luxury

The peacocks were

gildedbeak, carried on a loftydish.
brought in to the sound of trumpets and the clapping of hands,

witb

and

were

favourite

turkeys

centuries, when

until

roast
and

the

sixteenth

Geizkofler, a native of
marriage of Adam
adviser to the Fuggers in 1590, six turkeys and
In Spain, peacocks fattened
served
were
up.
in old-fashioned

houses

At

pheasants supplanted them.

the

the

eaten

seventeenth

or

as

the

Tirol, legal

peacocks

seven

with

nuts

were

down

principalcourse,

to

1815.
II was
In England the reign of Richard
an
age of luxurious
of rank
at the end
of the
food ; the ordinary dinner of a man
five
fourteenth
la three courses
of seven,
century consisted
twelve
and six dishes each ; at greater feasts eleven, nine and
The
fifteenth century also distinguisheditself in this
dishes.
When
made
Archbishop of York in
George Neville was
way.
devoured
a huge banquet, at which
were
1466 there was
4,000
cold game-pies, 104 peacocks and
200
pheasants.
The greatness of Italian luxury at feasts in the fifteenth century
be illustrated by a descriptionof the one
given by
may
Benedetto
the
of
famous
a
Salutati,
Florentine, grandson
his associates, February
the
chancellor, and
16, 1476, to
in Naples. The
decked
staircase
of King Ferrante
was
sons
with embroidered
of yew
; the great hall
carpets and wreaths
decorated
with
which
in
the canopy,
was
tapestries; from
cloth with
the colours
of carved
of Aragon, two candelabras
and
gilded wood
hung down.
Opposite the main entrance,
with
on
a
platform covered
carpets, stood the dining-table,
the
finest hnen
worked
One
over
a
cover.
spread with
side was
taken
set
by a huge sideboard, on which were
up
out eighty ornamental
pieces of plate{besidesthe silver tableservice),mostly of silver,some
gold, and three hundred
plates
of

various

of

drums

kinds, bowls,

beakers

and

dishes.

To

the

hors'd'ceuvre
The
guests sat down.
little dish of gilt cakes
of pineapple kernels,
fifes the

and

consisted

of

and

majolica bowl with a milk pudding. Eight

of
with
coats
capon's breast jelly,decorated

dishes
and

of

; and

mottoes

received
a

shower

dish

of

consisted

ham,

httle

sound

with

the
a

arms

Calabria,

principalguest,

the

fountain

middle,

spraying forth

first

the

orange-flower water.
of twelve

silver

courses

in the
The

of various

pheasants, partridges,capons,

Duke

of

part of

meats,

game,

quet
ban-

veal,

fowls, blancmange;

at

Roman
the end,
off the

huge silver dish

and

cover

salvers
tails

spread, burning
attached

arms

part

of the

to

essence

consisted

feast

on

their

of nine

light and

removed,

cloth

of

pastry

his hands

the

who

took

ficent
magni-

two

The

second

various
with

sweets,

hippocras.

Sicilian ; between

and

the

; then

On

breasts.

courses

delicate

Italian

were

the Duke,

of birds.

mostly
two guests was
placed a list of
of the banquet, every guest was
wines

15;

peacocks, apparently alive, with

in their beaks, and
the Duke's

silk ribbon

tarts, marchpane,
The

number

two

were

set before

was

released

there

Luxury

fifteen brands.

handed

every
the end

At

to wash

fragrant water

large dish was put

the table, containing a mountain
of green twigs which
on
gave
filled
the
forth fragrant scents, whose
hall.
perfume
During
the
a

meal

and

was

after, the guests

dumb-show.

About

an

hour

designs in silver vessels with

there

of the

of

coats

were

night

arms

were

entertained

later,dessert

covers

and

of

devices.

with

served

was

and

wax

Towards

music

and

; sugar
in which

sugar,
the fifth hour

guests left, after having stayed nearly four

the

hours.
In

century, Venice perhaps indulged in the

most
feasts in all Italy. In 1552 Cardinal
Grimani,
gorgeous
a
nephew of Julius III (Ranuccio Farnese) gave a banquet
the
served
for a hundred
guests ; ninety dishes were
up and
dinner
The
lasted
Venetian
four hours.
burghers generally
spent 400 or 500 ducats on city banquets. Not only spices
and scents were
At a breakfast
to
lavished, but gold as well.
King Henry III in the apartments of the Ten, everything was
of sugar,
bread.
includingtable-cloths,covers, plates and even
The
banqueting halls and tables were
extremely artistic and
of the centre-piecesrepresented white
splendid. Some
cocks,
peawith tails spread, quite hfe-hke, overhung with ribbons
silk of aU
hues
and
of gold and
gilded sugar, with scents
between
their feet ;
burning in their beaks and love-mottoes
figuresin marchpane three palms high, and so forth.
Songs,
poems,
these
The

the

sixteenth

banquets.
biographer

banquets,
modest
dishes

one
were

at

other

and

operas

entertainments

served

to

enUven

Agostino Chigi has described three of his

which
Pope Leo X was present. After one fairly
(it only cost 2,000
heavy silver
ducats), seven
missing, but Chigi forbade any search, and was

surprisedthat

so

of

few

were

missingout

of

so

many.

At

another

Roman

158
banquet given
nets

silver used

might

none

in

twice

the

after

on

each

the

Tiber,
all the

course

eyes of the guests, in order

the remains
were
given to the

third, the Pope and

present, and

were

men

colonnade

the

in before

At

great

on

river, and

the

used

be

crowd.

other

summer

thrown

was

numerous

and

the

spread

were

that

in

Luxury

twelve

cardinals

guest found

every

silver ofE which

his

he

was
eating,
engraved on the
faultlessly
and
had
been
couriers
despatched in time to bring the best
the spot, to each guest fresh
dish of his country, prepared on
that day.
on
Towards
the end of the sixteenth
century, according to the
V
Scuppi, the cook of Kus
cookery-book of Bartolommeo
first of sugar
of four courses
: the
(1566-1572), banquets were
and
filled with
fruits and
tarts, representingthe Papal arms,
little birds.
The rest were
of dishes :
composed of all manner
arms

'

birds in their feathers, capons

in alternation,
sweets
meat,

quite contrary

notions.

made

There

dish

same

The

the

union

dishes

were

varied

most

opposites was

of

dessert, the cloth

table

to

our

rose-water

with

cuUnary
the

; on

ingredientsmight be combined.
fore
Bethe triumph of culinary art.
; hands

removed

was

in bottles, fish, venison,

cooked

were

washed

; the

sugared eggs and syrups, which sent

forth numbing fragrances. At the conclusion, bouquets were
ing
distributed'.
Fragrances played a great part then in cookloved
them, speaks with
; Montaigne, who
approval of
their use
to
for meat
dishes.
At a visit of the Bey of Tunis
filled with
Charles
V at Naples, the Bey's dishes
were
slices
that
ducats
two
and
cost
so
100
a peacock
costly,
pheasants
;
when
the
and
the
entire
and
room
carved,
they were
palace
the neighbouring houses
became
with
redolent
a pleasant smell,
that

covered

was

lasted

with

time.

some

Indeed, in every

century

the

was

delivered

me

air,

problem.

as

He

third

course

in

Italy in the sixteenth

Europe. Montaigne says of

Cardinal
the

Carafa,

science

an

Italian

'

He

terial
gorging,with a magisthough pronouncing on some
great theological
unravelled
the differences
of appetite ; how
a
the

; how

satisfied
sauces

of

lecture

feels before

man

of

first nation

steward

domestic

the

in cuisine

and

art

; first

on

meal, and

these

and

after

various

excited.

generally;

the

second, and

after the

ficially
feelingmay be artidiscussed
the management

states

He
and

of

of

on
then, in particular,

the

Roman

i6o
Grimod
nine

for twenty-two people. Of the

Reynldre (junior)
kind of meat, prepared in
each
consisted
of one

de la

courses,

eighteenth century

the

Anyhow,
and

cooks

learned

des

Grecs, 1748).
host

ring

table

his

sometimes

he

King
by

went

had

and

the

the

name

to

The

maitre

that

state

presidedover

d'hoiel

his side,
snuff
had

his master

the

diamond-

in his

spent

hand

100,000

given by Soubise to
court
cost over
80,000 livres.
Many recipes
who
of great personages
designed them.
kitchen
120
sumed
conwere
pheasants a week
One

hommes

de

singledinner

he

in

travelled

houche

Penthievre, when

de

(with a preface by

garb, a sword at
pouch of perfumed

year.

Conde's

; 152

Duke

Comus

de

in rich

past

Prince

In

The

finger,a

ictis in the
the

'
ing
great cookage of
Marin, the chef of Prince

the

Thedtre
of the
Brumoy, translator
had
a
chef de cuisine in great houses

of assistants.

at

on

was

Dons

of the

was

Jesuit Father

the

service

of "whom

', one
author

Soubise, the

whole

fashions.

different

twenty-two

Luxury

went

advance

the

to open

the

of

gundy.
States of Bur-

that
Regency, if not the time of the best cooking, was
of the greatest gorging : nobody thought of anything else,
In the middle
of the tables of
according to a contemporary.
of meat, and
that day were
huge mountains
pyramids of game
The

birds

and

fowls and

; a

whole

six doves

boar,

young
round

roast

it,a haunch

loin of veal

of venison

with

three

all kinds

with

In Law's
time
this
great sturgeon with mullet.
its height. 100
pistoleswould be paid
extravagance reached
of game,

In
litre of peas.
unequal to the demand.

the

Lent, 1720,

butchers'

supplieswere
At one
Parisian
lady's table an ox,
consumed
two
calves, six wethers, etc., were
day.
every
Fashions
table
decoration
varied
of
much, from artistically
ornamented
beds
arranged and
centre-pieces,to imitation flowerin clay planted with cut flowers, or designs of buildings,
invented
frost
hoarstatues, and landscapes. A certain Carade
a

for

which

melted

thaw, the trees turn

on
or

winter

'.

Under

marble-dust,

in the

Revolution

and

made

'

river

the

'

powdered glass and

in, to vanish
The

room

green, the flowers bloom, and springfollow

Louis XVI
sand
sableurs' used coloured

carpet patterns with

came

heated

at

marvellous
breath

or

sugar,

and

rapiditybefore
drop of water.

scarcely affected

this

sian
Per-

fashioned

luxury ;

the

guests

under

the

Roman
Directoryextravagance

was

to have

brought

had

mushrooms

by express

messenger,

per cover.
German

Society,as
of the

often

1716,

and

great

as

scale ;

eighteen choice wines, of

round.

of that time
an

of

dessert

But

poverty luxury

Court

For

About

of

6, 8

on

or

than
the

on

the

on

same

table,

middle

of 1730,

class

'five

requires 12-16
private individual
and

For
six

or

courses

to

give

ministers

the middle

artists and
with

fifty

common.

of rank

dishes

in

'

was

1780 in Vienna,
10

lay
the

writer

men

officials,
merchants,

regularly dined
The

',says

snobbery.

Stateit is different'.
lower

at the table

suffice ; a banquet
reckoning the dessert ; for a
dishes is

lists

amongst

dishes

without

50-80

which

rangement
ar-

Vienna

at

the finest china

on

even

ordinary friendlydinner

delicate

in the

the

dishes,

handed

400 francs

France

Lady Montagu, when

aristocracyoff more

with

is said

of the Rhone

banquets at

in all else, imitated

silver,and

Barras

ever.

the mouth

gave

all of

were

as

from

Danton

table.

dined

i6i

Luxury

of

class,the

superior artisans
4 sorts of wines.

or

2,3

given at the investiture of Superintendent

Deyling at Leipzig on August 13, 1721, unmistakably shows
French
influence.
At
the
ber,
high table guests 24 in numincluding the evangelical clerics, the Council and the
Rector Magnificus,sat down
to a first course
of seven
dishes :
venison
with
pies,partridge-soup,boiled trout, wild rosemary
butter-sauce, hiranges, pistachios, horse-radish, Hamburg
menu

meat

and

The

second

dinner

beans,
whole

and

the

At

three

had

and
four

currant

dishes

first table, 30

each.

at the

with

were

six

ox-tongue,

roasted

twelve
sweets

The

lady
: a turkey
partridges,boiled

served.

for six

musicians
consumed

and

32 waiters

were

meat-tarts, and
three
tables, a basket

tarts, 30
other

with

a
arrangement
of four and twenty persons,

two

The
The

pork

tarts.

followed

followingmenu

with

tart.

almond

confectionery;
almond

pig'shead

pastors sat, six dishes each

The

tables

the

craw-fish

two

of five dishes

deer roasted,

superintendent also had

of venison
pie, a haunch
trout

mutton,

Babtis-t"xts.

two

previous plan.
where

legs of

consisted

course

pheasants, a
salads,

two

30

at

dishes
of

the
of

sweets,

lady superintendent's
Three
of Rhine
table, fruit as well.
wine,
pailsand six cans
one
beer, threepail of old Rhine wine, two casks of Wurzen

an

eighths of
R.L.M.

"

tart, a

II.

cask

meat

of

tart

; and

Lobgiinn

at the

beer

were

drunk.

This
M

was

62

Roman

Luxury

city,but gives an idea of how the

rich citizen of Leipzig then lived.
average
at its height at Hamburg
But in all Germany
luxury was
;
of 1780 calls it excessive
'. T. H. Voss has written an
a writer
of Hamburg
in
idyllon a rustic supper given by a merchant
table
Canditor
the
design, a rich
1778. He first describes
and animals, and then the dishes,
landscape with figuresof men
the

certainlyat

of the

cost

'

'

of

'

twelve

which

simmering

some

The

'.

ready

were

and

marble,

on

menu

pheasants

was:

'

cold, and
;table:, some
Jiot dishes in silver tacles
recep-

the

on

bird's-nests

Indian

and

turkeys and soy, trout boiled in wine, cod

with
oyster-sauce, a sucking-pig in jelly,partridge-piefrom
Bordeaux
stuffed with trufQ.es,different vegetables,and fresh
ham, Gottingen
herrings,lobsters, Elbe salmon, Paderbom
lambs'
a ragout of scollops,
tongues, pineapples and
sausages,
and

azia, young

haunch

capers,

ortolans,

venison,

hare,

rich

dessert, including apricots and

The

wines

Potsdam.

Harz

of

red

grouse,

peaches from

wine
comparatively few : Rhine
and
of the sixties, Pontac
Burgundy, Silleri,Tokay, and Cape
wine.
At Hamburg,
according to the same
authority, it was
wine
not
the rule to have
for every
a
speci^il
course,
only at
in wealthy households
feasts, but at the ordinarymeals
:
a
malaga for fresh bean^(often costing a ducat
dish) and
fresh
fresh herrings,burgundy with
with
peas, champagne
were

'

oysters, port
tasteless
in the

found

Radziwill

invitations

gave
were
were

into

there

was

with

fish '.

its crude

boundless

and

Polish

nobles

excess,

massive

extravagance

are

of the

tury
eighteenth cenIn 1789 Prince
Augustus at Warsaw.
of the most
sand
one
splendid. Four thouIn the haU, where
the King
issued.

dined, all the dishes

one,

costly salted

luxury

gorgeousness
feasts of the

Stanislaus

under
Charles

with

of Sarmatian

Examples
but

Madeira

or

of

long

gold
table

; in three

with

others

transformed

magnificent

silver

plate

work
also filled
were
Augsburg filigree
; the long sideboards
with
silver ; the carpets and
liveries were
equally gorgeous.
The fare was
with
ported
plenteous,beginning
oysters speciallytransfrom
hundred
dishes
of them
were
Hamburg : some

of

consumed.

The

cost

of

the

banquet

about

was

1,000,000

marks.

Potemkin's

luxury

feasts

of fare and

perhaps surpassed all.

service render

them

The

almost

extravagant
fabulous.

At

Roman
Catharine

banquet given to
Petersburg, the Court

candles,

and

brought
large as

from

70,000

Luxury

roubles
The

Moscow.

April

on

expended

163

16,000

i,

pounds

worth

of

in

winter

garden

wax

of

St.

at

1791,

for

wax

\
'

addition

was

six times

was

as

in the

laid with
artificial
Imperial Palace, was
gravel paths, fruit-trees with glassfruit,jasmine bushes,
that

grass,
mirrored

grottoes, an
bowls

and

thousand

many

La

masters

The

melons, and

of the

statue

Pica

estimate

In

North

when

paper

spent

on

Canziani

at

stiU stood
money
pastry alone.

tradition

of the

to

of

singing-birds,
shaped like pineapples
columns
supporting

six

guests

3,000

of

the

invited:

were

people ;

the

ballet

received

roubles

luxury

with

given

were

of 200,000
America

temple

obelisk

an

nests

were

About

empress.
roubles
and

fountain,

in the grass
lanterns
of gold-fish,

preciousstones

crystalsand
and

de lavande

eau

5,000 and 6,000 roubles.

is far too low.
for the whole

table

was

also

great

in 1775,

high, in Philadelphia^^800was

cuisine of the

eighteenth century was

followed
in the nineteenth, especiallyby the gastronomes
of
la
In 1803 Grimod
de
Almanac
France.
des Gourmands
Reynifire's
of
appeared, and sold enormously, called by the Duke
York
the
pleasantest book
published '. Macaulay knew
much
the
volumes
heart
of
and amused
his guests by
eight
by
the
sixth dozen, or dishes
quoting, e.g., that oysters weary after
brAlant
to
biscuit d'ivrogne'.
etre down
telqu'ildoit
dupotage
house
la
In France
was
dinante,
premiire maison
Talleyrand's
and
the dinnSs"at the Foreign OfiSce in the Rue
de Varennes
to
those
of the
Carfime, only equalled by
were,
according
chancellor
Cambacdres.
According to Kotzebue
(1804) the
latter consisted
of 70-80 dishes, which
LucuUus
a
or
Apicius
would
not have
disdained.
The
ants
descendcooks
were
worthy
of their predecessors,were
vinced
equally valued, and as conof their high importance to society. The
Marquis de
Cussy, the Court supervisor of Napoleon's kitchen, boasted of
Carfime refused
Antoine
knowing 365 ways of cooking a fowl.
the post of chef to George IV at a clear salary of /500, full
fifteen holidays a month,
dispositionof the kitchen money,
French
and a pension. He
dedicated his work
on
Cookery in
in her book
the nineteenth
on
century to Lady Morgan, who
France
had
glorifieda dinner given under his supervisionby
The

'

'

Baroness

'

Rothschild

on

July 6, 1829,

and

said that

many

'

164

Roman

epics required
he

said

all times
art

In

first

the

lavished
the

good

Annual

Reyniere,

Rumohr

paralleled

in

cost

gigantic
Berlin

then

On

February

Exhibition

of
the

from

Garda,
Forest

sea-crawfish

Anglais,

at

his

francs

300

clime

bird's-nests
the
pears,

describes

mushroom

came

from

the

nests

such

tirade

Seneca
a

modern

from

the

in

only occur
against luxury

justifiednow

more

an

the

buttocks

dinners

of delicacies

unseasonable
in December.

distant
more
pride itself even
on
difficulty; at least a Hong Kong
'one
kind
6, 1877, is thus
of
reported:

Arctic, shark-fins
as

were

from

the

consisting

'

cookery seems
delicacies, transported with
March

the

Tyrolese apples,

Chinese

on

dishes

at

it

Bombay,
Pyrenees, Scotch

But

dinner

the

from

and

easily
Byron

and

given

Sea, elk

of wines, and
royal choice
costly foods, partridges in July and
peaches

of every

la

developed

the

Black

head,

caviar, trout

Poi-SoMj"

'

has

of

proved

banquet.

banquet

oysters, Volga

in

1833

de

more

1800-1850,

the

is

ago

Even

then

1877, at
Cookery, some

Indian

in

only fairly

are

to

from

snipe from
quails, Italian

Zola

grapes.

Caf

the

at

of stanzas

from

expense

in Grimod

Roman.

Ostend,

from

partridges, Florentine
Spanish

in

5,

Bialowicz,

of

Dinner

classics

with

since

sturgeons

the

generation

than

commerce

of

lightens

head.

increased

Perigord truffles, Cancale

Lake

los.

series

of

At

develop

Macaulay

ever.

Brillat-Savarin, who

progress

more.

;^io

antiquity

food

in

Luxury

to

great work

Company

literature

devote

to

cation
dedi-

him.

all

century

as

gastronomy

and

Greek

condescended

great

Fishmongers'
of

if his

him

nineteenth

as

large gastronomic

yet

the

of

had

inflamed

his

cook.

was

formerly it
importance

The

by

half

meals

on

found

of the

In

sacrificed

had

for

dinner.

wealth

than
men

Enough

labours

such

one

more

disinterested

some

heavy

than

genius

something

industry.

or

the

less

Luxury-

than

Apicius

capital !

to

South

the

from
one

Ocean,
South

in

cave

and

in the

would

Polar

days

Seas, and

delicacies

of Varro,

feel small

at

sinews
bird's-

island'.

one

exotic

whale

were

much

Sallust, Pliny and

modern

banquet

of

Roman
II.

THE

IMPORTATION

Luxury
AND

AND

USE

improved

under

the

for the tables

indeed

Scarus, found

Italian

the

the

of
to

helped

so

not

was

importation

countries

of the animals

of

West,

spread

and

censured

and

of the

in the

between

birds.

acclimatization

Under

between

in

Rhodes

Optatus
breeding a fish,
Crete,

and

on

the

In Pliny's time
Campania.
it was
plentiful; he says :
Gluttony has then secured its
delicacies by sowing the seas, and
inmates
new
giving them
;
need
'.
be astonished
in Rome
not
if foreign birds breed
one
did
Making a profitout of luxury in food the severest censurers
not
for
careful instructions
even
disapprove ; Varro
gave
artificial breeding of game,
birds, fish and sheU-fish, including
exotic
and
such
the African
as
ones,
guinea-fowls,Gaulish
Spanish hares and rabbits, Illyrianand African snails.
And, according to Pliny, it was
greed of gain and not gluttony
that made
invent
an
Sergius Grata
oyster-bed in the
Lucrine
lake, though others, before him, had unsuccessfully
that
artificial breeding.
Aristotle
some
attempted
says
Chians
had
from
taken
Pyrrha in Lesbos
Uving oysters and
in similar spots in their own
After some
time,
seas.
put them
they grew bigger,but did not fertilize. Outside Italy,ancient
But
what
oyster-beds have only been found at Bordeaux.
hood
then the speculationof a few is now
was
an
important livelicoast

Ostia

and

Tiberius

Fleet, succeeded

seas

and

vegetables
Italy. Uncompromising

in
grown
both
the

were

purchase of foreign fish

Praefect
Elipertius,
the

the

living,and

Republicmany

of the rich

opponents
the

of

into

times,

modern

it caused

animals

standard

the

and

civilization.

promote
Even

useless

or

ANIMALS

EDIBLE

in Roman

both

OF

PLANTS

"

Luxury in food,
merely deleterious
foreign plants and

165

and
'

for whole
well

as

as

naturaHsts.

districts,and

problem
The

deemed

French

considerable

worthy

Government

of

part
the

of the revenue,

serious

efforts of

a
actively subsidizes
breeding, as perfected

flourishingoyster-trade by artificial
by Coste ; in the Lago di Fusaro primitivemethods

stiU obtain

and

prosper.
The
animals

birds.

The

acclimatized

peacock,

which

by luxury
Hortensius

In

Italy

was

the

were

mostly

first to

eat

66

as

Roman
roast, had

led to
o"E
and

been

long

peacock-breedingas

Italy,even
peacock

In Athenaeus'

Luxury

in Varro's
farms

were

time

Rome

out

peacock-isles,

Continent

the

on

peacocks.

with

teemed

into

turned

days, were

little islands

The

industry.

farm

laid

increasingdemand

The

known.

as

The

well.

guinea-

in Varro's

eaten

{Numidica, gallinaAfncana) was already

time, but rare in Italy and expensive; in Martial's day it was
in the larger poultry-yards. As
common
early as Ptolemy
from
(i.e.,
Euergetes II pheasants were
imported from Media
tioned
the South
Caspian countries)to Alexandria, but are not menHorace
Roman
dehcacies
either by Varro
or
as
; they
the
the
introduced
until
not
were
Empire. They are
beginning of
always spoken of as imported from a distance ; but Martial
bred in Italyby go a.d. ; the same
expressly states they were
the case
with flamingoes,which, however, are rarelyreferred
was
initiated their consumption, or, anyto ; Apicius may
have
how,

fowl

their

made

excellent

tongues weU

known.

vator,
of the small cultiPoultry-yards are quite within the means
the
but in Italy were
on
a
larger scale.
To-day too
with locaUty and tradition are
Romance
peoplesin accordance
of birds.'
In Italy during the
the greatest eaters and breeders
of game,
Roman
as
period there could be no talk of abundance
'

'

in the German
and

the

warm

climate

largebirds. Thus the

rearing delicate birds
but

the Northern

forests,and

all

on

had

Romans
to

more

or

immense

an

distance

whence

transport of big

the

forbade

moors,

and

game

artificially

to be content

with

less

tication,
state of domes-

complete
Modern

scale.

attempts

at

ness
example ; though the wilderin modern
Europe has been continuously driven further
distant
from
back, railways now
bring the slaughtered game
deserts with lightningrapidity to the centres
of consumption :
Paris
market
the
fetches its partridges from
Algeria and

breeding

Northern
More

have

not

Russia
extensive

this

followed

'.
than

the

importation

of

animals

to

Italy

vegetables, which
quity
thence
here again later antiBut
spread to other countries.
only followed in the tracks of earlyantiquity,and further
of the
extended
the foreign plantations,
thus, in the course
and Central Europe.
ages, transforming the vegetation of South
in Italy from
the earliest times ; but
Grapes were
grown

was

the

the

Greek

acclimatization

colonies

on

of fruit trees

the

coast

must

and

have

fostered

them

the

68

Roman

Thus

in the

Italy,even

Luxury
centuries

last

and

B.C.,

ancient

the

artificial garden '. Varro

an
generally,must have been
already could call Italy a great orchard, while the elder Greeks
'

world

down
Peloponnesian War
knew
the peninsula as a country
character, in comparison with their

(from
'

mainly

forests and

barren

and

pitch, game
fruit trees
delicious

change

in the

Cilicians ;
occupation of
of the

East.

the

slaves

and

inheritance

old

and

largelyAsiatic

were

quiet, gentle
an

South

and

of vast

oriental

pulse diet, the

factors of this

The

Syrians,Jews,

freedmen,

delight in the
tending plants were

horticulture

and

training and
stock

Aramaic

stead

produce of wood,

flesh and

old

times)
primitive in
East, producing

plantationsof

were

of the

stead

in the

their

with

the

and

own

Now,

pasturage, there

and

northern

wood.

wildernesses

fruits of the

Phoenicians

'"""

cattle and

corn,

Alexandrian

to

the

'.

Augustus naturally augmented

that
the
stock
of foreign plants. Columella
says
Itahan
industry raised in Italy nearly all the fruits of the
world.
Amongst the plants imported in the Early Empire were,
shalots, certainly peachperhaps, the African lotus, Ascalon
and
almonds,
peach-nut apples (planted and imported by
Sextus
Papirius,consul in 36 a. d., from Africa and Syria),the
Indian
millet
colocasia
from
Egypt, Syrian radishes. East
the millet
(Syrian radishes shortly before Pliny wrote, and
in about
at least ten years
before); rice and maize only came
'By about 50 a.d. industrious gardeners had planted
1500.
apricots and peaches, and charged a high price for their first
Persian
and
nuts
apples and Armenian
plums '. Pistachio
other garden fruits were
transplanted from Syria to his estate
Alba
near
by Lucius VitelUus, the father of the Emperor and
Melons
were
legate in Syria under Tiberius.
imported in the
into the gardens of Naples from
first century of ,our era
the
the Oxus
and Jaxartes ; Pliny describes the wonderful
oases
on
new
Campanian melopepones, Later imperial biographers call
increasing

The

them

It

melones.
in

naturalized

produced
which

the

acclimatized
mentions

is doubtful
times.

Roman

in

as

Italyin

tubs

to

the

But

|citron

the

carob

the

the

fruit of the
course

tree

tree,
medica

Hesperides,was

of the first centuries.

attempts to transport trees

Italy ; but Florentinu^ (about

unsuccessful

perforated

whether

apples {arbor citri,citrus

medical

admired

were

under

commerce

in
200

was

which

cedra),
really
Pliny
clay

or

a.d.)

Roman

169

Luxury

of citrons

being grown in hot-houses, walled off,as at the

covered
the North, and
present time in upper Italy,towards
with mats
in the winter
Palladius
; and
(inthe fourth or fifth
citron-trees
growing in the open in Sardinia and
century) saw
Naples, on speciallygood soil. And the latest ingenious and
in the Empire
learned
who
sees
investigator,
only a period of
irremediable
the progress
rapid and
decay, acknowledges
in many
less obvious
branches
of human
activity,such as the
exchange and utilization of the natural products of the most
speaks

'

various
time

'. The

countries

of the

and

Crusades, the sweet

Portuguese

in the

nineteenth

from

The

lemon

sixteenth

bitter orange

the

through
{portogallo)

orange

century,

in in the

came

and

in the

mandarin

the

China.

cultivation

of fruit and

vegetables,and the development

to Pliny to have
the limit of
of their varieties seemed
reached
From
his point of view, he
possibilityin the Early Empire.
should
the acclimatizingof foreign growths,
have
condemned
he did disapprove their commercial
much
as
as
importation
he
from
never
(e.g.,
does, partly because
India) But
pepper
the opponents
of luxury preferred vegetarian to meat
diet,
and hence
tolerant
of the development of varieties
were
more
of useful
of plants'jpartly because
the centuries
to censure
.

industry in
luxury

this direction

One
1806

the

that

real

at

at

Zara

experiments

for

he

had

pronounced

was

The

same

England,

from
the

writer, 'be

combines
the

his

prosperity of
is

Fargeon

degraded
and

by

if

had

had

purpose
acclimatized

it ; and

connoisseurs

by

himself

fetched
it

grown

interest

his

the

This
in

the

civism

of

patriot
under

Pliny condoned

the

is
most
our

maraschino

the

Dalmatian.
in

used
'

cherry-tree

years' costly

new

Blessed

distilling
', says
who

weal, increases

common

spoiled palates and

most

home.

the

patriotism in
honourable

of

France.

intelligentcitizen,

and

with

root

Grasse.

at

this industrious

the

In

triumph
in

made

than
a

fifteen

after

pected.
sus-

suffice.

as

been

yet

as

may

transplanted

the

of the

rehabilitated

But

Grasse

times

extreme

use

not

was

announced

maraschino

and

own

enjoyments

modern

of

Gourmands

better
had

man

acclimatization

out

des

manufacturer

grown

of

example

Almanac

civilization
A

make

to

was

The

ridiculous.

seemed

promotes
excelsis.
sense,

the
M.

word

Republican revolutionaries,

the Restoration'.

acclimatization, he

would

not

alto-

Roman

70

gether
that

He

advance
the

'

that

the

plants

and

wild

animals,

former
so

flavoured,

reach

And

times.

and

so
'

of the poor,
and

cost

an

thick

must

as

for the

which
grow,
be seen,
and

if

that

strangely shaped
introduce

wealth

Must

asparagus

poor

man's

table

of

as

be

grown
be

to

grades
so

grown
Nature
?

in

estate

an

large,
beyond the
in

dishes

thick,
let

in

so

that

vegetables,
only

to

be too

even

as

wild

reap ; artificial kinds

three weigh a pound '.

Ravenna

at

plains
com-

Rome

near

might

one

any

be

from

be invented

differences

must

fruit tree

fruit to

allow

we

but

graftingbeing brought

'

{2,000 sesterces, "11 3s.) exceeded

fruits

in consequence

the poor

from

revenue

and

edible

being taken from

conjunctions of trees

point

apparent.

of

fruit

adulterous

to such

birds

on

ground

fore,
and, there-

from Nature,
away
of these growths more

improvement
even

the

on

step

unnaturalness

benefit

of the
the

was

recognizes that

conferred

orchards,

artificial gardens and

sanction

every
made

Luxury

asparagus
are

'

What

to

now

strous
mon-

could
gluttony ! Even the most profitablecultivations
chokes
of shame
only be spoken of with a sense
; little fields of artiCorduba
(carAui)near
Carthage, and
bring in 6,000
sesterces
utilize for the table the
a
we
even
{ffi$5s.):
year
the cattle
disdain '.
monstrous
products of the soil, which
flavoured
with
Nay, more
vinegar and
they are manured,
;
to have
thin honey and
other
artichokes
condiments,
so
as
excited
then
all this wonderment,
day. Although horticulture
every
with
modern
times, its achievements
compared
In the
London
were
great nursery
gardens near
meagre.
'

'

about
240

1828

there

of peas,
435 sorts of salads, 261 kinds
The prices
species of potatoes, and so on in every article.

obtained

now

London
times

the

France

dessert

of

liked

1866

120,000

1832 disposed of
narcotic

1883

luxuries

alone
the

it is

At

cost

black
and

Rothschild

;"ioo.

Truffles

specieswas

in

dinner
in

unknown

ancient
;

in

extensively cultivated
is called the black
diamond.
In 1865 the
pounds to Russia, England and America,
One
Carpentras firm in
; in 1867 140,000.
Incidentally
15,000, and in 1866 of 109,000.

to-day
and
exported, and
export was
104,000
in

higher.

also

are

not

were

were

may

more

be

mentioned.

more

On

tobacco

from

1882-

650,000 (and ;^i7,250,ooo on the

Germany
spent ;"i5,
cases
army) ; in England in some
"^ a day is spent on cigars.

Roman

Luxury
"

171

have
horticulture
we
Up to now,
spoken of Italian
only. But, as the centre of a world Empire, it spread these
the vegetation
plants further and further afield,and transformed
and the diet of the provinces. Attempts at acclimatization
of all sorts were
constantly made, as Galen shows, when
he says that plants if removed
what,
only two stadia, change someand
the same
give dififerent wines at different
grapes
is remarked
nutritive plants in economic
on
places. The same
and
Fruit trees crossed the Alps surprisbotanical
treatises.
ingly
In

fast.

cherries

A.D.

47

in

were

grown
after the

Britain, four

in
first plantation
conquest, and 120
Italy ; in Belgica (between the Seine, the Saone, the Rhone,
German
the Rhine
and the
Ocean) and on the banks of the
Rhine
Lusitanian
cherries were
considered
the best in Pliny's
time.
Lucius
ViteUius first grew pistachionuts in Italyand his
the knight Pompeius Flaccus, acclimatized
comrade-in-arms,
them
in Spain. In Pliny and
Columella's
time a large kind
A
casia
of spring cherry was
being produced in Provence.
the
flourished
on
for its fragrance in Pliny's time
grown
of the Empire, washed
by the Rhine ',planted in beemarge
at Boulogne, was
gardens. A shady tree newly acclimatized
probably not, as Pliny says, the plane but the Northern
too cold for
maple. Germany, too, which Tacitus considered
to the
for its flourishingorchards
fruit growing, is indebted
France.
initiative of the Romans,
like England and
the spread
The most
was
important result of these plantations
When
the Roman
of vines and olives.
defined,
Empire was
after

years

the

'

'

its boundaries
But

became

the olive and

of butter

and

was

home

almost

the vine

beer.

marked

by

in the south-east

countries

where

to the Northern

only

The
'

it is

advanced

corner
now

spread

and

of the noble

on

'.
to

the

'.

lization
civi-

Roman

olive from

it

Ligurian coasts

her

all the

over

Marseilles

From

wine

at the expense

of the Mediterranean

found

frontier, and

slowly

of Greek

progress
the

of oil and

the boundaries

spread
in the

the estuary of the Po, it could

low-lying marshy ground near
Istrian
not flourish,
but prospered in Illyriaand Liburnia
; and
oil competed
with that from
Southern
Spain. Into Spain the

olive advanced
The

vine

'Columella

was

with

civilization.

able to make

quotes Saserna,

itselfat home
an

older

much

farther

North.

agriculturalwriter,

as

Roman

172
saying

the

for

vines

But

the

climate
and

spread north,

changed, for realms formerly too cold

had
now
enough of both and to spare '.
not
changed, but their cultivation had

had

olives
had

climate

Luxury-

in the

of the centuries

course

whilst, in modern

times, the vine has receded from the north, e.g., the north of
it was
Prussia, where
France, England, Brandenburg, West
longer profitable. From

no

the

of the

shores

Adriatic

the

slopesof the Euganean hills and the southern

of Raetia
declivities
of the Alps ; Cato
praises the wines
the Phoenicians
Africa
(Tyrolese and Valtelline).In North
had
introduced
it, Islam destroyed it. According to Strabo,
entirely,except in
Spain lacked vines, olives and figsalmost
climbed

grape

the
in

south
the

the

and

the east,

interior,because

Lusitanians

on

of

the

beer, and wine

drank

rare

cold, and
The

inhabitants.

barbarous
was

of the

because

north

the

there, though already

of port ; in PUny's time Spain was

penetrating into the home
An
still mainly a beer-drinking country.
imperial official
lusia
of equestrian rank
was
appointed in Baetica (Granada, Andaand
Seville) to plant Falernian '. In Gaul Marseilles
the starting-point
of Marseilles
was
spread vines
; the colonies
east and
west
along the coast, and inland ; in the interests of
Italian vineyards the Romans
had to curtail the export of
soon
Galhc
wine
and oil. Immediately after the conquest of Gaul,
Caesar
began Romanizing the province ; there were
only
imported wine and native beer, and Strabo says the wine is
and
the
not good, beyond the land
of figs,
olives, and towards
C6vennes.
in Pliny and
But
have
modern
Columella, we
France
as an
independent wine-producing country, with various
brands
and
exports and plantations of its vines into Italy :
wines.
they mention
Burgundian and Bordeaux
During the
the valleys of the Garonne,
the
Empire the vine spread over
Marne
and aU along the Moselle, into Switzerland
tion
(an inscrip'

'

'

in confirmation
Lake
was

of Geneva
scarce

on

has

near

the

been

St. Prex

left bank

found

on

between

of the

the

North

Rolle

Rhine, and

and

shore

of the

Morges)

non-existent

but
on

the

Probus
is said to have
allowed
free vineright bank.
growing in Gaul, Spain or Britain, or perhaps Gaul, Pannonia
and
It was
Moesia.
planted on the southern
slopes of the
Sirmium
Carpathians,on Mount Alma near
(Mitrovicz)and was
the beginning of Hungarian vintage. One hundred
years later,
Claudian

writes

of

the

'

vine-shaded

Danube

'.

But, in anti-

Roman
quity, Italy remained
and

limit

Southern

France, and

its best

Thus, in the

173

first of vine-lands.

the

of its extension

produces

Luxury
it is in

Now

it is Central
northern

placesclose to the

(Burgundy, Johannisberg)

that

the

vine

wine.
influences

Empire,

Roman

could

work,

and

meet

which

and
completed the process of assimilation
produced a
homogeneous cultivation of the soil in all the Mediterranean
countries.
Central
Europe has to acknowledge its debt to
the South

in this direction

and

forget that the much

part in this great work.

small

no

III.

LUXURY

OF

in dress

Luxury

all

DRESS

in the Middle

Ages and
paucity of rare

civilization

our

'

maligned Empire played

AND

this time

at

of

sources

not

must

we

'

in

as

took

ADORNMENT
different

direction

than

The

slightextent of manufacture
stuffs.
meant
The
oldest clothingwas
a
wool,
In
the
linen
even
worn
garments were
though
by women,
at its close and later used fine linen mainly
Republic, whilst men
in Rome
Linen
tunics
common
for handkerchiefs.
were
by
third

the

now.

The

century.

finest

Egypt, Syria and Cilicia. East

carbasus) was
imported to
(191 B.C.),if not before, and
for
and

clothes.
but

raw,

linen

with

transparent
century by
increase
into

Chinese

of

silk

finished

and

and

women

Europe

(SanskritKarpdsd,

Rome

after

the

the

Elagabalus

Asiatic

Wars

was

dresses

effeminate
with

commerce

from

came

cotton

half-silk

gay

byssus,

perhaps also in use

at first imported only as yarn
broken
were
up, dyed, and woven
These
lighthalf-silk substance.

was

into

or

Indian

muslin

articles

cotton

or

linen,

men

very

the

first

man

later the

much

brought heavy

East

was

first

in the

worn

were

to

silks

pure

wear

them.

'

antiquity ; satin (Atlas

from
in German,
the Arabic
smooth
for
')was an importation
the time of the Saracen
from
Together with silk,
supremacy.
the similarlyOriental
extravagance of silk garments with gold
found
worked
in spread, but
only in
gold embroidery was
mings
carpets, curtains, coverlets and triumphal dresses, or trimClothes made
of gold
insertions in women's
clothes.
or
and

Satin

velvet

unknown

were

in

'

and

silver

antiquity.

pina

at the

stuffs, so
The

mantle

naumachy

of
on

times,

In modern

common
'

pure

woven

Lake Fucinus

gold ',worn
was

were

rare

in

by Agrip-

unexampled,m^n-

Roman

174
tioned
the

Bold

silver

by Pliny and

such

as

Furs

but

particular purposes,
invasion

Germanic

used,

if

BZhan

as

marten-skins

brought
a

of his

in medieval

common

pointed shoes,

halls

Polo

mentions

and

rooms

of

2,000

as

had

of the

wig of

any
and

trunk-hose,
which

trains, fuU-bottomed

10,000

martens
To

Ancient

dress

waste

of those

line
used.

of material

studied

mations,
defor-

fashions, such

modern

hip piUows, hoop-petticoats,

often costly ; the orwere
dinary

wigs,
distinguishedman

^150.

as

vagantly
extra-

five ladies' doublets.

and

none
antiquity,too, there was
long trains and broad bodices, or

much

the

skins were
grandsons 2,790 squirrels'
raised the pricescorrespondingly.

large demand

as

before

of his

one

so

for

never

were

Marco

sons

In

in

times

golden bezants,
make
dress ;
to
if impera
fect,
for King John II (1350-64) 670

; one

in to line five cloaks

common

the

decked,

cloak

used

were

dress for

This

line

To

of

cases

400

ancient

they

and

which

big enough

1,000.

not

Ages.

sables, with

Charles

gold-embroideredcoats

100

were

Middle

(1214-1294) were

and

flawless

in the

him

Italy from

South,

whereas

with

took

in

they

the

of

as

the

of

price

used

were

Tacitus

and

gold stuffs, including

and

Kublai

Dio

of Granson

Battle

at the

for himself.

the

Luxury

cost

""] los.

both

was

and

often

natural

more

as

and

much
less changeable.
graceful,and, on the whole, fashions were
than centuries did then.
Hence
To-day generationsdiffer more
the

Middle

Ages

consisted
no

of

extravagance

or

In

articles.

; whereas

thrice

much

was

Lastly, ancient

now.

of fewer

luxury

renewed

or

fashion

times

dress

gloves and

in modern
four

less

Persia

the

in

the

simpler,and
headgear there was
headgear has to be
was

year, and costs

Panama
of America
a

than

60

All

ducats.

coast
hats are
worn
along the south-west
;
but
the
best
cost
to
wear
out,
they practicallynever
^50
up
And
and ordinary ones
the seasons
occasioned
far
;^20or -^yt.
in the
south.
Some
less change of dress
dandies, however,
made
absurd
and
distinctions ; thus, Juvenal scoffs at
trifling
who
has lightsummer
man
one
rings on his perspiringfingers,
since large jewels weighed too heavily.
But the hot summer
made
changes of suits necessary,
many
in modern
robe.
had
as
Persia, and the better-dressed
a large ward-

Their

possible. The
equally gay ;

chests

of drawers

contained

inside of the trunks

and

whole

tribe

cloaks of every

full of dinner

could

have

been

colour

dresses
clothed

was

with

176

Roman

Luxury

only be speaking of a second-rate

purple wool, so much sought after, was
East, may

in the

and, like shawls

But

sort.

can

the

also almost

everlasting,

handed

been

have

genuine
down

for

generations. But, most probably, in the Early Empire, whole

only used
Generally purple was
purple cloaks were very rare.
in stripes,
for galloons,as a trimming, braid, edging,fringeor
Caesar restricted the use of whole purple garments to
furbelow.
certain persons and certain days; Augustus permitted them
only
to senators
holding office,when
presidingat their games ; and
to
Tiberius
endeavoured
by his example to enforce obedience
these laws.
Nero
went
far as to forbid the sale of Tyrian
so
if not
and
Domitian,
before,
amethyst purple ; but under
AureUus
been
Marcus
and
have
restored.
permission must
must
which
have
Pertinax
had
the
imperial wardrobes,
abounded
with purple robes, sold by public auction.
But
of purple in Rome
be compared with
cannot
the use
In Italy, at the
time
modern
of the
extravagance in dress.
dress
Renascence
beautiful ; the
was
as
costly as it was
'

artists of that

sartorial

those

modern

of

upon
time

of

upon

which,

time

have

would

times, for

with

looked

real

artists

contempt

worked

at

that

artistic

with
the
finest
development ; they worked
velvet, silk,and gold embroidery, whilst paintersdesigned the
dress was
a
colours, the folds and the shapes. Hence
thing

describe

time

Piazza

the

Santa

liano

de' Medici

pounds of
trappings,and
168

was

Croce, which

gold florins, the

10,000

But

the greatest value

of appearance,
the chroniclers
of the great feasts of that

and
very exactly the garments of the great men
famous
de' Medici
a
tourney given by Lorenzo

At

women.

essential

an

Hence

placed '.

was

on

as

love

the

it

Antonio

del

her

at

Borgia

ducats

jewellery on

to

his

to

master,

was

with
a

splendid:
a

valued

Alfonso

report of
trimmed

at
:

dress

of

on

Giu-

used

his horse's

8,000 ducats.

his silver helmet

dowry

d'Este

the

that

Salutati

pound

In the

cost

statement

own

extravagance

PoUajuolo.

betrothal

comprised, according
Gonzaga

this

his

Benedetto

silver at sixteen

with

by

were

8,000 ducats.

cost

of art went

made

dresses

on

of Lucrezia

(1501)

were

agent of Marchese
worth

more

than

ducats
worth
100
expensive shirts, some
apiece,each sleeve with its golden fringescostingthirtyducats.
Another
writer values
one
singledress of the bride at 20,000,
and one hat at 10,000 ducats.
Very great importance attached
15,000

ducats,

200

Roman
to fine dress.

had

The

with

ambassadors

two

before

to appear

Luxury

the Senate

177

of Venice

in

robes

new

at this

wedding

of crimson

velvet

fur- trimmings and

More
than
capes of similar material.
Hall and the
in the great Council
at them

people stared
peoplethronged round
4,000
These

to

see

them

in the Piazza

di San

cloaks

(twenty-eightand thirty-two yards

bridal giftof the ambassadors
to Duchess

the

were

In the

half of the

second

fifteenth

Marco.

of

velvet)

Lucrezia.

century extravagance

on

'

incredible '. According to Geiler

Germany became
carried on her back,
von
a burgher's wife
Kaisersberg many
in clothes and jewellery,more
than 300 or 400 florins' worth,
and had at home
In England in Elizabeth's
over
3,000 worth.
reign, according to a contemporary account, it was
quite a
to go
common
oxen
thing for a thousand oaks and a hundred
dress

to

in

of

restoration

the

fortune

his back.

on

Towards
dress

in

for

and

costume,

the end

fop

to

carry

of the sixteenth

increased

"

his

'

century

lace-trimming,
embroidery
pearls: and prices
went
on
a single
up tremendously : and "go might be earned
dress.
One
dress of Marshal
embroidered
Bassompierre was
to
cost
In
the
seventeenth
and eighso
over
richlyas
;"2,ioo.
teenth
extravagance

was

by

gold borders, jewelleryand

and

'

centuries

extravagance in dress

the

processionof Queen

the

dresses

to

of the

600,000 scudi, and

the Infanta

When

entered

livres,and
de

only

wore

of silver
Stainville,

and

could

and

made

for 24,000
Revolution
men

the

di Rossano

dress

so

she

II,

terms

forth.

had

ordered

an

of all ages were

seen
of laces on
their scarves,

point A

at 100,000

of

livres and

with

men

I'aiguille
worn

John Philip (1756-68)on

R.L.M.

500,000

(1745),the dresses were so expensive that

Marquis de Mirepoix hired three for 6,000
one
a day : in one
gala-coatof Marquis
with gold,the marten's
stufi embroidered

afiord, on

solemn

lace alb A

valued

her cost

1655,

annuity of 600 livres,

to have
a
contract
dress supplied every day
a new
livres a year.
In France
from
the Regency to the
the fancy for laces amounted
to a passion, even

not

livres worth

20,000

in

At

^'
700,000
trothed,
Antoinette, the Dauphin's be-

finingalone cost 25,000

lady of that time bought

fashionable

with

of the Princess

Teresa

into Rome

received

for the

sMns

The

Maria

onlyhired.

they were

ladies who

that

Paris

of Sweden

Christina

Roman

scarcelyless.

was

State

livres. Northern

by

the

occasions

15,000 or
friUs and
cuffs.
Elector
at

of Treves

Versailles

extravagance

in dress
N

was
con-

Roman

lyS

Luxury

mainly in wasting valuable materials,

by
especially.In the splendid dress worn

sisted

audience

at his farewell

of the

gold florins (;^20,25o).The

eighteenth century rose to
said to have

sometimes

nineteenth

The

but

cashmere
of

the

at their

Savary

francs
In

aU

almost

bases

of

Indian

^600,000), and

on

that in

statement

worth

to

no

very small
the
returns
one

year

about

'

goods
But

was

100

annuallyleft the Empire

Indian

in

if this

of fashion
the

have

high

as

as

greatest ladies

of

in

our

at

the

frontier

into

miUions

second

stuffs and

sense,

such

as

rate confined

PUny

them.

his

customs

55 million sesterces'
the
Empire (about

(/i,087,500)

exchange
and

any

amongst

less than

women

oriental
widest

was

circle

'

ranked
the

in the

goods imported
that

the

paltry.

for adornment

used

and

women,

probably

and

male,

the most

silk, hyssus,jewellery,pearls,scents,

least

in

the toilettes of the

with

antiquity extravagance

manufactures,
to

ordinary
extra-

elegant ladies (Mme,

Maret) spent only 50,000 to 60,000

de

seem

year,
Roman

and

when

first,when

Mme

and

much

as

Compared

of the

earned

by

of the queens
before
never

perhaps

in France,

feet.

Empire, those
de

III

Napoleon

were

kin's

roubles.

extravagance

is shown

as

expenses

And

great capitals.

artistic ladies' tailors

under

dress,

francs, or the fabulous

600,000
in

of least

is

price of a
shawl
the lace veil of a rich bride ^"735),the
(;"30o),
Empress Eugenie (sent to England after her in 1870)
in female

probably not

furs

of Potem

200,000

as

skin

one

whole, apart from

the

period

occasions, the

45,000
skins in the

sable

value

The

jewels is given

century is, on

worth

roubles, and

20,000.

hagen,
Copen-

at

been

pairof

170

over

cost

with

inset

costume

gala

price of

jewellery
Rzewuski

Adam

ambassador

as

is said to have

of his horse

the saddle

King

furs and

for Arabian,

amours

are

reflection

at

the

Chinese

pensive
exvery
all Asiatic

implies that not

oriental luxuries have been mentioned,
but only those specially
used
for female
adornment, this import would
seem
quite
tion
small, if entirelymet with this outlay : the patrioticirritaat seeing so much
money
go annually into foreign,even
hostile countries,would
be quite justified.For there was
no
tinuous
corresponding productionof gold to the outflow, and the conexport of centuries

doubtless

contributed

in the third century.

money
export of metal to Asia, besides a

to the decline

in Roman

True, thirtyyears ago,

the

considerable

export of

Roman

Luxury

179

the average
twelve times as much
on
goods, was
time
(;"i3,
666,666,) According to Johann von
the beginning of the eighteenth century, those

',woollen, linen and

fifteen to twenty

miUion

French

at

bloodsuckers

withdrew

wares,

Pliny's

Horneck,

'

of Austria

in

as

at least

florins

annually (and silk goods seven

milhon
and
French
goods three
milhon). By about
1750
France
miUion
livres'
worth
was
selhng Germany sixty-seven
of silk and
fineries alone ; in 1853 her export to England in
silk amounted
to sixty-threemiUion
thalers, and five times as
and
to America,
much
thalers
for Paris
twenty-one milhon
articles {bronzes,trinkets, clocks, fancy goods, passementerie
work, marquetry, instruments, etc.).

Compared

modern

with

the

commerce,

de luxe in the entire Roman

Empire

of Asiatic

use

articles

astonishinglyshght,
Phny's
outlay being less than
the reaUty, as the frontier customs
increased
the price, and
the purchasing-value of money
have
been
higher. For
may
the prices of single oriental products were
high, higher
very
late
than
Silk
now.
as
as
was
weighed with gold (a
250 a.d.
in Chinese
fact mentioned
hterature); a Roman
pound of
betel nut oil might cost 400 ij^i"]
8s.),a pound ofjcinnamon,
1 ,500 denarii
("6^ 25. 6d.); some
pearlscost milhons of sesterces.
Pacis might easilycontain
One
shop in the Via Sacra or Forum
And
Roman
oriental imports of this value.
tuple,
cenprices were
according to Pliny, of the cost price ; and the frontierthis
toUs augmented considerably the cost of transport : on
higher estimate the whole import mentioned
by Phny must
If it cost no more,
to 100
all the luxury in
amount
milhons.
allowing for

even

oriental

wares

of

statement

have

must

great cities,a view

seems

been

confirmed

confined

by

says that silk could be found

in the
placesin the Empire, especially

200)

He

nard
In

as

the

of the

one

fourth

'

essences

made

withdrawn

For

some

seem

to

from

Chinese
show

on

rich ladies

that

the

for Rome's

no

small

part

(circa

at many

rich

'.

women

relations

classes.
to

Empire

statistics of

few

great cities,and specifies

the

state

by

trade

land

of the

how

of

bulhon

much
with

the

Ta-Tsin
from

import
longest of

The
by export from the West.
comprises sixty articles,characteristic industries
covered

'

century wholly different commercial

spread the use of silk amongst all

But
perhaps Phny only wanted
was

'

of Galen

remarks

some

and

Rome

to

East.

(Syria)
Asia
these

of the

was

hsts
mar-

Luxury

Roman

i8o
kets

of

Syria,Phoenicia

and

{according to
products of Ta-Tsin
than Babylonian goods) with worked
trees, clouds, etc., in

men,

of the fifth

century, after which

craft from

the

to learn

for themselves

was

found

metals

date

in

gold pigment and realgar

corals and amber),
{including
by

from

merchants

Ta-Tsin,

of which

were

and, finally,
drugs.

began

Empire

Syria) ;
best

ginning
be-

manufacture

to

Roman

the

the

to the

down

the Chinese

and

of
{speciahties

peciall
glass-ware {es-

China

Indians

Syrians or

; all the

colours

popular in

which

animals,

embroidered

and

coloured)
,

author, far better

Chinese

difierent

belong the

them

To

Alexandria.

The

jewellery
brought
greater

been the value

have
the higher must
export of these wares
But
as
and quantity of the import into the Roman
Empire.
have developed
Galen's expressionsimply a small trade, it may
after the beginning of the third century.
into Rome
after
in pearls and
jewellerycame
Extravagance
Mithridates.
Diamonds,
though
triumph over
Pompey's
of
in Rome
the most
esteemed
costly jewels,were
scarcelyused
to
handed
as ornaments
.except rarely in rings. The diamond
and by Trajan to Hadrian,
as
heir-designate,
Trajan by Nerva
was
apparently not set in a ring : but one diamond-ring, the
talk of Juvenal's time, was
given to Berenice, Queen of the
Jews and mistress of Titus, by her brother Agrippa. Emeralds
from
next.
ranked
Scythia,
According to Phny the best came

the

as

from

now,

the mines

of the

Ural

and

Altai.

The

third

in

beryls and opals,and were

largelyworn
by women
;
suitable
for sealand
was
fourth, the sardon5rx,which
very
this
rings : Phny, on the authority of the ladies, maintains
the
In their estimate
of the diamond,
hierarchy of stones.
order

were

imitated

Romans
thirteenth
the

the

Indians,

century, ranked

emerald,

after

the

the

and

ruby and
ruby. Garcia

the

emerald,
Orta

the

fifth,after the

chrysohth.

the
de

it

whereas

Benvenuto

Persians, in the

pearl,the ruby,
Cellini

only

worth

{1565) declares

the

and

an

placesit
eighth of

diamond

the

king of jewels for hardness, but the ruby first in value and
second.
beauty, and the emerald
Up to the sixteenth century
it 400
the emerald
was
costly (Benvenuto CeUini makes
very
scudi d'oro the carat) : but it sank in priceafter the large Peruvian
exports ; and, with the complete cessation of these, has
risen again : a perfect emerald
is the most
costly of all jewels
in the

London

market.

Roman
little is known

Very

emerald

The

which

the

into

been

i8i

price of jewels in

which

flutist Ismenias

the

have

of

Luxury
an

bought

gold pieces,must
before
hardly occur
been
portraitsof

chrysopras. Incised emeralds

Hadrian's
day : the best are said to have
himself
Sabina.
and
had
Possibly Hadrian
and

thus

it to be

caused

(Jebel Zaburah
principalhome
jasper-ringwith which a statue
decked

was

imphes

cut

her

by

The

stone.

is

son,

in
of

given

senator

quity.
anti-

cut, and

was

amymone
for four

this stone

Roman

preferencefor
more
eagerlysought in its
Egypt). The price of a
in South
a
woman
Spain
as

Struma

sesterces

7,000
Nonius

owned

; this
a

ring

big as a filbert ; Antony proscribed him

for it ; he fled, taking with
him
of all his
the ring alone
possessions. It was
apparently valued at 2 million sesterces
(/2I,250).
Phny speaks at largeand expertlyon the imitation of jewels,
and of manuals
alds
containing instructions for making false emerout
of coloured
crystal,and sardonyx out of carnelian ;
he says it is one
of the most
industries.
profitableof fraudulent
There
was
a
correspondingly perfect science of testing the
than one
Out of the very
genuineness of jewels,in more
way.
ancient
forgeriesin coloured
glass,the glass emerald
many
out ; it is much
stands
harder, brighter and better coloured
than
modern
pastes, and is still often sold as genuine by
doubt
often
no
jewellers. Besides, imitation
jewels were
with

an

opal in

honestly made
The
love

worst

of

it

as

for sale among

the poorer classes.
and most
censured
extravagance was

pearls,which

the

ladies'

higher pricesthan any other

quest
jewels. This use of pearls as ornaments
spread after the conof Alexandria, which exported the fisheries in the Persian
Tiiis incessant
gulf and the Indian Ocean
mainly to Rome.
have
accumulated
import may
pearlsin Rome, as in Venice
of the
vast
Ormuz

commanded

sixteenth

the Patrician
ladies possessed
century, when
of them, the result of the past commerce
with

hoards
on

the

Gulf

and

all the

other

Eastern

lands

of the
long exploited. The prohibitions
Provvediton
delle Pompe
(sumptuary magistrates appointed in
aimed
principallyat this form of extravagance.
15 14) were
Russia
is the country richest in pearls:
At the present time
in the one
vestments,
copal
epismonastery of Tr6itsa, on priests'

which

Venice

Persian
had

robes, altar

so

and

grave

cloths, there

are

more

than

in all

Roman

82

the rest of
on

two

in Nizhni

ladies
women

Nero

could

even

as

not

merely

dalliance

amorous

to lead

hctor

good

the

on

the

at least

owns

whole

build

rooms

The

well be

right in sajdng

fortunes

cost

in their

have

must

Rome,

bought

ServiUa, the
present from

Lollia

first

than

more

Paulina.

is

He

or

may
three

Julius

infoitnatibn."

Serviha

Brutus

in the

her

at

one

of

modest

of

love-

creating

of the average

criterion

Pliny tells of
seen

; but

State, desirous

extravagance, is no
had

two

with

in 59 B.C., when
rare
pearlswere
for
sesterces
six million
{i"S.'Z^o)

man

what

Seneca

carried

further

no

of Marcus

his

impressionby

price,any

for

velry great

shoes,

on

set

slipperswere

sometime^

women

one

mother
the

whole

been

There

ears.i

also used

were
way^^"^pa^ls

at his first consulate

Caesar

(these were

straps,but

them.

an

poorest fishwife

the

Novgorod

probably in the
with pearls). Roman
House, and their walls covered
them
as
wore
ear-rings; and, according to Pliny,poor
as
copied the example,^ a big pearlin one's ear was

pearls for

Golden

at

every
1,000 and

to 300, often

200

peasant wears
genuine
more,

governments

some

necklaces.

three

or

in

neck

and

her head

pearls;
of

Europe

Luxury

CaHgula's wives,
betrothal

vity,
festi-

pearls,covering head,
hair, ears, neck and fingers,and worth
forty million sesterces
dence.
(^^400,000or ^"450,000),as she proved by documentary evitance
not a giftfrom the Emperor, but an inheriBut it was
from
the spoilsof her grandfather Marcus
Lollius in the
with
East : Lollius' notoriety had brought him
into disfavour
Gains
Caesar, who
compelled him in 2 b.c. to poison himself.
The
hoards
of jewels in the families of the men
enormous
could
control the treasuries of Eastern
who
despots,can only
be compared with the jewellery owned
by the Spanish conof the
quistadoresof the sixteenth and the Enghsh nabobs
eighteenth century. Cortes' wedding-gift to his bride ini 529
of five jewels cut by skilled Mexican
consisted
jewellersout of
adorned
with
emeralds, and artistically
pearls and gold : for
with

one

an

of them

ducats.

ornament

It all

Genoese

of emeralds

merchant

lost in

and

at Seville

shipwreck

the

had

oSered

40,000

expeditionagainst
Nadir
Shah's booty, on the capture of Delhi,
Algiers in 1541.
consisted
valued
in Europe at
mainly of jewels, and was
^70,000,000. Clive,who rambled freelyin the vaults of Mursamid
hadabad
heaps of gold and jewels,with hberty to take
he would, showed
his purchases
what
: but
great moderation
was

on

Roman

184
Arabia,

Herodotus

as

and

general.

knew,

fertile in

most

land

the

was

for
earliest ages a fondness
Book
of Esther, we
read,

the

rances,
frag-

perfumes

the

from

In

Luxury

'

When

was

every

after that she

King Ahasuerus,
of the women
been twelve months, according to the manner
the days of their purifications
accomplished, to wit,
(forso were
with sweet
six months
with oil of myrrh, and six months
odours,
and
'. The
with other things for the purifyingof the womb)
Talmud
lawfully thus spend a tenth of
says the bride may
in not direct
her dowry.
In Rome
this form
of luxury came
the Empire,
Under
from
the East, but from
Magna Graecia.
maid's

turn

was

only

common

to go in to

come

had

it

was

Pliny, a

to

attention

for the
The

Roman

lady

drawn

was

this extravagance

streamed

all the

anything, altruistic.

her

from

ladies

siUier for

Men,

larger cities.

the

at

Marquis
time

of

has

been

di

is in doubt

the

salves

great

whether

he

and

At

essences.

been

her

funerals

funerals.

two

the

cousin

So

of the

scents,

in

even

of them.

Mention

fragrancesin ancient Rome.

shall give PhylUs
ten yeUow(about ;^io los.)or one pound
'

Niceros, the

shops

that

will

favourite, Cris-

reeked

be

famous

noble

end

de
of

referred

accounts

Lormes,

one

to

in

dealers

ladies'

of Marion

;"7,5oo by the

parfumeur
at

as

scents,

of

these

high

as

'

and, if

of

use

without

do
even

cost

imperial mint
or
shops of Cosmos

of scents

use

saddles

clothes.

and

Pliny thought

much

d'Avalos,

not

the

have

may
owed

of the

made

boys from
from

could

Pescara,

; his horse's

war

Martial

Alfonso

Renascence.

cause,

being momentary,

and
cinnamon.
Domitian's
mainly balsam
pinus, smelt stronger in the morning than
too

other

hair

of rank.

made

too,

ing
Accord-

herself that

plentifullyscented
approach, if for no

of Arabian

is true

in the

so

her

to

fragrance that

same

and

at Rome

year.
later.

who
The

luxury of this kind does not approach

the oriental.
In the apartments of rich Arabs
at the time of
the KhaUfs, and
stood
casks of
on
reception days especially,
or
burning aloes. Even the most austere sticklers
strong musk
took care
to follow the example of the Prophet, who
only loved
and fragrances, and were
women
Before
always well perfumed
But

Roman

or

modern

and
bent

after meals
over

might
gold

it.

be absent

in

and

clothes

Neither

from

given

as

were

held

over

flowers

with

the table
a

censer,

strong

they
costly gift. In
;

were

rich

smell
worth

homes

or
nor

the

guests

perfumes
weight

their

there

were

Roman

varieties (suchas ambergris,as,___^

principal

always

in stock

musk,

camphor, amber,

the

and

Persian

and

Persia

Arabian

In dress

casual

prevents any
assumption

any

rather,
far

ladies

the

on

final

the
China

as

market

and

It does

pronouncement.

that

ancient

hand, that,

other

far

as

this

scanty and

commanded

was

later, as
The

civet). In the

as

Spain ;
exported
To
the
field.
secured
Spain
spend ;"ioo a year on perfumes.
extant
Roman
information
on
luxury

rose-water

in all luxuries, Moorish

day

such

mixtures

and

Irak

early Khalifate

Luxury

modern,

exceeded

luxury

luxury is

in all else,modern

as

ize
author-

not

greater.

LUXURY

IV.

IN

DWELLING-HOUSES

{a) City
Luxurious
in the
before

ivory

and

in about

floors '.

B.C.,

first

first and

second

houses

then

were

Punic
loo

the

between

there

houses

fittingsof

inner

interval

Palaces

up to which

date

if not

citrus-wood,

buildings only
of the nobles

the houses

Sulla

evidence

wars,
'

with

luxurious

and

Punic

decorated

But

into

come

came
even

(born in

inexpensive.
138),as a young
felt the pinch of circumstances, and lived in the ground
man,
he paid 3,000
floor (which was
considered
the best),for which
sesterces
occupied the upper story at
(;"26
5s.)rent ; a freedman
and more
stone
came
more
a year
2,000
("17 8s.). Travertine
into use
and frontages during this century, marble
for houses
victories
Even
in 92 B.C. after so many
being almost unknown.
simple

were

in

Greece

there

and

were

the

in any

none

Lucius

Censor

East, which

Crassus,

public building.

Roman
one

in marble

abounded

of the

first
house

which

had

been

theatre

ship.

His

co-censor

and

Marcus

Crassus'
old

house

lotus

intended
Gnaeus

mainly

trees, worth

millions

from

for

of the

the
a

the

him

Palatine

garden
total

with

Hymettus,

in his

built

censured

him

valuable

Palatiue

the

on

of marble

Domitius

nicknamed

Brutus
was

for the

Hence

tated
of the State, irri-

men

pubHc feelingby decking his

four (orperhaps six or ten) columns

columns,

with

aedile-

sharply,
Venus.
sis fine

millions,i.e.,

of
then stood ; but the houses
;^50,ooo,as money
of the CimQuintus Catulus (consulin 102 B.C. and conqueror
bri),on the Palatine, and of the knight and jurisconsultGaius
more

than

86

Roman

Aquilius (on
considered

the

Viminal)

Lepidus was
antico (a Numidian

superior,Aquilius'being

far

were

finest in Rome.

the

Marcus

much

Luxury
In

78

the

house

of the

Consul

finest ; its threshold of giallo

before in Rome) caused
unknown

deemed

the

marble

talk.

hundred
finer
a
over
thirty-fiveyears later there were
houses in Rome.
Pliny regards this marvellously rapid growth
of life,
of splendouras doubly foolish,considering the shortness
Wonderful
and
in the history of Rome.
of the wonders
one
rather was
in this respect of the capital
the long backwardness
of the world
flourishingcities (seeMacaulay on the
; in other
since 1700)privatemagnificencecame
progress of English towns
in more
in one
generation. Those thirtygradually : in Rome
five years from the consulate
of Lepidus and the death of SuUa
the largest acquisiof Caesar
to the murder
tions
(78-44) witnessed
of Quinin East and West.
It was
the time of the wars
Servihus
Metellus
tus
Isauricus, Pompey
Creticus, PubUus
and
LucuUus
in the East, and
Julius Caesar in Gaul : the
enlarged by the provinces of Bithynia, Pontus,
Empire was
business
Crete, Cilicia and Syria. Generals, ofl"cers, officials,
amassed
men
Demetrius, who
4,000
Pompey's freedman
(e.g.,
talents
or
;^943,05o)gained huge fortunes : partly spent on
on
magnificent pubhc buildings,even
temporary ones, such
But this magnificence
theatre
in 58 b.c.
Scaurus'
as
gorgeous
also spread rapidly to privatebuildings. The largestof the 360
aU 35 feet high, which
had adorned
his stage, Scaurus
pillars,
the Palatine
set up in the atrium
of his house
:
on
they were
from
of dark marble
Melos, first introduced
by Lucullus and
named
after him.
The
first owner
of a house
(on Mount
of
columns, and monoUths
CaeUus) consistingonly of marble
green-veined cipollinofrom Carystus in Euboea, and marble
the Knight Mamurra
from
of Formiae, Caesar's
Carrara, was
As Pliny says, his house
was
a more
chief engineer in Gaul.
plunderings in Gaul than
eloquent satire on his shameless
But

Catullus'

He

verses.

the

scale

built

by Caesar

and,

as

much.

and

in the

compared

could

the rents
busiest

with

Caelius Uved

first who

in

the
a

rose

part

other

modest

tell of

with

Together

of towns.

the areal value

the

Sallust

incrustation.
on

also

was

the

introduced

palaces
number

(theground of

cost

100

cities of

andrian
Alex-

laid

out

ings
of buildthe forum

millions,^"877,050)

Italy,four times as
fashion (accordingto Cicero)

Roman
in

house

Luxury

187

sesterces
by Clodius for 10,000
(^87 15s.):
his accusers
alleged three times the rent, to convict him of
Cicero bought his
extravagance and raise pricesfor Clodius.
the Palatine
house
from
Crassus
for 3J millions
on
(;^30,696
15s.),and, on his return from exile, the Senate offered him 2
millions compensation for the ruined
house ; the areal value
at i^ millions
therefore, be reckoned
may,
(43 per cent, of the
whole
sum).
The
battle of Actium
another
heralded
great building era
at Rome,
owing to the feeling of security after the general
the growing prosperity and
population,the influx of
peace,
endeavour
of Augustus' strenuous
capital,and also because
to make
Rome
a
worthy capital of the world, to turn a city
The marble
of brick into a city of marble.
quarriesof Carrara,
which
Vitruvius
does
not
mention, were
regularlyexploited
towards
the end of Augustus' reign ; blocks
of marble
from
a

there

and

owned

other

materials

landed

were

at Ostia

and

floated

up

Rome.

to

Propertius teem with

the impressions of witnesses
of this great luxury in building,
atria of
and
novel
friends
of the former
simplicity. The
great palaces were
imposingly tall ; perhaps Scaurus' atrium
the first of them
it was
was
:
38 (Roman) feet high,whereas
The

of

poems

Horace, TibuUus

and

'

Crassus'

atrium

had

been

only twelve

'

of the

standard

; other
palace and the citizen's home
dimensions
In these
have
must
correspondingly increased.
atria, pillarsof Phrygian marble
(with spots of violet ; pavoBeams
of white stone from Hymettus
nazzetto)aroused envy.
with green
columns
of reddish-yellowmarble
on
pressed down
veins, and of serpentine,quarried out in Numidia, Euboea
On gilded soffits (seen for the first time in the
Taenarum.
or
Temple of CapitolineJupiter after.the destruction of Carthage)
in the yards stood
the gay columns
ivory ghttered. Between
and
bushes
of trees, fountains
splashed,and purple
groups
from
one
awnings stretched
capital to another shielded ofi
the pavement or the moss.
the sun, and cast a red shimmer
on

difference

SuUa

Under
Caesar
The

between

took

mosaic

mosaics

directions

have

must

with

him

TibuUus.

well with

on

been

the

Vitruvius

very

campaign

to

usual

in

spread in

Rome

his tent.

great house
of Horace, Propertius,
descriptions
nobles
royal lofty
says that for

for the

of Vitruvius

correspond very
and

the

building of

88

Roman

Luxury

vestibules, spacious atria and peristyles,

parks and
basilicae
libraries,
picturegalleries,
gorgeous avenues,
laid out

of

the

on

scale

same

public buildings.

in

as

more

afterwards

by

e.g., at

area

Augustus

tended

of

be

palace
'

inside

occupied

was

in smaller dwellings,

And

for

apartments

separate

and

rooms

the

total

smaU.

were

From

number

considerable, though the

was

purposes

the

its site

'

a town
space than many
the Colonnade
of Li via.

Pompeii,

The

Polho, covered

Augustus' friend,the Knight Vedius

its walls

roomy,
must

to the death

to

increase, as

the

economies

extravagance in palaces

of Nero,

vied in

great families

the

princely splendour

could

not
Vespasian'sreign
prevent
the
old.
of gorgeousness
to
Towards
monuments
arisingequal
the close of Tiberius'
reign, Valerius Maximus
says that a
palace with its appurtenances (i.e.,
garden),only four acres in
;

extent,
but

considered

was

Velleius

dwell

modern
less

nobles
the

three

paid

Venetian

about

Frankfort

in

florins,and

at

roubles

7,000
In 1863 there

year ; and
both
Seneca
towns

rhetorical

by
one

the

or

increased

the

year

and

country
in

size

exaggerationsare

architecture

not

of

furnished

the

1,413

of Ossuna

houses

Hotel

at

the

time

least

to

sometimes

Vienna

in

Stenbock

for his, 12,000.

houses

cost 10,000

from

to 25,000

city palaces were

estates, it is not
after

be

representativeat
(forFrankfort) of 4,500

sum

Duke

at

would

Federal

as

large Roman

floor in the centre, and

amounts

9,985 rate-payers,with
;

in

pay
Venetian

1462

ambassador

more.
400 even
Sallust say that

some

In

sum.

both

currency
Russian

Petersburg for

year, and
in Paris
were

reminder

1,440 francs); in 1658

for his house at Paris 400 doppie

Bismarck

francs

is

(600 to

paid

of the

8,000 francs

palaces

that

1851 paid the small

to

large as

ducats

^450.

St.

year

statement

times

in modern

4,000

As

four

wife

1852 paid

This

saying a man
(;f6615s.)is hardly

generahty of rich homes, as

would
similarly highly-placed man

50 to 120
ambassador

greater. The

in

the

on

or

(4,400 francs):

sesterces

exaggerated,

seem

may

strictlyaccurate

6,000

senator.

capitalno

than

is

under

overmuch

This

smaU.

Paterculus

livingin a house
recognized as a
to

of

known

of Tiberius.
some

houses.
at the

extent

There
sides

as

whether

as

These

justified
was

only

well, and

they occupied a comparatively large area with their gardens

and
parks and outhouses, such as Vitruvius mentions, foun-

Roman
tains, baths, colonnades

Luxury

and

roads

accommodation
calls

the

and

have

may
Palace, where

Petilian

189
with

been

all the

ficence,
magniMartial

scant.

his

patron Sparsus lived, a

urhe with long walks
and a vintage
hill. In Violentilla's palace the
old groves
cooled
the air,
pillars,

in
a rus
kingdom : it was
as
good as on a Falernian
gables rested on countless
cool in
basins, and it was
living fountains played in marble
the dog days and
mild
in the winter.
at Rome,
What
the priceof such houses
do not know.
was
we
sesterces
Martial mentions
a figureof 100,000
; but only a small
plain house could have been had at this price,and no fine house
for double.
For, according to Juvenal, a bath might cost
drive more
600,000, and a covered
figuresare not too
; these
not a rich senator)
(who was
high, perhaps too low, for Fronto
bath ; the
on
a
description of the bath of
spent 350,000
Claudius
But

Etruscus
form

one
was

marble

common,

with

under

began
Seneca

and

first to

marble, with
this

cut

of blocks, and

'

animals

they

paint

have
marbles

But
stone

been

the

Asiatic
and

stone

Vitruvius

history of

The

tecture,
archi-

of coloured

use

fashion of

covering

other

costlymaterials,
nothing of this ;

knows

against the

of

extravagance

large and

the

hollows

objectscould

in stone

found

on

'.
the

filled in with
be drawn

Two

; in

of these

Palatine.

of other

wasteful

became

very

refectory built
thirty columns

kinds
use

of coloured
of valuable

and

general during the

oriental

Pliny'sphrase,

marble

tions
incrusta-

Nero, fancy

veins

and

druses

rare

kinds

of coloured

century. In
Callistus, Pliny

first

four

smaller

one
saw

columns

put up by Cornelius Balbus in his

under
theatre
tries
counAugustus, as a curiosity. With the new
could exploit more
gained, the Romans
quarries. Thus
the ridges in the Arabian
Desert
of Egypt, at Jebel Duchan,
the
granite,Hamamet
yielded them porphyry, Jebel Fatiteh
at
in favour
Rome, and
Jebel
Egyptian breccia, so much
of the

same

stone

had

alabaster

stones

stones.

by Caligula'sfreedman
of

other

Under

produced by laying in bright

were

in tablets

other

or

could

of

the

expensive circular pieces of

Alexandrian
blocks contrastingwith Numidian
'.
Claudius
fashion of inlaying,under
pieces were

Besides
out

ancient

fulminate

glisteningwith

walls

thus

the

bright sorts
Augustus.

is the

this out.

luxury, unexampled in
namely, decoration.

of

for columns,

the walls

'

also bears

been

Roman

190

Luxury

But
the two
honey-coloured Oriental alabaster.
first quarrieswere
only opened under Claudius, and, no doubt,
others in the course
of the Empire, e.g., the Numidian
many
remains
AureUus.
The
extant
under
Marcus
imply more
In the
architecture.
luxurious
than
of Roman
forty sources
Etruscus,
according
splendid small bath built by Claudius
the
marbles
to Statius,
were
disdained, such
ordinarycostly
alabaster.
Green
as
Thasian, Carystian, Ophite and onyx
Laconian
only tolerated, in order to be a
Serpentine was
setting for inlaid blocks of white violet-spottedSynnadian
also a snow-white
pavonazzetto in long flutings; there was
of which
Phoenician
marble,
nothing. The
Pliny knows
arched
roofs gleamed with
; the
gay pictures in glass mosaic
water
sprang
up into silver basins through silver pipes ; the
bath was
edged in with marble and the water flowed in so clear
that the bottom
could be seen
for playing at ball had
; the room

Urakan,

the

its floor

warmed

and

Martial

beneath.

from
the

prove

Other

generality of

in

passages

this

Statius

luxury in coloured
palace gleamed with

According to Statius, Violentilla's

and
stone, onyx
African, Phrygian and Laconian
marble, as
According to Martial, a rich
bright as purple and the sea.
builds
thermae
of Carystian, Synnadian, Numidian
and
man
Laconian
marble.
Hadrian's
reign may have been the zenith
stones.

of this extravagance, but

the fashion
Domitian's

the

Empire ; the villas and

presently.
About
thirty years ago
of marble

gave

new

and

at

the

the

surprising idea

Rome.

coloured

speciesfor architecture,

fireof 64

A.D.

which

may
was,

have

been

however,

palace will

the

of

the

wealth

in

and

part

Asia, Africa and

of these, and

from

Egypt

up
for the

to about

200

a.d.

what

or

there.

of this
of the

is left is what

house
ware-

Aventine
marble

of

mainly of
The great

lation,
great accumu-

imperialstock,

Greece, and

Carrara.

of

This
was

not

store
not

aU
was

wanted

periods. The
scanty rehcs of the marble decorations of the imperial palaces,
idea of their magnificence. In
still give the spectator some
the provinces,in addition
to the native
quarries,Carrara and
Greek
also extensivelydrawn
The walls of Roman
were
upon.
buildings of

the

Flavian

columns,

found

were

from

used

ancient

foot of

containing imports
none

the

end

be described

the

the occasion

only

to the

at

blocks

Imperial

1,000

down

discovery of

harbour

About

lasted

and

Antonine

Roman

192
big
seats

'

as

sea

the

The

wild.

Amphitheatre

Flavian

buildingslike

with
built),surrounded
with vineyards,meadows
and

tame

(on which

Luxury

woods,

and

apartments

town

stocked

with
and

gildedover,

were

was

wards
after-

country
beasts,
ated
decor-

'

'

love-chambers
mother-of-pearl; the
Greece
with pearls. The
decked
finest sculpturesfrom
were
used to decorate.
Of the artists employed
and Asia Minor
were
who
famous
in the work
was
a painterFabuUus,
Pliny mentions
below
Remains
for his brightcolours.
of paintedwalls, hidden
the thermae
of Titus and
Trajan, are in a style like the last
sustained, as well as in the
Pompeian, but better and more
framed
picturesand decorations, which inspiredthe grotesques
and indiscoveries
ventions
New
da' Udine.
of Raphael and Giovanni
buUt
of a
was
were
applied ; a temple to Fortuna
stone
found in Cappadocia, so transparent that it was
light
The
with
the doors shut.
ivory tiles on the ceilingsof the
banqueting-rooms could be shifted, so as to shower down flowers
the guests, or scents from
on
pipes. The main banquetingdomed
and
turned
its axis.
room
was
day and night round
with

The

jewels

baths

the

palace
50

both

contained

sea

habitable,

was

satisfaction,and

granted

and

said

millions

he

and

Nero,
could

mineral

When

entering, expressed his

on

live

now

waters.

(about ^"550,
000)

like

towards

Vitellius

man.

Otho

completing it.
unworthy of an

was
as
yet built
thought what
the greater part demolished
; but
Vespasian had
emperor
and
The
replaced by public pleasure resorts.
amphitheatre
the
the
and
Titus'
thermae
built on
were
supplanted
pond,
into
Esquiline. The Colossus of Nero Vespasian transformed
that of a Sun-god : the pedestal is still extant.
Of the later Emperors, Domitian
distinguishedhimself by
his palaces. Plutarch
that
in Domitian's
Temple of
says
talents
CapitolineJove (thefourth)the gildingcost over
12,000
who
had
one
seen
a singlecolonnade,
(1^2,750,000)
; but
any

basilica,bath,
to

or

call Domitian

mistress-room
a

Midas

whose

in

the

touch

palace, would
turned

be bound

everything into

ceilingof the banqueting-hall,of enormous

span,
with
to
let
in
the
a
huge opening
light,rested, according
to
Statins'
but
those
few
columns,
panegyric, on
strong
Numidian,
enough to support the heavens.
S5mnadian, Chian,
vied together and
Carystian marble
granite from Syene ; only
gold.

the

The

pedestalswere

of Carrara

marble

; and

the

height

was

Roman
such

that

the

weary

Luxury

could

eye

193

hardly reach

to the

up

gilded

so"S.ts.

(6) Villas

Gardens

and

"

In the

City herself buildingwas restricted by the small area

and
the high price of ground ; but on
their huge estates the
be
grandees' passion for building could
indulged without
Umitation.

The

unheal

thiness

in the

of Rome

and

summer

made
early autumn
country-lifea delight and a necessity;
and largepropertiesgave, even
in the later Republic,a choice
of pleasant residences.
The
increase of villas made
the price
of suitable sites rise. Lucullus
paid for Marius' villa at Misedenarii : it had
been
num
bought by Cornelia, the
2,500,000
mother

Gracchi, for 75,000

of the
have

price must

been

due

the

of the

enhancement

to

improvements.
building-fever
gained ground
all over
will
the
Italy. Soon, thought Horace,
princely
leave
but
land
demesnes
Uttle
for the plough ; everjrwhere
than
artificial lakes, larger
the Lucrine
Lake, will extend, and
the plane supplant the elm with its graftingsof vines ; in the
stead of fertile oUves, there will be shady myrtle and
laurel
and
fragrant violet-beds, and in the place of natural
groves
After

the battle of Actium

to ward

turf colonnades

the

off the

by a series of senatus
frequently compelled to

senators
were

number

of villas

and

consulta

invest

in

their

Further,

wind.

imperial decrees

Italian
In the

homes

the

of

the

Sabine

or

land
heat

in the

to the
air ; in the spring or late autumn
of Southern
Italy ; or they might enjoy the

hills for fresh

Alban

soothing warmth
beautiful

splendour of

of Rome

in the retirement

Naples, or forget the bustle

the plane-groves of Upper Italy.
or
ready to receive
palaces were

the Gulf
of

of

Everywhere, country houses

them.
Pliny the Younger, who
in Etruria (nearTifernum
properties
villas

Beneventum,

His

Laurentum.
who

north

consequently increased.

they might repair to

summer

and

sun

worth

was

Lake

on

60

propertiesin Umbria,
Campagna
R.L.M.

"

near

II.

the

road

the

million

Etruria,

very

rich, owned
Comum,

Tiberinum), near

Como,

contemporary,
over

not

was

and
famous

sesterces
near

an

estate

near

Regulus,
owned
(^^650,000),
orator

Tusculum

and

to Tibur,
O

in

the

Roman

194

Luxury

heightened by difficulties of
building. Sallust speaks of the wealth squandered on houses
plateaus. Statius says of
jutting Into the sea, or on mountain
luxury of villas

The

subservient

made
was

where

obey,

were

night-time.

rich

the

by
the

from

pluck

at

in which

rank,

vegetated

hollowed

artificial caves,

'.

out

largest atria, the one never

A canal
all day long.
in sunshine
the

as

of Acheron

amenities

all the

villa had

to

Fusaro,

Praetorian

through an avenue
The
too rough.
was
sea
of the disadvantages of

passes

they fished,when

here

planes :

lake

the

to

sea

di

stones

retreats

Nereids

Lago

two

were

other

the

sun,

the

the

here

been

wilderness

mountain

for the

of

large

as

no

the

vines
on

soil

had

plain,there

was

cover,

and

man

days, there

great labour,

seen

go under
trees, there was

see

now

you

you

with
grown
In the villa

Vatia,

his last

away
with

Where

palace advances,

Sea-rocks

Servilius

man.

lofty

see

you
the

to

Nature

that

Surrentum

near
'

where

hill ;

of

Felix

villa of PoUius

the

often

was

the

and

none

sea,

and

Baiae.
for
predilection

The

hand

close

at

walls

of

which,
'

sea.

foundation
of the

produced

On

the

Antium

near

sea

coasts.

the estates
there

sea,

and

and

one

slope of

The

and

Tuscan
the

on

the

supported

(and

the

and

that

vine

in

only in

provincial
Ephesos

of

where

partly

were

aU

his

on

other

with

of villas

accounts

were

country

and

Statius.

healthy

and

gorgeous

Pliny's
beautiful

valley of the Tiber on

apartments suitable for every

various

comfortable
four

in the

seen

dams,

houses

town

Younger

villas

sea,

wonderful

Except^for
marble

the

Apennines,

furnishing was

which

waves.

fruit trees.

shady
Pliny

and

grottoes, and

contemporary

from

tine

season,

blue

still be

can

islands

His

partly in

and

almost

are

sites, the
a

anchor.

with

modest

Lauren

the

buildings on the
sophistDamianus

artificial

were

city residences

There

similar

of the rich

could

teemed

elsewhere

and
also

were

merchantmen

estates

back

of

'

There

like

thrust

says,

desire

repeatedly speaks of the quarry-stone rocks in

On
little bay ', says
Seneca,
lay your
you
any
fresh soil '. The remains
of the palaces
and create

water.

on

as

enjoying it
expensive water-palaces, the

many

Ovid

the

also

Horace
the

the

in the

views

from

all the

windows.

and

gance.
extravabright, without
small columns
of Carystian marble,
the Tuscan
villa,there was
only white

small

or
quantities),

the walls

were

Roman
decorated
the

with

openings

stone, and

covered

in two

there

was

The

walks

Laurentine

closed

with

Pollius

well, violets,box, rosemary,

vines,
grow
in
the
in
the
other, roses, acanthus,
figs
one, and,

the

villas

two

Felix,

Calcarella

isinglass-

would

mulberries,
box, vines, laurels, planes (some overgrown
cypresses.
One
of

villa

villa there
(in the Tuscan
only the usual plants and

had

gardens

195
the

were

fountain

no

trees, which

in

simple paintings;

several)

were

Luxury

rich

with

described

by Statins

of

on

man

PuteoU,

ivy)
built

was

the

and

Punta

for

della

between

tioned
Capes Massa and Sorrento and has been mento exemplify the great outlay on the foundations.
The
outbuildings and gardens appertaining comprised the whole
coast
from
Marina
di Puolo
and the East
side of Capo di Sorrento.

On

the

shore

there

temples of Neplnine and

a sinuous
path up to the
the

on
a

it

wing

decked

bath

warm

villa.

The

the islands.

The
Gulf

the

bright

with

Asia

Greece,

of Hercules

whence

haU,

or

was

of

and

sea

was

two

colonnade

had

rooms

cupolas,

went

along

varied

look
out-

prominent part was

Naples could be seen ;
from
the best quarries
and
Egypt. Everywhere
most

of

marble

Numidia

Minor,

with

were
pictures and sculptures of the old masters
and
seen,
portraitsof philosophers,poets and generals.
reUcs, such as bright marble
pavements and columns,
the coast
at Marina
and
on
occasionallybeen recovered

valuable
to

be

few

have
di

Puolo.
In the estate

of Manilius

Vopiscus near

Tibur, there

palaces opposite each other on the two banks of

it flowed peacefully(above and below
a point where
the distance

shake
to

It

hands

the
was

and

cool

in the

the

dog days
These

and

one

lofty wood

water

reflected

July

had

its

own

parks

or

the

lulled

to

rest.

centre

of

one

river

There

of the

it

was

was

own

all peace ;
bath
warm

palacesstood

falls)
wateralmost

converged
the

leaves.

not

gildedbeams,

numerous

famous

jewelsby
water-supply, and

Anio, at

were

could

sun

gleamed with

bronze, ivory,gold and

the

talk and

dense

the

veins, costly mosaics,

its

could

wainscotings with

yellow marble,

coloured

that

beshadowed

apartments.

of

short

so

the stream.

across

bank

the

was

penetrate
posts
door-

designs in inlaid
chef-d'ceuvresin

masters

; every

outlook,
the
on

two

were

on

bubbling
the

fine tree

bank.

room

ancient
stream

In

the

overtoppingthe

196

Roman

roof.

An

credits

grander, according

orchard,

and

Alcinous

of

gardens

the

Luxury

Circe

of Statins

poems

lay

to

the
the

near

poet, than

Niebuhr

villa.

reproducing the

with

the

local

true

colouring, and being popular in Italy : they are good to read

recall
in those
the
parts and
bygone splendour, formerly
combined

and

rich

the

This

is

charm

the

with

of

opulent Nature,

an

perhaps

kilometer, four
and

Hadrian

had

of all felt in

most

times

other

as

large

wandering through

visited.

There

reminiscent

well-travelled

the

Tiburtine

two-thirds

of

There

after famous

square

were

two

spots which

Lyceum, an
Academy, a
Canopus and a Tempe, and a Hades.
was

nomenclature

aristocracy :

Hadrian's

the Palatine.

as

buildings,named

poekileStoa, a prytaneum,
This

made

great enviable.

wilderness
of ruins that was
once
green
The total surface
villa.
about
area
was

palaces

which

have

may
on

been

in the

common

property of Severus, who

was

a
Memphis, and, on
especiallyinterested in Egypt, there was
Galen
another
tells of a rich man
who
estate, a Labyrinth.
Sea water
for a small pond.
transportedto Italy enough Dead

the villas of the

Of

Road

later

time

that

mention.

deserves

of the

Gordians

on

the Prae-

It

comprised a square Tetrasiyiwmwith 200 pillarsof the same

height,fiftyof g'j'aWo
awhco,
red
of cipolUno, pavonazzetto and
porph5ny respectively
;
basilicas 300 feet long, thermae
only equalledby those at Rome,
nestine

all else

and
with

on

the

Provincial

viUas

will be

dealt

later.

comparison of
gardens with modern
taste

scale.

same

had

Roman
times

different

would
descriptions

luxury in palaces,villas,parks and

is doubly difficult,
because
ancient
and

source

direction,and

many

detailed

be

requisite. Only a few examples from

countries
of magnificence in buildings can

epochs and
be given here.
Venetian
the most
palaces as early as about 1500 were
geous
gorof Italian Renascence
twelve yards
buildings. In a room
a
received
great lady in the family way
visits,
long, in which
fixtures cost
the mere
ducats
About
(24,000 francs).
2,000
contained
hundred
Venice
1600
a
palaces,some
costingat the

various

outset

over

200,000

house

in his native

city Bourges (builtin

and
still standing) was
adjudged by a contemporary
1450,
: before
completion it cost loo.opo
superiorto any royalj^la^ce
Jacques

Cceur's

ducats.

Roman
Sous

(8

francs): the
covered
with artistic sculptures,
the
and
gold and silver.
Amongst
houses

to

Luxury

million

10

of the

Revolution) Chateau
Georges d'Amboise,
Rouen.

in

Renascence

Richelieu

Gaillon
minister

spent

197

exterior

and

interior

were

with

costlytapestry
magnificent private
France
(mostly destroyed at the
built by
it was
was
famous;
of Louis XII
and archbishop of
rooms

other

millions

10

on

his

'

castle,

the

most

before
Versailles was
built '. The
castle j
splendid in France
and
of
gardens at Vaux belonging to Foucquet, the minister
Louis
XIV
(who fell in 1661) cost 18 million livres,and was
valued
The
by Voltaire at double.
huge gardens occupied
the area
three
which
of
villages
Foucquet bought up.
They
most
Le
and
considered
the
Notre,
were
partly designed by
beautiful
in Europe : the fountains
then thought marvellous,
were
and
the royal castles of St. Germain
and
Fontainebleau
not
Vaux.
The
leaden
were
comparable with
waterpipes
About
afterwards
sold for nearly half a million.
were
1750
made
Paris
and
with
near
ran
English gardens were
away
vast
Hence
the
called
sums.
were
:
folies
folieBrumoy
they
ruined
the Marquis de Brumoy,
tenfold
millionaire.
The
a
and banker
great tax-farmer
Joseph de la Borde
bought his

'

folie Miriville

for 30 millions : he had

constructed
in Beauce
and
pine-woods, a devil's
country with waterfalls

Alpine
an
bridge over
abyss, and
of Friendship.
an

The
the

French

models

the

for

Hotzenplotz
Moravia,
on
a
fairyland. Pulavy,
a

Uttle

of Felix
like

10,000

1805)
world

Of

Count

Hoditz

Versailles inside vast

Potocki

built

his

Sophia

from
sprung
the nineteenth

described

those

belonging to

the

the

nothing

Rosswalde,
Adam

gardens.

The

last ten

castle

and

expense,
years

were
near

florins

Czartoryski,
immense

millions,and

Tulczyn cost many

royal palace. At the same
in the

At

of

at

labourers, Potocki

Temple

spent 3,000,000

residence

the

marble

eighteenth century

Europe.

of

rest

bridge a

the

country-seats of
in

was

the

beyond

was

castle
more

employing
(1795-

of his life

Sofiyovska,

'

an

enchanted

'.

Piickler has
century country-seats Count
of the Enghsh aristocracy. Woburn
Abbey,
Duke

of Bedford

'

with

its stables,

riding-

and
ground, galleriesof statuary and paintings,hot-houses
gardens is a little town, a self-completeexample of tasteful
luxury ', such as only centuries of thought could produce.

Roman

198

Luxury

huge plantationof azaleas

and rhododendra
; a Chinese
garden with a dairy, bmlt like a
and brightglass,
Chinese
of white marble
temple, with an excess
and
fountain
in the middle.
The
a
aviary consists of a large
and
fenced-in
lofty plantations and a cottage, ^with a
space
and
birds (partlyrare
small
pond in the centre : the countless
wired
together,with a wire roof,
foreign)live in oak-branches
and evergreens
all round.
The
park is sixteen miles round, and
of Bridgewater, twelve ;
Ashridge Park, the seat of the Duke
Amongst

in the

various

the

there

latter

gardens

are

are

thousand

animals

wild

of

sorts

and

giant-trees; the pleasure ground and the

in Cassiobury Park
(the seat of the
gardens are larger than
of Essex), the
costs
Earl
;"io,ooo a year.
upkeep of which
Warwick
Castle,,wbich was
pafHy^ttrai"^wii on December
3,
The
of
1 87 1, was
on
a
rows
'fairyland'.
receptic^n-rooms

countless

of

groups

both

sides

thick

in every
splendid views.

of

formed

with
ihore

country

seats

iiL 1848 it is said

as

hall

the

one

refuge,which

beautiful

in

day with
ready.

8-14 feet

(10-12feet wide) a regularroom,

The
too, own
English aristocracy,
many
than
the Roman
grandees used to have
window

peer
he had

ofiered

twelve

of

covers

French
seen

never

expectation

every

Walls

feet long.

340

were

his
and

friend
it was

arrival
a

said

the

castle of his
be

to

table

very
laid

was

always kept

carriage was

than
designed a chateau at Ferrieres, of more
Too
princely magnificence,for Baron
Alphonse Rothschild
;
it in
who
', said King WiUiam,
saw
great for the middle-class
1870. The hall looked fairy-Uke with its galleriesall round
covered
with
splendid carpets, and, with its 1,110
gas-jets,
alone worth
the journey thither,
was
according to Drumont,
Paxton

i860

In

'

The

tasteless

'

of the

the conservatories

Moscow,
Archangel, near
Yusupov bought from Princ^
roubles.

It stands

woods,

chapel, a
rooms

has

concert

with

and

splendid Russian

most

at

and

the

inner

apartments

masterpieces of all times is only the

and
rather
produces wearisomeness

In the Park
One

in

'

artistic
wealth

accumulations

in

in

aviaries
castles
ItaUan

Michael

of the

brutal

triumph

than

admiration.

of

very attractive.
villa
is the palatial
are

style, which
GaUtsin

for

Prince
6

million

broad

park, with fine views on meadows

great galleryof valuable pictures,a splendid
hall, a theatre seating 500, many
receptiona

costlyvases,

etc.

palace at Alupka,

an

estate

Roman

zoo

of

Hercules

Fortuna

or

himself, but
marbles
with

his

great

Horace

Thus

shame.

to

and

somewhat

he

poverish
im-

yet costlier villas of

built

son

Little

himself.

completely ruined

and

the

Luxury

apply to

Martial

rarer

also vied

men

the fable

them

of

dent),
magister (district-superintenconsul
The
who
possessed a
competed with a consul.
palace four miles from the city,the other bought a plot of
land at the same
distance ; the consul built elegant thermae of
coloured
no
marble, the other a bath
bigger than a kettle ;
the

frog.

the

consul

planted
Such

Martial

had

tells of

laurel

hundred

vici

his

plantation on

estate, the

other

chestnuts.

characteristic,

costly,coloured marbles
a
world-empire, which

of

waste

was

could
only possible in the capital of
the numerous
and
blocks
from
beams
import by sea pillars,
have
since
countries, which
quarries in the Mediterranean
But Macaulay, on visiting
relapsed into a barbaric condition.
that
in 1838 could
the Vatican
Museum
stiU rightly wonder
in our
moneyed and luxurious age no one attempted to open
The wealth
of
quarrieslike those which supplied the ancients.
modern
Empire ;
Europe is far greater than that of the Roman
and
these things are
valued
and
at
enormous
highly
bought
with
And
ourselves
content
prices.
yet we
digging for them
think
of
in the ruins of this old city and its suburbs, and never
in the rocks
from
which
the Romans
extracted
seeking them
in Africa,
them'.
His expectation that the French
settlements
induce
such
and the rule of a Bavarian
prince in Greece would
undertakings, has only to a slightextent been fulfilled. The
marble
at Shimtu
quarries of Numidian
(Simitthu)have been
reopened after a thousand
years, and the blocks cut by Roman
chisels are
being sawn
by steam-saws.
'

Thus

English

palaces may

Roman
other

or

very inferior and

had

as

much

According
150

to

persons,

modern
smaller

have

ones,

in

but

of

dispose
John Bright,in 1866
space

and

all of Scotland

the

more

gardens

Whether

area.

to

been

to

as

the Roman

the

half of
ten

than
gorgeous
and parks were

or

British

grandees
is doubtful.

England belonged

to

twelve

of

; the Duke

Sutherland, the greatestreal owner,

possessing482,676 hectares,
being able to ride ninety miles

Marquis of Breadalbane
domain.
straightthrough his own
in artificial gardens and
scenery,
and

was

the

not

enamoured

of

But

Roman

rather

parks ; nothing

than
was

taste

deUghted

landscape,and
known

of hot-

Roman
houses
and
^^

and

Luxury

reproductionof

the

the

201

vegetation of foreignzones

cUmates.

And

in Roman

gardens, unlike the varietyof the decoration""

walls, there was
lacking the brightness of the modern
flora. Roman
luxury in flowers consisted in the extravagant
and
violets.
of a small
use
variety, especially lilies,roses
This was
excessive
and unexampled ; at a feast given by one
of
Nero's
cost
the
friends
sesterces (;"43,500),
roses
over
4,000,000
of the

and

we

told of the beds

are

entirelyof
of

roses

Paestum.

the

under

Under

glass.

Rome

near

from

the

was

even

Egypt,

winter

of

the

cheap

the

garden ranunculus,

Varro's

as

days, nursery

well, and

far

in

were

flower

Campania

as

demand

dens
garbeds
and

they

partly,like liUes, cultivated

89-90 the number

great that

so

ing
Verus, consist-

of Aelius

paid

winter-roses

Nero,

In

in Rome

roses

In

city,extending

partly shipped

were

lilies.

violets

and

surrounded

and

roses

tables

and

all

the

streets

of

Paestum
red

were

with

Egypt, says Martial, instead of exporting

us
such, might have
imported.
Modern
much
of its splendid garden flora to the
Europe owes
Turkish
love of flowers.
Stamboul
originated the tulip,the
fragrant syringa, the oriental hyacinth, the crown-imperial,
into
the

the
mimosa

wreaths.

West,
or

as

well

acacia

spread from

spread them viA Vienna

the
chestnut, common

and
as

Farnesiana.

Carnations,
the

Venice

laurel, and

at the

cence,
Renas-

America

brought
varieties, the wild vine, the Peruvian
new
capuchinmany
the
lombard
the
American
or
cress,
pyramidal poplar,
plane,
the
North
American
the
acacia,
Bignonia Catalpa, tuUpand
South
of
the
the
tree,
Alps,
magnolia and pepper-tree,
The
etc.
have
Opuntian cactus and the aloe
completed the
calm
type of Mediterranean
landscape,which derived its severe
from
the East, with an
addition
colour
'.
entirelyharmonious
The great increase of artificial cross-breedinghas produced a
of luxury, utterly unknown
to antiquity ; and the prices
form
times
for rare
flowers in modern
paid by amateurs
(e.g.,
70,000
Italy

across

Alps.

and

'

francs

in

1838 for

bed

of

dahlias, /loo in 1839 for another

variety in England) are only comparable to the pricespaid in

antiquity for rareties and amateurs'
delights. Of the Araucaria at the Villa Pallavicini at Pegli in 1865 every specieswas
at 10,000
valued
"
at 30,000.
francs, some
James Veitch
in orchids
and carnivorous
Sons specialize
plants,and in 1879

Roman

202

sent

V.

LUXURY

Domestic

IN

luxury

in the

Northern
'

the

species.

new

day

and

Tropics, Asia, the jungles,the

heights of the Himalayas to search

to the

gardeners
woods

and

swamps
for

six

out

Luxury

South

In
of

standard

ARRANGEMENTS

DOMESTIC

this

respects to
antiquity (and in some
between
intermediate
Europe) was

and

that

the

of

It aimed

East.

our

not

at

languages have no word),

(forwhich the Southern
but at parading the owner's
as
possible. The
dignity as much
but
little used
dwelling-rooms were
by day, and sparsely
furnished
ideas ; but
the lofty and
large
according to our
of morning visitors
for the crowds
reception-rooms, intended
and
relatively few articles,
evening banqueters, contained
but
costly and mainly decorative, e.g., tables- of citrus
very
wood
with
mented
ivory legs,sofas inlaid with tortoise-shell or ornawith
gold and silver, Babylonian carpets, splendid
of Corinthian
bronze
and
vases
murra,
Aeginetan candelabra,
old silver,statues
with
sideboards
and
paintings by famous
'

comfort

artists.
Of

several

articles

luxurious

of

they are always

were
Aeginetan candelabra
extant

twice

that

Murra

sum.

furniture, the

prices

are-

enormois.
high, and sometimes
bought at 25,000 sesterces, or ev^n

very

was

material

the

ancients

did"utt

and
goliffT
as
coming from the East, as valuable
first introduced
the conquest
of JVIithriafter
by Pompey
dates : it was
form
of agate ; murra
worth
vases
probably some
in private hands.
had
Nero
a
(^3,262 10s.) were
300,000
which
cost a million.
drinking-cup made
Comparable is the
price given for porcelain in the eighteenth century : Count

understand,

Briihl

owned

20,000

Uvres

for

yet there
Romans

are

service
a

service

some

also had

worth

("65 5s.).
B.C.

Lucius

vases

now

mania

for

which

thalers.

porcelain was
are

worth

Paris

In

large sum,
"750. Maxiy
a

some
rock-crystals; Pliny says
moderate
means
bought a rock-crystal
sesterces
(;"i,63i
8s.). Under Nero two

passion

Crassus

million

of Saxon

'

years
ago, a lady of
wine scoop for 150,000
small
artistic goblets of novel
The

for

'

workmanship

were

silver dates

sold

at

6,000

to 200
wrought
(consulin 95) possesseddishes

the orator

back

Roman
worth

6,000

sesterces

twenty times as much

considered
a
pound was
or
spurious, of famous
embroidered
sold

But

the

furnished

the

was

the

5,000

work,

mania

sold

'

for

much

for citrus-wood

tables, which

for
reproached by men
their
love
of pearls. Beautifully grained boards
of citrus
(a kind of thuja growing on the Atlas) fetched fabulous prices,
the trunks
seldom
thick enough to make
as
were
table-tops,
with a diameter
Cicero
of four feet.
some
though there were
bought a table of citrus-wood, which existed in Pliny'stime,
for 500,000
sesterces
(then worth
^"4,3855s.),a price Pliny
thinks
extraordinary at an epoch so comparatively simple and
Later
there were
on
even
more
expensive ones, e.g.,
poor.
for 1,400,000
Seneca
said
had
to have
is
los.):
(;^i5,226
500
tables
All

with

B.C.

some
'

But

time

genuine
more.
lonian
Babyfor sofas in the banqueting-hall
at 800,000 sesterces
(then worth
worth
four
miUions
(;"43,5oo).

artists

had

; in Martial's

large sum.

century

Nero

worst

the material

as

203

craftsmanship costing

the

pound,

coverlets

in the second

;f7,oi6 8s.);

Luxury

women

retort, when

of citrus-wood.

prices are extraordinary, and, as such, recorded ;

of later
the standard
of comparison must
be similar luxuries
times.
Evidence
that the average
price of luxurious furniture
was
a

these

much

snob

lower

who

in

is afiorded

poem

exaggerates the quaUty and

buys slaves
plate worth

for

sesterces,

200,000

of

Martial's, describing

cost

drinks

of all he has.

old

He

vintages, has

pound, a gilded coach worth as

much
as
an
estate, a mule bought for the price of a house, and
all his not
This
sum
large possessions cost a million.
very
must
have been suf"cient to furnish a fine house, if not a palace.
Pliny'spricesare exceptionalfancy prices,such as amateurs
madmen
or
(as Pliny says) will give. Of such fashionable
perversionsPliny instances Annius the Consular, who collected
with
such
enthusiasm
murra
ware
that, having bought a
los.), he
(containing 3 sextarii)for 700,000
(J/jfii-z
cup
Similarly in modern
gnawed its rim so as to increase its value.
rarefies
have
fetched
times
enormous
prices through
the insanity of a few
(as Seneca says of the Corinthian
bronzes) from connoisseurs, the English especially: e.g., ;"6oo
for a heller of Emperor
Henry VII, ;"2,26o (in 1812) for
5,000

sesterces

'

'

decameron

historical

; in

ancient

times

curiosities,e.g., the

such

lamp

paid for
prices were
of
Epictetus (3,000

Roman

204

Luxury

for
jtiiy i6s.), the stick of Peregrinus Proteus
a talent
paid have
(^^23515s.)- But the fancy prices then
vagance
of extrasince been attained
; this highestform
apparently never
in these objects,as in some
unique.
others,has remained
the
With
in
household
furniture,
greater
regard to luxury
Roman
costliness of the fewer objetsde luxe in the
palaces is
and varietyin the modem,
fullybalanced by greater multiplicity
cases, enormous.
especiallyas the cost was, and stiU is in some
At
the Renascence
in Italy rooms
were
expensively and
There
decorated.
were
ceilings,
artistically
richlyornamented
marble
fireplaces,
carpets of gilded leather, or silk and velvet,
with gold and silver designs,tapestries,
picturesin costly frames,
wood
furniture, heavy curtains, oriental
magnificent carved
enamelled
of gilded or
silver, crystal,
embroideries, vessels
Murano
glass,and majolica, figuresand articles of bronze and
In Venetian
ivory, etc.
palaces in which internal luxury and
art reached
their height in the sixteenth
century, the palace
of Vendramin
Calergiwas noted for its use of valuable marbles
and stones
in chimney-pieces and
columns, and for the ebony
In the
Golden
Room
and ivory on the doors.
of the Comaro
house
there was
a
splendid chimney-piece with golden caryatides,
tapestriesof gold, and the gildingon the beams was valued
at 18,000 zechini.
In Wolsey's palace all the eight ante-rooms
to his Audience-hall
were
hung with costly tapestries,which
were
changed every week.
In France
towards
the end of the reign of Louis
XIV
sive
expenin mainly through the rich business
furniture came
men,
filled their rooms
who
and
with
from
Beauvais
tapestries
and
gobelins, BouUe, Chinese
Japanese furniture, Venetian
and
French
and
mirrors, pictures by
Nuremberg
foreign
silver plate and
valuable
masters,
porcelain. This luxury,
which
increased
during the Regency of Louis XV, combined
comfort
and good taste to the satisfaction
of the utmost
gence.
induldrachmae

'

In

the

boudoir

of

house

'

fitted up with most

all covered
with

refined

mirrors.
(1758),the walls were
Trees
realistically
grouped together and covered with foliage,
decorated
with porcelain flowers and
were
gilded chandeliers,
which
held rose
and blue candles
; the soft lightwas
delicately
reflected by the mirrors, some
of which
shaded
with gauze.
were
Scents had been mingled with the paint on
the wainscoting;
thus the artificial thicket smelled of violets,jasmine and roses.

extravagance

Roman
Such

boudoirs

Under

Louis

it almost
the

XVl

her

as

Gouthifires

and

the

opulent houses

quarter

the

in Paris.

and

owed

the
'

time

him

756,000 livres

construction

mere

at

only

was

splendour of the nation

Beaumarchais'
to be seen
for
was
palace,famous
its architecture
were
andj gardens, the gorgeous show-rooms
cost 30,000
real art galleries
francs.
; his richly painted desk
In 1796 Bonaparte had to spend on his wife's small palace,which
for the furnishing.
worth
francs, 120,000-130,000
was
40,000
this passion spread. The
Elector
of Bavaria,
From
France
Max
Emanuel
II (about 1700) paid 60,000-100,000 thalers for
tables from
Paris ; the fiumitwo
rococo
a chimney-piece and
Kosel's pleasurepalace of Pillnitz cost 200,000
ture in Countess

of

The

Barry

du

that

gilded bronze made

carving on one pedestalby
by the artist at 50,000

valued

was

Comtesse

In

death.

in cut

gold.

205

at

numerous

extravagance

valuable

as

famous

livres

doubt

no

were

Luxury

all the

:
expense
inside '. In

thalers.
The

of the

last decades

increase

of

luxury

nineteenth

at the

Paris

century

Exhibitions

have

seen

bookcases

worth

were
francs, desks worth
seen,
10,000-15,000,
25,000
Exhibition
of 1879 furnished
Berlin
Industrial
the

francs.
costing 4,000-14,000
splendour of English castles.
is worth

House
is

'

of

realm

several

such
and

as

old

and

French

mosaics

and

could

craft

modern

silk all

ancient

One

The

hundred

Piickler

furniture

see

the

rarest

make,

cannot

may

be

rooms

Warwick
'

the

and

Castle

old, splendid

richest

articles

and

gold, silver, velvet

consists almost
entirelyof

together. The furniture

splendid gilding,carved dark walnut
cupboards with jbronzeornaments.
inlaid wood

at

of Northumberland

thousands.

'

and

illustrates

',everything being

past centuries

original'.

and

Count

great

seen.

The

and

oak,

or

Magnificent

art treasures

were

'.
pictures nearly all by the greatest masters
seurs
connoisthat
the
These
descriptionsof English castles prove
of the Roman
realized the reproduction of
Empire never
collection.
definite historical styles,by imitation
or
countless

the

"

requires specialmention.
viduals,
the
forbade
of golden plate by private indiuse
repealed the law.
except at sacrifices ; Aurelian

as
Silver-plate,

Tiberius

But

Tiberius'

edict

form

was

of luxury,

disregarded:

we

hear

of

golden plate

Roman

2o6
being

used

almost

as

often

Luxury
as

times.

in modern

Great

vagance
extra-

prevailed in silver plate,as well as in wrought silver

their workmanship
for their antiquity and
articles, valuable
cliiefly
so
{caelatura) In the Early Republic silver platewas
the
that
the
at Rome
same
rare
Carthaginian envoys found
house
it
at
service
they dined at ; conquest made
every
The
of the
common.
more
conquests of Spain (the Peru
ancient
world) in 206 brought the Cartagena silver mines
domain.
under
Rome's
According to Polybius, about 40,000
worked
there, and a net profitof 25,000 drachmae
men
(^975)
obtained.
a
Carthage, Corinth,
Syria, Macedonia,
day was
and
the
Mithridatic
Asia, Provence,
campaigns supplied Rome
The discovery of America
creased
inwith preciousmetals in abundance
the bullion of Europe from
^^34,000,000to ^130,000,000
of
by 1700, and ;f297,ooo,ooo by 1800 ; on the smaller area
the Roman
Empire this smaller importation of the precious
few
illustrate
metals
facts may
operated similarly. Some
the luxury in gold and
silver in modem
Europe.
considerable.
In the fifteenth century it was
True,
aheady
in Florence
another
their wrought silver,and
families lent one
and
brass
silver knives
But
forks were
or
ordinarily used.
individuals
of silver and
some
possessed large masses
gold,
.

Pietro Riario in 1473

e.g.. Cardinal
Duke
ofFerrara at his palace'in
Rome
candlesticks

and

two

host

was

to

the

bride

; he exhibited

of the

four church

angels in gold,a praying stool with lion-

shaped feet of gildedsilver,a silver set of fire-irons,a silver close

and a fresh service of silver plate
stool with a golden chamber,
for every course
of twelve
a buffet
; in the banqueting hall was
tiers full of golden and silver dishes set with jewels. In France,
Louis
under
XII, architectural
gildingand gilded silver came
in ; lords and prelateshad platesof gilded silver or pure gold.
miners
whose
made
her the fifteenth century
In Germany,
Peru, Aeneas

Silvius

was

astounded

at

the

universal

gance
extrava-

and decorations.
gold and sUver, and especiallyin armour
ate oflE
According to Wimpheling the rich merchants
of silver and
gold, and, on their journeys, had such
(weighing 30, 50, or 150 pounds) sent after them.

in

dishes
dishes

the

In

silver
the

sixteenth

of the

century Guicciardini

Flemish

introduction

Wolsey's silver

of
was

Holinshed

burgesses,and
silver

valued

spoons
at

mentions

into

150,000

the
is

England.

ducats.

In

massive

grieved

at

Cardinal
the

seven-

Roman

2o8
In Russia

century,
bad

and

furniture, great

Prince

Vasili

with

rooms,

of

masses

gold

Alexander

rough

and

might

silver

and
be

400

Menshik6v

Danilovich

1729) 72 dozen silver plates and

Count
of golden table services.
(son of Boris Petr6vich, who was

eighteenth

woodwork

(1643-1714)had

Vasilyevich Golitzin

Prince

dishes, and

in the

Poland, in the nobles' houses

white-washed

in

Luxury

seen.

silver

(died in

pud (1686 kilogrammes)

105
Peter

Borisovich

Sheremetyev

by Peter the Great)

at his estate, Kuskovo, near
Moscow, gave banquets for 2,000,
served on platesof gold. Charles
Radziwill
were
sixty of whom
had
at Nieswiesz
1,000
golden and silver rarefies, tables of
twelve
of the
Apostles, each
wrought silver, and statues
two
feet high, of pure gold.
in England 10,000
From
families,each
1800-1830 there were
owning valuables in gold and silver up to ;f500, and 150,000
and
owning up to ;"100 worth ; the poorest had ear-rings,
spoons
articles.
In 1855, according to M.
small
Chevalier, France
spent 60,000,000 francs worth of gold and silver,besides the
in circulation,and in 1880 over
England
money
70,000,000.
here
for
much
the
of
and
consumes
as
ornament
use
gold
;
other

ennobled

has in the last ten years almost

purposes
of silver has remained
stationary.

that

doubled, while

Our

of
scarcely afiords a just means
scanty information
extravagance in silver with that of modem
comparing Roman
times.

Before

dishes

the

of Sulla there

wars

than

more

each

(33 kilogrammes) which

of their owners
their heads
in the proscriptions
cost
;
many
Rotundus, a slave of Claudius, and dispensatorin Lower
Spain,
had
and
his
followers
a silver dish
some
weighing 500 pounds,
this
indicate
fashionable
a
weighing 250 ;
luxury of the
may
100

time,

as

weighing

in Rome

were

in Paris in the thirteenth

sparsely furnished
silver, crystal,set
of which
invested
hoarded

in

of Sweden

lavish

with

jewels
art

and

jewels

of

gold,which

in the

heavy clumsy

century, when

use

medieval

gold

masses

and

Perhaps the Romans

in accumulating silver
permanently valuable
into

pounds

100

and

made

was
or

and

the

recalled
the

rooms

of dishes

enamelled,
unrivalled

was

the

'

in

'.

'

grandees

the wealth

the

were

of

gold,

facture
manu-

Capital was
of

France

of the East

'.

thirteenth

century Parisians
were
simply laying by capitalin a form
and
the peaeasilynegotiable. Thus
sants
sixteenth
century put their extra money

silver spoons,

weighing 3-4

reichsthakr ;

Roman
poor
had

peasants who had

as
as
fiftyor
many

of the

Luxury

not

bed

half

ton

Vistula, in 1800

and

saved

up, and the rich

Similarly,in the delta

some

even.

later, rich farmers

tea and
as well as
spittoonsand chambers
and harness.
silver carriageornaments
bubble
was
bursting,in Paris gold and

in the stead
this

due

was

the shares.
and

gold

The

to

merely

not

modern

articles

to the rest of their

silver

pots and

urns,

In

Law's
1720, when
silver was
being used
articles ; and

extravagance, but

Russian

and

their

means

beyond

coffee

hoarded

tin in the commonest

and

of copper

209

Polish

the

to

fall in

Jews buy jewellery

and

out

of proportion

Jewish walnut-hawkers

buy silver
to have
articles for pledge '.
at
candlesticks
Konigsberg
must
all wealth
be readily
As in the modern
East, where
lated
jewelswere
mostly accumutransportable in exile ',at Rome
in the Eastern
provinces ; in one of Christ's parables a
merchant
puts all his fortune into a singlepearl. There may
have
been reason
enough to be prepared for anything : thus
out without
in Nero's
ventured
Galba
a carriage
reign never
in gold behind
And
when
him.
with a million sesterces
after
the coinage was
Nero
of putting by
depreciated,the custom
fund of silver probably spread. For the denarius of
a reserve
silver was
almost
alloyed, under Nero, 5-10 per cent.,
pure
under
Hadrian, nearly 20 per
Trajan, 15 per cent., under
property

'

'

Marcus

cent., under
per

30

cent., and

Although
the

Aurelius

the
As

same.

the

Hence

lessened

early as
custom

cent., under

per

Septimius

under

coin

25

Severus

50-60 per

in value, its mint

a.d.

100

in of

came

payment

in

engraving

Commodus

rate

gold
the

was

cent.

remained
exacted.

exact

weight

the amount
of inventories, when
purpose
of giving away
silver plateat
was
always stated, and the custom
At the Saturnalia
feasts
poor or mean
persons gave Uttle silver
the articles for the

on

spoons,

gold.

rich

persons dishes and cups of silver,or even

series of a friend's
complains at the diminuendo

or

generous

Martial

years ago he gave silver weighing four

pounds, five years ago a Uttle plate of two-thirds of a pound,
in the
about
the sixth year a Uttle dish
half a pound, and
seventh
and eighth spoons as big as a medler.
Juvenal makes a
Saturnalia

gifts;

for his

glutton pay
and
a

breaking
tell

usurer

will break
R.L.M.

"

ten

a
a

up
II,

expensive tastes by pawning

medallion

St.

Ambrose

makes

find you the money,

silver heirlooms ; their workmanship

borrower
some

of his mother.

silver vessels

'

in order

to

I
is

Roman

2IO

Luxury

highly artistic and I shall lose considerably,since no interest

can
figures; but, for a friend's sake I
replace the embossed
will not

loss,which

fear the

I will make

when

up

you

repay

'.

me

great in the Early Empire this lavish

How
be
may
Paullinus

the

from

seen

PUny,

in

statement

of silver was,
that
Pompeius

use

of the Army
in
(Seneca's
Lower
Germany in 58 a.d., carried 12,000 pounds of silver
Much
with
him.
of the
silver
(4,000 kilogrammes) about
and
officials
table plate belonging to the ofllcers, merchants
there

father-in-law),General

have

must

1868

hoard

Of

had

who

sideboards

have

may

Phny's remaining

facts

the

most

silver.

But

over

exceptional.
economical

banquets, and

at

of

only 200
private

many

grandiose.

more

of little

are

was

In

use

they

are

too

gerated,
exagwill
bathe
in
silver
he
baths.
But
only
e.g.,
says women
confirm
the view
that silver was
used
in the middle
even

they

the lower

on

anklets, and

even

after

slaves

eruption, the
they could ; but
have

Bosco

Reale

being

found

the

in

VI.
Ancient

greater than

to

make

of the

contributed

the Twelve

to

poor women
silver mirrors.

up

1894

In

the

silver

articles in raised

work

The
the

this

100

Pompeian

ables
valu-

silver
near

been
were

found,

at

discovered.

FUNERALS
on

love

measure

to

Pompeii,

all the

over

silver

provinces, too, especially

have

IN

At

belts,

silver articles found,

97

articles

desire

increase

villa of

and
wore

away

1837

to

over

livingtowards

the

Tables

carried

so,

and

modern.

of the

immortality,and

and

expenditure

extravagance
duties

in

LUXURY

Roman

far

even

silver sword-hilts

inhabitants

table.

Spain, many
Normandy 69

had

excavated

was

for

and

Bernay

been

had

scabbards

the

the

dishes

Gaul

Soldiers

classes.

silver chains

90

been

hoard
of

even

Germans.

found, weighing

was

one

(65'5 kilogrammes)

pounds

and

was

gold plate

no

of the

hands

Paulhnus'

course,

Severus,

emperors,

the

silver dishes

of ten

hundredweight.
Alexander

into

fallen

keep

funerals

altogether
of display and tiie tendency
of grief,the conception
was

the

dead, the idea of their

the

memory

of them

expenditure enormously.

against wanton
legislate

alive,
Even

expenditure,and

Roman
decree
the

that

teeth

no
a

"

tubae,as
also

These

was

persons
carried with

faithful

the

the

like them

as

them

atria of

the

blowers

and

of

dramatic

deceased.

of the

processionof

the

those

were

by

from

of dancers

for the

sum

flutists and

represented

obsequies
taken

considerable

choruses

as

sometimes

of which

cost

preceded by

was

well

211

gold is to be buried, except that which fastens

proof of the antiquity of dentistryin Rome.

Every full funeral

which

Luxury

most

sumptuous
regular feature

ancestors, whose

parts

possible,mostly by
century-oldpicturesof the
as

had masks
great houses, i.e.,

possible, and

appeared

in

the

who

mimes,

The

nobility,a

procession,
and

horns

were

actors.
try
ances-

made

on,

as

most

dignified
robes to which
the ancestor
entitled ; curule magistrates
was
in the purple-hemmed
in the purple toga, and
toga, censors
triumphatores in gold-embroidered purple, and they had lictors
and
with the fasceswalking in advance
all the usual attributes
The
of of"ce.
carriagesand hearses of these forbears often
as

numbered

several

hundreds.

In

22

the

at

B.C.

funeral

of

Brutus, and wife of Gains

Junia Tertulla, the sister of Marcus
Cassius, the images of twenty of the most illustrious families
preceded her hearse, the Manlii, Quinctii,and other equally
'

ancient

famiUes,

and,

for

their

conspicuous
in

21

B.C.,

"

the

of the

procession.
Julian gens, all

Sabine

nobles, Attus
succession

absence

There
the

and

all, Brutus
'.

At

of Tiberius, there

son

ancestral

endless

above

were

the
was

funeral

Kings of Alba,

Clausus, the founder

as

were

of Drusus

similar

Aeneas

seen

Cassius

the

gorgeous
founder

Romulus

and

the

of the Claudii,and

an

of other

The
distinguishedClaudii.
sites
requifor these processions may
have
belonged to the families,
but
the cost must
have
been
heavy.
very
Next, fine scents were
lavishlysquandered in the procession
at the pyre
and
and
condolence
sent
or
as
were
gifts
grave,
Incense
which
the
in
friends.
to
dedicated
was
single
by
gods
at
ofiered
Ostia
to the dead in heaps '. For example,
grains,was
consumed,
twenty (Roman) pounds (6"55kilogrammes) were
at the expense
of the commune,
at the funeral of a youth of
the rank
at that
of a
of a lady of the
decurio, and
city
lated
aristocracy fiftypounds (i6'37 kilogrammes). Pliny calcu'

the
denarii

to

costly,were

three
the

commercial

kinds

of incense

(Roman) pound.
only rarely used outside

Other

at

6, 5 and

fragrances,
Rome,

where

even

more

the waste

Roman

212

Luxury

was
enormous.
perfumes of India and Arabia
of Domitian,
According to Juvenal, Crispinus,the favourite
in the morning as strongly as two
smelt
of amomum
funerals.
the Roman
At the obsequies of SuUa
buted
ladies, it is said, contriand
that
two
much
so
spices
huge figures
perfumes

of the

dearest

of Sulla

and
'

cinnamon

lictor could

both

carriages.

2IO

in

embalmed

be

made

part of the
Poppaea's funeral

formed

At

Eastern

fashion

of

out

and

'

dear

ancestral

in

65

a.d.

in the

laid

incense

and

processionof
her body was
Mausoleum

of

Nero, according to the experts, burnt

more
Augustus, and
incense.
At the funeral of Annia
than
of Arabian
a year's crop
Flavius

of

wife

Priscilla,the
in

the
safiron

and

body was mummified, laid

sarcophagus and, according to a poeticaldescription,
Cilicia, the

of Arabia,

harvests

and

freedman

in 95 a.d., her

secretary of Domitian
marble

the

Abascantus,

and

myrrh,

Jerichobalsam

Sabaei

fiUed

and

Indians,

the air with

their

perfumes.
The

pyre, too,
of
only know

we

century consisted

doubt

no

those

was

of the

work

of

luxury.
which

emperors,

Certainly,

in

the

third

of several

pyramidal tiers, covered

where
everywith
and
reliefs, all
gold-braided carpets, pictures
the
to
abandoned
But
flames.
as
Pliny speaks of painted
it is probable that
imitated
this
private individuals
pyres,
extravagance according to their means.
of the cineraryurns
So, too, the workmanship and material
and
often
sarcophagi containing the body were
costly.
Urns
seldom
made
of gold or silver (though Trajan's,
were
in the pedestal of his Column, was
of gold),but rare
and costly
stones
The
ashes
were
of Philetus, a slave
frequently used.
Flavius
Ursus
of
(about 90 a. d.) were
extinguished in Setina
wine, and
In
two

his remains

columbarium

of

centuries, there

of oriental

enclosed

in

an

urn

imperial freedmen
are

alabaster, that

several

of

an

carved

of oriental
and

slaves

majrble

urns

alabaster.

of the first
and

imperial slave, Africanus,

one

who

for himself
'little
according to the inscriptionhad made
a
'. A glass urn
chapel with a grating and golden ornaments
found
with
white
at Pompeii
figuresin relief on a dark blue
background representing genii gathering grapes, is one of the
most
beautiful
specimens of the glass-work of antiquity.
The
buried
was
sarcophagus of Nero, which
by his former
love Acte, and
his two
nurses
Ecloge and Alexandria, was of

Roman
with

Egyptian porphyry,
and

of white

Luxury
altar

an

it of

on

Thasian

marble.
edging
richly and artistically
sarcophagi and
an

third

with

burning

of extravagance

cause

marble,

urns

how

decorated.

were

burying

of

custom

or

body things used

the

clothes, weapons,

by the deceased in life,e.g.,

The idea
tools, playthings,etc.
the desire of giving expression

ornaments,

immortality, and
sorrow
explain the custom.
he has proved his love of

of corporeal
to intense

Carrara

It is well known

the

was

213

say that
clothes
and

Lucian

makes

widower

his wife

by burning all her

at her
ornaments
funeral.
Regulus the orator
made
ostentatious
exhibition
of
of his grief at the death
an
about
a
son
old, and had all the boy's many
14 or 15 years
ponies,dogs, nightingales,parrots, and blackbirds slaughtered
at the pyre.
to the flames
Before
the
or
being committed
the bodies of the dead
dressed
in the most
were
ficent
magnigrave
Even

attire.

such

stoic

Cato

as

Utica

of

showed

at the death
him
halfof his beloved
griefoverwhelmed
in Thrace
brother, Quintus Servilius
Caepio, at Aenus
by
the
the
and
of
robes
and
burning
costly funeral
expensive
fragrances'. The heirs of Gains Cestius (a contemporary of
pyramid at Rome,
Augustus) who was buried in the well-known
directed by his will to bury with him the gold-embroidered
were
sold
carpets of Attalus : the aediles intervened, they were
and
the proceeds devoted
to the building of the
pyramid.
The
little
in
laws
as
enforced,
were
general, by the
sumptuary
aediles during the Empire, as at any
other time.
Nero
was
buried
in the white, gold-embroidered carpets he had
used
at his receptionon his last New
Year's Day, and Annia
Priscilla
in Tyrian purple.

how

'

We

of the expense
of great or small
council) of Pompeii granted at

possess but scanty records

funerals.
The
Curia
(common
the death

of

for the

obsequies,2,000
this
(thehighestofficial):

veteran

for his

funeral:

in

his

statues

who

native
and

his will of

the
had

sufficed for

left
heirs

city

higher.

January

his will

added

500.

honourable

only
For

2,000

the

duumvir
funeral.
sesterces

funeral

Caecilius
stated

Claudius

of

priesthoods

ground,
granted
Roman
The
scale
(^54 6s.).

One

27, 8 b.c,

the

council

sesterces

5,000

by

an

held the highest offices and

city,the

naturally much

then

Lambessa

at

Surrentine

ground and 2,000 sesterces

and an equestrian statue for

(;"2i155.)

aedile the

an

Isidorus

two
was

in

that, despitegreat losses,

Roman

214
he left 4,117

Luxury

slaves, 3,600 yoke of

head

257,000

oxen,

of other

; for his funeral

(over;"650,
000) in money
he
sesterces
(;^i2,ooo). Pliny records
assigned 1,100,000
this sum
for its exorbitance, for Nero's obsequies only cost
who
Vespasian's funeral, the actor
(;"2,i75).At
200,000
the
represented the parsimonious monarch, asked how much
procession and obsequies cost ; the procurators replied,10
sesterces
million
100,000,
; he rejoined they might give him

60 millions

cattle,and

and

throw

been

him

into

the

was

Yet

in

instance

for

invitingthe
combats
gladiatorial

whole

the custom

shows

and

They

Staberius

one

the

in

his

of his

amount

the

estate

this

Thus

towns.

the

duumvir

distributed

funeral

gladiatorialgames
and

his

under

the

promising
of his

of

his

wife,

importuned

and

own

lady
could

of

feast

this

It

to

in

or,

in

the

Italian

debt

was

gave
citizens

the

to

tinued
conpractice was
Younger praises a

gladiatorial
games

Verona.

not

the

Pliny

great repute, and

heirs

pastry, and

and

district,and

Verona

his

to

his father's death, at

on

probably

times.

pairs and a public

as
organizer. In

obtained

Sinuessa,

Empire.

greater

his tombstone,

on

custom

Most

far

According

directed

honey-wine

for the

family.

own

friend for

at

of

tions
celebra-

Republican

combat
of 100
default, to give a gladiatorial
meal
with
Arrius, a well-known
wastrel,

Republican times, too,

or

cause

from

will

banquets,

to

later

directions.

testamentary

sum

effect.

burial

known

are

fabulous

community

was

have

great may

comic

the

at

deceased

instances

often

were

inscribe

the

of

Many

Horace,

this

of

in memory
expense.

However

Tiber.

imperial funerals, probably

of

pomp
introduced

the

due

ledgment
acknow-

an

as

to the

true, he

memory

had

refuse, yet his generosity and

been
lavish-

proof of a great mind.

At these games
Under
imported from Africa.
Tiberius
the
mob
in an
town
Italian
stopped the funeral
procession of an officer in the market-place, until the heir had
Or, instead of banquets, largesse
promised gladiatorial
games.
At
at the
Gabii
silk merchant,
a
might be distributed.
dedication
of his daughter's memorial
temple in 163 gave the
ness

was

very

praiseworthy
panthers were

and

the

of the first class 5 denarii each, those

each, the shopkeepers inside the walls

honoratiores
class

paid

100,000

which

was

sesterces

to

be

into

spent

on

the

city account,

every

of the second
i

the

anniversary

on

each,
interest
a

and
on

public

Roman

2i6
of

Caecilia

Metella

d' Orlando

torre

Gaeta

utterly vanished,
has
trees

salla, and

Plautius,

these

of

Most

Cestius.
stones

road, the

Plancus)

Munatius

of

few

Tibur

the

on

them

monuments

have

prediction
still read, when
figthe

In

dust.

were

near

Martial's

be
his poems
would
of Licinus
tombs
in the marble

growing

were

for

save

true, that

come

of

and

(the monument
pyramid of

the

and

Luxury

and

smaller

Mestowns

proportionatelygreat, e.g., the

Italy the extravagance was
at Pompeii,
of Mamia
of a once
remains
stately monument
foundation.
in the form
of a temple with pillars,
on
a raised
his daughter's tomb
In 169 the silk merchant
of Gabii erected
;
statue
bronze
of
with
the
to
a
a
according
inscription, temple
of

her

Venus

as

doors,
In

bronze

the

four

and

altar

provinces
of

mausoleum
contained

and

also

rich

(according

of
sitting,

other

the best Greek

The

great monuments.

were

Langres (of the Early Empire)

of him, both
will) two statues

at

his

to

bronze

forth.

so

there

man

in niches, with

statues

marble

best

and

of the

bronze

second
'

of best
building there stood an altar
his
Carraran
marble
and
the best workmanship ', to contain
ashes.
On the grounds adjoiningwere
an
orchard,
a pond and
to be kept by a gardener with three assistants.
Arrangements
for keeping the whole in good repair.
as
usual, made
were,
kind.

Some

In

front

Roman

of the

monuments

in the

Provinces

have

survived.

of the Secundinii,
Treves
there is a monument
Igel near
and decorated,
73 feet high, of hard
grey sandstone, richly carved
fancied in
formerly in colour ; it is one of a style much
the district of the Meuse
and
the Moselle.
There
are
ments
fragof other similar monuments,
from Luxemburg
and from
from
the excavations
since
of Neumagen
Arlon, and many
obelisks,at least 9 feet high, carved with
1877-8. They were
and
portraits of the deceased
pictures in relief of their past
lives, in colour and very realistic. The Aiguille de Vienne,
of Pilate, is a
the so-called
lofty pyramid based on a
grave
tall
'.
The
Janus arch, of huge stones, quite undecorated
Roman
of the Juliiat St. Remy
is
mausoleum
Tarascon
near
high altogether,and was built about the end of the
I7'90 metres
structure
Republic by three sons for their parents. A quadrangular submounting by steps, with painted reliefs of the deeds
and prowess
of the father, supports a quadrangular Corinthian
At

'

arcade, open

on

all

sides,on

which

there

was

built

an

open

round

Roman
temple

of ten
the

columns

Corinthian
of the

statues

Luxury
with,

conical

The

parents.

217
taining
cupola, con-

so-called

of the

towers

Scipiosnear

date from
Tarragona, a largeisolated monument,
Near
the reign of Augustus.
the East Jordan there are
of the square towers, so much
used in Roman
largenumber

about
still a

which

monuments,
of

Titus

which

on

feet

high

salvo

pay
In

officer.
Amruni

with

last
the

1894

far

of power
in
both were

of the

on

same

Old

Romans
The

ashes

were

they

will

(and
exactly in

Roman
of El

remains,

former
At

'

of

state

foundation

on

monuments

centuries

the

Northernmost

found

two

ments,
monu-

lighthouses
plain ',
preservation. The style
with
steps, containing
like lonesome

rose

the lofty sea-like

The

top,

often

which

were

in

contributed

inscriptions. The

several

had

columns

portraits
most
Southern-

pyramid.
(a square, one-storeyedbuildingon
moulding at the top, and three steps)
the

monuments,

heirs

of

some

square storeys,with Corinthian

and carved with
richly decorated

and

of the
the

ated
; it is decor-

pillarswith a
Djerma (Garama 26" 22' N. Lat.) proves
held long sway
the Tripolideserts.
over

cost

were

fired

the

it two

Corinthian
at

in

Berbers.

deceased, and,
of these

quake,
earth-

Maximus

Salt Lakes

Roman

which

excellent

an

the

the grave, and

at the corners,

of the

25 feet high, which

and civilization from

and

of

Apuleius

(3i"-3o"N. Lat.) he

edge of the Hammada

was

south

numerous

upon

grand,
worshipped by the

of both

of

an

battalion

manes

was

the

still very

48

the

to

mausoleum

by

down

whole

and

parting of Orpheus and Eurydice.

inland from Tripolitowards
Barth, travelling

1850, Heinrich
Mursuk,
lighted

and

monument

pyramid,

garrison. The
being touched

on

respects

picture of

In

been

The

thrown

reinterred, and

discovered

was

them

crumbled

and

the

with

crowned

1849 it was
by the French

which

urn,

in zinc

to

in

restored

leaden

wrapped

and

socle

but
a

dovecots.

as

the
Maximus,
praefect of the third legion,
at Lambessa,
stationed
is a square
stone
building,

standing

in

served

Flavins

was

19-22

also

often

that

directed

addition) is

amounts

the

vary

by

given
from

{"21 T-5s.-"i,o^j
105.). The monument
buried at
of a Decurio
of Roman
Augsburg, who died and was
Maximus'
ment
monuEpfach, cost 6,000 ("6^ los) ; and Flavius
twice
the priceswe
know
at Lambessa
that sum.
But
200-100,000

of

are

almost

sesterces

aU

those

for

soldiers

and

subordinate

officers

Roman

2i8

highest) in Algeria,and for honoraThe

of
of the Italian and provincial cities.
great men
of Thasian
paid on a far larger scale : the monument
at the

(legionarytribunes
tiores

Rome
marble

Cato

Thrace

cost

must

of Utica
about

to

built for his half-brother

had

and
;"i,9oo,
ordinary.

seemed

have

comrades
under

Luxury

Praetorian

Septimius Severus) cost

(atthe
(;^2,i75).

200,000

his

by

money

own

in

this amount

erected

monument

of his

out

Empire

the

under

at Aenus

earliest

mausoleum
in aU
Roman
history was
gorgeous
that of Hadrian
have surpassed all others, as did his
; it may
to illustrate the magnificence of these
villa, but stiU. serves
The

most

buildings. Hadrian
began it six years before his death ; it
Pius in 1 39. It is comparable with
was
completed by Antoninus
rowed.
borthe Pyramids, from
which
perhaps certain details were
The
marble
substructure, now
destroyed, of Parian
loftier than
blocks
uncemented
the citywall ; according
was
to Procopius each
side was
long. The cylindrical
104 metres
centre
in diameter
and
in height (the
erection, 73 metres
Castel Sant' Angelo),only gives an idea of the colossal dimensions
of the

whole

of the

architectural

decorations, little is known.

in

perhaps

chariot

in which

house, from

four

with

buried.

colossal

statue

of

and

emperors
to Commodus

of the

members

(exceptingDidius

upper

Hadrian,

the

horses, surmounted

all the

Hadrian

features, and

leum,
Mauso-

imperial
Julianus)
'

'

and
horses
men
splendid carvings of
either on
the platform of the
(probably all colossal)were
the top
substructure, or, according to recent conjecture,above
moulding of the cylindricalerection.
By 537 the Mausoleum
been
had
decorations.
The
Romans
stripped of its carved
were

hurled

the statues

besieging
mutilated
which

The

Down

to

remained

in

when

great

One

the
is

of the Goths
is

Faun

in the

Romans

were

yet extant, though

of the

ground round

now

who

the

Munich

Barberiais,
Castel

Sant'

Glyptothek.

destroyed it,the monument

good preservation.

conquests
wealth

and

the

VII.
The

heads

Sleeping

when

excavated,
1379,

to the

Witichis.

so-called

discovered

was

on

under

the

was

Angelo

Rome

down

and

LUXURY

of

IN

Carthage

crowds

SLAVES

Corinth, which
brought
of prisoners to Rome,
mark
the
and

Roman

Luxury

219

beginning

of the

extravagant trade in slaves.

of slaves necessarilyled to

great and

great increase in the number

and

who

sale of the

the

m.ultipliedthe

and

the

more

work

trades

to others

for similar

families,
they became,

of industrial

afforded

ample
far

was

work

slaves, who

satisfying
profitablethan in

all kinds

; thus

cost

for

means

more

of business

his account,

on

vagance
extra-

of the slave

numerous

times, since slaves carried on

in their master's
service, or

modern

out

more,

Slave-labour

luxury.

such

the

profitsfrom the
buy or to feed,

little to

remainders

The

let

were

is in modern

of what

most

or

and

in ancient Rome.
by free agents was slave-labour
Only slavery could have rendered
possible the extravagance

Europe
in

done

art, which

to

Extravagance

great

for

midday,

inhabitants,
;

in

Moscow
had

evening.

labour.

employed

only

to

carry

In Bucharest

Every
boyar family

them.

every

of

domestic

were

30,000

with

teemed

sphere

at

or

of their

waste

the main-

for the

"

the

those

In

cheapest
labour

this

in

respect
About

thousand

drinking water

1866, out of

servants, and
his

had

servant

its

over

the

in

country in

of any

valueless, e.g., early Russia.

of whom

some

and

resembled

is almost

palaces

some

luxury

mere

"

directions

main

two

subdivision

households

labour

servants,
at

slaves

minute

Roman

which

1800,

took

squandered

most

are

absurdly

an

in slaves

of useless

1:enance

goods

is inconceivable.

us

100,000

house

every
own

narrow

contingents of washerwomen,

bleachers, ironers, bathwomen,

hair-curlers, chambermaids
and
coachmen,
lackeys, cooks, scullions, messengers,
nurses,
In the inscriptionsof the common
huntsmen, etc.
grooms,
burial

places

of

the

slaves

and

freedmen

of

great Roman

find torch-bearers, lantern-bearers, chief sedanwe

emperors
chair
attendants,
carriers, street
keepers of the outdoor

garments
the

whole.

the

lack

and

announce

; this

sample

Further,
of

of

machinery.

Thus

the hours.

As

slaves, sometimes

Pedanius

labour

much

by the rich, the vocalist

Augustus, oscillated from
200

department implies the

one

slaves
an

also

was

had

indication
be

Tigelliusmay
wealth

to

twenty.

In

as

serve

of the

of

through

wasted

to

scale

slaves

clocks

kept

taken, who, under

poverty, having sometimes

Secundus, the principalman

6r

a.d.

the

in Rome,

city praefect
had

400

in his

palace.
Further, slaves

were

used

to

save

every

personal exertion,

Roman

220

mental

for its

each

body,
house

was

slaves

who

in

'.

take

down

who

read

how

knew

There

the

is evidence

There
value

great

that

assumption

researches

laid

this

on

department

been

have

Seneca

research

his

for

work

ter's
mas-

great houses.

Pliny the Elder's literary

public offices he held ; the

of

History must,

Natural

him, who

by

who

those
been

have

must

least,

at

Quintilian

freedmen.

up
was

their

the

in

usual

was

by slaves and
mostly misinformed

worked

that

says

for

facts

'

emperors,
the
literarytraining justifies

is the

multitudinous

to

study slaves

prepared

only for

of this

only explanation
activity,consideringhow
many

This

writers

'

aloud,

and

minds

countless

shorthand

dictation, slaves to read

out

to

these, had
and

Roman

the

of the
powers
the master
; a

mental

produce

govern
secretaries

carried

up,

their

to

were

from

work.
but

yielded

'

; but

the

even

of your

limbs

like the

slaves

your

in which

freedmen

master

Use

end', said Democritus

own

machine,

and

one

'

physical.

or

Luxury

took
under-

slaves

or

freedmen.

possibleoneself, of not even

sometimes
exaggerated. The names
thinking for oneself, was
left to the nomenclatores
of clients and dependants were
{'we
had
remember
of others ', says Pliny), and
some
by means
them
when
to go to bed, or to table.
slaves to remind
They
if they are
too weary
to be able to know
are
', says Seneca,
hungry '. One of these weaklings, after he had been lifted
out of his bath, and
deposited in an armchair, asked, Am I
?
A
sitting down
disgust and
century later Lucian, with
The

desire

of

doing

little

as

as

'

'

'

'

astonishment,
inform
ascent

them

that
fashionable
says
in the streets
of any
'

descent

or

walking, and

behave

to be content

with

Thus

knew, who

silent

culture
a

rich

wanted

to appear

by

any
memory.
heart, and another

poets
his

; these

slaves stood

:
'

would

He
all

as

have

many
cost

cases

unevenness,

or

reminded

'.

Calvisius

that

they are
approached had

of

less '.

Sabinus, whom

ant.
attendslaves.
he

learned, though uneducated

made

one

slave

Hesiod, and

behind

propos quotations.
'

be

him

Each

books
The

at

slave

the

one

him
of

still
and

all Homer

banquets and

',said
same

learn

others

cost

to

slaves

Any who
look, and being greeted by an
was
acquired through the

man,

without

had

obstacles

to

like the blind

a

even

tells of

Seneca

They

have

Romans

nine

prompted

100,000
his

lyric
terces
ses-

parasites,

jestersummoned

him

Roman
to wrestle,

he

although
I am
hardly alive !
gigantic slaves !

'

'

Luxury

221

'

extremely weak.
Don't
!
forget you

was

What

How

I ?

can

have

many

'

Slaves

who

banquets

and

eye
down
'

and
the

sesterces, and

hair

Minor

served

gibes against their

children
play round

master

innocent

But

'

even

without

other
market

might be bought

his

and

also,

The

more

Pretty boys,

guests

the

at

as

kept

were

short

; dwarfs

cripplings,and

of

reason

by

or

200,000

liked

guests. Ladies let little

naked, and
enjoyed their

them

freaks

of natural

are

by

100,000

giants,giantesses, real

grotesque bronzes
and

cost

'

shanks, with

marshalled

were

dr5ring
boys were
imported for
trained
in spiteful
; they were
direct their precociouslyobscene

about

freaks

to

finer locks.

or

mostly at
delightthe

Alexandrian

ready and bitinghumour

to
allowed
repartee, and were

and

there

unlike

cupbearers.

as

their

centuries,dwarfs,

be

', might

in their hair.

chatter.

stood

They

might

chin, curlier

exhibited

were

but

serve,

; none

age

of Asia

flower

their hands

not

entertainment.

afford

on

the

did

they

colour, race

really luxuries

were

with

attestingthe

VIII.

'

at

three

of

previous

crStins,hermaphrodites,

exhibited

Rome,

there

at which

men

heads

eyes,

the most
extent

various

was
'

pointed
artificially
produced, and

arms,
were

extant

and

Courts
'

',

many
mutilations

of this horrid

tion.
affecta-

CONCLUSION

luxury in slaves is not so

the
much
the
disregard
contemptuous
extravagance, as
of human
luxury, but a
dignity ; an aspect not of Roman
The

revoltingfeature

of Roman

slavery. Excepting this form of luxury, which the

world
modern
parallelto any extent, cur
fortunatelycannot
scale of expenditure is
that
the modern
comparisons show
ing
generally higher than the ancient ; this is natural, considerthen by far less common.
that the requisiteconditions
were
much
not be forgotten how
It must
small, and how
poorer,
that
the
earth
and
with
ours
the ancient world was
;
compared
Roman
The
much
returns.
Empire
man
more
meagre
gave
little
of the
of Europe, and
comprised not quite two-thirds
the barbarian
East and
accessible.
The
rest of the globe was

result

of

countries

yielded the Empire

but

little of their valuable

pro-

Roman

222

In

ducts.
and
of

provinces civilization

many
those

even

modern

Nature

in

artificial culture

her

only beginning

was

far behind

stood

highly developed
productive power.

most

days

and

Luxury
;

those

exploitation of
despite considerable
The

was,

of
comparatively slight.Many inventions and sources
International
trafSc
undiscovered.
enjoyment remained
efforts of the Romans
and admirable
despitethe wonderful
and industry
times ; commerce
was
nothing like that of modern
in some
were
respects in their infancy. Excepting such
herself lavished, the making of the same
products as Nature
commodities
required far greater effort than now.
progress,

"

"

relative

This

smallness

Roman

poverty of the

and

world

smaller
things much
comparison for many
than ours
Rome
was
huge to them is not huge to us.
; what
the giant city and
world
never
as
capital,was
large as
even,
London
modem
and,
Paris,and always far smaller than modem
at her greatest,never
had a third of the population of the latter.
But
the luxury of Rome
appeared to contemporaries greater
the standard

made

than

it would

of

grade
than

luxury

it is

unique

to

now

Rome
Hock

seemed.

milieu
with

that

than

of

foreignfoods
This

days,

our

'

consumption,
when

will have

be

cannot

poorest
are
regarded
Roman

has
as

from the words

extravagant as it might seem
that
Roscher's
statement,
themselves, and

of

luxury
is the

less

must

tenable, since many

Such

Rome.

conjunction
the love

certain
in

with

the

are

economy,

more

by luxury

of the

general use

among

she

compared

necessities
was

'.

not

of the ancients
that

senseless

imperial
immoral

and

modified.
features

of

store

This

which

view

Roscher

in

absorptionof

of this kind

refined, but

be

more

flourishingnations existed
return
to Nature, luxury found
in
a
high degree of cleanliness,and

The

of free Nature.

all classes

were

nation,

decadent

of the

greatestexample

typicalof healthy luxury

deems
at

the

was

The

luxury

as

Rome

Rome,

luxury was far

regard to its social

and

that

to

portentous

hut

the

shown

and

highest

the

cities.

the

ancient

with

clothes, which

and

chapter

vast

more

both

modern

its articles of

and

more

right in saying that

is

limited

more

the

was,

and

confined

richest

greatest and

our

then

far

apparently

was

standard

and also because

life,

of Roman

greater naturalness
of

of this different

because

to us,

by

no

the

is shown

the whole
in the

life and
fact

that

articles
indispensable,
people. Such luxury is only
means

Roman

224
universal

was

in

sense

Luxurydo

we

realize

not

and

now,

will be

fully dealt with in a special section.

that of cleanliness.
most
The
developed luxury of all was
of aqueducts in the
often
The
and
imposing remains
many
cities of the Empire are
a
standing reproach to the tardy
world.
The
recognition of this great need by the modem
universalityand excellence of them can be only indicated here
in water
; in ajl but
by specialinstances.
Pompeii abounded
in excess
houses
it was
the smallest
; there
supplied, even
of the Vettii, and
the public
sixteen
were
jets in the House
other
cities of
absorbed
baths
large quantities'. In many
of arches, or inscriptions
(specifying
Italy great rows
emperors,
individuals
and
the
communes
as
patrons, magistrates,
of
builders),and pipes with city stamps attest the presence
water-service, e.g., at Trieste, Bevagna, Circello,Pozzuoli,
a
for civic purnot wanted
Canosa
di Puglia, etc., and the water
poses
sold to profit the citypurse.
These
was
city revenues
had
service
a
were
augmented by rich householders, who
more

'

'

land-owners

installed,and

who

the
they might, from
especiallythe fullers,who

Aqueduct,

as

also laid out

In

the

water

supply

was

exalts

needed

for their

own

the

provinces, too,

Libanius
in

baths

of the

one

their

watered

in their

water

for that

or

use,

provision
chief

by

and

of

city Antioch
eighteen divisions

as

ornaments,

There
in

has

his

sortie

poor

and

'.

cheap

communes.

excellingall others
of the city vied
in
'

of the

of the

respect ; the
supplying the best water for the baths.
houses
often
as
; several
running streams
also in most
of the workshops.
Our
this

work

good

duties

his native

fields,as far
the
artisans,

are

one

many
house, and

public

as

fountains

supply at
water
The
is so clear, that the full jug looks empty,
home.
and so pleasantto look at, that it invites drinking '. Libanius
water
indirectlyadmits that other cities provided as much
;
know
that in Smyrna
house
had
at
least
we
one
single
every
In
the
cities
of
and
Pisidia, nymphaea
Pamphylia
supply.
are

mere

were

in

specialfavour,

the

mouths
many
large basins ; the

(very
water

marble

as

much

wall

kind

one

of

'

own

castles

water

water

',whence

from

of gorgeous
welled
into
fagades the water
best preserved is the Nymphaeum
of Side

like the

gushes

every

from

in nine

Septizonium
three

niches

streams

into

of
in
a

Severus
a

Rome) ; the
magnificent columned
at

basin 4,000-5,000

square

Roman
In size.

metres

Luxury

In Caesar's time

225

the Nile water

at Alexandria

of the
purifiedfor use in privatehouses, but the mass
people used it in its dirtycondition,in which it was unhealthy ;
later on, the whole population was
suppliedwith filtered water.
In the African
was
provinces, too, where water
doubly a
small
lacked
e
ven
never
blessing,
places
good water, as far as
received its water
we
can
as yet say ; Verecunda
supply through
was

Antoninus
restored
in

276

Pius
the

A.D.

suf"cient

the

emperor
to
allowed

been

skill.

made
of its
for

commenced

; the
147-149
city of Thysdrus had been

The

by

water

it

Maximian

and

aqueduct 25 millia long was

third legion. In 152 a.d.
one
Saldae (Bougie) to bore a tunnel

had

baffled native
with

by

to

Diocletian

An

aqueducts.
there by the

sent
engineers was
aqueduct which

had

at Lambaesis

and

an

task
plied
sup-

commissioner, appointed
through the streets into basins, and

ran

water

In Great
privatehouses on certain conditions.
Leptis the good and palatable water of the stream on which
lies might easilyhave
the town
been
brought in by covered
to conduct
clear mountain-water
channels, but it was thought preferable
high above ground into the city,besides the water
of the Cinyps ; considerable
traces of both aqueducts are left.
has been insufficiently
Mauretania
explored,but the site of the
southernmost
Roman
city of Sala (Rehat Saleh 34" N. lat. on
the Atlantic)is evidenced by the ruins of an aqueduct. Arches
of aqueducts, some
Caesarea
very large,are still standing near
In
elsewhere.
the Nymphaeum
and
(Zershel),Constantine
of Bulla Regia the water
of the city
of the springin the middle
was

fell

several

over

stiU.

The

for

ruins of the

places in

basin,

to be

huge aqueduct of Carthage

in
at

of the

double

reservoirs

and

ous
continu-

are
as

long in

stillin

are

some

the

Western

Segovia is as
designer,rises

firm above

and

Northern

'

new

as

slim and

it issued

provinces.
forth from

The
the

light,nobly proportioned,

dirtytown, and, after two thousand

still supplies refreshing water'
(J. G. Rist, 1804).
years,
Ausonius
the
find words
cannot
enough to celebrate Divona
and
marble
well at Burdigala, covered
in with
nobly clear,
mouths
in streams
breaking forth stormilythrough her twelve
and

stands

Cisterns

course.

further

conducted

use.

too

Aqueduct
hand

into

eight geographicalmiles direct, and

their sinuous

So

terraces

the

'

inexhaustible, despitethe many

R.L.M.

"

II.

uses

to which

it

put by

was

226

Roman

the

people

In

'.

there

1855

The

Bordeaux.

Luxury

du

Pont

not

was

stately fountain

one

at

consisting of three tiers

in a wild, lonely ravine, is

Gard,

of

a
bridging the Gardon
which
conducted
the
remnant
of the aqueduct,
splendid water
of the springs Airan and Eure nine leagues further on to Nimes.
the inscriptionson
In 1854 a Lyons savant, who p\ib]isb.ed
the
Our
ancient
:
pipes there found, bitterly remarked
age,

arcades

'

which

its mechanics,

of

boasts

has

and

new
many
powers,
is still unable
to do for

the

so

ancients, e.g., steam,

the Romans,
large cities what
despite enormous
unknown

to

for their

did

and

Ancient

smallest.

Lyons lay
with

difficulties,

on

hill and

was

good spring
supplied
;
between
which
two
rivers,
flow
overplain
Lyons
and
it and
has
to be
drinking-water,
yet supply no
with
content
stinking water, dirty pipes and unhealthy air '.
The
of Mont
Roman
Pilat,
aqueduct started from the waters
and
took
Furand, crossed the
up those of Gien, Jaunon and
feet on huge bridges of
valleys (sometimes abysses of 200-300
fourteen
tiers)and was
aqueducts of
15 lieues long. The
Treves, Metz, Mainz, Cologne and other cities brought it hard
the Romans
water, which
recognized by its blue-green colour
cured
of itself cuts and
(likethat of the Alpine lakes); it soon
The
slightinjuriesby its deposits of lime.
Cologne derives
its excellent
and
supply from the Eifel 52 kilometres
away,
brings it in by underground channels, 70 or 88 kilometres

richly

amply

Not

long.

for

already

long ago

supply

done

legend has

same

to

grandeur ascribed
and

of

the

Remagen

no

one

at

the

to the

water-courses

spot

same

that

all

were

remains

the

the

(e.g.,Avenches

the

real

Romans

had

genius and

plicity
sim-

admired.

more

Cologne), the
aqueducts, that they

of the

their

were

and

wine, illustrative
carry down
to these ancient
monuments
in which

manner

two

imagined

excellence

elsewhere

attached

intended

were

at

and

technical
and

Rome

the

and
At

water

is in the

modern

used

clear

at

once

of the

of civilization,
has

purpose

been

gotten.
for-

The

aqueducts suppliedthe baths, public and private,which

in Italy from early times and were
were
common
rarely lacking
later.
In
there
were
mere
anjnvhere
Italy
villagespossessing
more

than

one

set of

in

of
inscriptions

and

legacies,no

baths, which

Italian

and

could

be

used

provincialcities,in

public purpose

is

more

for

fee ;

endowments

frequentlymentioned

Roman
than

the

slaves.

maintenance

erection,

public baths,
In

hot

the

Luxury

cold, for

and

227

and

equipment

and

men

provinces, too, the

and

women,

smallest

of

free

for

even

communes

recognized
In
the

the

duty of supplying good, cheap baths.

communal
decree
of a mining village in South
Portugal, the
lessee of the public bath
is to keep it open
from
daybreak to
2

for

p.m.

and

men,

night for women

;
the pricesof Rome)
cold

and

certain

daily bath

the

to

p.m.

second

paid ^^d., and

; fresh

running

before

fresh fat.

noon

be

cleaned

According

for rustics

given in
and

Galen,

to

of the

^d. (double
be

must

after

must

hour

women,

water

and

; the boilers

temperature
with

men

basins

warm

rubbed

and

from

the

reach

every month
the custom
of

he

rightlyregards
this as to some
extent
a sign of effeminacy, since
people found
it hard to do without
it ; Seneca, too, true to his point of view,
regards the passion for cleanliness as a decay of morals ; in
and
the good old days, only the arms
washed
legs were
every
and
bath
taken
week.
a
a
day,
only once
Sea-bathing was
all
t
he
Mediterranean
coasts
of Italy,Greece
general
along]
and
it came
in after a long
; in Germany,
Egypt, as we know
a

common

was

struggle, the

even

oldest

German

sea-bath

at

Doberan

not

was

till 1793.

opened
The

the Romans
felt it
so far as
was
enjoyment of Nature
never
more
widely spread ; as early as the last century of the
in
Republic, the upper classes regularlyspent the fine season
"

"

'

the

Even

country '.

select, from
for

adapted
garden was

variety

each
the

The

value.

then

climate

and
or

of the

season

most

of

rich

the

valued
of the

windows

year
part of

great could

generally

what

scenery,
inside
; and

palace and
dining-rooms ought
a

best

was

the

city the

doubled
look

to

its
out

the

Even
fiat roofs and
balconies
there were
on
green.
bushes
have
and flowers ; this form of luxury may
been sometimes
carried too far, but the descriptionsof the two
Seneoas
to

on

certainly not be
displayed flowers and
must

many

great gardens

some

of

which

ofificers
a

to the

classes, we

UteraUy.

smaller

houses

Rome
had
green in their windows, and
and
lungs of great cities ',
parks, those
'

were

have

been

an

isolated

spread of luxury amongst

have

Even

public. At Signia (Segni)

presented the city with
gardens ;

provisioncannot
As

taken

little knowledge, and

two

munal
com-

and

such

and

lower

case.

the

then

middle

only of Italy. The

Roman

228

countries, thanks

Mediterranean
had

the finest

slowly
lived

slaves

corn

wine, oil and

on

wealth

Inequality of
as

then

But

now.

the

laboriously.

and

obhterate

the

rich

In

climate, have
has had
in

Italy, even

wheaten

wine

into

always

to acclimatize
Cato's

flour ; and,

as

time,

has been

beer-drinkingcountries.

the

indeed

was

in the

of

after-efiect

to their

food, whilst the North

as

introduced

said, Rome

Luxury

great, but not as pronounced

South
poverty is not misery, and

Republican

difference

between

tended

manners

wealth

and

largely to

poverty.

still always expected to employ

great were
their excess
both to support the poor
an
object served by the
to participate
and
them
to allow
huge system of clientela
The

and

"

"

their

largelyin

in which

amusements,
The

people,says

open

thief

haughty

pleasures,and

the

the

to

modern

world

Plutarch, hate
latter

contempt

can

of the

afford

the

mean

them

advantages and
gives them no share.
rich

more

than

the

plead necessity,the former show a

people. And, according to Lucian,

tyrannized over the rich,who had to build them

and shows, distribute
baths, provide prize-fights
largesse,and
yet live in dread of the displeasureof their fellow-citizens.
How
in the Roman
splendidlythe prosperous
Empire provided
the poor

often

for the

comfort

later ;

these

and

needs

services, such
'

especially.

To

build

and

of the
as

to

be

dealt

baths, benefited

the

communes

the

give

'

was

wiU

then

the

rich

with

poor
man's

public buildings,institutions,and feeding the poor,

hand
in
hand
with
communal
private generosity went
authorities.
Endowments,
gifts,and legacies for purchases
meal
of oil and
for free distribution
quent
freor
cheap sale were
endowments
to put poor
; and
parents in the position
their children
to educate
to the
wage-earning age, not
up
instance
unusual
known
in the time of Augustus.
; there is one
endowments
for destitute
Further, there were
aged. Buriallaid out
and
by the communes
places for the poor were
by
the
in their educational
work
individuals.
communes
Finally,
were
a.d.
loo
helped by the public spiritof the rich. About
there was
teacher
of oratory, the highest stage of
In Como
no
learning,and aspirantshad to go as far as Milan.
Pliny the
Younger, though childless,gave a third of the cost of the chair ;
he also
presented a valuable
library,and capital for its
maintenance
and
that the
conclude
enlargement ; we
may
duty.

In

generosityof municipalsoften

aided

education.

Roman
But

far

Luxury

229

public festivals and amusements,

the rich, who
by the communes
thereby sought public
favour.
them
Custom
to invite
a
large portion of
the
to their private feasts ; on
their birthdays,
commune
when
assumed
the
their sons
toga vinlis, at a daughter's
marriage, or on the assumption of a municipal office,a public
more

was

buildingwould
council

spent
and
by
obliged

be

dedicated

invited, often

distributed
to the

on

and

over

Instead.

thousand,

PubUc

whole

of the citizens

many

festivities
and

the

and

of money

were

mainly banquets
ment
annually by endow-

established

sum

was

or

community,
of the nature
or
of shows, amongst
legacy,or they were
which venationes or gladiatorial
the most
combats
were
popular.
The
rich were,
no
doubt, often coerced
by public opinion
and
its unmistakable
expressions. In the cityon the GuU of
of
of part of the Petronian
one
Naples, the scene
romance,
the honoratiores
is expected to provide a feast and
largesse,
and
another
three days' gladiatorial
inherited
he
had
;
games
from
his father, and
could
30 million sesterces
win eternal
fame
for 400,000
(;^4,35o).
the

Of
the

benefactions

of citizens

to

to

show

to

pay

In

Philadelphia(Lydia),of

what
for

sums

the

pleasure
and

contribution

the

to

denarii

10,000

people), 5,000
altogether 65,000
donations

for

each

; for

of the

convenience
two

may
the

citizens

who

had

be

cited

rich

had

communes.

held

the

'

the

denarii

himself

and

fore hall

to

the

(over ^^2,800)
;
his sons,

com,

10,000

basilica, 50,000

the

other,

several

venatio, 610,000 denarii

to roof the theatre, for one
a

guilds,7,000 ; in all 627,000 denarii

(^27,300). At SiUyon or Aspendos in Pamphylia one family
of
to eight sets
and
(besides distributions of money
corn
denarii
of
for the education
citizens)gave 300,000
(1^12,550)
And
that
children.
of municipal inscriptionstestify
hundreds
to

the

and

towns

'

altogether to purchase
statue

to

(besidesan unnamed
priesthoods, one
public purse) on becoming aedile, gave
fifteen days' cooking
a
(probably for

for

the

their cities,three

in second-rate

even

highest offices

afford

provincial inscriptions,specifying

numerous

very

well

in all cities of the

of the
have

wealth
been

State

by

all

seven

Empire

the whole

of the rich, who

extracted

by

gave

the heaviest

populationreceived
more
up much
income-tax.
'

than

much
could

to
also largelydirected
luxury was
things enjoyable
'. The magnificent imperial publicbuildings in Rome,

the

especially
the

and

congiaria,

by

officials,

morally

however

benefited

yet

houses

the

and

emperors

and

mically
econo-

"

and

minority

the

of

Games

frumentationes
"

luxurious

the

thermae,

unsound

of

Luxury

Roman

230

of

the

of

court-feasts

favoured

days

our

the

Empire

only

the

the

enjoyed

public

the
had

whilst

are

And

individuals.

throughout

communes

people

whole

luxury
cratic
demo-

same

character.
and

Luxury
had

its

it,

nor

fabulous

as

and

its

sowed

material

conditions
ancient
in

often,
centuries

attainment

yet

only
Roman

its

has

form,

has

which

attempted.

Imperial

of

that
in

in

time

our

is

epoch

possessed

many

century

is

greatly

is

right

more

abused

much

in

his
than

that
in

hemisphere

our

the

surpassed

effects

happy

In

'.
and

forth

brought

produced

Mommsen

Epoch

this

high,

very

prosperity

luxury,

luxury

pite
Des-

fruit

bearing

spreading

existence

made

people
of

and

healthy

times

stunted

The

the

the

and

humane.

'

of

life

represented

was

stiU

are

the

as

compilation.

civiUzation

that

which

of

have

time,

doubt

no

immoral

or

uncritical

defects,

pleasures

mad

that

of

Empire

Early
as

Meursius'

seeds

many
the

other

and

neither

writers

in

the

of

was

the

as

faults

refining

all

but

rigorists,

all
'

side,

seamy

one-sided

civilization

the

later

more

advantages,
valued,
remark
known

or

as

that
'.

Arts

The

232

degree of general civilization

earlier ages.
The
Empire gave
almost

and
a

centuries

two

tion,
exhaus-

unto

world, weary

the

in

peace,
practicallycontinuous
the
to
utmost,
been plundered

of

provinces which had

equal distribution of burdens and, at least, a tolerable
restored
Order
and securitywere
; trafific in the largest

to the

more

'

rule.

and

ever

prosperity flourished

as

The

that

realm

continuous

is the

with

proof

of cities in all the

this.

of

cities increased

of

number

The

provinces

colonies, grants of civic rights

foundations,

new

wealth

; and

apace

grew

before.

never

embellishment

evident

most

'

existed

has

free trade

and

prosperityunrealized

and

mune,
single comwere
and
formerly
Spain, which
Tarrain
Augustus
(pagi). Under

combinations

small

of several

into

towns

especiallyin Gaul
administered
by cantons
combined
conese
only 179 were
Spain out of 293 communes
Antoninus
Pius there
under
cities ; according to Ptolemy
as
'in the Eastern
were
provinces,in Galatia,
248 cities. And
Syria, slowly but gradually new
Cappadocia and Hellenized
communes

Mauretania

the

spring up
Only
In

the

the

of the
huts

and

Numidia

and

cities to

new

many

camp

of camps

only

were

Antoninus

Pius

civic

gained

Valerian

cities out

here.

allowed

to

made

the

girls,contractors,
settle about

by a good, square
triumphal arch

places communes

Verecunda
207, and
Lambaesis
connected
was

paved road,

mile

rights in

Gallienus.

and

noticed

be

can

of the hucksters, women,

etc., who

camps

Lambaesis
under

in

Danube,

from
arose
(Lambessa) and Verecunda
third
Legion there in 146 a.d., out of the

Lambaesis

workmen,
off the

the

on

garrisons caused

Roman

growth of

settlement

barracks

even

'.

Africa

the

and

arose,

which

later,
with

the

entered

city

through a
gates, and continued
to Verecunda.
arch on
The
through another
city abounded
in stately buildings,temples, thermae, an
amphitheatre, a
septizonium in which
the

principaltemple
legates ; in 208
the

went

away,

were

fortifying the

there

out

of

town

with

several
was

kind

the

water-courses

of forum

met

with

city got its capitol.

rapidly decayed. When
towns
of Africa, they

statues

When
the
raised

in front

of

legionary
the legion
Byzantines
of

friezes, altars, tombstones

they left it,the French found it when

architraves,

pedestals,and, as
occupied Algeria.

three

citadel
and

they

The
the

Similarly In

Northern

settlements

native

which
villages,
Under

removed

to

commerce),

there

in cannabae,

arose

the

of the

camp

with

the Roman

fifteenth

Legion

(apparently a large Celtic

Carnuntum
St.

Petronell

Vienna

near

the

near

generallyclose by

graduallyamalgamated

Claudius

now

233

provinces

of Romans

camps
town.

Arts

of

centre

Hadrian,

and

was

stayed there, gave it municipal rights. Near the

the
at
Xanten
(castraVetera)the long peace caused
camp
erection
of a town
of buildings'after the manner
',which were
shelter
in 69 so as not to give the rebel barbarians
pulled down
in attacking the camp.
the
The
small places near
numerous
when

he

at Mainz

became

flourished

in the

great camp
and

Roman

fourth

first under

town

century

architectural

the

tian,
Diocle-

Strasspart of a statelytown.
burg, Alt-Ofen, Vienna, Iglitza,Karlsburg originated in the
remains

same

extant

have

must

been

way.
The

Aristides

panegyric of

fulsome, discloses
felt most
inland

of aU
and

effect

'

in the East.

on

the

(152 a.d.),however
of great impressions,which
were

the

What

journey reached

ruler

city In

new

Rome

When

and

coast,

ancient

on

when
could

there

were

they

were
ever

so

or

ever

so

In every
have

have

his domain,

cities

many

even

decked
be-

day's

passed

through two or three In the same

day, as through streets ?
It might be said, all former
monarchs
were
only kings of a
desert with fortified posts, and
mistress
of cities.
only Rome
Amongst you all the Greek cities are now
rising,and all their
do

monuments

cities,founded

numerous

In grace
much

city of
many

honour

you

and

as

Alexandria
other

Is

inland

and

extended
first and

erstwhile

jewels.

has doffed
rejoicing,
and
magnificence.

or

ranks

beauty

It outdid

by

on

coast

efforts.

your

outdoes

all other

the

its

countries.

past,

own

The

in your
diadem, a necklace
gem
The
whole
earth has donned
a

her old dress of iron, and

turned

are

Ionia

to

as

proud
beside

garb of
pleasure

possessed by one ambition,

to appear
the loveliest.
Everywhere are wrestling-grounds,
aqueducts, propylaea, temples,workshops, schools ; the earth,
Incessant
once
sick, has been restored to health.
giftscome
from your hand
; in your
Impartial grace no city is favourite.
as
They gleam In splendour and beauty ; the earth Is become
a
garden '.
The

All

rhetor's admiration

cities

are

of the many

beautiful cities Is justi-

The

234
lied

by

had

1,197 cities

ruins

other

by

and

but

gives
the

great cities from

lius.

In

cities of

'

(which

or

of these

Appian

and

architecture
the most

says
Domitian

under

even

and

most

had

of

triumvirs

wealth,

'

Italy once
authority ; probably
says

AureAugustus to Marcus
princiassigned the eighteen pal

time

in

Italy

the soldiers,and

Capua

the

B.C.

44

date

no

'

Aelian

facts.

local desolation, flourished

Italy,despite some
most

Arts

beauty

important

ranked

to

were

behind

far

not

'

the fourteen
by Ausonius
among
Venusia,
great cities of the Empire), Rhegium, Beneventum,
and
Nuceria, Ariminum,
(Vibo). In Central
Hipponium
show
the size of
and Asisium
Italy ruins like those of Ocriculum
the smaller ones.
Centumcellae
even
(CivitiVecchia),which

Rome,

and

is seldom
time

of

reckoned

was

mentioned,

In

Procopius.

Herculaneum

great and flourishingcity in the

Lower
of Pompeii
Italy the remains

was

mentioned
proved that places seldom
had
in good style.
numerous
stately pubUc buildings decorated
Under
Domitian
artistic town
with
a splendid and
Naples was
Of the sixty-three
temples, and colonnaded
many
squares.
cities of Sicilytowards
the end
the greatest
of the RepubUc
and most
was
Centuripae with 10,000 citizens (soi^e
prosperous
inhabitants). Syracuse and Catina (Catania)Ausonius
100,000
mentions
in his fourteen.
Corsica possessedthirty-two cities.
Cisalpine Gaul in Strabo's time surpassed other countries
and

in the

wealth

have

and

(Rimini)
Cremona,
Ravenna
with

down
was

greatness of her cities and

are

the

now

richest

to its destruction

built in the

in

water

by bridges
Late Empire became
for population,size and wealth

(Milan) in the
Rome
but

his

estimate

of

was

the
'

minum
Ari-

remains.

rich and

populous.

ancient

boats.
'

and

Roman

piles,an
and

first cityin

slain

Venice,

Mediolanium

according to

adults

300,000

in

69,

on

communications

Verona

Italyafter
Procopius ;

when

Milan

was

be exaggerated.
must
In Venetia, in
destroyed by Witichis
Patavium
Augustus' time, the most
was
important town
(Padua), with 500 families possessing at least the equestrian
census.
Aquileia,thegreatemporiumof northerntrade, 'inmore
than

Italy

one

in

the

sense

the

matter

Mediolanium).
suburbs.

The

abound

mother
of

Outside

city was
with

of Venice,'

was

the

fourth

population (afterRome,
the

double

razed

industrial

to

the

wall

there

products.

At

Capua

and

extensive

were

ground, but

city of

the

several

tions
founda-

places in

The
Istria noble

ruins

Arts

235

still standing, e.g., at

are

Tergeste (Trieste),

Tarsatica

(Parenzo). But Pola has pre(Flume), Parentium

served
the most important Roman
remains, one temple wholly,
another
tions
nearly destroyed ; a triumphal arch with rich decoraamphitheatre that could contain 20,000; the famous
of a theatre
destroyed in the
spectators; the remnants
25,000
seventeenth
excavated
some
century were
thirty years ago ;
in the nineteenth
in
century the city walls were
pulled down
part, but

remain.

gateways

two

ofi"cial

Josephus, quoting an
of cities in Gaul

number

have

may
Gaul

been

though

specifiedby Pomponius Mela

considerable, Vasio
(Vaison) and

the Empire,

at least in Narbonese

Of

substitutes.

their modern

nine

the

as

1,200

most, under

or

some,

largevillages,many,

larger than

much

were

list,givesabout

about

a.d.

50
Baeterrae

the

as

the

most

(Beziers) have
traces left,but Avenio
(Avignon),amongst
scarcely any Roman
show
number
of
of ruins, can
a considerable
a triumphal arch
the
at Arausio
(Orange) are
Early Empire ; the remains
grand, the triumphal arch and the theatre being very well preserved.
town
In Mela's time, the most
was
Narbo,
important
of
and
the principalharbour
the residence
of the Proconsul
belauded
Gaul, a town
by ApollinarisSidonius about 450 a.d. ;
The finest and best
stillbe seen.
traces of its former glory may
at
Italy are
buildings in Europe outside
preserved Roman
Hadrian
its apogee
under
Nemausus
(Nimes), which reached
town
the twofold
and
Arelate
and
the Antonines,
(after
banks
of
the
both
Constantine's
Rhone),
reign it spread over
'

'

'

the
after

Rome

in

the

seats

declined, and

for

end

huge brick
a city under

was

amphitheatre

spectators,and that of
a
Narbo, became
city of the

20,000

of the

four of which

most
it ; it flourished
still a thrivingcommercial

calls

The

fifth century.

Tolosa, with
the

Ausonius

', as

Lugdunum

city
had

Gallic

fourth
had

walls.

Vienne,

for 25,000.

first rank

towards

of five towns,
with

first,all surrounded

of the

out

grown

Arelate

consisted

century, and

Nemausus

of

formerly

open

an

village,became

by him with a wall

the
in fine buildings ; it contains
3J miles long, and abounded
ruins of a Temple
(perhaps of Augustus and his wife Julia),
an

Augustus,

and

amphitheatre,a theatre,
Vienne

Lugdunum

was

the

second

(Lyons),the

was

surrounded

thermae

and

capital
residence

of

porticus.

Gaul.

of the

The

first

proconsul of

was

Gallia

Arts

The

236
Lugdunensis,

the

centre, situate

administrative

at

tlie

fluence
con-

intersectingpoint of the
became
main
roads ; it soon
a very
city,and, even
prosperous
of which
full of splendidbuildings,
one
under
Nero, was
any
would
have
been an ornament
great rich
by itself. But the
city was destroyed in 197 by the soldiers of Septimius Severus,
of two

and

streams

broad

the

'

'

and

'

The

wholly recovered.

never

of the Parisii

httle town

the island

from

'

in the

(as Julian calls Lutetia)had

also

Seine

palais des
amphitheatre of the third century

to the

thermes

left bank
well

are

discovered

was

; an

the

near

of the so-caUed

the remains

known

spread

Pantheon.

Vienne, walls about

Bibracte, the capitalof the Aedui, had, hke

3j-miles

round,
in

theatre

the

with

220

Aquitania, about the middle

Eliumberum
was
principal town
the most
though of course
the

Atlantic, is

mentioned

not

of the fourth century, and

end

there

the

of

(157

large

the ruins

of

by

metres

century, the
Burdigala (Bordeaux),

first

(Auch).
important
as

ways
gate-

remains

were

largestknown

In

on

three-arched

two

century

amphitheatre,the

and

and

turrets

seventeenth

formerly

Augustodunum,

commercial
town

city

before

the

in late Roman

style.
waUs
were
loftyturrets, and gateways exactly
square with
opposite,the streets broad and regular, and the pride of the
town
its spring Divona, which
was
lavishlysupplied it with
are

The

water.
under
Belgica,even
Augustus
the
residence
cortorrum,
Rheims),
In

populous town,
The
capitalof
Claudius

and
the

the

city of

of

the Remi

(Duro-

the

governor,
in the fourth

of consequence
even
Treviri
(Treves, Trier) was

was

century.

settled

under

militarycolony,and is mentioned
by Mela as an
important town ; its walls were
6,418 metres round, enclosing
the right bank
of the Moselle ; it
a
on
space of 285 hectares
thus was
nearly twice as large as the medieval, and, up to
a

times,

recent

Nigra

as

to this

the

built about

was

fourth

as

modern

250

town
a.d.

It

can

city of the

still be
Ubii

was

seen

under

the

most

was

with

the

Porta

in the
flourishing

amphitheatre is

Claudius

miUtary colony,received
Agrippinensis(Cologne); in 71 even
A.D.

wall

often resided
there ; and
century, when the emperors
period must be assigned the splendidbuildings,remains

of which

50

the

as

frontier
its

new

its

earlier.

The

fortress,and
name

in

of Colonia

prosperitymade

it

The
an

object of

circular wall

the

envy

(ofthe

of the

Arts

237

Germans

on

the

right bank.
Treves) encloses

Its

some
period as that of
souls.
logne
Co97 hectares, holding a population of some
30,000
and Deutz
yielda good crop of architectural fragments,
sculptures,mosaics, metal-work, and glass and clay vessels.
In West
Switzerland, as the ruins show, Vindonissa
(Windisch,
the station of a legionuntil the frontier was
removed) Salotowns
durum, Turicum, Lousanna, became
flourishing
; Baden,
near
Ziirich,was at the beginning of the second century a lively
(Avenches), the principal
spot built hke a city '. Aventicum
little inferior in splendour and public
city of this part, was
to any
buildings, and the luxury of the richer homes
cial
provinwalls
of the West
town
'. The
were
protected with,
a magnificentwater
perhaps, low turrets ; there was
supply,a
theatre, and an amphitheatre for 17,000 spectators.
Tarraconese
the North
and the East) had under
Spain (i.e.,
and
the
Augustus 179 independent communes,
248 under
Antonines
Tarraco, had numerous
temples and
; the capital,
chral
pubhc buildings and statuary, and houses, villas, and sepultestified to its prosperity. Baetica
monuments
(SevUle,
Granada
and
Cordova,
parts of the adjoining provinces),
them
under
Gades, the
Augustus had
175 cities, amongst
second
city in population after Rome, with 500 citizens, possessed
same

'

'

of at least 400,000 sesterces,

cities in the monarchy.
The

one

'

capitalof Lusitania,

the

ruins

of the

one

of the richest and

of Emerita

fourteen

est
great-

Augusta,

cities mentioned

of the Arabic
writers ;
by Ausonius, aroused the admiration
then
in better preservation,and although used as
they were
the circus, amphitheatre,
now
quarries for centuries, even
the vaUey of the Anas
with
city waUs, aqueduct, a bridge over
and
there are
numerous
eighty-one arches are almost perfect,
remains
of temples, statues, more
less in ruins '.
or
and
in number
In Africa, too, the cities increased
prosperity
up

to

the end
with

of the third

only
lateral valley of
324,

very

Ptolemy already estimates

hamlets
In
amongst them.

century.
few

of 55,000
Medjerda (Bagradas) in a zone
hectares there are six cities only a few kilometres
apart ; and
Shotts
to
South
further
the plateau,sloping down
on
(Salt
and
the
cities
lie
all
the sea,
a
day's journey apart.
Lakes)
The
military colonies, of which we know
33 in the two Maurethe

tanias, 50 in Numidia

and

Africa

(therewere

only 6

in

Pliny's

The

238

Arts

time), caused cities to magnify and

settled
veterans
villagesin which
In

'

of the

many

'

towers

in

increase
soon

grew
castles, used

and

as

number,

since

into cities.
up
the places of

invaded
from
refuge by the agriculturalpopulation, when
inhabitants
increased
beyond the frontiers,the permanent
that they were
able to claim, and
to such an
extent
obtained,
Verecunda
has been
civic rights. How
Lambaesis
and
arose

explained.

Rural

city
ChuUu,

the

Cirta, about
rich

in

also

Rusicade
end

the

of

and

century. Rusicade
Similarly the
statuary.

became

cities

The
of

idea

some

Roman

Hadrian

lay

too

and

in

that

of

Severus,

most

after

of others, which

are

Rome,
never

or

were

Utica,

mentioned

from

the

ruins

reign

testify. Some
exhausted
as
quarries,
entirelyvanished, but

has now
almost
e.g., Carthage, which
in the
third
century vied with Alexandria

largesttown

was

rural

their ruins

as

and

towns

magnificent

their

cities

Arabian

e.g.,
with

Bure, Thugga, Agbia, all

prosperity.
Africa prospered

to

near

Gallienus,

of their

pendent
inde-

third

communes

give

to

became

pubhc buildings
of Thignica, Thibursicum
under

attached

were

independent,
at first united
(Philippeville)

communes,

and

MUeu,

which

communes,

or

as

Hadrumetum

in ancient

the

second

(Susa);

hterature, e.g.,
of Gates, so

Mother
(now Um-el-Abwab,
called
from
the four gates stiU standing),CiUium, Sufetula,
considerable
ruins remain.
In the valley of the Medjerda, an
African Campagna, now
in
sparselyinhabited, and a fever-haunt
the spring,every step brings one
to ruins of Roman
on
temples,
with
baths
and
of
ruins
to
indicate
former
aqueducts,
heaps
here
and
there
towns, or
magnificent buildings inscribed and
the miserable
Arabian
duwars
for
carved, towering over
(circles
whole
penning cattle). In Great Leptis, whence
ladings of
columns
have
been transported to France
and England, in the
buried
western
of
remains
part of the town, now
deep, many
alike for costlymaterial
buildings can stiU be seen, remarkable
The
and
ruins of Thamugadi
huge columns.
(Timgad,
many
African
buried
under
the
an
Pompeii
sand) and of Thagaste,
native
the
Madauri, that of
city of St. Augustine, and
Theveste
extensive.
Apuleius, are
(Tebessa) is an
very
ancient
houses, in part still inhabited,
city with ancient
is buried
a
though a far larger number
deep in ashes
:

Uthina,

Seressita

'

'

temple, like

the

maison

carree

at

Nimes, thermae

like those

of

The

240
These

Arts

the

of Apamea
and
country homes of the merchants
a.d.
Antioch, settlements
dating from about 300-550
; and,
no
doubt, precededby villas less durable ; up to a certain point
the prosperity of the Syrian merchants,
of which
have
we
a
for the Earlier Empire as well.
picture here, can be assumed
the great and
Damascus,
holy is called by Julian, who
extols the beauty of its temples and
the splendour of its
Samosata
the
numerous
on
aqueducts, the eye of the East.
a
Euphrates was
great populous city with a large temple of
Zeus.
Palmyra, which
belonged to the Empire in the first
its importance to the caravan
trade
with
the
century, owed
the Euphrates and
the Persian
Gulf ; and
towns
the
on
of the city
temples still standing and the great colonnades
were

'

'

'

markets
its

and

prosperity;

massive
'

thanks

huge reservoirs

and

in the

yet remain
have

then

the

been

AureUan

city by
on

the

meteoric

of

decorated
the

to

neighbourhood,
fertile '.

very

witness

to

underground water-supply

blocks

square

', bear

tombs

the

After

of stone, traces
barren

now

the

of which

ground

must

of

destruction

the

'

(273 a.d.) commerce

sought other roads
glory of Palmyra followed the desolation and

stillness of its ruins

'.

largestcities

Tyre, with
their six-storeyed
houses
; and Zabulon, according to Josephus,
had fine houses, hke Sidon, T5rre and Berytus. Ptolemais
too,
was
a
large town, and Arados
populous, with manyvery
In Palestine, after Jerusalem (with 600,000
storeyed houses.
inhabitants in 70 a.d.)came
Gaza, and Caesarea, the splendid
harbour-town
founded
the Tetrapylon, a
by Herod, where
triumphal arch with four gates, probably at the meeting of
main
worth
in the fourth
the two
streets, was
visitingeven
In

Phoenicia, the

were

Sidon

and

century.
In

Eastern

tion
S3rriaand the Nabataean
country the constituof the province of Arabia
the estabUshment
of a
and
legionin Bostra as the capital(106a.d.)brought the only epoch
of peace
and
desert,
a
good government these regions, now
uninhabited
for roaming Bedouins, have ever
save
enjoyed ; to
dominion
the time of Roman
(Trajanto Justinian)almost all
the architectural
remains
belong. The Ledya, a lava plateau,
is now
some
forty miles long and twenty-five miles across,
ing
unpeopled, but was then highly cultivated ; the road connect-

Bostra

and

Damascus

passedthrough it,and

there

are

ruins

The
of twelve

Arts

241

thirty-ninesmaller places. The very first

Roman
had aqueducts built,bringing the water
of
governor
to Kanatha
Bostra
the Hauran
(Kerak) and Arrha (Raha)
connected
was
a
by road with the Persian Gulf, and became
Petra
the
great trade centre, sharing with Palmyra and
Eastern
with the Mediterranean
of
commerce
; the long rows
huts testifyhow
stone
For
great it was, and still might be.
of wood, the buildingson the Hauran
want
all of stone,
were
and
give a vivid idea of the peculiarcivilization of the 500
M. de Vogiie says that
Trajan and Mahomet.
years between
the Roman
dominion
created
architectural
an
impulse which
large and

did not

die out

; in a few

years,

houses, palaces,
baths, temples,

theatres, aqueducts,triumphal arches and cities

from

arose

the

all the

symmetrical regularity of mushroom

cities,a uniform stylefor this part of Syria under the Empire.
The
Eastern
contain
about
such
slopes of the Hauran
300
deserted
cities and villages,
in contrast with the five towns
of
of them
the presentday ; some
having 800 one or two-storeyed
with

ground

houses, still habitable, all of

without

blocks

flat roofs

rain-proofwith
Greek
arch

with
and

beams

with

well-fitted

inscribed

or

square
doors, and

supported by stone arches and made

The
style is the ordinary imperial

cement.

of the

indications

some

the

ornamented

cement,

of stone

basalt

cupola invest

older

oriental.

The

stone

these

buildingswith a technical and

sists
originahty.
city wall generally only conof the backs of the houses, and is protectedby numerous
turrets.
In front of the gates are the cisterns,underground or
with stoiie ; the Bedouins
roofed over
stillkeep some
of them
in repair.
architectural

Gerasa,
wall

one

of square

The

of

the

blocks

principaltemple

has

Roman
4

250

miles

in

towns

long

and

columns, and

that

7-8
there

district,has
feet thick
are

the

smaller

two

temples, two amphitheatres (possibly),several large baths,

aqueducts and other ruins ; the main
street, pstved with
still in fair preservation,was
blocks
enclosed
by colonnades
both sides.
A necropolisfull of graves showing the large
on
the city on
all sides.
population,surrounds
Philippopolis
first
made
from its
was
a city by Philipthe
Arab, and seems
to
have been an important town, surrounded
ruins
by a rightat right angles,
angled wall, with two main streets intersecting
theatre, aqueduct, baths, temples and
a
numerous
public
R,L,M,

"

U,

Arts

The

242

splendidbuildingsof Petra,

The

buildings.
of the

Nabataean

of the

Roman

of the

decadent

third

centuries.

west

of Petra

in the livingrock and

kings, mostly hewn
period, exhibit all the fantastic extravagances
architecture
and sculpture of the second
and
'

tombs, hewn

The

in the

and

clefts

of

out

of Doric

superposed rows
columns, and propylaea like those of Egyptian
great prosperityand vigorous life could thus
the

of

was

the

(including the
Phrygia, Mysia,

the

repeated

mention
of

one

province

witnessed

is made

the

; this

by

of

ruins

the

number

opulent

most

Asia, and

of

to

to

Tiberius

to her

competed

a.d.

have

Only
provided

for the
them

had

made
of

inheritance

besides, embellished

her

Caria

Minor

and

Apamea

over

2,000

Lydia)

greatness is

amphitheatre,

erectinga temple

Laodicea,

One

its

Cyzicus
cities of

at

were

once

of Laodicea
the

that

munificence

Hiero

bequeathed

talents

and had,
(;^500,ooo)
buildings and monuments
;

city with
his example was
followed
and
Polemo,
by Zeno the rhetor
and
affords
whom
an
Antony
Augustus made
king. This
estimate
of the wealth
and
splendour of the cities allowed to
tants,
inhabi(Halicarnassus,Pergamus with its 120,000
compete
and
Smyrna).
Ephesus, Miletus, Sardes
Pergamus
accounted
the jewels ofjAsia
and Ephesus were
; Ephesus was
the

of the

residence

best built
claim

and

to be

despite the

the

and

(Kt^oxros).Eleven
of

honour

great.

islands

and

magnificent

of its theatre

five, amongst

citizens
an

Thebes.

coast

rejected,as too unimportant, yet Strabo says

her rich, and
wool
and
agriculturehad made
of her

sively
mas-

Corinthian

or

is official.

and

all Asia

and, inland, the principalcitywas

cities in 26

and

'.

dead

500 cities in Asia

Ionia, Aeolis or Doris,

Of

cliffs east

the

but
unartistically,

are

with

decorated

for

old residence

the

most

Governor

populous

the most
use

and

of the

beautiful
older

was

cities in the

considered

one

of

the

world, but

Sm3^na's
Aphrodisias,

undisputed.
buildings for erecting a
was

wall

in the

for centuries,stiU
century and of its ruins as a quarry
the same
be said of
has
remains, and
large Roman
may
Stratonicea.
is shown
How
Aphrodisias was
by the
prosperous
stone
numerous
recording the outlay on spectacles
inscriptions
The
down
of the Gordians.
to the time
capital of Rhodes
the
(probably incorporated with Asia under Vespasian) was
fourth

richest

and

most

Greek
flourishing

city down

to

its destruc-

The
tion

by an earthquake
splendid and well built
In

the

rest of Asia

about

did

then

even

not

Nicomedia

that

for the

the

of the

one

most

world.

only

was

thinly populated

vied

the

Minor, the waterless

behind

stand

243

a.d., and

150

cities in

Lycaonia, Galatia, Cappadocia

and

Arts

of Asia.

interior of
suited

Phrygia,

for

pasturage,
coast-land, however,

InBithynia,

Nicaea

and

first

place. Nicomedia, according to

had been so greatly extended
and embellished
Ammianus,
by
the later emperors,
that
it
to
seemed
Diocletian,
especially
for its masses
of public and private
Julian like a part of Rome
then only surpassed by
buildings : except by Rome, it was
and
Antioch, Alexandria
Constantinoplein size, and by none
in beauty.
In Pontus, where
Amasea
the old capitalof King
still flourished,Trapezus (Trebizond) first became
Mithridates
town
of consequence
under
the Empire.
The
a
population
of Caesarea, the capitalof Cappadocia, was
at 400,000
reckoned
in

the

third

century.

frontier,made

pertainedto
But

the

on

columned

'

Armenian

to be

halls, baths, theatres, and

great city ; Justinian surrounded

the

large and populous,

the fortress.
The
covered
with
plain was
residences, streets,and the market, shops,

massive

Pisidia, now

fortress

cityby Trajan, grew

spreading below
temples, oflScial
warehouses,

Melitene,

and

well

preserved ruins

in

all

it with

Pamphylia

that

wall.
and

of the world
the
', afford
forgotten corner
best idea of the number, splendour and greatness of the cities
of Asia
at this time.
Minor
A triangle,whose
base is the
coast-line from
Adalia
to Side
(75 kilometres, with two sides
of 30 and
smaller
than
the triangle of
45 kilometres) much
a

Berlin, Kiistrin, and

cities of

Frankfort

on

the

Oder, encloses

the

five

Pamphylia

(Attaleia,Perga, Sillyon,Aspendus and

Side). Termessus, situated 3,000 feet high in a hollow in the
hills and
overlooking the sea, is a
magnificent and perfect
picture of an ancient city with all its main
parts, ternples,
about
the beautiful
a
theatre, gymnasium, public buildingsall
of tombs
the slopes'.
and regular market, and acres
on
Perga
On the
looks like a place inhabited
or
only just abandoned.
breadth
of nearly
and
a
acropolis,for a length of 900 metres
walls stand
600, the embattled
perfect with turrets 70 paces
The
in many
first built.
roads
cases
as
high as when
square,
the southern
at right angles : from
cross
gate a street flanked
'

with

columned

halls

leads

up

to

the

centre

of the

citadel ;

"^^^

244
the

theatre

The

ruins

of

the

brought
theatre

Aspendus
water

of the

low-lying heaps
water
supply system
with

behind

which

with

with

the

has

the

were

already
on

between,

in

the

mountain

and

narrow

second
could

mentioned.

long

ruins

of

city

with

and

two

best

main
metres

first

Selge

the

of its

The

the

on

of

out

excellence

The

was

are

in

floor,
two

acropoleis
part of the

buildings ; and the

there
still stand
five pillarsof a colonnade
lower, in which
which
surrounded
market
the, whole
once
place ; and, above
8,000 or 9,000) and the stadium.
it, the theatre
(for about
which
is 1,000 metres
In the Kremna,
high, Augustus planted
most
the
Roman
and
of
a
colony,
buildings belong to the
late
middle
and
Empire.
Sagalassus stands on rising and
of the eminences
was
crowned
undulating ground :
every one
with fine buildings,connected
and stgps and
by colonnades
contained

and

town

the

public and

theatre, which

been

upper
which

on

mainland

rises like

The

shops.

stands

the

is 700 metres
the level and

strong fortified

ridge

ii,ooo

Side

city ruins.

bazaars,

colonnades

the

parts

encloses

spectators, and

the

broad,

spectators.
magnificentaqueduct, which

off towards

mainland

13,000

street, lined

about

seat

hills,the ruins of the stadium

the

over

the

on

about

Include

is walled

and

strong wall

could

7,000-8,000 spectators.

for

peninsula
seat

stadium

and

^^^^

sacred

'

terraces

the

picturesque
(possibly of
theatre,
had

of the

ruins

afiord

effect '.

idea

excellent

include

of

th^eminently

Corinthfan

They
of Trajan), a theatre, andj
little city
a
large temple. Even

the

time

very

theatre,

an

temple

above
like

the

Sillyon

'

Odeum, and a stadium.

Towards the end
century, shortly before the approaching decline,

second

an

conveyed the impression of ^eatworks

of art in one
style throughout, of ideal pictures,with their
picturesque circular walls leading to well kept roads with
tombs
each
the straightstreets, putlic places,
on
side, and
in every
temples, baths, gymnasia, or markets
quarter,and
the citadel with
of the
proud columned
buildings,the home
'.
The
remains
the Cilician coast
on
patron gods of the city
the Pamphylian, and
are
as well preserved as on
the comparative
and
'.
striking
poverty of material
style is all the more
Antioch
the Cragus with its two
on
streets of bazaars
and the
of streets
magnificent marble temple is an exception. Remains
these

cities must

have

'

of bazaars

are

also

to

be

found

at

Pompeiopolis, Seleuciaon

The
the

Calycadnus,

Arts

245

cation,
Hierapolis-Kastaba. A large city fortifitheatre
and
a
a
large aqueduct testifyto the former
doned
importance of Mopsuestia. The inside of Anazarba, an abanwith
city, is buried deep, and overgrown
vegetation,
of

out

which

project ;
theatre,

and

few

some

there

also

are

stadium,

and

columns
remains

of

former

of two

bazaar

streets

great aqueducts,

amphitheatre.
Here
of the world
where a forgottencorner
and everjrwhere,'
is investigatedafter the desolation
of 1,500 years, the first and
at the miserable
strongestfeelingis disgust and shame
present
in contrast
Rome
'.
with the gloriouspast under
When, under
of Cragos
a province,the old hill-city
Claudius, Lycia was made
was
brought into the plain, and, on the market
place of the
of the temple to
new
city of Sidyma, there are still remains
Claudius
of a stately bazaar
with
its four columns, and
with
native
and
a
columns, which
wealthy physician built for his
and
retired citizens decorated
city. Statues of the emperors
the market
and Apollo,
a temple of Artemis
place : there was
the patron deities, baths
and gymnasia for the young
and the
older citizens ; from
of
to the harbour
the gates right down
Calabatia
there were
of stone
rows
tombs, more
stately and
still standing. Cragoscostlythan those at Pompeii, and many
Sidyma was not a city of the first rank in the little province of
title ; it was
honorific
no
a
theatre, no
Lycia ; there was
little provincial town, created
by the Empire. But in the
whole
pare
vilayetof Aidin there is not a singleinland town to comin civilization
with
this little mountain
city.
and
most
Byzantium, the largest
city in Thrace
prosperous
in 196, after a three
taken
was
years' siege,by Septimius
Severus
and
almost
deprived of
entirely destroyed, and
of its city rights ; the
and
even
theatres, baths, ornaments
huge walls of square blocks (4J miles long) with loftydefences
a

an

and

numerous

ruins.

artistic

turrets, aroused

admiration

even

in

days of independence, there had been

villages and castles, except for Philippopolis

Inland, in the

nothing but
taken
in 251, when
by
(which had a population of 100,000
became
but
or
Roman
rule
the Goths),
under
largeplaces arose
(Hadrianopolis)
cities,especiallyunder
Trajan and Hadrian
Thessalonica, the capitalof Macedonia, is celebrated by Lucian
.

in
and

speech he delivered there for its beauty, population,wealth

splendour,and called a city containing everjrthingdesir-

The

246
able.

Arts

Salonae, the capitalof Dalmatia,

with

was,

Aqulleia,the

have been
centre in these waters, and must
principalcommercial
of the most
one
populous and wealthy cities of the West : it had
teenth
a wall with
eighty-eighttowers and three gates. In the seven-

century the remains

been

in

used

theatre

amphitheatre.

about

and, from
with

from

outside, looked

wall

miles

two

round

The
the

like

it, and

have

now

still

fragments
huge palace built by

there

buildings;

new

and

considerable, but

were

are

sea

like

laid out

was

rectangle (175 by

four

the

at

towers

of

cletian
Dio-

camp,

metres)

215

The

corners.

inside its walls,

capital,Spalato, is largely contained
and baptistery. In
and the old temples serve
as
a cathedral
Jader, too (Zara),there are columns and blocks of architraves,
remains
of ancient
and two
Kistagen
loftyarches near
pomp,
modern

mark

the

Greece
and

site of the

placeswith

ponnese,

and

decayed,

with

the

number

Antonines

of

later.

governor,

Corinth,

also

was

Roman

NicopoUs, founded
battle
miles

of Actium
north

of coins

the

on

and

most

Herodes

Atticus

revolts, with

of them

had

'

too, cities grew

up

at

gradual conquest and

few traces of city life,the

in architecture.

mention

will

of the
capital and residence
colony, rich, brilliant and populous.
of the
by Augustus as a memorial
southerimiost
point of Epirus (4J

the extensive
as
Prevesa) was
show, comparatively populous '.

in Britain,

in the Pelo-

were

over

the

of

In the North,

poor

of which

villagesbesides

mainland

the

on

tarch,
exceptions; Tithorea, according to PluOf the new
through
splendour of Athens

some

grown.
buildings of Hadrian
made

had

real civic hfe, 60

had

the

Bumum.

(without Thessalyand Epirus),though impoverished

desolate, under

100

be

ancient

Camulodunum

ruins

and

surprisingrate.

the

of

scene

Roman

towns

finds

Even

constant
were

not

the capital,
(Colchester),

easilycaptured by the insurgentsin 61 a.d. (18 years after

the conquest) because
it had been designed rather for pleasure
than
and
a
a
curia, a theatre
strength. There was
temple
of Claudius, which
soldiers could hold for two days.
the Roman
was

Londinium
lamium
were

Roman
too

was

great commercial

(St.Albans)
slain.

'

The

in 61 a.d.

considerable

relics of fine

Wroxeter),

was

centre

70,000
finds
'

buildings
excavated

in

there

citizens

1861

at Veru-

provincials

and

soil of London

in the

confirm

and

this.
and

of

Viroconium,

almost

proved

The

248
of the
this

city that

grew

Arts

beside

up

the former.

It

only after

was

began organizing into cities

the province,which
in the
to
then had
only had towns
up
western
half, Emona
(Laibach),Savaria (Steinam Anger). In
the Western
portion, which originallybelonged to Noricum,
Scarbantia
(Odenburg on the Neusiedler Lake) Siscia (Sziszek),
time

the

that

government

between

the

Save

and

the

(Mitrovicza.)

Sirmium

and

Drave,

city rights
emperors
; Poetovio
a colony under
(Pettau) under Trajan ; Mursa (Eszeg)became
Hadrian.
The
and
Sirmium
Savaria,
principal places were
retained
which
its Roman
name
up to the Magyar conquest
received

in the
In

under

tenth

century, and

Moesia

Pannonia.

the

the

Flavian

development

remains.

in Roman

abounds

of cities

less

was

than

even

in

spread from the camps,

of which
the oldest
those
at Singidunum
were
(Belgrade),
and
Viminacium
(Kostolatz): the importance of the latter
is shown
the multitude
of the
by a large field of ruins, and
artistic remains
Moesia
In Lower
smuggled through Servia.
and
civilization
the Danube), Roman
(between the Balkan
of a legion at Novae
began with the estabUshment
(near
Durostorum
and
Troesmis
Svischtova),
(Sihstria)
(Iglitza
near
Galatz).
in Dacia, the latest province and
Even
abandoned
after
(comprisingTransylvania, the Banate, Moldavia
170
years
and
not
WaUachia), 1,500 years have
fully destroyed the
Roman
work.
The
country was
repeopled with settlers from
various
Dalmatia
and
Asia
provinces (especially
Minor) and
the Roman
thoroughly than in the
city system spread more
A large number
other lands on the Danube.
of most
various
remains

Here

attest

Roman

Itahan

too

the

civilization

existence

of

100

over

more

or

less prosperous

mostly in Transylvania. Sarmizegetusa, the capitalconverted

by Trajan into a Roman
colony,
remained

the

towns,

central

town

and

governor's residence

Wallachian

its area
villagesoccupy
; the
of
and
the arena
the amphitheatre may
important the military centre, Apulum,
the

extensive

series of

ruins

round

the

of the

still be

modern

capitol,

seen.

by

Karlsburg.

in Dacia
into cities,and
grew
of which
covered
stations, the network

facts, which

more

or

How

is shown

was,

villagecommunes

militaryand road
country) graduallybecame
These

about

rock

; twelve

the
the

less cities.

might easilybe

amplified,prove

the

The
literal accuracy
that

province

no

Many

Pliny'sstatement
lacked

skilful

in the service

were

far

of the

the armies, but

experts in
been

of

Arts
in

and

State,

the

249
a

letter

architects.

inventive
as

Trajan,

to

engineers and

private architects

ing
buildhave

must

numerous.

more

of the best
Municipal patriotism, one
aspects of ancient
city life,so highly developed and promoted by the relative
and private
independence of the towns, incited the communes
citizens to provide necessary
and useful buildings and institutions
at

fervent

desire

of each

Greek

soil

of the
The
as

Roman

their

colonized

also

'

were

'

to be

adaptation of Roman
under
Augustus, which
Antioch

have

Sacra, Ostia

and

splendid

drove

them

themselves.

amongst

been

microcosms

names

had

Aventine,

cities

two

districts

seven

them

after
Vicus

Velabrum,

Thus
usage.
Martius, Herculaneum

common

',
capital

of the

showed

in Pisidia, named

regions, e.g. Cermalus,

this must

present a worthy
the corporations,and

the

accentuated
their power.
This was
on
ancient Hellenic disease ',the fierce jealousy

colonies

Ariminumand

times

ancient

In

beyond

by the

cities

sacrifice.
to

man

actuated

appearance
to efiEortsoften

and

cost

enormous

Falerii

each,

Roman

Tuscus

had

Via

a Palatine
Campus
region,
Beneventum
and
Mattiacum
the
an
EsquiUne, Lugdunum
capitalof the Chatti, a Vatican, Aquileia,a region called Serapis
The
and
Isis.
right of having a capitol,which, as at Rome,
had its temples of Jupiter,Juno and Minerva, or of setting up
of Marsyas on the forum, as at Rome,
a statue
up to Caracalla's
time
limited
to colonies.
At some
was
places,e.g., Cologne,
Treves, Florence, Cagliari,the tradition has been preserved in
in Capitole.
such church
Sta. Maria
names
as
sioners
Pubhc
intrusted
either to
building was
specialcommis{curatores
operum) or to annual officials,who generally
after completion.
accepted the lowest tender and took them over
for
When
cities are
temples
letting out a contract
colossi ', says
or
Plutarch,
they listen to the competing
their designs,and then select the cheapest
artists,who submit
and
promptest oQer.
The
extent, import and
object of city buildings is shown
of
governor
by the correspondence between
Pliny, when
a.d.). Imperial leave was
Bithynia,and Trajan (c.111-113
a

'

'

necessary

for all

new

erections,

Pliny obtained

such

licence

The

250
for

bath

new

and

the
the

on

dignity
of

ruins

town

was

had

cost

and

at Prusa
of

house, and

the

city

abandoned,

as

'

Olympus,
the city demanded
on

beautiful.

made

Arts

At

'

of the

one

the

as

Nicomedia

sesterces
30,329,000
also a second
on
one

glory of

; the

bath

the

reign
built

was

ugUest places in the

an
aqueduct, which
was
(;"330,ooo)
begun

which

sesterces

200,000

third
a
already been spent. Trajan then sanctioned
aqueduct, which was to bring water into the upper city as well
on
arches, partly of square blocks, and partlyof bricks ; Phny
assured
him
that in utihty and
be worthy
beauty it would
of Trajan's reign. Shortly before
the city had
commenced
had

buildinga
absorbed

the

main

laid
work

was

At

basihcas

had

been

but

the

architect

declared

the

had

of it with

burnt

walls

despitetheir immense
poUs huge city baths

too

around.

down,

But

much

undertook

weak

for the

(22 Roman
in

were

who

thickness

akeady

colonnade

before

finished, great fissures rendered

the same
time, in place of the

which
;

theatre

new

viduals
{;"io8,75o)
; private indi-

sesterces

and

auditorium

useless.

out

guaranteed the decoration

building

almost

Nicaea

At

10,000,000

over

had
above

forum.

new

the

repairs
old

nasium,
gym-

larger one
to complete

was

the

contemplated load,
At

feet)

Claudio-

For

progress.

an

aqueduct

Sinope Trajan gave his hcence, should

the expense
bute
contrifor the city,as it would
not be too much
and
to health
amenity. Amastris, a fine and splendid
city,possessed a long stately street, along the whole length
of which
water
flowed : Trajan sanctioned
a malodorous
course
its being filled up at the expense
of the city.
This prosperityof the cities and the outlay on civic architecture
in Bithynia may
be presumed for the rest of the Empire.
district
undertaken
were
Buildings to benefit a whole
by
several cities in common,
the
at
Alcantara
finished
bridge
e.g.,
in 105-6 at the cost of eleven municipia of Lusitania.
Part
of the regular city revenue
the entrance-money
was
and women
elected to posts of honour
and priestpaid by men
hoods,
to the decurionate, or the second
or
rank, the Augusto

bring water

talitas and

according
the

for

the
to

duumvirate

paid

16 millia to

seviratus

the

which

controlled

importance

of the

it.

These

place and

the

fees varied
office.

For

or
sesterces
were
10,000
3,000, 4,000
for
the aedileship
(10,000at Pompeii) ;
20,000,
4,000, even

the

2,000,

decurionate

1,000,

2,000

or

20,000

and

for

priest-

The
hoods, by the pontifex 10,000,
and

2,000,

at

Lambaesis

12,000,

which

400,000,

Numidia

render

and

or

and

251
55,000, for the flaminate
at
in Numidia
10,000,

even

Diana
for

2,000

the

sevirate.

elected

woman

promised

for

flaminicafor hfe
building a theatre, was

the invariable

But
or

Verecunda

Arts

additional

The

sum

of

at Calama

in

quite exceptional.
the

minimum,
services, e.g., give spectacles,
feasts,or
custom

to exceed

was

buildings. Thus, one Titus Flavins Justinus at Porto Torres

in Sardinia
paid for his election to the highest post (the quinquennalitas)35,000, besides himself providing a tank, and the
At Aeclanum
the quattuorviri,
water
to fillit.
by the decree
and
of the city council, paid for their election,by making
At
Lanuvium
paving a road through the cattle-market.
capital of the priests'
(Citta Lavigna) the accumulated
fees and other revenue,
entrance
was
by permissionof Severus
Caracalla

and

This

used

to

build

thermae.

municipal patriotism which

and vie, even
beyond their

selves
the cities exert them-

made

building,generally
also incited by
animated
citizens, who
were
prosperous
down
the love of perpetualfame, of their name
being handed
by inscriptionson great buildings,guaranteed imperishable
But
which
is sated by civic office,
the ambition
by the law.
in

means,

the

panegyrics,wreaths,

enough to much
generosity,and
and
pubhc opinion, which, in
and

of

statues, seats

demanded

of the

to ruinous

even

all the

rich

honour,
ancient

was

incentive

extravagance

RepubUcs,

pected
ex-

great pubhc services, drove

In fact, in every
against their will to great sacrifices.
city large or small throughout the Empire astonishinglygreat
for
sums
were
always being given in voluntary contributions
communal
and
the buildings erected
by private
purposes,
in size and
the
munificence
often
excelled
municipal ones
The erection
importance, and enabled the cities to retrench.
did not
of publicbuildings by individual
private munificence
out of rivalry with
need imperial sanction, unless undertaken
another town, or unless they caused public disturbance, or were
erected
theatre
or
near
a
amphitheatre '. In literature and

many

'

in

provincialmonuments,

there

are

very

numerous

evidences

buildings for general use on a princelyor small scale,

put up by wealthy individuals, such as temples,porticoes,
theatres, amphitheatres, or bridges ; or less opulent efforts,
the paving of streets, the levellingof the pubhc playgrounds,

of such

The

252
the erection

of sun-dials

or

Arts

booths

in the

market,

or

stone

tables

etc.
goods, provision for proper weights and measures,
and bequests
After Nerva's reign cities might receive legacies,
the heir
for public buildings became
or
might be
common,
obliged to build a bath, theatre, or stadium.
Some
examples will show how frequently, and with what
took
bellishment
part in the emmagnificent results, private individuals
for

of their cities.

After the destruction

of Cremona

in

restored
by private local
temples were
munificence.
At Como, the grandfather of Pliny the Younger's
and
that of his son
third wife built in his own
a
name
splendid
to
with
which
adorn
the
and
town
the
a capital
colonnade,
gave

69

the

A.D.

fora and

gates. At Oretum

in Tarraconesis

citizen

'

at the

request of the

House
of the Divine
burghers, and in honour
(theEmperor's) built a bridge costing 80,000 sesterces
(;"87o)
and
dedication.
At
at the
circus games
Thagaste in
gave
Roman
a
Numidia,
knight built a portico costing 300,000
sesterces
(;"3,267los.). Crinas the physicianhad walls built in
and
his native city (Marseilles)
elsewhere
for nearly 10,000,000
(;f
108,250); the two brothers Stertinius, physiciansto Claudius,
ruined
themselves
on
buildingsin Naples. The
inscription
of
the pedestal
of a citizen of Citium
in Cyprus states
on
a statue
that he built a new
fitted it out entirely at his
theatre
and
Dio of Prusa's
his proown
grandfather exhausted
expense.
perty
council

and

the

'

in communal
near

the
Gains

the

thermae

site alone
Antius

efforts,and
in his native

cost

Aulus

him

over

Dio

himseh

city with
50,000

built

shops
drachmae
in

and

colonnade

workshops

(over ^^1,850).
was
proconsul

JuUus Quadratus
divine agent sent
a
according to Aristides, was
to rejuvenate Pergamus
to her present condition
if other
:
famihes
born from the city,the citywas
born of him, as she
were
acknowledged in council, in assembly, in the theatre, in fact,
everywhere, since he had beautified
everything '. Most of
the inscriptions
extant
on
public buildings in the cities of
Pamphylia and Pisidia speak of private benefactors.
In the Greek
provinces,the sophists,above aU, who often
earned
immense
tectural
wealth, used to devote a part of it to the archidecoration
of their native place or residence.
Nicetes
laid out great streets at Smyrna, and
the city to
extended
the gate on
the Ephesus road.
Alexander
of Cotyaeum, in
the exaggerated expressionof Aristides, made
a
new
city of
106

of Asia, and,

'

The

Arts

253

of Ephesus, a pupil of Aristides and

Damianus
Cotyaeum.
at Ephesus with the city
Hadrian, joined the temple of Diana
to
long, to permit the devout
by a covered way one stadium
reach
the temple rain-proof,and
in the sanctuary he
built a
vast hall for sacrificial banquets, ornamented
gorgeously with
there
honoured
pavonazzetto. His descendants, too, were
their contempt of money
'.
for
Atticus
But Herodes
in loi, died in 177),
(born at Marathon
'

richest

of the

one

and

noblest

of his time, and

men

in

consul

principalsophist of his day, outdid all others in his

than princely munificence.
his
It was
unexampled and more
ambition
to acquire fame
amongst his contemporaries by his
ings
posterityby his vast and splendid buildoratory, and among
benefit ; we
for the common
ments
fragpossess considerable
the

143,

of the latter, which

nothing remains.
of Asia, when

often

are

In 125 Herodes
his father, Tiberius

alluded

praefectof

was

former

to ; of the

the free cities

enabled

Atticus,

Claudius

magnificent giftupon the city of Troas

andria),
(Alexgrant of three million
by supplementing Hadrian's
drachmae
for an
aqueduct by the four million (over;^i50,ooo)
extended
munificence
to Italy ;
still required. Later, Herodes'
he gave
an
(Canosa di Puglia) : but
aqueduct to Canusium
him

to bestow

principalcare

his

which

near

he

passed his

and

nese,

theatre

revived

Boeotia,

in Corinth, and

at

above

days, at Cephisia,which

latter

subsidized

He

resort.

summer

Athens

Greece, Attica, and

was

cities in Euboea,

Oricum

all,

is stiU

the

built

Pelopon-

covered
Epirus,
Olympia an aqueduct with a Nymthat
niches
overtopped the whole
built sulphur baths, and decorated
in

building with
Altis ; at Thermopylae he
marble.
He
at
even
the
stadium
Delphi with Pentelican
In
Attica
contemplated a canal through the isthmus of Corinth.
in the deme
of Myrrhinus
he restored
a
temple of Athene
the panathenaic stadium
in Athens
in four years he covered
phaeum,

of

with

Lycurgus

hills

temple

Pentelican

of the

Goddess

marble, built
of Fortune

with

and, at the foot of the Acropolis,in honour

for 6,000 persons
Odeum
in cedar wood,
an
Pausanias,
It is
Thus

beggared anything
being

now

the

most

to their

similar

along

for

an

of his

one

of

the

ivory image,
wife Regilla,

which, according to
size and

splendour.

excavated.

of the rich did not restrict

generous
have
native
cities,though no one
may

selves
thembeen

The

254

when

able to say Kke Herodes,

things of

I could

also say many

if the whole world
were
It

the

was

their native

Rome,

at

or

otherwise

the

tribunal

my

to

Italian

an

kind

same

of

about

Regilla
city):
myself,

'.

municipals,on becoming senators, when

citizenshiplapsed,or on rising to high positions
rule

for

for

Roman
with

connected
attachment

or

of the murder

accused

boasting of munificence

(his prosecutorwas
'

Arts

to

grandees, who

were

another

lence
testifytheir benevo-

it

city,to

patrons of

other

by buildings or

or

gifts. PUny
city,a large

his native
Younger by his will left Comum,
maintenance
of thermae, and
legacy for the building and
acknowledged the honour paid him
Tiberinum,
by Tifernum
which
elected him
its patron in his youth, by building a
Ummidia
temple, and giving a banquet at the dedication.
Quawho
of
owned
in
Rome
a palace
dratilla,a lady
high position,
in the twelfth region,and died in 107 at the age of 80, came
from
Casinum
inscriptionof four lines found there states that
; an
she built at her expense
an
amphitheatre and a temple for
the inhabitants.
Dasumius
(probably the author of the SenaConsultum
tus
Dasumianum,
begun decorating
loi) had
his
native
with
Corduba,
city,
public buildings,and by his
will (made in 109) left the completion of the task to a commission
and
TuUus
of jurists
experts. One Dasumius
(consul
under
Marcus
Aurelius)completed at Tarquirui some
thermcs,
his father, Publius
TuUius
Varro
for which
(consul under
sesterces
Trajan) had bequeathed the city 3,300,000
(;^35,892
and
the
the
augmenting
105.),
capital
extending
building; the

the

this

of

reason

munificence

must

have

been

similar

the

to

foregoing.

Imperial freedmen

also

often

adorned

buildings. Cleander, the powerful

fortune
dus, spent part of his immense
with

other

'

institutions

dependent

or

of

allied

use

both

their
freedman
on

to individuals

princes often

showed

native

homes

of Commo-

houses, baths
and

their

and

cities '.

Lastly,
generosityand

love of pomp
outside their dominions.
Herod
by buildingseven
the Great filled Judaea with many
splendidbuildings,
principally
in honour

of

Augustus (the great port

as
magnificent),

Greece.
to

20

stadia

was

Phoenicia, Syria,Asia

Athens, Sparta,Nicopohs and

Josephus, were

street

also cities in

of Caesarea

the most
Minor

and

Pergamus, according
he paved a dirty
gifts; at Antioch
long (2J miles)with marble
flags,and covered
full of his

The

256

Arts

assistance
repaired tlie damage without
that it was
the State, shows
At
an
from
exceptional case.
there still exists a monument
Puteoli
put up to Tiberius by
less destroyed by earthcities of Asia Minor, more
quake
fourteen
or
(twelvein 17 a.d., and the two others in 23 and 29) ; he
to the rebuilding. The Chronicle of
had generously contributed
records
eleven
the World
earthquakes from the
by Eusebius
in Greece
ten of them
reign of Augustus to that of Commodus,
an

and
The

earthquake

in 60,

the East, but

is not

mentioned,

devastated

Sicyon

the

and

Cos, and

great earthquake

and

the list is

for these countries

even

142,
islands Rhodes
Pius

had

Stratonicea

alone
islands

the

Lycia

cities restored

received
and

on

the

which,

mainland
and
on

of

Caria
a

138

Greece, the

in Asia.

magniiicent

sesterces.

1,000,000

incomplete.

between

Lesbos

toninus
Anscale ;
and

opposite were
especiallyUable
in 151-52
devastated
to earthquakes :
and
Mytilene was
Asia Minor
Of the earthquakes chronicled
violentlyshaken.
the most
that of 115 (which completely
important were
by Eusebius
overwhelmed
Antioch
for the third time), that of 122,
which
and Nicaea, and that of 178,
severelydamaged Nicomedia
aU
shook
which
The
perial
imIonia, and overwhelmed
Smyrna.
after
and
122
grants for restoration
178 are expressly
In
the
West
mentioned.
from
was
never
secure
Campania
in
this curse
63 (February 5) Pompeii was
;
severely
very
somewhat
less,and Naples and Nuceria
damaged, Herculaneum

the

nearer

coast

'

'

to

extent.

some

But

such

restorations

after

but
small
a
earthquakes were
by all the emperors
part of the buildingoperationsundertaken
(except Tiberius)on a large scale in and outside Rome, with a
to the good of the cities, and
view
also to the remunerative
of large numbers
of free labourers.
the
But
employment
side
Julian and Flavian emperors
paid most regard to Italy,outRome

Fucinus,
and

and

thus
the

Claudius
new

harbour

built
near

channel
Ostia

from

the

with
(Portus),

Lacus

huge

of Anlofty lighthouse ; and Nero the harbour

tium, and the lighthousesof Puteoli and Ravenna.
Vespasian,
his large buildings in Rome,
apart from
generally seems
to
confined
himself
to have
restorations
the
in Italy and
at least),
provinces,without, however
(inRome
having time to
finish everything ; and
in Titus' short reign another
as
great
fire devastated
of
had
Rome, Domjtian
part
space enough
moles

The

Arts

257

there to

satisfyhis infatuation for building: he also had some

roads
made
in Italy.
his great
Trajan immediately after his accession commenced
buildingprojectsin Rome, which almost surpassed all previous
extensive
that
undertakings ; in his later years they were
so
there were
and
the neighhardly artisans enough in Rome
bourhood
all
he
also
for
the
;
provided
Italyon
largestscale,laid
out roads, harbours, waterworks, and also carried out important
works
in the provinces, not reckoning the establishment
of
colonies and cities ; the greatest of these, accordingto Dio,
new
the bridge over
the Danube
and
was
(on 20 pillars
1,017 metres
of the bridge the pillars
stillstanding
long). After the removal
seemed
that there was
to him
to show
nothing impossible
to

man.

Hadrian's

first act of administration

was

remission

of taxes

amounting to 900 million sesterces (over "9,750,000),and his

of the
buildingsgive an idea of the inexhaustible resources
Roman
the
and
the
of
He
of
Empire
man.
indefatigability
decorated
Rome
with splendid buildings,restored
from
125130 the
himself

Pantheon

which

was

burnt

down

in no,

created

for

fairyresidence of architectural splendour in his villa

at Tibur, and, on his journeys through the whole
of the Empire
(121-134) was
accompanied by a regular army of architects,
in militaryfashion into
artists and artisans, divided
masons,
cohorts
of

to

native

Aelius

his inexhaustible

carry out
workmen.

Thus

he

founded

the Pictish Wall, Hadrianotherae

on

schemes

known

are

decorated

of in the

and

aid

in Moesia, Hadriano-

all the cities he

Northern

the

cities like Pons

new

polisin Thrace, Aelia Capitolinaon the ruins

Antinoopolis in Egypt.
Hadrian
is
Of the buildings,with which
to have

with

Western

of

Jerusalem and

said

grapher
by his biovisited, only a few
provinces,e.g., a

of Plotina
Tarraco, a basilica in honour
Augustus
at Nemausus, an aqueduct at Sarmizegetusa,one
of the
less
countA few examples may
that bore his name.
be given
ones
out of the long list of his buildings,
yet traceable,in the East
and
Greece, where nearly every town could point to his boons,
and many
rightlyhailed him their Deliverer and Founder, or,
Petra
in Arabia, named
after
themselves
like Palmyra and

temple

of

at

'

'

him.
On

the

R.L.M.

"

Isthmus
II.

there is

dangerous mountain

path on
S

the

The

258
cliffs ; Hadrian

Scironian

at

Arts
effort cut

enormous

the rocks

and

road
a
long and convenient
underpinned strongly, and made
feat
almost
now
6,000 feet long, a
for heavy carts, some
unimaginable at this spot ; from the high valleyof Stymphalus
abundant
a
an
he constructed
mighty aqueduct to convey
he decorwater
to Corinth, which
ated
supply of cool mountain
with
But, above
aU, he rejuvenated
splendid thermae.

created

Athens,

Zeus, which

In
and

HadrianopoUs

new

city, centreing round

of the

104
and

had

remained

two

on

rows

the other
walls

of

feet

in

high,

sides, of which

the

he built

of

are

librarywith

Olympian

; in it were

years

three

fifteen

south-east

in front

rows

yet standing.
columns

120

in which
{pavonazzeito),

marble

Phrygian

temple

for 600

part of Athens

glitteredwith

colossal

unfinished
60

columns

Corinthian

the

the

in

the rooms

alabaster, gilded soffits,pictures and

with

columns

statues,

of

Libyan marble
gymnasium
(giallo
commenced
from
He
for
an
the
aqueduct
Cephisia
antico).
new
part of Athens, completed in 140 by Antoninus
Pius,
embellished
the health-resort
at
also
who
Epidamrus and
in
Rome
and
restored
important buildings
Italy, e.g., the
Portus
and
the
harbours
at
at
Terracina
and
lighthouse
and

Puteoli, and

built

100

ones

new

"

the harbour

Antium,

at

at

Caieta, a bath

at

and

He
temples at Lanuvium.
several
to restore
also subsidized
cities,enabling them
and
build anew,
and, after the earthquake of 138-142 rebuilt the
districts ; he also built in Syria and
Carthage. Septimius
erected
Severus
splendid buildings in several cities.
many
Of the later emperors,
according to hostile Christian evidence,
Diocletian
which
was
possessed of an infatuation for building,
and there
sorely taxed the provinces. Here basiUcas arose
there
mint
and
here
here
an
a
a palace for
a circus,
armoury,
for
his
there
and
one
his consort
daughter. Often quarters
their
inhabitants
had
to be cleared out, as though
and
of a town
to make
for new
it had been occupied by an enemy,
ings.
buildroom
when
these buildings were
And
finished,to the ruin of

Ostia, an

aqueduct

'

entire

provinces,he
afresh

disapproved, and
plan

'.

But,

ordered

them

to

be

fact, this passion

was
Everjrwhere,at his behest,
strictlyfor State purposes.
monumental
buildingsarose at Alexandria, Antioch, Palm5Tra,
Milan, and Carthage. His thermae at Rome
surpassed those
started

of Caracalla.

on

new

Justinianwas

as

legitimatedescendant

of the

The
Roman

three
The
the

books

above

to

will

provided
Trajan, in

after

the

this

to

account

emperors

and,
to

in his love

emperors

scanty and

estimate,

Arts
of

259

cates
building,and Procopius dedi-

subject.
give an

idea

for architecture
the

notices

Italian

well.

as

towns,

But

owing

remains, it is difficult

and

approximately, the

even

magnificently

in the

provinces

accidental

how

of the

extent

imperial

For example, Aristides, in a letter

buildings outside Rome.
Aurelius
and Commodus
to restore
requesting Marcus
Smyrna
after the earthquake of 178, incidentallytouches
the
on
care
shown
for
the
Italian
them
which
had
rescued
cities,
by
they
from
in
the
Aurelius, it is
decay ; and,
biography of Marcus
said
he afforded help to totteringcities '. The gorgeous
public
need
no
buildings lavished on Rome
by the emperors,
specific
'

mention

here.

centuries
architecture, though used
During the first two
for public buildings to a vast
also have
been
extent, must
called into requisitionfor private purposes
to
and
yet more,
at any other epoch, for privateprosperity
a greater degree than
was
widely spread, and this particular art
greater and more
was

more

in vogue

and

Of the

any other.
in Italy mention
has
age

than

with

accordance

been

splendour of

made.

But

the

tendencies

the

palaces and

the

of the
villas

greatness of luxury

in

is shown
provincial private residences
by some
literary
the
of
the
and
well
remains
villas
on
notices,
by
preserved
Orontes, as well as by those of Damianus
near
Ephesus. One
of the many
villas of Herodes
Atticus
at Cephisia (north-east
of Athens) had tasteful,richlyfurnished
and well-lightedbaths,
and
long pleasant walks, and in the greatest heat the house
and
and
the park afforded
brooks
birds
could
shade, and
interior decoration
The
was
lavish, for
everywhere be heard.
Herodes, after the death of his consort
Regilla,had his rooms
with black curtains, black carpets,
painted black and decorated
and

black

marble.

The

(nearTunis) contained
A

mosaic

found

and
large extent
owner
hunting
with

the

villa of the Laberii

suburban

flooringswith

67 mosaic

near

Constantine

several

floors, and

on

of

names

and

horseback,
the

(Suza) represents

fanning herself

under

palm

figureson

them.

represents a castle, of
flanking towers, and the
another

on

horses.

Hadrametum

at Uthina

A
the

servant

mosaic

is his

stable

found

lady of the
is holding up

near

house
a

sun-

The

26o
shade, and

she has

former

For

owners.

luxuriated

Vandals

the

gardens of Carthage

the

magnificent villas

In the

in leash.

dog

Arts

as

centuries

sixth

fifth and

much

as

and
the

have

we

pleasant country estates, on the Garonne

with its numerous
such as falconry and tripson
amusements,
gondolas with lofty balustrades, pillows and awnings, and
Ausonius
with dice artistically
in mosaics.
worked
was
games
life

picturesof

reminded

these

on

clad

with

here

and

the

on

vines

and

the

on

parts of the

banks

of the
with

lined

Saar

Eifiel, even

finds

numerous

in Roman

deserted, abounded

now

Moselle

region,including

entire

the

of the

arid

villas ;

that

prove

banks

similar

with
mosaic
richly furnished
Treves
the villas at Nennig near
and
floors and sculpture (e.g.,
with columned
halls affording
and
at Welschbillig),
Kreuznach,
view.
In the Zehntland
an
(agridecumates) the villas,
open
is shown
as
by the remains, had baths and aqueducts, with
marble
From
ornaments,
sculptures,mosaics and bronzes.

residences

of

great size, and

the

excavations

the

frontiers,it

paintings.

in

Rhineland
the

seems

Even

Switzerland,

and

always had mosaics

Switzerland, which was

rich

in Eastern
Roman

where

Romanized,

the

settlements

are

even

and
never

scattered, both

on

wall-

fully
are

insipid. Britain too, had in time,

the remains
as
(mosaics especially)show, in the centre and
other
the
south
villas
as
as
richly decorated
any
many
residences
were
province of the empire. Even
temporary
found, though somewhat

to suit the

decorated

disciplinein

the

halls, colonnades,
the

decadent

German

armies

crypts

and

Hadrian

taste.

and

ordered
to be

gardens

had
all

cleared

to restore

banquetingaway

from

camps.

"

Aims

2.

and

Application

of

Plastic

the

Arts

and

Painting.

(a) Decorative
The

vast

plastic arts
least of all at
without

the

Art

afforded
to architecture
employed all the
scope
in interior
and
external
decoration.
Nowhere,
an
Rome, was
important public building erected,
the
the
chiseller,the stucco-worker,
carver,

founder, the painter and mosaic

maker

being called

in. Statues,

gables, roofs, niches, interstices of

in the temples, theatres, amphitheatres,
columns,
basilicas,thermae, bridges,arches, portals and viaducts
: the

single or

in

groups,
staircases

filled

The
temple

of Scaurus

arches

generally

contained
had

Arts
bronze

3,000

their

261
Triumphal

statues.

summits

trophies,
equestrianfigures,
chariots of four or six horses, driven by figuresof Victory.
Reliefs and medallions
bedecked
the frieze,and reliefs or paintings
the walls ; ceilings
with
stucco
coloured
were
or
work,
gay
and
the floors with
All the architectural
glitteringmosaics.
framework, supports, thresholds, lintels,mouldings, windows,

and

gutters

even

at

overloaded

were

with

decorative

figures.

It is difficult to

imagine the almost

magically rapid growth
of public buildings at Rome
These
during the first centuries.
incessant undertakings in themselves
sufficed to give continuous
employment to hosts of artists and artisans, besides the
architects and workmen.
Agrippa, in his aedileship(33B.C.)laid
out magnificent waterworks
for Rome
; in one
year, according
to Pliny,700 basins, 500 fountains, and
castella
(reservoirs),
130
of
and
used
them
for
decorative
highly ornate,
many
purposes,
columns
400 marble
Later outlay was
not
of

his

basin

doubtless

were

ridiculed

for the

chariots

Rome.

in the

Orpheus

seventh,
with

The

number

Claudius

fifth

region, and

named

after

of

bronze

of

and

93,

after Domitian's
decorated

round

return

the

from

above
spaces
the entablature

the

The

in the

Domitian

was

triumphal arches
set up throughout

Sarmatian
the

'.

Ganymede

triumphal insigniathat he
by Martial
triumphal gate described
these buildings : this gate was
erected

scale

the water

basins

statues.

large arcades

marble.

and

conducted

decorated

many

and

the

of

through

of

statues

300

less lavish
'

aqueducts
of

and

arches,

illustrates
in

War.

January,
lions
Medal-

bas-reliefs

or

and
the upper
parts : two
sculptures
quadrigae of elephants, both driven by colossal statues of the
the
coins
Emperor, crowned
building. Representations on
indicate
outdid
the splendour of the Forum
of Trajan, which
all the rest ; its several parts (theBasilica Ulpia, the Triumphal
Arch, and the Temple put up to him by Hadrian), were
richly

decorated

and

carved,

and

considerable

remains

were

vated
exca-

by Napoleon I.
Public
and
other
cities were
equally well
places in Rome
The
vast
provided with plastic ornaments,
chiefly statues.
number
of these in the cities of Greece
and Asia was
only partly
affected
by the systematic plundering of two centuries : the
almost
Romans
had
emptied the dyopaCof small places like
Andros
and
Myconus, to fill the temples and fova of Rome.

The

262
One

pillagetook

extensive

most

the freedman

Arts

'

Acratus,

place under

Nero

the whole

world,

traversed

his

like

agent,

passing

not

other

artsingle village'. Apparently Acratus,

alone ; for, according to official lists
pillagers,
spared Rhodes
under
statues there, though those
Vespasian, there were
3,000
: hence
at Athens, Olympia and Delphi were
equally numerous
the islands at this
for Greece
and
to compute
10,000-20,000

by

would

time

be

centuries

estimate.

an

later, when

ancient

these

low

too

But

Constantinople

remains

were

found
in the ancient
chancery of Constantius
of art which
to pilfer,
and
marvels
had defied
fullers' houses
more
by sea to make
palaces of old '. Yet it has been left for our
of the

survived

discovery of
of

time

the

ported
trans-

were

than

age to estimate
in works
of art, which

countries

Praxiteles,and

enough

gorgeous

plunder of antiquityand the Middle

the sculptures of Phidias, the Venus

the

Hermes

Hellenic

'

cities

'

wealth

half

officials of the

The

'

the

and

being embellished,

was

exhausted.

not

two

even

ruins

of the

the

Ages, by

of Milo, the

altar

of

Zeus

at

Pergamus.
of ancient

Much

stood

or

votive

as

left to

the
sculpture decorated
offeringsin the Temples

fill the

figuresin bronze

or

and

and

famous

men

in the list

any gaps
be shown

and

streets

with

women

ancient

during

how,

repaired,and

enough

but

squares
of gods, heroes,

marble

were

public buildings,
was

modern

or

public servants,
first century,

the

the stock

increased, will

later.

In the

of the

statuary of Italy (outside

Rome) and the Western
provinces,though considerable, could
with the collections in the Greek
not compare
provinces,since
Alexandrian
the
in the
later Republic,
epoch. But, even
these

cities
that

says

(on

beginning

the

tinum

not

were

the

Lake

Empire

deficient

excellence
of

Bolsena)
(inEtruria),where

in such

of the
was

the

Vitruvius

quarried near Tarquinii

by the statues at Ferenlarge statues, well carved,

stone

attested

there

decoration.

were

small

figures (probalalyreliefs)and delicate ornamentations

in flowers and acanthus
of this stone, and preservwork, made
ing
an

many
and

of newness.
appearance
Italian cities were
doubt
no

generals

by Augustus
in his forum.

of
in

Rome,
2

At

B.C.

Many
those

probably

the

for the colonnades

Arezzo

seven

of the

newer

of the
same

as

of the

pedestals have

statues

victorious

in

kings

those

selected

Temple

of Mars

been

found

of

The

264
decorated

well

Tusculan

villa ; his

as

soon

his

with

colonnade

villa

and

had

had

them

wanted

five statues

or

Fadius
Silenus),which
displeased,as too dear, and
He

Gallus
not

in

put in a
paintings ; for,

couches

new

with

ornamented

hib

furnish,

to

was

academy.

four

some

for

was

intended

he

with

But

and
he

of Atticus

bought
Caieta

at

afford it.

(including Bacchantes
had bought for him,
style

All he

covers.

he could

as

Arts

paintings. In this Cicero, with his poor

little love
of art, strikinglyillustrates the fashion
taste and
of decorating houses
and
country-seats artistically.
house
Under
the Empire the fashion spread. If a rich man's
burnt down, the friends who
contributed
to the rebuilding
were
above

all, he

'

marble

nude

gave
from

loved

bronzes, old

', famous

statues

ornaments

for the
temples in Asia Minor, and busts of Minerva
in statues.
Villas
abounded
library. The baths of freedmen
and
and gardens were
filled with them
people spoke of marble
one
spring in the garden of Arruntius
gardens '. Round
Stella stood a troop of marble
figuresof boys, in a grotto close
'

by these

was

Domitius

Hercules

Tullus,

masterpieces that
purchase,
owned

with

In

the

and

gardens

the

house

found

on

restored,

at

are

We

almost

take

may

was

the
all

perfect ;

villas,as

the

old

of

the

lined

bank

cities.

and

the

of twelve

basin, nine

In

1894-5
pictures were

192

in

with

of houses

decorations

statues

many

Italicus

pictures and
Trastevere, one
huge

Italian

excavated,

spouted water into a marble

other sculpture in the garden
If excavations
in previous
recorded, we might have
Roman

in

the

typicalof

as

Silius

multitude

Regulus

neglected
very day of

the

statues.

scale.

same

of

stock

colonnades, and

Vettii

walls

the

on

large park, on

with

of

gardens

was

such

ancient

Pompeii

of the
the

filla

numerous

of himself.

statues

could

filled with

was

space

he

rest

had

man,

villas,each

several

statues.

rich

the

and

garden,

now

statuettes, which
are

preserved,

and

well.

as

centuries
had

sketches

as

of

had
exact

been
a

more

ately
accur-

picture of

the so-called

many
villa of the

It contained
a large
Epicurean philosopherat Herculaneum.
with
semi-cLrcular
ends, and a
courtyard with a long road
covered
with columns,
garden round it ; the whole space was
which
carried beams
up to the garden wall, creating an arbour
all round.
there were
In the arbour
specialplaces for washing
and
and
bathing, semi-circular
alternately; in every
square

The
there

corner

in between

stood

marble

the columns

gods, Greek

poets and

and

of females

bronzes

was

decoration

garden
a

in alternation.

to

shell-like

leather

another

front
with
at

small

of each

collection
almost

All
in

of Azara

bottom, and

the

pond

was
a
group
in the centre

long walk led out of the

loggia,probably set in the sea, with
ful
africano and giallo. The ten beauti-

such

inexhaustible

Madrid,

the

so-called

Achilles

as

in the

1729
The

present

thirty busts,

of at least

in 1779.
excelled
places were
and

extent

ruins

have

the villas of the

site

at Frascati.

afterwards

villa of the

comes

excavated

Pisos

at Tivoli

abundance

Villa

at

herm

villa of Marius

entirelyfrom

Azara

by

so-called

of

of shell

sort

were
Apollo and the Muses, which
at Sans-souci
completed and placed in the museum
in
with
found
the daughters of Lycomedes,
were

of the

busts

fictitious)

or

of

statues

ruins

bust, and

and

of water, and

bottle.

in

In

vessel

silent,as powers

floor of mosaics

round

raised, round

bronze

little column,

Round

spouting up water.
of boys, satyrs and
Silenus riding on a

with

(heads of Romans
philosophers,portraitsreal

of

risingout

terminus

265

hermae

little basin, with

Arts

Albani.

it

was

enriched

Hadrian's

by
an

the

art-world

Vatican,

villa at
in
the

itself.

family, the CapitolineMuseum

VI, excavations
early as Alexander
of

Its

Farnesina,

d'Este
As

Tivoli

and

the

on

the

Cardinal

Ippolito
d'Este, under the superintendence of Pirro Ligorio (1530-1586),
the architect
at Tivoli, yielded but little
of the Villa d'Este
of the spoil. In the eighteenth century excavations
proceeded
on

had

begun.

But

the

larger scale

and

under

excavations

men

with

to
eye
Benedict
XIV
an

trade

in

made
:
ated
incorporgreat finds were
of
statues
the
of
them, especially
Neo-Egyptian
many
the shrine
of Canopus
or
Serapis,in the CapitolineMuseum.
in
Ancient
also largely used
painting and sculpture were
and
TuUus
decoration, e.g., in the park of Domitius
sian's
Vespanot
But
this was
always possible,
T-emple of Peace.
countries
Greek
the most
boundless
and
even
plunder from
it
could
not
as
demand,
augmented
satisfy the enormous
in the first
was
by the constant
huge fires in Rome, and, even
Hence
fresh production in man.
century, fresh gaps involved
have
been supplied
for art must
the greater part of the demand
work
in many
cases
as
work, all the more
referringto
by new
the present was
required.

antiques, and

266

The

Ancient

decorative

art

Arts
then

was

only employed

not

on

larger scale than at any later time, but also far more
generallyin all branches, subserving all needs and tastes, the
highestand lowest, the greatestextravagance and modesty, the
of the lords of the world, or beautifying the
Sultan's moods
slave's cell. Modern
less
art has
or
always been more
poor
aristocratic,serving a small privileged set, the church, the
stances
in particular circumplutocracy, and the mighty, sometimes
into lower
bringing beauty into middle class, but never
far

class, life.

Art

the

capitaland
provinces and
art has

become

education
But

the

has

dwelt

in

great

Ufe,

palace,and embellishingthese, has left whole

lands
bare.
Correspondingly, appreciation of
restricted to smaller circles,and has implied an
non-existent

and

and

national

the

of abstraction
power
art of the Roman
Empire

of culture

of

centres

society and

in far wider

was

spread

in the

pregnant

for all

for most

taste

masses.

grades

of her

ductions
pro-

furniture

ceived
finelyconand expertly made
for connoisseurs
filled
to enjoy, and
temples and public places with comprehensible figures,high
walls and floors with
the
fascinated even
gay pictures,which
in the street.
Art made
the capitalof the world
man
a city
of marvel
sand conferred on the municipia and colonies of Italy
decorations, differingaccording to local taste and prosperity,
but
far above
and
modern
fined
conornament,
by no means
excavation
of Pompeii and
to public buildings. The
to wondering modernity the quality
Herculaneum
has revealed
and
quantity of private ornamentation, plasticand pictorial,
in the smaller
cities of the empire, and its estimation as
even
in modest
households.
a
prime necessityeven
marble
and
Costly materials, bronze
figures,could only be
used by the rich for their houses
luxuries
and gardens, but were
not merely in Rome.
At Pompeii and
Herculaneum
common
spring-water ran out of holes and bottles held by marble or
for
bronze
the large demand
But
satyrs, sileni and nymphs.
artistic work
in the middle
and lower
classes produced a large
relief
Stucco
production in cheaper material, clay and stucco.
and
decorations, painted or unpainted, on
mouldings and
in houses, as Pliny says and
excavations
were
common
ceilings

have

shown.

Plastic

circles.

busts

It created

the

adorned

and

libraries of such

and

Juvenal's time all the mock-stoics

as

could

not

afiord
and

rooms,

marble

the
; in

studies
Martial's

had
philosophizers

The
plaster busts
scrubby

of

windows,
outside

Zeno, Plato

Democritus,
Architectural

beards.

and

mouldings,

often

and

others, with
in clay,on columns,

decorations

friezes

gullets and
numerously

been

walls, have

267

Arts

in

the

for

inside

preserved
natural

and

they

are

the

of

colours

one
colour, or
painted
articles of manufacture
objectsrepresented ; and these trifling
of the
noblest
forms
and
reproduce the greatest discoveries
great period of Greek art.
tion
Besides
plasticart in soft materials,frequently in combinastill more
for interior decoration,
with it,painting was
common
would
be too costly : and
when
incrustation in marble
with stucco.
At Pompeii the better class
colours always went
house
lightlychiselled here
glitteredwith bright decorations

there, but

and

ruins

and

spread

show

beautiful
; numerous
very
such interior wall-decoration

that

civilization

Roman

as

Pompeii

at

references

often

and

was

widely

as

coveries
disEmpire.
utterly transformed
The

the

through

Herculaneum

able
painting,and yet are but an inconsidertrate
fraction of the pictorialart of the Empire, and only illuspart of the subjects and material of ancient decoration.
of the subjects at all times : the
Mythology supplied most
theme.
as a common
fightby the ships before Troy is mentioned
But
historical
also depicted, e.g, the Esquiline
were
scenes
of Rome,
from
the legendary foundation
pictures of scenes
of the villa of Pontius
the descriptionby ApoUinaris Sidonius
from
scenes
Jewish history,
Leontius, Burgus, which contained
of ancient

notions

our

and

in the

events

e.g., Mithridates
siege of Cyzicus, and

Mithridatic

third

Wars,

sacrificinghorses to the sea-god, the

LucuUus
(with a soldier swimming
relievingthe town
the sea
and holding up a letter). In Greece, a man
never

seen

battle

;
wall-painting

elsewhere

as

life

also

were

used

tabevnae

was

said

battle

but

well.

not

scenes

to

even

have
have

must

through
one

seen

been

had

who
on

common

of animal
says that comic pictures
in his time
(the reign of Tiberius) the

Phaedrus

usual

to have

picturesof

the

War

of the

Mice

and

the

Weasels.
With

is

the

to

down
301

the

A.D.,

last

in which

decorative

days
the

of the

were
arts, wall-paintings

Empire.

maximum

following are the

workers
(for incrustations

fixed, the

marble-

other

In Diocletian's

for all
wage
house-decorators
and

common

tarifE of

ordinary

work

mentioned

ornaments), mosaic-

The

268
workers, whitewashers,
for bronze-foundries

in

in

are

stucco

clay

and

(337 a.d). to
the immunity
the
have

the

same

been

; prices
wall-painters,picture-painters
for modellings
reliefs and statues, and
fixed.
In a rescript of Constantino

of the

administrator

of artists

and

workmen

are

settled

Arts

craftsmen

communal

from

and
specified,

in those

Provinces

Western

must

Valentinian

towns.

on

dens,
bur-

therefore

still

painters

gave

rescriptto the legate

of Africa
in 374 a.d.
to have
workshops in the
They were
to settle in every
allowed
city,and were
city free of rent, were
sacred
not to be compelled by of"cials to execute
portraits
the
(of
emperors) or paint publicbuildings gratuitously.Stone
of the
to the end
lasted on
sculpture for decorative
purposes
Empire, for the early report of the Mart5nrdom of the Five
Masons
Diocletian
written
under
was
personally
by a man
of the
acquainted with the quarriesof Pannonia, the scene
story. The
Emperor used to order porphyry pillars with
foliate capitals,basins
(lacus)
shaped like conchae, and bowls
decked
with
fruits,or acanthus, or embossed
figures,victoriae,
Cupids, lions that spouted water, eagles, stags, and other
yet larger privileges,if free-born, by

'

'

animals, all
a

as

ornaments

for marble

and

well-covers
in architectural

proof of the extensive use of stone

down
In plasticart and in wall-paintings,

the

scene

the

Imperial

was

contemporary,
Palace

ancient

models

to the
were

basins

ornament.

last, even

followed.

if
In

picture of the Caesars

seated on
their thrones, with Scythian chiefs kneeling : in 452
Attila had it altered, so as to give the Caesars
the suppliant posture.
at Aquileia
In the banqueting-hall of the Imperial Palace
is
and Fausta
was
a
as children
; Fausta
picture of Constantine
with
handing her brother a helmet decorated
gold and jewels,
and
a
an
waving plume. Ausonius, who wrote
epigram on a
picture representing Gratian
laying low a lion with a single
then
shot from
that mythological scenes
even
a bow, says
were
at
describes
house
common
a
: he
wall-painting in Aeolus'
Treves ; heroines, whom
love has ruined, torturingand binding
Cupid. Libanius
speaks of pictures of the divine amours,
two
and
describes
: one
landscapes in the Pompeian manner
laden
with
animals, a two-wheeled
country buildings,men,
ox-cart, and a temple with trees ; the other with a wreathed
festive company
under
an
awning amongst the trees, and a
city with walls and turrets in the background.
ApoUinaris
of Milan

there

was

The
Sidonius

his

on

of Clermont

{Bishop

for its themes

Arts
c.

its

450
had

nudity, and
estate
simply

and

country

269
a.d.) hates

heathen

art

walls of his bathroom

the

'

whitewashed

here

no

of bodies

ugly in their naked

beauty,
such
the pretence of honouring art, dishonour
the
as, under
ridiculous
comedians
with
artist ; no
grimaces and harlequin
in
under
wrestlers
close grip '. Luxorius
wrote
garb, no
Thrasamund
the king of the Vandals
(496-523) in Africa, and
describes
picturesno doubt
killinga
common,
e.g., Fridamal
the wall of Rome, Diogenes
on
boar, Romulus
killingRemus
twitched
with his beard
by a girl. And Christian art, too, had
of the traditional themes
and forms.
to adopt some
Painting
of
to
the
Church.
Paulinus
was
importance
earlyrecognized as
ments
of Nola
(403)says that the picturesof the Old and New Testaand
the Martyrs in a colonnade
the Basilica of St.
near
entertained
at Nola
Peter
the many
pilgrims who could not
the flesh.
read, and kept their thoughts from
Gregory the
pictures are

to

Mosaics
have

were

be books

for the unlearned.

durable, and

more

down

come

seen

picturesto

declared

Great

be

to

many

of them

remains

more

in all the

provinces (e.g.,
Spain, France,
Rhine-lands, Bavaria, Salzburg,

us

England, Switzerland, the

have
been found)
Transylvania, North Africa,where hundreds
survived
of the wall-paintings; this style of decoration
than
have
been
indeed.
the Empire, and must
very common
the same
Household
furniture
manifests
generality of taste
the refugees must
the homes.
At Pompeii alone, whence
as
have

carried
of

out

great deal, or subsequentlydug up much

ash, the tables, benches, armchairs, sofas,
a

away
loose

the

candelabra,

vessels, lamps, tripods,toilette utensils

ornaments,

have

tasteful
that

only

models.

It

were

decked

vessels

clay lamps

bed

and

barbarous
a

or

tankard

with

glass

craft

only marble
had

inexhaustible
and

bronze

work

chased

figures in various

with

set

of

bra
candela-

plant-likedesigns,

fantastic

gold that

vases

an

other

or

and

ful
gracecolours in

man's
earthenware, his paste seal rings,the
poor
have
for midnight work, and their covers
especially

down

describes

not

was

of silver and

handles,
relief ; the

handed

given modern

and

the
an

mice

their

wealth

home

of

old

chest

gnawed,

with
(cantharus,

of

design

destitute
with

marble

and

scholar

figure. Juvenal
or
poet : a short

which
poems,
table-top,with six little jugs,

divine

vertical

Greek

handles),and

the

figureof

The

270
recumbent

centaur
ornaments

exchanged
in

welcome

always
the

at

Saturnalia

specialmarket
Amongst
sigillaria.

at

the street named

slopeof

the

on

Sigilla (littlestatues) as
regularly
presents, and
Rome
they were
bought

support.

as

were

Arts

after

them,

which

Martial
gifts for
has written
inscriptionsare : clay-figures(Brutus' favourite
figures(a hermaphrodite,
boy, Hercules, a hunchback) ; marble
bronzes
(Hercules, Apollo the
Leander) ; Corinthian
(Minerva) ; gold (Victoria); and two
lizard-slayer)
; silver
of art were
usual
pictures (Hyacinthus and Danae). Works
apologizes for not being able to give a Scopas
gifts; Horace
commends
durable
Parrhasius
or
gifts,silver rather
; Seneca
than
clothes
than
rather
and
carpets ; in
gold, statues
Martial's time
one
busy lawyer looked to receiving on his
of Phidias.
birthday from his clients works
most
But
the tombstones
show
extent
an
clearly to what
art was
at the service of the poorest.
Sarcophagi with splendid
the
much
rich,
reliefs,were
though
purchasable only by
cheaper than nowadays ; but, at any rate in the first century,
cremation
the rule (inthe Streets of the Tombs
at Pompeii
was
there is not a singlesarcophagus) and
burial only came
into
fashion
and
more
again about 100 a.d., and gradually became
httle
marble
often
Those
more
common.
urns,
strikingly
the ashes
in their
beautiful, with life-Uke figures in which
from
domain
still seem
to hve ', mostly came
small
narrow
workshops, and were
purchasable by those of small means.
the interior of tombs,
is
as
Painting, too, always decorated
shown
in Christian
vaults, and
by the retention of the custom
the

Saturnalia

'

often

the

too

of the

Evangehst

(large vaults
the

decorations

pillarsand
had

walls

walls.

dead.

the

poor,

of slaves

as

When

bought

been

'

partly painted.
of niches
long rows

bright as those
(often poor) covering the

at the

the

the

even

were

with

of
resting-places
have

that

walls

outer

for

new

it, the

urn

was

mourners

Even
for

and

of

'

whitewashed

the

graves
Columbaria

the

cinerary urns),
times
hapless,some-

ordinary

unused

rooms,

spaces

inserted
looked

in the

with

on

the
the

niche
faction
satis-

little ornaments,

The

bought out of their savings for

subjects might be mjrthological,pictures of

daily life,scenery, animals, fruit,flowers ; such as Hercules

Uver, Ulysses gazing
shooting the vulture from Prometheus'
down
before
his dying dog Argos, grotesque pygmies fleeing
on

The

272
cessions, e.g., in that
of the

capture

of the
he

took

an

of Marcus

Syracuse.

Athens

painterfrom
Mancinus

of

Marcellus

Aemilius

(212 B.C.)a picture

PauUus

in

168

sent

for

to illustrate his

outwork

city, its siege and

himself

Arts

explained

to

triumph. Lucius Hostilius

of Carthage in 148 and had pictures
storming,placed in the forum, which
the people ; this made
him
popular,

Tiberius Gracchus
had
gained him the consulate in 141.
which
the
a
banquet painted in the Temple of Freedom,
in
had given his army
Beneventines
214 after a victory near
for bravery could
by. The slaves enrolled and manumitted
with the token
of liberty. A picture of a gladiatorial
be seen
in the sixth or seventh
combat
first exhibited
was
century by
at Aricia.
Lucius
Terentius
Lucanus
in the Temple of Diana
the Empire the use
of art in celebration
of persons
Under
and
events, temporarily and
greatly.
permanently, extended
of the prominence of the principleof description',
In the fact
in the broadly illustrative tone ',paintingthen was
much
more
like the ancient
like
Egyptian and later Old Assyrian, more
the paintings in the Theban
palaces,the alabaster tablets of
the Babylonian tapestries. By such
Ninaveh
the
or
means
Roman
addressed
their people ; pictures replaced
emperors
manifestoes
and proclamations ; we
the historical
may
compare
and allegorical
Florence
and
Rome,
picturesin medieval
and

'

'

such

as

Cola

di Rienzi's, with

which

the

people were

stirred

passion. Every triumph employed a host of artists, who

visualized
the conquered country and
the campaign for the
spectators; often, or perhaps generally, artists' sketches
for this purpose.
At the Judaean triumph
were
given to the army
of Vespasian and Titus scaffoldingsthree or four storeys
ments
hung with gold-embroidered tapestries,and ornahigh were
of gold and ivory ; on
these picturesand on others the
whole
of the war
A rich country was
course
was
depicted.
seen
being devastated, whole hosts of the foe fleeing,falhng
the blows
of
or
surrendering, huge walls collapsingunder
batteringengines ; strong fortresses being stormed, the round
walls of populous towns
the army
being mounted,
pouring in
and
spreading murder, and the defenceless begging for mercy,
their inmates'
temples being fired, houses
collapsingover
of water, not feeding
heads, and, after much
misery, streams
the fields or
assuaging thirst, pouring through the burning
streets '. Thus
too Don
Juan of Austria, at his entry into
to

'

The
Brussels
Battle

1571),sent banners
Lepanto and other great

(May

of
the

one

To

this

on

depictingthe

of his life.

scenes

In antiquity

in

triumphs ; figuresof

cities

personifiedafter the

and

day

the recumbent

see

in advance,

also used

were

rivers, countries

fashion.

can

273

i,

plasticarts

mountains,
ancient

Arts

relief of the Arch

one

of Titus

of the

statue

Jordan carried
figuresof the Rhine

at the

Judaean triumph ; so too colossal

ably
probformed
German
triumphs. In Octavian's triumph
part of
after Actium
a
picture of Cleopatrawith the asp in her arms
formed
part of the procession.
The

p5rres, erected, after Asiatic models, at

of deceased
emperors on the Campus Martins,

artistic

consecration
of
the

bier ;

they

covered

were

cloths, ivory reliefs and

deified ruler's hfe.
up in barbaric
aloft from
the
But

the

the events
in the

in

p5rramidstaperingupwards

As

burst

into

evidence

of the

use

accusations

by

of

at the

top

in

scenes

the
lit

splendourwas

flames,
at the

is afiorded

of

of

mass

the tabernacle

of the moment

later

this

as

sisted
con-

gold-embroidered

doubt

pictures,

and

gable of

clearest

with

over
no

soon

fashion

all

storeys,and

the

eagle soared

an

topmost story.

painting to

visualize

the law-courts.

Even

supported, at any rate

in the popular assemblies, by pictures of alleged or
actual
crimes.
Aulus
Gabinius
the Tribune
in 67 B.C. produced and
descanted
villa of LucuUus,
on
a
picture of the Tusculan
Galba
to convince
the people of the consular's
luxury. When
in 68 at Cartagena was
incitinghis troops to march against
Rome, he exhibited in front of his tribunal as many
portraits
his
to
Nero's
dumb
witnesses
of
as
victims,
as
tyranny.
possible
his
the
A defendant, who was
on
siparium
opponent
depictedby
the
in
various
as
a hopeattitudes,
less
(screenover
judges'seats)
for
his
in
to
debt, or being
actor, stripped
shirt,
prison
And
ransomed
his
said
the
to
friends,
yet I have
by
judges :
several
sometimes
times '. Quintilianhad
seen
won
judges
horrible
by
pictureson wood
prejudicedagainst defendants
vitiated
He disapproved the device, as the accuser
or
canvas.
Republic

were

'

his

own

than
So

case

and

made

dumb

pictureseem

more

eloquent

himself.
too

there

Shipwrecked
begging-letters.
pictorial
impostors,used regularlyto carry picturesof
were

genuine or
themselves swimming to land
such pictureswere
offered up
men,

R.L.M.

"

II.

from
as

wreck

votive

on

deep

tablets in the

blue

sea

temples,
T

^^ts

Th^

274

of Isis, the

those

in
especially

'

patroness of shipping

that

'

every

Isis '.

painters live

We
on
Juvenal,
in pictures
mention, in passing,these countless ex-votos
may
or
rehefs, representing the danger escaped as accurately as
might be ; mostly, like the last-mentioned, executed by secondrate
artists, but, no doubt, occasionallyby skOful artists for
knows

one

richer

', says

Tacitus

men.

perilwhen

the

18, 69, and

which

in

he

Capitol

the

on

had

Saviour, with

stormed

was

erected

that

mentions

in the

in

was

of

night

great

December

Temple servant's house,

himself, a chapel to Jupiter the

site of

concealed
altar with

Domitian

his adventure

engraved in marble.
in pictures and sculpThis representationof personal events
ture
have
been common.
Pasitales portrayed in a silver
must

relief how

an

the

of the

nurse

charge sleeping with

the

romance,

bride

robbers, wishes
atrium.

snake

who,

to set up

with

coiled
the

by
a

round

aid

of

from

an

commemorative

house, walls

Trimalchio's

In

painted

Roscius

actor

great

the

lUad

and

found

once

her

him.

InApuleius'
escaped the
picturein her family
ass, has

in

the

colonnade

are

the

Odyssey, a gladiatorial
show,
career
a stylepartlyallegorical,
in
the slave-market, as Mercury's darling with
the
a
as
boy
in his hand, brought to Rome
caduceus
by Minerva, picturesin
which
he is being taught to reckon
a steward, etc.,
up, becomes
all with
he is being lifted by
letterpress; in the last scene
Mercury on to a lofty tribune, with a Fortuna
bearing the
cornu
copiae (horn of plenty) and the three Parcae
twisting
This
threads.
novel
describes
the
in
social
customs
golden
scenes

the

and

circles,and

certain

Trimalchio

life.

whole

such

bad

orders
the

detaU

minutest

master's

taste

his

own

history of

with

commune,

in

himself

may
tomb

his Ufe

have
it

;
a

been

feast

toga with purple fringe,with

flinging gold coins arnongst the rabble, and
actual
of

the

which
tomb

good
with

sevir of

tombs
Secundinii
deceased
from
slaves

the

at

the
:

chase, the
merchants

in

he

to

the

gave

the

tables

commune

are

all around

gorging.

An

portrayals has been preserved,that

like
Augustales at Brescia, The lofty obeliskMeuse

Igel) have

all round

of

contain

to

similar

the

near

folk

in

sittingon a raised tribune, in

five golden rings on his fingers,

at

is

instanced

the
wife

and

the

Moselle

that
(e.g.,
family life

of the

of the
carvings of the
master
horseback
on
returning home
in the dressing-room,tended
by her

in the ofiice at the counter,

in the warehouse

The
at the

scales

boat

loaded

years

ago
'.

apace
But

in the

; coopers

receiving from

their

with

Arts

275

cellar ;

sale of fruit ; landlords

and
sheep, fish, game
eggs ; a
this
beautiful
In
country 1,500

farmers

'

casks, etc.

peacefulactivity,pleasure and

not

eternized

only
in

real events,

even

Herodian

had

art.

genial life flourished

dreams

of

significancewere

in the

seen

forum

Roman

picture of one of the most

the Empire to Severus,

important dreams, which

executed
a
on
large scale
Severus
had dreamed
he saw
Pertinax
riding in the
on
a
as
royally caparisoned horse ; but, as soon

the

entry of the forum, the horse

up Severus,
the Forum.

and

stood

Cassius

dream-oracle,

Mallos

snakes, and

two

the

to

downfall

of

recognized

the

the

inscriptionrecords one
two
dream-pictures
'

restoration

The

he reached
lifted

the middle

of

who

boy

at

strangling

The

QuintiUus

reference

only

was

in Crete

Lebena

an

Asklepios
for the
(i.e.,
pictorialrepresentations)
Diodorus

'

to

consecrates

his

of

eyes.
events
memorable

most

Sacra

Archilochus

stag.

183.^ At

in

event

brothers

two

in

hero

QuintiUus Condianus
lion hunting a young

after

the

by

Via

a picture of
(inCilicia)

at MaUos

saw

promised
in bronze.

off and

Pertinax

his back

on

communicated

Sextus

to

him

with
Dio

threw

to be recorded

were

in

sculpture

and

painting,not only on particularoccasions, but for eternal

reminiscence.
were
employed
Sculpture,painting and mosaic
and
small
after
the
third
on
a
scale,
large
century chieflythe
two
last (as the technique of sculpturebecame
less adaptable
the
and
to create
best suited
large coloured
pictures were
the
illusion which
the popular taste required),to immortalize
of
of the
imperial battles and sieges, conclusions
memory
triumphs, speeches, acts of beneficence, sacrifices,
peace,
But
the
venationes.
hunts, games,
gladiatorial fights and
reliefs on Severus'
show
a sad
faUing ofi ;
triumphal arch even
surmise
that
the comprehensive representationof
one
may
his deeds

hall erected
monument

by
were

spared.

been
the

executed

was

Curia,

over

escape

the

on

his

in

which

Germans,

destruction,

or

If after

son.

thrown
Thus

mosaic

such

down,

the

Senate

had

Maximin

had

paintingin

after

his

columned

tyrant's death his

pictures would not have
of
a large picture in front
had
painted his victory
hated

fall ;
especiallyinside the

burnt

but

much

would

imperial palaces.

The

276
As

late

dus

had

two

Diocletian, in

as

mosaic

colonnade

in the Gardens

of Commo-

representinghim and his friends

to Isis.
(amongst them Pescennius
Niger) sacrificing
made
Portraits
were
mainly for interiors and private purposes
but
common
honorary pictures(besidesstatues)were
;
in temples or public buildings,especiallyin the Greek
cities.
had
himself
Nero
painted on hnen as a figure 120 feet high
had
seen
a
picture with a body that
(35J metres). Herodian
balus

and

be

Arts

to

was

seen,

heads, of Alexander

sent

as

herald

to

the

Rome,

representinghim

in native

directed

set up

it to be

Great

and

Caracalla.

Elaga-

huge pictureof his own

costume
to
sacrificing

in the

Curia

the

above

ing,
painthis

god,

statue

of

painted himself as a dealer in dehcacies

and
salves, a cook, a host, a pandar. A pentaptych in the
Palace
of the Quintilii
Tacitus
in five
represents the emperor
Gothicus'
dress was
guises. The simplicityof Claudius
seen,
late as
Constantine
had
as
Juhan, in his pictures. When
of Maximian
the statues
pulled down, his picturesvanished
from
of emperors
the walls.
Portraits
were
commonly seen
Tacitus
in privatehouses.
(theEmperor) directed that every
should
senator
possess a picture of Aurehan
; the full-length
Severus
in a white garb, which
lasted as
picturesof Alexander
have
late as Constantine, must
been
in part singleportraits.
at the birth of Alexander
A pictureof Trajan fell down
Severus
in a temple on
to his mother's
bed and foretold his accession.
to Trajan was
The likeness of Theodosius
the Great
confirmed
of having
by the picturesof the latter. The
Royal custom
portraits of princesses sent to select brides from (of which
Honorius
speaks in Claudian) may have originatedin the East,
and thence
The
spread West.
Jewish princessAlexandra, on
DelUus'
advice, sent Mark
dren,
Antony portraitsof her two chilVictory.

At

he

Rome

'

'

the sixteen
of

Herod,

to her

In

year old Aristobulus, and Mariamne

in order that their beauty might induce
him

request (the bestowal

private

life

famous, loved
famed
was

in the

and

for

her

placed by

and

portraits were
honoured.

relations
Metellus

with

restored

Atticus'

friends

Epicurus in pictures,on

to accede

priesthoodon Aristobulus).

largely painted of persons

portraitof Flora, a courtesan,

Pompey

Dalmaticus

he

Forum, which
statues.

of the

the wife

and
at

goblets and

as

man,
young
Castor
of
Temple

in the
decorated
Athens
stones

had
in

with

paintings

likenesses

of

rings. Sopolis

The
and

Dionysius

Arts

then

were

the

277

sought-out portrait
in Pliny'stime,
pictures,even
most

painters at Rome, and their

filled the galleries but laia of Cyzicus was
considered
better
;
for portraitsof women.
She also painted herself in the mirror.
and
to bronze
Pliny states that portraitpainting gave way
silver

medallions

medallions

he

too

refers

the

to

expensive to

atria

of

the

great ; the

be in

general use.
In the
later Republic the
love of portraitscreated
tions
collecof those
sold by the booksellers.
Atticus
published a
collection of portraitsof famous
Romans
with short biographical
Varro
wrote
notes.
book
with
a
long
portraitsof
700
Greeks
and
Romans
(statesmen, generals, poets, authors,
learned
an
artists,etc.),and, as Pliny says, gave them
men,
omnipresence by his large exports of them to all countries.
Authors'
portraits usually accompanied their writings.
Seneca
speaks of copiesof the Ukenesses, as well as of the works,
of famous
Martial's first collection of epigrams
literarymen.
decorated
with his portrait,
and a small parchment edition
was
of Virgil in a similar
manner
were
philosophicalbooks
;
distinguishedby scrubby heads of hair and beards.
According
to Galen, painters'eyes suffered from
working on white parchment,
probably an allusion to these and similar illustrations.
Christian
Honein, a Nestorian
(born c. 809) states that all the
Greek
translated
by him into Syriac
philosophicalworks
and Arabic
contained
a
portrait of the philosopher at a high
Libraries
desk, with pupils standing in front of him.
were
adorned
not merely with
busts and hermae, but with painted
A friend of the Younger Pliny,residing
portraitsof authors.
in Upper Italy (inInsubrian
commissioned
was
by
territory),
him
and
Titus
to procure
the portraits of Cornelius
Nepos
friend's library;
Catius (natives of the district)for another
PUny requests that the work may be intrusted to a thoroughly
were

artist.

competent
In

the

largertowns

commissions.

Secundus,

Martial

only experiencedartists received

his portraitpainted for CaeciUus

at least

had

the

forces

library of Stertinius
portraitsof the tragicpoet Memor

Avitus.

for

the

Camonius

Antonius
these

of

commander

died

Rufus, who
Primus, crowned

appear

to

have

; of

at the

age
with

the

on

He

Danube,
also

Caesonius
of

twenty

and

mentions

Maximus
; of

; of

Marcus

violets and roses.

by him
been half-length. Although Statius

All
did

The

278
not

know

her

portrait that

the mother

of the deceased

of

her

of

'

never

Etruscus, he could

Claudius

beauty

members

; Pausanias

Arts

family were
Antinous

saw

as

in

common

ings
paint-

as

life,but

from

Statues

exaggerated.

not

was

see

had

seen

paintings of him ', the latter, chieflyrepresenting

him
in his temple at
numerous
as
Dionysus, being especially
Marcia
Commodus
had
his favourite
Mantinea.
painted as
of the
Amazon.
an
Judging from her portraits,the mother
sophist Alexander
Peloplaton was
extremely beautiful, worthy
with
the Helen
of Eumelus.
In the temple
to be compared
of Artemis
at Perga there was
a painting of the
sophist Varus.
Plotinus
but Carterius,
refused
to sit for a painter or sculptor,
the most
famous
his lectures and
painter of his time, attended
of portraitafterwards
The vogue
painted him from memory.
ridicule of the folly of those
painting is shown
by Lucian's
(mostly women) who charged the artist to take a bit off the
the eyes blacker
remark,
nose, or to make
; and by Plutarch's
that painters sacrificed ever3rtliing
to the reproduction of the
features
the index
of character.
A
stock subject of the
as
Greek
rhetorical schools was
the speech of a painter,enamoured
of his own
portrait of a girl.
The
numerous
portraitson wood found in the Fayum near
Lake
the
face
of mummies,
Moeris, inserted
over
give an
excellent
idea of the art as
practised by Egyptian Greeks.
Belonging chieflyto the Roman
period, these portraits(in
encaustic, distemper,or combined) are lifelike and characteristic
times '.
representations,equal to those of modern
in
set
Likenesses
of course
public places were
nearly all
up
of inscribed
plastic. Many such figures,and a far larger number
have
been
pedestals,
preserved. These remains, supplemented
of contemporaries, enable
to
us
by the statements
and variety of such
form a conception of the incredible number
and to explain their origin. Indeed, an approximonuments,
mate
idea of the enormous
artistic output of the first two centuries
will be best obtained
of our
era
of the
by a consideration
chief classes of these pubUc or private effigies.In the case
of
information
is too scanty.
our
portrait-painting,
statues

and

'

'

'

First
of the
A
was

and

and

emperors

likeness
to

foremost

be

of the
seen

the

come

of the

busts, medallions

ruling prince, as

in every

of the

members

camp

and

statues

imperialfamihes.

object
city. The
an

and

of

general cult,

Senate

decreed

The

28o

popular

end

after

colossal

monuments

Sacer

Clivus

gold

and

of fixed

of his death, the

resolved

further

Palatium,

should

ladders
thrown

statues

and

to

of revenge
sinister and

act

the
This

or

Domitian

that

ascent

in silver

passage
was

hewn

put together by his wife

at

once,

his

the

so

many

valuable

statues

deUghted in dsishing
hacking it with iron
and

wound

the mutilated

gloat over

It seemed

pain.
trunk

and

hmbs,

in the flames.
they melted
is the originof the story in Procopius,
collected
in pieces,which
and
were

repellentface,

similar

and

inscriptionserased,
Younger Pliny,writing four

of

could

if their blows

steel, as

the

on

fetched

joy. Men
offering to the universal
proud face against the ground, and

the

splendid

his statues

and

be

down,

blotted out.
his memory
years later, calls the destruction
and

an

His

Domitian.

The

an

striking instance

numerous
especially

to the

that

and

medallions

reign.

weight,filled not only the Capitol,but

Dio) nearly the entire empire. At the news
vent
to its joy in loud abuse, and
Senate
gave

of

(in the words

the

of

were

the

from

of

death

the

occurred

and

the

at

rage

Arts

as

as

model

for

bronze

statue.

It

right of the ascent to the Capitolfrom the

the only existing
and, according to Procopius, was
Forum,
of Domitian
and
bore a strikingresemblance
to Justistatue
nian.
The
of Commodus,
statues
Maximin
(whose features
were
similarlytreated ; revolts,
painted black) and others were
made
such occurrences
civil wars,
and palace revolutions
mon
comrule
to the last days of antiquity. In such
a
as
cases,
altered
instead
of being destroyed ; according
statues
were
and
to Jerome, when
a
tyrant is put to death, his statues
and replacedby
down, his head is removed
images are thrown
that of his victorious
in turn, while
rival, to be again removed
untouched.
the body remains
to
seems
During the first two centuries, however, Domitian
the only Emperor whose
have
been
images, except in very
few instances, were
utterly destroyed. Those of Commodus
in part restored.
have
been
On
must
January i, 193, the
was

set

loud

with

senate

'

statues

the

opposite

the

Hercules

with

acclamations

of his
enemy
of a
erection

of the

', and

by

the

on

up

Curia

in

bent

Severus

decreed

demolition

country, the murderer,

statue

place of

bow.

the

one

gladiator
Liberty

the

of the

goddess of
representing Commodus

senate
was
197, the same
to recognize the divinityof Commodus.

In

of the

as
pelled
com-

Na-

The

281

Arts

gave the statues

erection of new
ones.

consecration
turally,
led to the

even

apotheosisof
who

ordered

Tiberius,
of Claudius

of

removed

was

memorials

numerous

that

consecration

consecration

secured

it.

capital of

them

stUl

in

But

of the

chief

Hither

Spain
expressly

members

show

clearly

the

centre

to

keep

the

effectually

it most

diet of Tarraco,

of the

and
'

apotheosis
relatively

the

existence

doubt

no

centuries

indispensablecondition

an

was

One

chosen

was

triumphal
in military,

of the

veto

by Vespasian.

of

by no means
preservation,although

their

Macrinus,

Vitellius, Domitian

Otho,

; Nero's

the

in

of Severus

statues

Galba,

Caligula, Nero,

all refused

were

decreed

senate

(two equestrian, two

attire). During the first two

civilian

in

two

of two

life,and

of

of his murderer

by command

the erection

The

six of Caracalla

dress, and
and

Caracalla

longer lease

of the

imperial cult,
of

statues

the

deified

'

of statues of the early emperors

A number
repair
certain propertiesacquired by the younger
fully
careon
Pliny were
During Nerva's reign he had intended
preserved by him.
not
them
the plan was
but
to buUd
at Como,
a temple for
carried out ; in 10 1 he again received
permissionfrom Trajan
Hadrian

to

the

in

them

remove

The

number.

(to the
empresses
and six empresses,
thirty-six or

of such

colonnade,

the

and
emperors,
in the
Forum

and
the

his

to the

memorials.

Alexander
of

world

was

to

Severus

with

tended

also to increase
Domitian

placed their
a

to
prayers
for more
than
a

amongst

of

the

built

the

colossal

deified
statues

general feeling

of

cult, led to the preservation

of"cial

imperialimages.

seen

or

temple,

Sometimes
the

emperors

Julian perhaps
for
personages), revised

pious devotion
glorifiedimage of

With
the

offered

be

twenty

to

and

deified emperors

of Constantine

Tacitus

Nerva.

of

of

Thus, at Rome,

Emperor

Aurelius, and

statue

time

prince'sstatue

that

of Caracalla

consecration

renewal

Roman

Marcus

add

increasinghst

ever

unconnected

reverence,

to

thirty-seven divine
or
religiouspurposes,

monumental
number

and

Como,

to

century after his death

the

household

gods.

At

set up
reign,the imperial images were
a demand
city and camp
; this created
the provincesfor sculptorsand painters,
who
part of the regular suite of governors,
perhaps formed
generals,and highly placed officials. Galba did not start from
(January 8, 68), yet
Spain tin he heard of Nero's death

the

beginning of a new
without
delay in every
throughout Italyand

The

282

Arts

at'the time" of his murder

(January 15, 69) his images were

did not
to be seen
in all the municipal towns
; Vitellius
arrive in Upper Italy till the end of May (6g),but before the
battle of Cremona
(end of the year) we read of his images being
'

thrown

'

in the

down

naval

Even

Ravenna.

at

camp

on

his

of Lyons
to
Italy, before he
Cologne by way
in his honour
erected
reached
Vienne, equestrian statues were
in several places,the collapseof which
was
regarded as an evil

march

from

The

portent.

erection

of

Faustina
younger
until her father
decided
upon
his co-regent and
successor
as

statue

to

the

have
been
Olympia cannot
had
been
adopted by Hadrian
(i.e.after February 25, 138) ; the inscriptionon the pedestal
have
the
been
added
before
news
(stillextant) must
in
the
at
of the
death
of Hadrian
Baiae
same
(July 10,
The
two
Greece.
Gordians
reigned at most
year) reached
thirty-sixdays ; immediately after the proclamation of the
at

elder

the

cities of Africa

fuU

were

and

of his statues

images.

Pupienus and Balbinus

reigned three months
(Aprilto July,
Maximin
murdered
before
was
Aquileia at the
238). When
thrown
down,
beginning of May, his images and statues were
senatorial
and his soldiers compelled to worship those of the
the consul
Balbinus
; in a letter to Pupienus and
emperors
Claudius
JuUanus congratulates the legions and auxiliaries,
who
adore
images throughout the empire '. Artists in
your
'

'

'

the

camps,

whose

business

it

to

was

renovate

the

medaUions

of emperors
and others, often used to decorate
could be employed for other purposes
; thus,

numerous

of Alexander

of CaracaUa.

Statues

the

Great

were

by order
ruhng prince were
set

up

the colours, and

statues

found
out
throughimages of the
in
the empire, and were
aU
the
numerous
more
especially
for
As
served
the
adornment
a
rule, they
important places.
of public places and
buildings (governmental, administrative,
and
before
the proconsul
legal). In his Apologia dehvered
Claudius
Maximus
at Sabrata
(Tripoli),Apuleius expresses
his disgust that, in the presence
of the statues
of the emperor
should
with
Pius ', a son
duct.
charge his mother
disgracefulconand governThey may have been set up by governors
ment
officials in such places; but rural and provincialcorporations
and
all flourishing
communities
also obhged to
were
and

'

render

expense.

homage

in

this

sometimes

manner,

Thus, in the first year

of

at

enormous

Caligula's
reign,a special

The

Arts

283

the honours
decreed
him
sent to announce
embassy was
by
the provincialdiet of Achaea
(thepan-hellenicsynod)
Among
other things, it had
been
decided
of
to erect
a
large number
statues, but CaUgula would
only allow four to be set up where
the
the sacred
took
place (Olympia, Delphi, Nemea,
games
most
of Corinth). Statues
doubtless
isthmus
were
numerous
in those provincial
andmost
esteemed
where
the temple
capitals,
ties
the centre
of the imperial cult, in which
all the communiwas
took
part. In Egypt, to defray the cost of erecting
called a
imperial statues in all the temples, a kind of poll-tax,
statue
tax ',was
imposed upon the people.
individuals
also were
Private
obUged to show their loyalty
at Rome.
in this way,
During the age of the Anespecially
to be seen
tonines, the imperialimages were
ever3nvhere, in
the money-changers' offices,in the shops and workshops, under
'. Certainly,
in the vestibules, and at the windows
the eaves,
rule they were
as
a
badly painted, or coarselymodelled ; but
of
doubt
those
in wealthy and
no
distinguishedhouses were
Further, in the larger cities, it was
superior workmanship.
to set up
for private individuals
uncommon
by no means
of the emperors
in public.
statues
.

'

'

Hadrian

Perhaps
monuments

erected

were

specialrecipientof

the

in whose
most
honour
emperor
in the provinces,especially
in Greece,
the

was

his favours.

His

statues

set

were

up

by communities, cantons, and corporationsin various places

but
Delphi,Olympia, Thebes, Syros,Coronea, and Samothrace
"

"

in
especially

Each

Athens.

of the

thirteen

sections

cuneiform

of Hadrian,
statue
a
Dionysus contained
the
all, with
exception of one
(the large one of the emperor
as
(tribes)of Attica
phylae^.
archon), erected by the twelve
of the Dionysia in the spring of 126.
after the celebration
of

the

theatre

Pausanias

mentions

Parthenon.

by

contained

Thasian
the

from
and
and

Hadrian

and

four

two

colonnades

beyond
others

in

more,

of

temple

the

in

statues

of

marble

Egyptian
that

seas,

ran

in

round

bronze,

the

neighbourhood
fagades there

imperial architect,
; in front

the

from

All, however,

were

in

statues

Greek

Numerous

two

columns

of the

building were

others

given by privateindividuals.

still survive.
inscriptions

in the

Zeus, completed and

Before
the

and

Ceramicus

its immediate

and

in 129,

the

Olympian

greatest number.

the

probably

were

two

the

But

dedicated

of

of

towns,

pedestals
surpassed

'

by

well

colossal statue

behind

360

Arts

The

284
the

temple.

of

Demetrius

statues

which

Athens

are

worth

seeing ',set

If it is true
of

known

to

that

Phalerum,

the

the Athenians
those

of

formed

have

must

us

by

up

ians
Athenerected

Hadrian

only a

at

small

had
far greater claim
He
their
on
proportion of the whole.
far less than
gratitude,and the expense was
450 years earher.
But, in spite of the rivalry between
provinces and towns,
the number
and
eager to testifytheir loyalty and attachment,
have
been
magnificence of the imperial statues must
greatest
in Rome
itself. Augustus, in the Marmor
Ancyranum, states
that about
eighty silver statues (full
length, in a chariot, and
equestrian) had been erected to him in Rome
by states and
he had
melted
individuals, all of which
down, to defray the
of the golden ofierings,chiefly tripods, deposited
expenses
in the

temple

that

in

of the

of

Apolloon

founders.

the

Palatine

Although

in his

it

may
statues

and

name

own

incredible

seem

bronze
and marble
have been
must
full-length
reckoned
at Rome,
during his hfetime by hundreds
by myriads
throughout the Empire. During the growth of the monarchy,
the spiritof servihty,purposely kept in check
by Augustus,
had
reached
not
its height ; yet none
of his successors
such
obtained
of the world
and
homage as he, the saviour
founder
the
of
new
rigime. Certainly the length of his reign
for the number
of his monuments
(44 years) may account
being
to us, his

greater than

Compared

those

with

of any other
the Roman

emperor.

empire,

the

territorygoverned
dependent princes was insignificant
the
his
of
was
never
a religious
cult, and
object
;
person
the consequentlyUmited
demand
for representationsof it was
fully met by drawings and reproductions ; nevertheless, in
by

the

the

first

three

years
Chaudet

after
In

Napoleon

the

and

from
were

1809
turned

first centuries

of

his

to

1812, about

out
our

from

busts

1,500

of him

Carrara.

imperial Ukenesses

era,

were

old ones
altered or renamed
only exceptionally
; since (as Dio
of Prusa
would
have
says) those whbftWereto be honoured
sidered
conit an insult ratherwthajian act of homage.
Instances,
in
Jsaown
Greece
however, were
during Republican times.
Cicero
(in 50 B.C.) speaks of forged inscriptionson foreign
statues

; two

Athens

were

by

Pausanias

colossal
renamed
before

as

statues

of

those

of Mark

the

temple

Eumenes
of

Antony.
Hera

Attalus

and

at

statue

Mycenae

at
seen

and

The

Arts

285

intended
according to the inscription
But
this is
locallyas Orestes.
instance

of

emperors.

gain

the

Augustus, was
only other

renaming a foreign statue after one of

Certainly,after 15 a.d. few artists,for
would

economy,

or

for

have

ventured

tified
idenknown

the

earlier

the sake

of the

anything

on

of

secretly,since discovery would have laid them open

to the
were
charge of majestas. The Rhodians, who
very
lavish in bestowing statues
rule
altered
or
named),
re(as a
simply
in
for their
a lengthy oration
were
reproached by Dio
the more
inexcusable, as they
unworthy conduct, which was

kind

even

continuallyset up new
highly placed officials.
exception of

the

that

says

emperors
to

transformations
Philo

His

reproach them,

to

reason

be

especiallyof

statues,

remark

if

and
emperors
there would
be no

that

', shows

that

desecrated

with

the

considered

he

entirely inadmissible

the Alexandrians

'

all alike

treated

they

in

such

their

case.

all the synagogues

in them
images of

they could not destroy, by placing

Caligula. In the largestthey set up a bronze statue in a
chariot
from
the
four-horsed
gymnasium,
rusty, damaged
is
evident
It
that
dedicated
to
some
formerly
Cleopatra.
to the risk of a serious
this substitution exposed its authors

which

'

accusation,
for

intended
who

old

an

or

woman,

if it had

even

one

such

erected

dedicated

one

some

been

to

else than
monument

man,

dedicated

chariot

new

since it was

the emperor.
in his honour

Ought
to

to

originally
not

have

those

done

all

prevent his hearing of it,seeingthat he attached

his person ?
such
importance to ever3rthingthat concerned
to
But the alteration
of heads
and inscriptionsdoes not seem
of other
in the case
in the earlyempire even
have been common
monuments
most
frequent in the Greek towns, where
; it was
Not
there was
merely are the
a
large stock of old statues.
isolated cases, but Dio (inthe oration already
known
instances
habit
for the bad
referred to),while rebuking the Rhodians
for some
time
been
had
which
gaining ground amongst
them, declares that other cities, Igss wealthy or even
poor,
and Mytilene, were
pletely
comsuch as Athens, Sparta, Byzantiufflf
could

they

to

'

'

'

free from
was

the
;

only place in

Rhodian

changing
The

it.

same

This

would'

Greece

to

seem

where

statues, like actors,

such
were

show

that

Rhodes

mon
compracticeswere
said to be continually

their role.

appliesin great

measure

to the

images

of the

em-

The

286

the heirs to the

presses and
of the

which

threw

of Nimes

we

conclude

may

connected

with

of Gaius

and

the
Lucius

the

ordered

erection

peoples he had
triumphal robes, and
After

Hadrian

the

'

cities,and

empire. It
painting and

to

temples

colossal
is well

be
'

known

Sejanus

declared
the

at

was

tribes, and

the

the

were

of the

news

death

Lucius

was)

spoilsof

the

with

all

himself

in

gilded equestrian statues

of

of

statue

Verus, his destined

successor,
in

in his honour

built

certain

throughout the
that
Antinous
was
represented in
nearly all the provinces.

statues

sculpture in

especially the

at

in

(likeNlmes)
the

At

with

of Aelius

highest functionaries

The

which

decorated

either side

on

of him

statues

were

(whose patron

arch

an

conquered,

death

ordered

there

that

of

members

images, from

and

his statues

Caesar, Pisa

the

both.

down

especiallythose
imperial house.

larger towns,

to other

even

During the sojourn of Tiberius

Gaius
his quarrel with
Caesar,

disgrace, after

in

inhabitants

the

throne, and

imperialhousehold.

Rhodes

Arts

be

to

erected

honoured

were

favourites
of

height

his

of

the

same

way,
When

emperor.

senators, knights,

power,

of Rome

greatest men

in the

erected

so

statues

many

(asCassius Dio says) no one could tell their

with
a
lution
resonumber,
especiallyafter Tiberius, in accordance
of the senate, had ordered
bronze
of
statue
a full-length
him
for the theatre
of Pompey.
As a rule, the images and
of the emperor
statues
and his alter ego were
placed side by side,
in the camps
even
(except in that of the army of Syria) ; and
the images of his favourite
Tiberius
allowed
to be worshipped
in the
His
generals' quarters, the fora, and the theatres.
in the year 31 was
downfall
the signal for the destruction
sudden
of all these monuments.
His statues
(says Juvenal) were
from
their pedestalsby means
of ropes, and dragged
torn down
in his

in

honour,

the

that

mire.

The

wheels

legs of the innocent

the

head

crackled

horses

the
were

lately worshipped

but
in

of

the

flames

; the

in

shattered

by

colossal
the

chariots

two-horsed

the

by the
people

statue

was

and

axe

the

; soon,

melted
consumed
into

and
;

empire, was
pots,
basins, and
chamber-pots. Plautianus, the favourite
pans,
of Severus, experienced the same
fate.
According to Dio,
his statues, set up by the senate
well as by private individuals,
as
of the
than
those
numerous
were
larger and more
This aroused
Severus'
emperors.'evenin Rome.
suspicion ;
the

face,

once

the

second

made

The

288
Subordinate
holders

official and
this

to

had

who

(tax of 2 J
by statues

Arts

semi-official

honour.

Flavius

been

Sabinus, the

of the

one

farmers

in

energy

and

and

of the

Germany

Britain, had
'

moderation,

as

is shown

and

images with
inscriptionsin
Licinius
Secundus, the attendant
had

father

Licinius

Sura

in his

at least thirteen

statues

three

their

of

pasian,
Ves-

quadragesima

imported goods) in Asia, was

per cent, on
and laudatory inscriptions. Titus, when

tribune

Lucius

positionsentitled

honoured

military
reputation for

gained
of statues
by the number
both
provinces '. Lucius
(accensus)of the powerful
consulships(98, 102, 107),
a

in Barcelona,

three

of which

were

When
councils.
monumental
Spanish town
honours
were
so
lavishly bestowed, real distinction entailed
in praise of the consular
enormous
expense
; Apuleius says,
Aemilianus
Strabo
gratulated
(consul 156), that all the provinces conthemselves
four and
on
setting up in his honour
six-in-hands, surmounted
by his statue.
Real or imaginary services of individuals
to the community
in the same
were
manner
generally rewarded
throughout the
quently
subseempire. The use of portraitstatues, at first rare, was
adopted, says PUny, by the whole world under the
influence
of a philanthropic ambition
fora of all the
; the
adorned
with
statues ; thus the memory
of
municipia were
of merit
handed
down
their honours
to posterityand
men
was
recorded
for all time on pedestals,
not merely on
their tombs.
of pedestals with
Greek
Roman
Thousands
and
inscriptions
There
to this.
bear
witness
of
were
more
portrait statues
deserving citizens,patrons and protectorsof the cityin Pompeii
than
in any
modern
five colossal
to
capital. In addition
of emperors
of the imperial house, 70-80
statues
and members
reserved
in the
Forum
for life-size equestrian
places were
each a place for a fuU-length statue. The
statues, and behind
entrance-hall
of the tnacellum
(provisionmarket) contained
twenty-fivestatues, the open space of the temple of the Lares
of the building of Eumachia
eight,the entrance-hall
twentyerected

The

one.
was

by

average

justas large.
and

men

or

between

In

women

the

fifteen

of

have
columns

of

statues

in

second-rate

towns

double

Termessus

century) at
of

number

in

portico (beginningof the second

Pisidia forty-sixbases
of statues

been

found, which

stood

in front

(twenty-sixof victors in athletic

It was
officials,
priestsand priestesses).

of

tests,
conno

The

Arts

289

of
thing for traffic to be hindered by the number
statues in the fora,as at Cirta (where one
bition
was
stolen). Amand
bined
municipal patriotism,as already observed, comwith due regard to public opinion to stimulate wealthy
and
munities.
distinguished persons to render services to their comThe
latter, on their part, were
proud to point to
uncommon

the

monuments

numerous

honour

an

at the

reward

their

time.

same

It

almost
Uve

to

of his native

in

with

held

their graves,

brothers

statues,

many

and

esteemed

was

that

of

their

for

time

pubUc funerals, athletic

but

also

any
Dio

president
had

relatives

distinctions

and

statue.

city

wealthy

town

(fora long
other

in

they were

decorate

honour

and

other

statue,
only a full-length

it

impossiblefor
an
important

earning the

his
city),

honoured

not

and

his ancestors, his father

that

near

benefactors

was

distinguishedfamily
length of time without
boasts

that

sacrifices for them, and

to make

position to

evidence

as

; his mother

been
games
had

temple.
sible
high offices only accesto the provincialaristocracy(such as the chief priesthood),
carried with it the honour
of a statue.
By a law which has
retired
the priestsat Narbo
known, when
recently become
from
office,it was
(and probably
proposed by their successor
resolved
the
should
be allowed
by
provincialdiet)that they
As

to

set

with

rule, investiture

certain

themselves.

up statues
have
been

pedestalsof

Numerous

such

all

(at
Lugdunum,
out of about seventy
Lugdunum) or for the most part (fifty-two
at Tarraco) set up, not by the prieststhemselves, but by the
relatives on
or
province, more
rarely by native communities
extended
the resolution of the diet.
In Spain the honour
was
who
shared their husband's
to the priestesses
dignity.
in
A statement
of the services most
frequently rewarded
this manner
in Italy and the provinces will give an idea of the
extent
of the practice. They consisted
chieflyin expenditure
of money
for the benefit of the city
and personalexertions
statues

found

Tarraco

at

and

"

the

erection

for various

of

useful

purposes

buildings ; donations

ornamental

and

(thepurchase of

corn

banquets (on singleoccasions

citizens,accompanied by a distribution of
but

all

above

wild
(especially

of all kinds

lagtly,voluntary
expense
K,L.M,"

of
W,

the

missions

envoys.

beast
to

and

dearth) ;
yearly) to the

in time
or

of

spectacles
combats) ;
gladiatorial
money

and

governors,
teachers also
Distinguished
emperors

at

had

the
a

The

290
right
who

the

to

distant

lands, and

even

death) if they had

a
reputation for learning. On the capitolat Beneof Orbihus
there was
seated
statue
a
Pupillus (the

ventum

Greek
of

cloak

with

marble

on

graven

died in

literaryworks,

least

the

in

in

hundred),

by his side ; at Praeneste,

surmounting his calendar

Flaccus,

tablets
at

garret at the age of

book-cases

two

Verrius

Marcus

after

(at least

Horace, who

of

teacher

one

pupilsfrom

of

school-teachers

obtained

professorsof eloquence,

world-famous

"

crowds

attracted

modest

in

honour

Arts

Forum.

Greece,

and

Native

foreign

similarlyrewarded,

were

generously. According to Dio of Prusa, the

of an
Athenians
erected
the statue
absolutely insignificant
poet (perhapsthe improviser Quintus Pompeius Capito)by the
sometimes

side

of

too

that

At

of Menander.

the

HaHcarnassus

tragic poet

under

JuUus Longianus of Aphrodisias (hved

Hadrian),
the younger
who
had
dehghted the older and benefited
citizens
honoured
by his poetical recitals, was
by several
bronze
busts, set up in the most
tuary
frequented places the sancof the Muses
and
the gymnasium
of the Ephebi
by
the side of old Herodotus
his
accorded
a place
writingswere
;
in the pubUc Hbraries
and
the
of
Dion5rsiacartists
company
;
had his portraitpainted full length, to be set up wherever
he
of Apamea
pleased in his native place. The poet Maximus
had
where
he had
in ^Cyzicus,
twice gained the prize
a statue
in a poeticalcontest.
Naturally, native celebrities,
especially
artists of all kinds, had
over
precedence
foreign. Thus, at
athlete
had
Ostia, an
or
musician, who
gained prizes in all
the
of
for
his
world,
parts
distinguishedskill and devotion
to his native
town
AureUus
Agilius
; at Praeneste, Marcus
the first pantomime
of his age,
for his remarkable
Septentrio,
Gaius

'

'

"

'

"

'

'

'

'

devotion
honour

was

statues

were

console
Brixia

his fellow-citizens

to

also

and

frequently

erected

to

honour

their

the
(Brescia)

boy, who died at

days, to console
so

was

of the
a

the

age

his

Praeneste

on

asked

dead,

decreed

Uttle

The

same

Further,
children, to

that

he

age.
chariot

patron

'

gilded statue

two

Monuments

of the

two-horsed

that

women.

to

of six years,

time

'

on

even

'.

town

relatives, especially parents. At

father.

extravagance

statue

native

bestowed

council

town

in Cicero's

common

sign

the

and

months
of

looked
A

stiU

this
upon

and

to

five

kind

were

them

as

higher distinction

(biga).

of the town,

The

citizens

member

of

of the

The

Arts

291

equestrian order, who had provided gladiatorial

shows lasting
two days, might be so honoured
council would
; but the town
The
inhabitants
of Panhoronly grant an equestrian statue.
demanded
mus
a
considerable
number
(Palermo) urgently
of
for
statues on bigae
an
imperialcurator of the kalendaria (books
of persons
to whom
had
containing the names
public money
been
lent on
satisfied with
two
and
interest),but he was
(probably)three equestrian statues.
enhance

To
same

person,

citizen
who

and

had

to

second

of the

by

several

honour,
the

the

mortgage
'

Homer
Antonines

and

bronze

erected

to the

their

wealthy

fellow-

(hved

under

Augustus),

they

Inscriptionsdescribe

second

Pubhus

one

were

of Salamis, which

sell.
'

to

Nicanor

island

or

statues

Athenians

by
epic poet Juhus
e.g.,

redeemed

obhged
'

the

Themistocles
LuciUus

'.

Gamala

had

been

him

In

as

the

time

honoured

was

(one gilded) for his numerous

gifts to
Ostia.
Artemidorus, the son of Augustus' friend Theopompus,
received in his native city (Cnidus) three marble, three golden,
and three bronze
to a golden bust in the
busts ', in addition
At Aphrodisias it was
decided
to set up
temple of Artemis.
for some
unknown
one
and bronze
gilded portraitmedaUions
and marble
statues in the temples and such pubhc places as he
himself might select '. The town
council of Calama
in Numidia
decreed
who
had been
five statues to a priestess,
exceedingly
to
the
the
of Cirta
town.
Similarly,
community
generous
two

statues

'

'

offered
to

number

her

of statues

father

The

number

the fact that

towns

the

At

of

each

curia

statue.

erected

two
were

of the

at

its

ten

own

in

death

only

last instances

is to

curiae, into which

divided, combined

Hippo Regius

statue

after her

Priscus, who

five in the two

the citizens in African

cost

Sosius

Quintus Pompeius

accepted one.
be explained by

Falconilla

of Sosia

to

Numidia,

expense

in

defray

however,

the

vUla

of

in return
for a magnificent
flamen of Augustus and chiefunagistrate,
and
similar
other
services
instances
show
and
gladiatorial
;
other
trict
towns.
in other African
In
occur
provinces,each disa

did
(vicus)
were

set

of them

ten

up

statues

pulled down
to

Aventicum

an

Troas, where there

e.g., at Alexandria
early as the time of Sulla, all the districts

the same,

to

; as

the

Gratidianus, which

popular Marius

by order of SuUa after

inscriptionof about the

his terrible
time

(Avenches),the community

were

murder.

of Claudius

of theHelvetii

cording
Ac-

found

in

ordered

The

292
of

statues

certain

itself and

Camillus

their

showed

to

In

cantons.

Attica

phylae of

all the twelve

Valerius

Gaius

individual

the

for

Arts
be

set

similar

gratitudeto

up, for
manner

Tiberius

honour
an
general entertainment,
Hadrian.
the Emperor
hitherto
on
only bestowed
Very frequently,if not as a rule, the recipientsof the honour
The
in
frequent occurrence
paid for the cost of the statue.
with the honour, he has
inscriptionsof the formula, content
that a promise to that
it certain
defrayed the cost ', makes
before the statues
effect was
cases
were
required in very many
the recipient
allowed
the necesdecreed.
sary
Quite exceptionally,
he subsequently reimbursed.
to be collected, which
sum
council
At
Forum
on
one
Semprordi (Fossombrone) the town
voted
and
finished
that
occasion
statue,
presented a
secretly
second
time
of modesty.
it might not
out
be refused
In
a
Greece, relatives often defrayed the expense.
tinguishe
In the second
frequently discentury, the foreignersmost
were
poets and wandering professorsof eloquence
in several
of Aristides
statues
(sophists). Thus, there were
at Smyrna set up by Alexandria, Hermopolis magna,
one
places,
Claudius

Atticus

for

'

and

Antinoe,

the

of the

Greeks

speech attributed

Dio

Delta.

of Prusa

of the author

statue

in the

mentions

pubKc Ubrary at
afterwards
soon
disappeared. Apuleius,in thanking
council of Carthage for a statue voted
by that body,
that he had
in other
already received the honour

places ;

and

of

Corinth
the

town

that

and

bronze

the

Eleans

it would

services

done

so

in the

him

been

the

of

bronze

a
a

censure

artist had

; but

statue
on

of Socrates

case

towns

the

for the
money
coming.
always been forth-

philosopher Demonax

the

voted
have

in second-rate

even

When
the

to

and

their

visited

Olympia,

he refused

it,since

ancestors,

Antisthenes.

who

had

The

emperor

not

Apollonius of Tyana in the

many
gery
temples. The philosopherFlavius Archippus, convicted of forin Bithynia under
Domitian, had often been honoured
by

Aurelian

a
as

in

statue
late

images

saw

"

the

as

Lycia,

distinction

physician

and

was

'

with

Severus.
medical

Heraclitus
writer

upon
of

of the

philosophers
Rhodicpolis
first

century

for
the statue
gilded bust and
scientific culture
(such as was usually erected to authors and
learned
men) by his native place,and also by the communities
and
of Alexandria, Rhodes
Athens, by the Areopagus, the
A.D.,

honoured

frequentlybestowed
of

time

of

'

TKe
and
Epicurean philosophers,

Arts
'

the

293

sacred

'

association

of theatrical

artists.
the

In

of

name

the

Senate.

After

and

intimate

most

him
'

for

the

by

to

up

death

the

by the
time of Diocletian, by the
Longus, one of the oldest

body
the

of Lucilius

of citizens

in

or

friends

'

that

at

the

whole

decreed

usually

was

of Tiberius, in 23, the Senate decreed

in the Forum
at the public expense
of Augustus ;
time ', says Tacitus,
still managed
everything was

statue

Rome,

in

honour

the

by

town

council

town

this

municipia

Senate

'.

Caligula's edict,

that

image

no

or

his express
livingperson should be set up without
the privilegeof the Senate
permission, abolished
; Claudius,
made
the erection
however, reaffirmed
it, since (in45) he even
of statues
by privateindividuals
dependent upon that body ;
permission was
only given to those who had erected a public
to
Hitherto their kinsmen.
or
building at their own
expense,
had
allowed
been
his image publicly,
to set up
one
every
of

statue

painted

in

or

overcrowded

was

and

stone

with

brass.

The

result

that

was

which

personal memorials,

Rome

Claudius

of statues
in
Yet the erection
by redistribution.
Musa,
Augustus' physician, by
temples (e.g.,of Antonius
voluntary contributions, in the temple of Aesculapius) was
probably permitted to private persons as before.
the
Senate
this honour
As
by agreement
always voted
command
the
the erection
if
direct
not
of,
with,
by
emperors,
Cassius
to the latter.
of statues
also ascribed
was
Diosays

remedied

of

Tiberius, that

statues.

As

members

of

the

case

Under

Marcus
and

he

honoured

rule, the

many
living, with

imperial house,

the

were

after

their

the

exception

not

so

of

the

honoured

in

lavish.
were
emperors
died very young
Nerva, Vestricius Cottius, who
; under
AureUus, the most
distinguishedvictims of the plague

the

received

of the

dead, both

nobles

who

statues

the accession

of

had

fallen

latter

new

emperor

the

in

in

(the
a

and

senate

the

Marcomannic

Forum

his deceased

the

Antoninus

Under

statues.

Senate
Pius

a
'

statue

accepted

for
from

his

of

Trajan). On
relatives generally
narrowly escaped

father, Gnaeus
the

all

war,

Caligula,Claudius
being deprived of the consulship (in37), because he
the
of the emperor's
statues
in setting up
remiss
Drusus
and
(died 30). In 54 Nero
brothers, Nero
received

frx)m

with

death

Senate

the

had

been

deceased
solicited

Domitius.
statues

of

T^^

294
his

A^^s
brothers, who

father,mother, grandparents,and

all

dead

friends

'.

AureUus

Marcus

death

their

after

honoured

even

this

in

his

and

manner,

parents'

Severus

relatives,his parents, his grandfather,and

deceased

then

were

his

his first

wife.
The

honour

friends

living,as

by Trajan

valued

CorneUus

Palma,

Celsus.

his
upon
and
PubUus

statue

during
proposal the Senate
Rufus, praefect of
Forum
of Trajan,
Pius,

hfetime.

third

also

were

the

in

voted
the

his

three

another

military

and

teacher

in

of mail

rewards.

dress

in that

of Mars

statues

'

became

by

the

Bassaeus

Ultor.

Ammianus

Statues

Marcellinus

been

Palatine
the

splendour and
pedestals(extending to
voted

was

Emperor

Forum

The

for

spread

above

the

By

fire that

processes,

Ufe-size statues
of the

house

statue
of the

of the

chief

Vestals

century) which

of

of

statue

Otho
a

of

to

statues

Nerva

resolution

on

the

(fatherof

plot

triumphal

broke

in the

of

is shown

', as

sixth

Lucius

statues

Crispus,distinguished as
had

to

in the theatre

statue

of

the

discovery

65' had the

Tigellinusset up.

and

the

Senate

the
'

distinction

honour

rare

in

Sejanusreceived

viral

the

There, also,

emperor)

Passienus

The

by

Otho)

', Nero

checked

there.

found

Claudius.

of

centre

numerous

have

of

eloquence,

gilded one in the

in the temple of

phy,
philoso-

Commodus'

Marcus

to

civiUan

Thus,

leaders

in

manded
de-

daring sallyfrom the town

in Armenia
of Amida
(Diarbekir),which had been set up by
in a busy part of Edessa.
order of Constantius
At Rome, especially,
the fora and their colonnades, the chief
full of statues, the old Forum
temples and their forecourts were
and the forecourt
of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoleven
in repubUcan times.
of room,
number
of
a
Owing to want
them
removed
were
by Augustus to the Campus Martins.
Up to the time of Trajan the triumphal statues decreed by the
Senate
set up on
the Forum
of Augustus ; afterwards, on
were
from
the time of the Antonines
Forum, which
Trajan's own

saw

of the

in

co-regent

statues

praetorianguard

coat

his

Senecio,

AureUus

for Fronto, his instructor

On

the

upon

Sosius

Marcus

Junius Rusticus, his

for

after his death, and

his

bestowed

however,

sometimes,

was

murder
of the

(afterwards
of the Senate
for

Pompey,

having

in it in the year 22,

advocate
in centum-

out

an

Basilica
Vestals
round

JuUa.
stood

the

in the

columned

peristyle
hall;

The

296

Arts

be set up there during his hfetime

tion,
; he died before its compleat her own
carried out the work
and his mother
expense.
of Lucius
Licinius Secundus
Of the thirteen statues
(seep. 288)
Barcelona

at

of whom

one

he

was

seviri ; four
officials thus

by

showed

profuse in

is

up
another
one
;
friends ; one

his

their

college;

by

augustales,

by

two

individual

Even

high

Apuleius

their inferiors.

to

AemiUanus

consular

the

the

freedman.

respect

gratitude to

seviri of

the

by
by

set

was

Strabo,

Carthage that he
to Apuleius in that city.
intended
to erect a statue
usual at all times for private persons to erect
Lastly, it was
their own
statues
(beforethe
during their hfetime, at Rome
that date
in public places. After
permission
45) even
year
had to be given by the senate, arid in other placesby the common
in
the
In
the
town
also assigned
site.
a
council, who
to a pubUc
south
of Spain the common
council, in addition
banquet {cenae publicae)gave a Ufelong Augustalis a site for
written

who

had

the

statues

set

had

his

and

his

of statues

son

and

extravagant,
died

of

side

ground

of

he
and

the

with

tahzing the features of his father,

bright stone ', ivory, and gold, and

at

'

on

once

braggart.
large number
a

workshops,

his intention

who

Tiber

ing
; accord-

silver, gold, ivory, and

(inStatins)declares

own

immense

was

in 104, he had
a
in all the
executed

of him

any

his

on

his statues

Younger,
blackguard

course,

pleased

the

quite young

likenesses

Etruscus

he

river with

Pliny

enemy

Of

children.

large extent

bank^ofthe

at

further

the

on

in colours, encaustic, bronze,

Claudius

and

memorials

garden

the

bitter

avaricious
When

council

common

whatever

covered
and

colonnades
to

up
his

In

property.

Regulus

the

of himself, his wife

could

one

to

marble.

of immor-

died

full of years, in
tablets with coloured

wax.

The

public and

private

of the

dead, painted

ofjthe Uving.

those

carved, far outnumbered

Herodes

or

Atticus

ments,
monuRegillawith numerous
Achilles and
and his foster-sons
Polydeuces (died after
in fields and
statues
thickets, by the side
130) with marble
under
of springs and
shady plane trees ', representing them
scriptio
Inhunting, making ready for or resting from the chase.
(some of which are preserved) pronounced a curse

honoured

his deceased

memorials

wife Annia

'

on

whosoever

to the

dead,

should
some

mutilate

of them

or

them.

remove

combined

with

Monuments

burial at the

pubUc

The

Arts

often
adorned
their
expense,
directions as to such monuments

graves.

ordered
his
a

five other

and

son,

North

with

statues

seven

African
; the

interest

should

i"^7)

it

'"

number
her

be

was

of the

and

stones

district ordered

used
the

of the

other
for

structure

an

marble

wreaths

and

unguents

of his wife,
Domitian's
tomb
the

dove

orders
on

the

in her

for his wife

in bronze,

trinkets
each

hand, and

of different
and

Maia

as

according

to

Ufe

Venus
were,

(Greek)',
(aes tabulare,

his

little

she

however,

in

of

best

the

testator.

dog, with
right a statue
dog on a lead.

palatial
represented

built

was

Ceres

and

marble.

the

front

httle

Abascantus,

Casta

of the deceased,

of the

on

goddesses, as

Langres

high. In
style from
a

Priscilla, in which

exact

sea

over

class

with

erected, the

statues

two

the

be

to

from

statue

ground

In

given ;
precious

was

set with

in

five feet

; the

row

man

second

secretary, the freedman

likeness

8,000

altar, carved in the best

the remains
to contain
', was

in Petronius

the

sesterces

pearls for

least

his

on

year

of

cost

to contain

bronze

munity
com-

his statue.

of

'

Trimalchio

in

best

to the

that

various

of the

Brixia

left instructions

the best marble

pubhc notices),at

Carrara

erection

of

defraying

to

silver bracelets

on

exedra

'of
(sitting)

one

and

devoted

jasper ring. A wealthy

a
two-storeyed mausoleum
an

the

sum

at

with

sesterces

storey forming

upper

her

to

(golden)Unks

spent 7,000

son

the

erected

contained

up to himself,
inhabitants
of

set

of money
to be distributed
every

be adorned

to

was

be
of

One

persons.

often

duumvir

pedestals to

birthday and every seventh

year
cost (32,000 sesterces, ^^348)of the
a
city of Southern
Spain, a woman
statue

Wills

thus,

bequeathed

town

297

Ariadne

tions
Representaof the

Many

rule.

ments.
belong to sepulchralmonuThe
wanderer
greeted
approaching a large city was
and marble
of bronze
either side of the highway by long rows
on
and women
of earlier generations.
ef"giesof men
to
Admirers
distinguished
frequently erected monuments
in every
Caracalla
set up
of earlier times.
Thus
city
men

extant

portraitstatues

and

busts

'

'

images and
with

statues

his

of Alexander
on
(especially

own

alone

the

Great,

the

Capitol in

or

Rome

in

pany
com-

and

in

temples elsewhere),of Sulla, and of Hannibal.

the plasticart were
h Painting and
employed till the last
days of antiquity in the production of personal memorials.
At

the

end

of

the

fourth

century, Ammianus

Marcellinus

The

298

tatious
by ostenimmortalizing themselves
bronze
statues) as characteristic
efSgies (especially

the

mentions

of the Roman

of

desire

The

nobles.

Apollinaris Sidonius

and

in the

of

Forum

have

to

Arts

Trajan

Marius

were

all honoured

with

Ausonius

and

statues

that, if he

says
emperor's letter, containing his nomination

the

consulship, posted up everywhere,

statues
were
as there
by as many
pages
erected

were

Victorinus, Claudian,

rhetor

Rome

at

which

Theodoric,

late

as

the

as

be

to the

honoured

Standing images
(some of
reign of Zeno
in it.

ordered

Rusticiana

would

he

were

to

pulled down).

be

numerous
Justinian at
prominent
of bronze
the colossal equestrian statue
Constantinople was
in the left hand,
in the Augusteum,
holding a sphere and cross
with a gesture of
the East
the right being extended
towards

The

of the

most

of

statues

command.

(c)Religious Art
of art, which
enormously productive branch
satisfied a widespread need
of the entire Roman
world, was
of worship practicallyplastic
the
religious. For purposes
mosaic
alone
art
were
was
requisitioned; painting and
The
of the holy places.
employed merely in the decoration
nature,
strength, and
universality of belief in the gods
cussed
with the worship of images, will be disinseparablyconnected
later.
None
of the more
important figuresof the GrecoRoman
reUgious system had lost their sanctity,and, on the
other hand, the cult of numerous
oriental)
foreign (especially
the empire, thus increasingthe number
gods had spread over
A

third

and

of divine
or

diminished

the
The

divinities.
certain

cults,

as

influences, however,

Various

personages.

reputationand spread of the cult of individual

for
marked
preference of certain
emperors
for
that of Augustus for Apollo, of Domitian

Minerva,

of Commodus

Hercules

and

for

Bacchus,

Isis and

to have

bound

was

his
form

to

god distinguishedby the emperor

images multipliedin proportion.
an

gods which
largertowns.
the

idea
must

Capitolat

Donations

of the

The

have

accumulated

legend
Treves
is by
and

number

enormous

that
no

foundations

there
means

for

of Severus

Hercules,

of the
and

increased

its effect ; the worship

the
became
fashion,
It is

quiteimpossible

of the
in

were

for

the
a

images of the

temples
hundred

in

the

idols'on

astonishingor incredible.
but
religiouspurposes,

The
giftsof images,
especially
the

and

gods
not
only

set

were

places

up
and

colossal

the

of

alone

accidental
the

299

soHciting their
temples, but

which

favour.

ten

Elder

the

to

the

to

years

erected

make, and for which

sesterces
400,000
of this fact enables
to
us

in the

shipping
wor-

images
in public
PUny, the

Arverni,

received

mention

of

These

ornaments

as

capital of

took

methods

favourite

in

Clermont, the

Mercury,

artist

the

were

buildings. According

inhabitants
a

Arts

(;"4,35o).The
form

an

idea

of

images of the
of all sizes and
Made
materials
and
of varying
gods.
of workshops throughout
excellence, they employed thousands
the empire.
There
doubtless
artists in special
were
numerous
of genii,i
whose
lines, such as the makers
shops and factories
situated
behind
the temple of Castor
at Rome.
were
Near
all the more
important temples there were
probably
colonies of artists and artisans, who enabled
visitors
from
pious
all parts to show
their reverence
for the deity by ofierings
and presents (images, ex-votos, votive
tablets),and furnished
spent

money

sacred

souvenirs

artists

would

form
of

procured
Demetrius

be

to

also

Paintings and
in the

even

be

bronze
of

Abonuteichos
in
the

taken

home

utihzed

and

snake

provinces

to

Paphlagonia
silversmith

human
his

and

of the

new

of

these

decorations.

god Glycon,
ander
face, exhibited
by Alex-

faithful

followers,

the

neighbouring

and
of

services

repairs

silver statues
with

the

the

for

on

Ephesus

made

were

models

to

be

districts.
of

the

statue
temple of the great Artemis, and copies of the famous
of the goddess herself must
have been on sale at various
prices.
A dealer in ivory wares,
mentioned
in an
inscriptionfound
have
the temple of Feronia
at the foot of Soracte, may
near
retailed such souvenirs
to pilgrims. The clay idols of Aphrodite
the sea
of Cnidus
miracles
on
were
supposed to work
; as
said
century b.c. it was
early as the beginning of the seventh
that a ship from
Naucratis
during a fearful storm was saved
of the
of Aphrodite, belonging to one
by an antique statuette
who
had
Clay figurinesof
bought it in Paphos.
passengers,
the Cyprian goddess, some
sitting,others standing (sometimes
with
child in her arms), partly in the strict archaic
style,
a
in different placeson the island, also in Athens,
have been found
Syria,Bagdad, the Crimea, and other places.
1 CIL,vi,
363.9,177, where,
geniarU.

however, Henzen

reads

argentarii(silverworkers) for

The

300

Arts

culture
the arts by Roman
imposed upon
with images of the divinity
threefold
was
: to provide believers
in suitably decorated
sanctuaries
; to perpetuate the memory
the abodes
of persons
adorn
of
events
and
; to brighten and
both livingand dead.
of these needs
Each
was
deeply rooted
in Roman
civilization as developed by the requirements of
universal empire, which
spread them gradually over the subject
world.
alone
could
fulfil those
Art, which
requirements,

Thus,

the

followed

task

civihzation

to

the

farthest

hmits

of

the

immense

empire.
This

has

But

no

this

enormous

been

productivity of
intermission,

miles.

Artistic

needs

by

enable

of facts would

amount

without
square
them

shown
sufficiently

the

over

an

and

the facts
us

to form

arts, which
area

the

of

already
a

clear idea

lasted

more

activities

stated.

than

for

of

turies
cen-

100,000

evoked

by

to us
moderns
as
only known
comparatively rare,
The
need
of art,
isolated, and closelyrestricted phenomena.
which
filled a whole
world
and perished with Roman
tion
civilizaextent
to a certain
itself, remains
incomprehensible to
fact that it was
us
really completely satisfied appears
; the
The
fabulous, in spite of irrefutable testimony.
imagination
is bewildered
the exuberance
of
by the attempt to estimate

works

towns,

are

of art

The

kinds

accumulating

ever

attempts

of aU

at

of
year in thousands
in still greater numbers
in spite of

produced every

destruction.

discovery of buried cities has certainly afiEorded us a

artistic splendour of the
Roman
glimpse of this vanished
world
diminutive
and
us
a
although it has only shown
; and
mutilated
These
portion of the whole, its value is inestimable.
remains
the impression that
create
wealth
tered
so
lavishly scathave
been
must
There
is no
practicallyinexhaustible.
that Herculaneum
to assume
in any
and Pompeii were
reason
superior to other cities of Italy in artistic adornment
way
;
the
tends
show
that
to
on
contrary, everything
they only
In the fifteenth century, Ostiawas
represented the average.
inexhaustible
mine
of antiques ; a Florentine
of the period
an
amazed
of statues, sarcophagi, mosaics
at the number
and
was
ruins.
Nine years' excavations
at Aricia (1787-1796)revealed
the greater part of the splendid collection
of sculpturesmade
in Majorca.
Hke
Also, works
by Cardinal
Despuig of Palma
the Jupiter of Otricoh
and the Minerva
of VeUetri
justifyus in

The
that

assuming
In

wealth

second-rate

even

and

magnificence they

cities,such

places like
which

in

We

Antium

their turn

possess
These

Rome.

Arts

some

301

towns

were

were

far

richly adorned.
portant
surpassed by im-

Capua, Bononia, and Ravenna, and

(specially
distinguished in this respect),
as

were

left far behind

numerical

details

Rome.

by
of the

works

of art

in

furnished

partly by statistical notices at the

end
of a fourth
century description of the city (Curiosum),
based
compiled originalbelonging to the first
upon a carelessly
and
of these
century ;
partly by a more
complete redaction
notices, used by Zacharias, rhetor and bishop of MeUtene, in
the composition of his ecclesiastical history in the year
546.
ascertain
We
how
cannot
much
of the information
given dates
from
the first century (about the time of the survey
of the city
under
much
is an
addition
later
from
Vespasian), or how
inventories
official
an
(such as those of the curator
statuarum,
first occurs
whose
under
name
Constantine) ; but in any case
it is extremely incomplete. The
following is the list. Two
statues
colossal
bronze
of
(that of Augustus in the form
Apollo in the temple of the latter on the Palatine, and that of
Nero
changed by Vespasian into a sun-god), 22 colossal
equestrianstatues, 80 gilded and 74 (or 77) ivory images of
gods (not reckoning those inside the temples),and 3,785 bronze
'of emperors
statues
and
generals '. Thus, the list does not
include the remaining portraitstatues
of bronze, the numerous
and
statues, the marble
ungilded bronze
profane marble
far more
numerous
were
images of the gods, which of course
in the
than
the more
include
the statues
If we
costly ones.
temples, public buildings {thermae,porticoes,theatres),palaces
after
understand
how
and private houses, we
Cassiodorus,
can
of earlier
all the destruction
by fire)and ravages
(especially
axe

'

'

and

later centuries, could

the

walls

of these

of

Rome

ornaments

still declare

people
survived

of statues
tiU

seventh

the

II

the
site of the

remains

city,are

of the

marble

have

shown

bow

the

so

been

dwelt

within

great number
century, when

thoroughly,

that

left '. Nevertheless,

alone, excavated

sufficient to fillseveral

(d) Artistic
We

works

there
'A

'.

(after641) plundered Rome

hardly anything of importance can have

Constans

'

that

palacesand

on

the

museums.

Industry
need

of art

pervaded the

entire

The

302
Roman

world

to

the

and

condition

the

in the

case

rich and

even

at the

cities of the

to

moderns,

us

to

was

State,

extension, and
in

were

in whose

the

proportion
it

service

to

was

to

ployed.
em-

lasting and firmlyrooted, its

magnificent. This, in all probability,
limits of the empire,
farthest eastern
was

Jordan

East

found

; Moltke

Palmyra

productions

civilization

it

its

course

civilization

was

development

Of

of its

range
of the

Where

wEis

all its branches

how

excellence

incredible

almost

extent

an

indispensablein
religion,and private life.
and

Arts

district of
'

at Samosata

and

Batanaea

in

beautiful marble

the most

lently
excelas
foliage,birds, and oxen
preservedas if they had justbeen completed '. Where
art did
culture
Roman
was
only temporary and superficial,
in the
advance
not
beyond paltry beginnings, although even
frontier districts it was
not
least Romanized
entirelyabsent.
This is shown
partlyby inscriptionsrelatingto the erection
in Moesia
and Dacia), partlyby remains
of
of statues
(e.g.,
have
been
made
the spot. Near
the
on
images, which must
outposts of the third legion farthest to the south of Tripolis,
funeral monuments
of of"cers
at the edge of the Hammara,

frieze he had

were

ever

with

adorned

districts,the
made

of

with

seen,

sculptures.The

most

important

Jura limestone,

of this material

and

none

of this

kind

of marble.

of sandstone,

sculptorsand

best Mithrases

of memorials,
AU

the

are

of the Rhine

the works

are

there,

productionsof

vincial
pro-

of whom,

most

although
Roman
extent
to some
models, only possessed
they imitated
skill. The
mechanical
a
fragment (found at Cologne) of a
with
Anchises
from
representing the flightof Aeneas
group
Troy, a capable piece of work, dating at latest from the time of
The
two
statues
Minerva
Trajan, is also of Jura limestone.
in
from
Oehringen
Wiirtemberg {Vicus Aurelii in the agri
decumaies) are also excellent works
by native artists. They
made
of a yellow fine-grainedsandstone, quarried in the
are
for Roman
neighbourhood, and a very favourite material
in

memorials

places.

The

of native
often

Neptune
origin.
mention

Heidelberg,Ladenburg, Osterburken,
admirable

stone, and

occurs

in Mainz

mosaic
In
a

stonemasons,

Orpheus

the

name

and

of Bilbel

England

also

brass-founder

on

mosaic

of the

at

and

Rottweil

other

is made

artist

(Pervincus,which
to the south
of it) on
the famous
the^Nidda betrays his non-Roman

have
inscriptions
and

been

found

which

sculptor. Provincial produc-

Arts

The

304

by the fact
Roman
that
under
the
empire architecture, painting and
the same
as
essentially
during the whole period
sculpturewere
the loss of national
that followed
independence. However
of many
the changes in art during the course
numerous
turies,
cenand a coarseness
due chieflyto foreigninfluences
dating
not perceptibleto the
from the time of the Ptolemies, they were
casual observer
of ancient or modern
times.
Even
Egyptian
that
have
certain
expressed the behef
sculptures
specialists
of the second
century a.d. (asis shown
by their inscriptions)
been
before
Christ.
produced 3,000
might have
years
The temples of the Egyptian deities in imperialtimes
built
were
with
ancient
in accordance
traditions, and the technique of
unaltered.
The temple walls
all other arts remained
essentially
with the same
still covered
were
carvings and hierogljrphics
;
architectural
and
still gilded in
ornaments
the carved
were
of the paintings were
the same
manner
as
lively
; the colours
the palacesof Thebes
and lastingas in the time when
and the
above

all other

Nubian
a

lands

ancient

grottoes

built.

were

existed

art

Greco-Roman

isolation

is

shown
especially

And

yet there

the

by

side

of

is

no

of the

doubt

native

that

tian.
Egyp-

a
Egypt
complete
bouring
neighhke
Cyxenaica would be almost inconceivable
province
;
in the
bear
witness
to the
latter, important remains
now,
of architecture, sculpture and
flourishingcondition
painting
in the Roman
even
period. According to an Enghsh traveller,
have
must
part of the city of Cyrene and its suburbs
every
full of statues
would
been
', and excavation
certainlybring
excellent
But
the
to light many
sculptures.
emplojmient of
alone
not
the art of this neighbouring country would
have
been able to satisfythe need of Egypt, after it became
a Roman
province. Greek artists and artisans also must have been at
hand
for artistic undertakings of every kind in a province which

in relation

to

'

was
a

the

of

residence

standing garrison of
Greek

numerous

they worked
Fa5rum seem

and

also
to

the work

for

the

and

the former

were

governor

two

legions,and

Roman

of

in

his court
which

inhabitants

Egyptians,
Greeks

and

and

as

the

more

and

demolished

artists.

had
were

visitors.

If

portraits found

in

reason

Romans

and

there

to

that

assume

livingin Egypt

Numerous
Egyptian
had
Cleopatra
already been erected

of Greek, not

Antony

Roman

show, there is all the

of
representations
of

were

statues
there

after the battle of Actium, while

The
the

latter

statues
of

of

left

were

Augustus

Arts

standing. Eight
carried

were

Philae, Elephantine,and

Syene as
general tax was

CorneUus

Gallus, ordered

suppression of

likeness of the
to

an

revolt

Emperor
fallen

his

enemy

trophies by invading

imposed

on

in

Egypt

its first Roman

for

Praefect,

be set up throughout the

with a report by him (on the

intheThebaid,

(inthe

later
years
the frontier districts

to

own

tablet at Philae

A stone

country.

his

and

nine

or

ofi from

Aethiopians. Later, a
the erection of imperialstatues,

up

305

March,
of

form

knees)

in

29)

contains

horseman

galloping

deep reUef,

'

which

is

foreign to Egyptian art '. Other plasticwork mentioned

by
rather to be attributed
writers of the imperial period are
to
Vitrasius
Egyptian artists working in the national manner.
Claudius, attempted to
Polho, procurator of Egypt under
make
of the porphyry from the great quarrieson the
statues
Red
Sea {mons Claudianus),then opened for the first time, and
to Rome
remains
of these sculpsent specimens of them
tures
; some
in
executed
the
still
on
are
undoubtedly
apparently
spot
The innovation, however, met with Uttle approval,
existence.
not till the third century that a likingfor plastic
and it was
Statues (perhapschiefly
in porphyry came
work
into fashion.
from
also made
of stone
of Egyptian deities)
were
Memphis.
in
marble
from
black
The
Niger
portrait statue of Pescennius
the

Thebaid

to

was

be

seen

late

as

as

Diocletian,

of

time

presented to him by
the
Thebans
the Theban
or
community '.
The aversion of the Jews from the plasticarts, based on their
no
images ', says Tacitus,
religiousdogmas, is well known
;
in their cities,to say nothing of their temples ;
to be seen
are
in this
they do not flatter kings,nor show respectto emperors
refused to set foot in places
'. The strictest Jews even
manner
the second
(inthe
containingheathen images. Rabbi Gamahel
his visit to the bath of Aphrodite at
time of Hadrian) excused
Acco
(Ptolemais)on the ground that the image of Aphrodite
in the

palace of
King of the

'

; it

the latter

'

had

the

been

'

'

'

was

the

there

for the sake

image. The

of the

bath,

even

refused

Essenes

going through gates surmounted

unlawful
that

to walk

beneath

by statues,

images.

in

did not
R,L.M.

"

II.

lack adornment

since

This reminds

(intowns where there

the majority) the gates
hence,

was

and

even

sake

for the

of

to avoid
the cities,

to enter

in Palestine

sometimes

the bath

not

they
us

it

of the fact

element,

heathen
other

if the

held

ings
publicbuildJewish hatred
X

The

3o6
of

images

it could

able

was

exercise

prevent the

to

control

not

Arts

hinder

nor
foreigners,

of the
the

orthodox.

constructed

At

the

mouth

by himself

of

the

three

stood

of

his

magnificent
reprobation of
of

harbour

colossal

by Jews,

introduction

Herod
the Great adorned
foreignworks of art.
buildings with sculptures, disregarding the
the

arts

Caesarea
and

images,

in the

of the emperor
and
the
temple of Augustus colossal statues
lem
goddess Roma
; the gardens of his splendid palace at Jerusacontained
ponds full of brazen works of art from which the
of the Jewish war
the palace
water
spouted. At the outbreak
of the tetrarch Herod
Antipas in Tiberias was destroyed because
of the images which
At Caesarea
offended against the law.
several

PhiUppi

which

rock,

niches

have

formerly

may

hewn

been

have

in

wall

images

contained

of

of
the

gods.
The

plasticarts

sometimes

were

children

representationsof hving
sent
by the Princess

already

been

even

on

caused
the

mentioned.

brutal

soldiers

The

of

outburst

dragged

the

persons.
Alexandra
death

joy

of

and

Sebaste

daughters (sixteen,

and

ten,

infamously

six years old)on to the roofs of the brothels, and

insulted
them.
PubUus
Petronius, proconsul of

ordered
Syria, when
by Caligula to set up
in the temple at Jerusalem, sent for the
from

Phoenicia,

work

was

done

and

intrusted

Agrippa had
intention, Cahgula had
Rome,

to

statue

from

avoid

the

Sidon

induced
a

would

considerable

have

portion

most

statue

skilled
to

artists

them

emperor

of
which

to

the

nius.
Petro-

being suppUed by

the

colossus

disturbance

his colossal

its execution

Sidon, the material

at

After

Some

portraitsof her
to
Antony have
Eing Agrippa (44)

Caesarea

at

Palestine

The

of his three

statues

in

employed

abandon

his

made
gilded bronze
the transport of

in
the

caused.

of the

works

of art intended

for

the

have
been
ordered
and
made
in Rome,
provinces may
certainlyfor the buildingsand artistic undertakings projected
sometimes
for the use of the provincials
by the emperors,
even
themselves.
At Trapezus (Trebizond)where
Xenophon and
the

emperor
statue
of the

Hadrian

outstretched

towards

likeness

another,

nor

more

first

latter erected

well

the

saw

the

in memory
But
sea.

Euxine,
of his
as

it

w"is

Arrian

neither

hand

visit,with

executed,
begged the emperor
attitude.
worthy of him, in the same
Arrian

found

good

to send

In

the

The

Arts

307

beautiful
a
place there was
temple of Mercury built of
squared stones, containing a badly-executed statue of the god ;
Arrian
five feet high, and
to send
a new
one
begged Hadrian
another
of Philesius
from Hermes)
(a local hero descended
statue
four feet high. The
of Victory, which
in the year
61
was
supposed to have turned round in the temple of Claudius
same

at

himself,

emperor

well

as
(Colchester),

Camoludunum

Sarcophagifound

was

doubt

no

outside

from

sent

Rome,

the

as

Rome

the

of

statue

Britain.

to

only in Italy,but, e.g., one

found in Crete
(now in the Cambridge museum) are evidently
of Roman
workmanship. The faciUties for transporting to
mines
and
Rome
the products of gold, silver and
copper
marble
quarriesby sea or on the Tiber (near whose harbour
the marble
storehouse
of imperial
at the foot of the Aventine
discovered
in modern
it easy to
Rome
has been
times) made
We
of art on a very large scale.
works
execute
may
suppose
of
artists
and
that there was
artisans,
a small
excellently
army

organizedwith

view

to

not

such
co-operation,

journeys, whose
emperor's disposal; only on rare
with

him

important
to

necessary

services

his

on

had

employ artists

Severus, when

he

be

to

ordered

large

kinds

of marble,

found

the

(when

Giordano

were

(between the

Recta)

and

There

stonemasons,

being laid),were
porticusof Europa,

of

outlined

and

sculpture,were
furnished

of

Apollo in

all kinds

Chiesa

other

been

Monte

nuova

on

in the

ninth

regio

the Via

places.
of

numbers

worked
to be

in the

found

material

sculptors and
pleted
rough, or com-

in the

for statues.

(io-6metres

Naxos

have

agonalis,and

the Circus

ander
Alex-

in outhne, various

numerous

that

indications

quarries,which
colossus

in

doubt

many
who

works
other

of the

foundations

without

are

of

sculptors'tools

and

by

shops,
Sculptors'work-

emperors.
complete and

statues, heads

it

was

of colossal

number

statues, especiallyof the deified

in which

out,

done

was

the

ally
especi-

some

carried

outside, as

from

at

always

were

occasions, when

urgent work

or

took

Hadrian

as

marble
The

long) lies

and
carded
disstill

quarries,from which it was chiselled.

tures
Megara the highly prized and widespread Megarian sculpthere.
shell-marble
In
the
from
made
quarried
were

incompletein

the

marble

'

In

'

the

ancient

must

in

have

1871

Luna
been

there

were

productionof

the
far

greater than
no

less than

works

in the
115

in marble

modern

of all kinds

Carrara, where

workshops,and
sculptors'

The

3o8
of

3,000
found

the

the

drawn

have

work.

martyrdom of Claudius and his comrades

of the making of
afEords interestingevidence
The
author, who seems
quarriesthemselves.

Diocletian

sculpturesin

marble

sculptureand

in

foreigners)

(besidesmany

of the

account

under

to

inhabitants

10,000

employment

The

Arts

oral tradition

upon

the

or

written

memoranda

is well
nearly contemporary,
art as still practised on an extensive
acquainted with Roman
in its
of Diocletian, and thoroughly at home
scale in the time
details and technical expressions. He was
certainlyacquainted
of Panthe locahty of his narrative, the stone-quarries
with

contemporaries or

of

nonia

(probablynear

Gora)

and

himself

Mitrovitz
carried

the works

His

taken

part.
worthy of

seem

kinds

persons

of stones

on

of numbers)
(especially

statements

conMence.

to

him, three

kinds

of marble

According

procured there, two

the

resembUng

for statues,

spurs of the Frushkathere, in which

perhaps he had

exact

to be

were

the

on

Thasian

(white) and

Proconnesian

(black and spotted with white) and so named, and a green

porphyry ; all three are still found there, as well as numerous
and twenty- two stonemasons
ruins of Roman
buildings. Six hundred

(quadratani)worked
department

(philosophi); they

the
(officinae)
produced artistic

of mines
and

command

and

capitals,ornamented
porphyry, all perhaps
The

work

on

As

the

Images

chieflyin
sent

most

stone
no

were,

By
high)

column

Greece

artists to

in India, who

and
for

put in

presents for the

marble

feet

columns

of green
at
thermae

shpper-baths
Diocletian's
'

leafycapital, a wonderful
months, another only twenty-sixdays.

with

with
four

other

the

work

comrades)

the

refused

of the five Christian

aroused
to

make

philosophi had

workmen

the
a
one

envy

of

statue

of

made

of

in less than

thirtydays.
for sale in many
places,
in imperialtimes
even

but

siderable
probably also exported a contravellers
sculptures. The Alexandrian

Rome,
of

were

sun-god (25

of Thasian

Christians

by

the

doubt, kept in stock

and Asia Minor, which

number

as

imposing sculpturalworks.

intended

Aesculapius for Diocletian,

Proconnesian

in districts

loca,

basins

piece of art ',took three

The emperor's satisfaction
artists (Claudius and his
directors.

technical

called

made

and

the

of which

figure of

was

of the

distributed

were

subdivisions

his four-in-hand

Rome.

five heads

Diocletian's
with

under

at

Cana

king

of

in Arabia
the

Felix, took

country.

In

the

statues
romance

The
of

Arts

309

Philostratus, Apollonius of Tyana

ship sailing
freighted
and

for

with

Ionia, which
valuable

others

marble,

of

objectsJofworship
merchants

and

part

The

in the

settlers

countries

images
gold and

brokers

considerable

could

no

its owner,

made

were

of the

doubt

of

the

only

trading

works

gods,

and

colonies

of the

purchase in

the

also for
as

for decoration.

Rhine

shops

gold
other

well

as

had

of

some

order, but

to

purposes,
intended

of art

Piraeus

merchant,

ivory. Images

not

for

Roman

in the

meets

'

Danube

and

of the dealers

in

'

and

clay figures all kinds of the httle images (especially

of Mercury and
found
in
those
Hermes) so frequently
districts.
The
tinued
making of images of the gods was, and conand
the
chief
of
artists
to be,
artisans.
industry
plastic
This is shown
Christians
by the fact that those who became
declared
the work
which
a
was
now
they could not abandon
reproach to them, since they did not know how else they were
to live.
Further, they appealed to the making of the brazen
serpent by Moses.
The
of sarcophagishows
that they were
made
in factories,
mass
which
is confirmed
by the discovery of large numbers
in the warehouses
ready for sale, only waiting the final touches
of the chisel when
found.
The portraitmedallions
customers
were
in the centre
common
frequently contain only the rough

bronze

outlines

of

face,

to

which

afterwards

added

below

superscription D.M.

the

; in Uke

the

in

mould,

workshops.
heads
was

were

hollowed

doubt

no

As
not

in

manner,

of the

epitaphs. Lastly,many

formed
the

finished

features

case

space

statues

part

were

found

of honour,

of the stock

of the

deceased

left for the

was

{dis manihus)

tiU the work

out to receive

of the

of the

name

all

on

made

as

sculptors'

portraitmedallions,
was

heads,
special

if

the

ordered, and the neck

as

is shown

by

ous
numer-

were
examples. The heads and legs of statues in armour
hand.
by another
frequently added
from
of art could be made
But only part of the works
away
All the better
to be set up or used.
the place where
they were
rule
the spot, and
made
as
a
were
on
personal memorials
inferior.
to the
added
the finishingtouch
even
Similarly,
mosaics, stuccos)were
artistic decorations
mostly
(paintings,
to adorn.
intended
The
executed
in the rooms
they were
of the
circulation
imperial images
enormous
rapid and
from
a
be adequately explainedby their conveyance
cannot

The

310

of different centres.

number

who

workmen

all

in

artistic

and

Think

needed.

backwards

the

of

and

others
hired

have

travelled

whole

colonies,

you please to call

where
they were
and

masons

forwards

and

'

Goethe,

ordered

were

hosts

must

whatever

or

artisans

of

of

artists

possessed or

art, who

departments,

clouds,

expeditions,swarms,
of artists

of

In the words

place to place.

them,

of the

Some

great works

undertook

from

Arts

stone-masons,

central

through
Europe at that
mode
of thought had
time, when
a seriouslyreligious
spread
the Christian
Church
'. One
of these wandering artists,
over
moving

of

Zeno

passed through many

Syracuse and Rome,
his

in

Aphrodisias,boasts

work.

cities

his

reljdng on
the

bearing

certain

inscriptionthat

an

Novius

same

art

Blaesamus,

had
in

statues

doubtless

are

name,

he

according

the

to

his

had adorned
Rome
and the empire
grave,
in mosaic
his statues
had
at Perinthus
cised
exer; a worker
his art, in which
he excelled
all others, in all the cities

inscriptionon
with

of the

The

empire.

result

their

of

executed

fame

of the

artists

great achievements.

the colossal statue

of

Mercury

spread rapidly as
Zenodorus,

who

for Clermont,

was

the
had
moned
sum-

service for him.

Rome,
by Nero
perform the same
According to Lucian, however, in his Dream, the life of a
sculptor,as compared with that of the wandering sophists,
doubt
in the
a
was
more
sedentaiy one, and no
important
of artists in constant
towns
there were
settlements
ment.
employThis
is established
for the
fomth
century by the
to

of

letter
Britain

Constantine
in

the

ordered

were

thoroughly
were

from

the

to

governors
The
artists

year
337.
to be excused
that

communities,
named

to

and

from

they might

instinct

their

tools

the

been

for

have

time

in the
work

cities

for the

learn

to

in it ; the

are

towns

their

art

artists

the

Greece

not

been

Athens

stone,
an

other
and

numerous.

there

even

have

as

legs,and
In

discovered.

artists

in

carving

provinces (except

relatingto

resident

and

specially
tinct
architects, builders, painters,sculptors(as disof
the makers
statues),and workers in mosaic (two

busts, tables with various

have

Spain, Gaul,

undertaking

sons

clcisses).In the second-rate

of sculptors'
workshops, such
and
Pompeii (not to mention
latter

of

found

and

Th3rsdrus
;

in

the

statues, herms,

unfinished

Asia

in

lack

no

Rome)

marble

towns

weis

of

marble

mortar

Italy, and

in

Minor) inscriptions

The

3 12
of

impoverishment.

of

the

chief

Arts

Persistent

adherence
ancient

between

differences

tradition, one

to

and

modern

art,

Instead
proved a double blessingto the people of that age.
the
of strivingafter an
impossible originahty and sacrificing
days to fruitless experiments,
precious heritage of former
shrewd
enough to keep it
they were
recognizing its value
moved
considerable
Art
intact
for a
time.
continuously
famihar

within
in

accordance

sight appears

hmits
with

and

even

new

laws.

time-honoured

inconceivable

problems

became

Thus,

solved

were

what

possible. Art,

even

at first
turies
cen-

its eminent
completely developed, maintained
position; at a time of real, though slow, decay sculpture
could still produce works
superiorto most of the productions of
modern
productivity,
art; and, in spite of its enormous
plastic
survived
of the nobiUty of the ancient forms
even
a remnant
of the empire.
to the latest times
Another
of the uniformity of the art of the period
cause
Rome
influence
of Roman
civihzation.
the levelling
was
was
cities of the empire in ever5rthing,
the model
for the other
For in
but had the strongest claim to set the example in art.
after it

Rome

'

was

of art of every
Greece, Asia and

works

kind, of all ages and

schools, carried

Egypt, and stored in temples and

pubhc buildings,villas and palaces, provided inexhaustible
in art
the most
material
for education
important
; in Rome
and
the
of
artists of the world
greatest works
foregathered,
executed
art
weis
a
were
high school for art, the
; Rome
like of which
had
been
before.
The
never
seen
provincials
off from

'

demanded

imitations

of all that

was

held

in favour

and

esteem

settled in the provinces for longer

capital; the Romans
shorter periods refused to be deprived entirelyof the artistic
or
accustomed.
The
claims of
luxury to which
they were
both
satisfied by the services
of a host of artists and
were
from
the provinces and back
artisans who
poured into Rome
to setup a uniform
fashion
again ; thus, everything combined
in art throughout the empire.
Decorative
and
religiousart could fulfil their task for the
most
was
part by simple reproduction of what
already in
also provided patterns and models
for nearly
existence, which
aU the subjects of monumental
When
art.
simple repetition
ideas could be expressedby alteringand
was
insufficient,new
developing the originalmotives, or the existing material
in the

The
transformed

Arts

313

into

something appaxently new by modifications

and
this
variations, by separating and
combining. With
detached
from
connexion
their natural
object, figures were
and
used
with
others, or originindependently or combined
ally
introduced
into
It
independent figures were
groups.
cannot
be denied
that this mode
of procedure, which
finds its
obvious
work
a
analogy in Roman
poetry, produced many
in form

excellent

at herself

and

in the

idea.

of Mars

shield

for

Thus,

of

was

example,
changed

ing
look-

Venus

into

goddess

shield ; she

not
victory recording victory
appears
merely as a statue, but in sarcophagus reUefs, in which very
from older
frequentlyfigures,motives and groups are borrowed
and
works
variously employed in new
compositions. Also,
with
she is grouped with
Mars, embracing him in the arms

the

on

which

she

held

the

shield

this

attitude,

favourite

one

in

repeated on sarcophagi and in four still

and
able
admirSimilarly,a well-known
existingstatue groups.
into an
(Orestesand Electra) has been converted
group
and
Orestes
Pylades ', without
sacrificingthe composition
and poetical
motive.
In the so-caUed
Thusnelda
in the Loggia

imperial times,

is

'

at Florence

de' Lanzi

characterization

design

was

ancient

alone

borrowed

art.

the

Old

national
the highly-successful
creditjof

is due

by

forms

him
were

to

the

from
also

artist ; the
the mourning

magnificent
women

of

successfullyused for
very
cults.
introduction
of new

images ^rendered necessary by the

until the
The
did not spread in the West
worship of Mithias
caves
we
imperial period ; and in the reliefs of the Mithras
find only well-known
from
the storehouse
forms, borrowed
of Greek
art.
The
god kneehng on the buU is nothing but a
bull ;
of the goddess of victory sacrificing
a
transformation
similarlythe other figuresof this composition are borrowed,
only the grouping and certain additional symbols being new.
In the
another
example of this method.
Josephus mentions
the colossal
at Caesarea
temple of Augustus buUt by Herod
imitation
of the
of the emperor
statue
an
Olympian
was
not inferior to the original ; that of Roma
Zeus of Phidias,
A whole
of Polycletus at Argos.
imitation
of the Hera
an
series of imperialstatues with the upper
part of the body bare
less
or
and
a cloak
wrapped round the thigh exhibits a more
"

'

'

free irnitation of the

statues,

as

motive

of the

already mentioned,

Phidian
the

forms

statue.
as

In

trait
por-

rule follow

The

314
older

types.

'

The

so-called

Pudicitia

'

belong to

of Herculaneum

women

motives

draped statues,

the

Attic

fourth

of the

art

period,and
But

merely

in

of

in the
the

which

Vatican

and

the

large stock of female

belong partly to the

partly to the hellenistic

sepulchralstatues.
reproductionof older works

century, and
number

the

was

of

exact

also
purposes
; it was
desire of the majority of art collectors to possess
and
favourite
copies as possibleof well-known

amply
the

not

recur

Arts

sufficient for decorative

evidently
as

ful
faith-

figures.

of course,
(all,
copies)
following statues
discobolus
of
of a private house
the
at Athens
in the court
;
of
of Polycletus, the
t3n:aimicides
Myron, the diadumenus
Critias and Nesiotes.
Naturally,the most famous works were
most
frequentlyreproduced. Thus, the stUl numerous
ductions
reproof the Aphrodite, Faunus, and
Apollo ol Praxiteles
and
number
of others (e.g.,
the so-called Medicean
a
Venus)
not the
for the most
Were
from
are
originals
part unknown.
inscriptionson the statues for the most
part lost, we should
of them.
in the Chigi
Thus, a Venus
probably know
many
copied by
palace at Rome, according to the inscription,was
certain
from
in
Troas.
Alexandria
a
an
original
Menophantus
circulated in all the provinces. At Soissons
These
copieswere
from the cycle of the Niobidae
a group
(theyoungest son with
of Milo and
his paedagogus),at Treves
of the Venus
a copy
of Mattel
the Amazon
have
been
found.
Juba II, King of
educated
of Augfustus and,
at the court
Mauretania, who was
like his wife, Cleopatra Selene
(daughter of Antony and
Cleopatra), took a keen interest in Greek literature and art,
adorned
his capital Yol
(Zershel,afterwards
Caesarea)with
copiesof work of the best periodof Greek sculpture. Several of
statue
^two copiesof a female
these have been found on the spot
his foot,
of the time of Phidias, a child extractinga thorn
from
ing
Accorda Faun
blowing a flute,a Venus as goddess of the sea.
the whole
to
Josephus, King Agrippa adorned
city of
with statues
and copiesof older works ',
Ber3rtusin Phoenicia
of
the meisterpieces
certainlyunderstand
by which we must
the most
art, although in Quinflourishingperiod of Greek
for the antique and even
tiUan's time the fondness
the incunabula
of art, which
time, gave
greatlyincreased after Hadrian's
rise to numerous
imitations
also of pre-Phidian plastique.

Lucian

mentions

the

"

'

The

'

sculptors, who

copied

old

masterpiecesindifierently

The
from

period whatever

any

served

artistic

an

which

adorned

laneum,

only

foreignworks

mere

alterations

This

art '.

painterswho

as

main

wall

of the

the

the
after-eQects
style exhibits
developed at the festivals of the
of mosaic

floors in the

also

the

and

sea-monsters

of meals
used

was

sages

simply in

in libraries and

In the
same

models
the

beakers

hardly

chiselled

of older

mosaic

the

asarotum

name

of

'),busts

artist and

Zenodorus

by

are

so

other

the

places

the

models.

of the

so
potteries,

are

Gems,

But

those

tations
in imi-

production on a
the bronze-founder
copied
perfectly,that there was
in

show

same

the

'

Calamis

and

Boscoreale

the

poets and

objectsin generaluse

productionsin glass also

copies of

Nereids

forth.

so

models, chieflyAlexandrian.

other

that here

of remains

imitations

difierence as far as artistic excellence

any
the silver vessels
'. The
on
representations

Hildesheim,
and

of the

hand

splendour
preservation

The

that

and

fourth

and

continually reproduced,both

also

in factories.

largescale

of

sense

of utensUs

were

Diadochi

the

provinces shows
everjrwhererepeated:

studies, and

adornment

by
two

the

artistic

of

third

Ptolemies.

'

Quincop3dng

fantastic

the

especiallyin baths,

art

ings
wall-paint-

imitations

so-called

dining-rooms (so common

in

the

different

most

subjects were

same

merely

period of

of

to

of

of free imitations

Lucian

free

of the

decoration

of earlier

works

themselves

closelyas possible;
of older pictures. Not

case

clothing.

the

nor

complete dependence
in other departments.

Pompeii are in the

pictures,especiallycabinets
aU

in their

even

the

confined

of

but

and

pose,
of
repetition the

is also manifest

ages
speaks of

tiUan

and

is

'

modem,
not

directly

cases

Amongst the bronzes,

of the hbrary at Hercu-

owner

heads,

of the

earUer

upon

villa of the

periods of

creative

interest.

portraitsare

only the reahsm

Everything else

315

',undoubtedly in many

historical

the
the

Arts

more

most

abundant

cerned
con-

was

found

at

reproductions

paste ornaments,
or

less

ful
success-

mens
speci-

numerous

throughout the
rich and
variously

uncommonly
tablets, frontal tiles,vessels
developed artistic industry (frieze
lamps)
and
with
ornaments
figures in relief, and especially
Greek
of
inventions
which
spread the noblest and most pleasing
empire,

art

to

the

the

product

farthest

pottery is pressed
tion

explainswhy

of

an

limits
in

the

of

moulds,
same

Roman
and

civiUzation.
its mechanical

'

All

this

multipUca-

forms, figures,reUefs, ornaments,

The

3i6
and
in

potters'names
Africa, Spain

the

the

Roman

not

in different

stock

the

of

the

lack

This

the

on

spot,

places,almost
and

the

aid

completely
in

stamps

well-

bination
frequently perverse compieces in provincialpotteries

In

number

of these

tions
ornamenta-

be easily
they have arisen can
We
traced.
are
partly acquainted with the originals,
single
figures or groups, as masterpieces of art of independent
in vogue
in Rome
and
were
importance, which
consequently
used for decorative
We
find them
again on larger
purposes.
architectural
members,
metopes or frieze plates,on sculptured
Thus
Rome,
sarcophagus rehefs, and lastlyon clay vessels.
by dictatingthe prevailingtaste in art to the whole empire,

put
the

manner

certain

reach

in

venient
con-

stamps.

executed

the

of the

betrays a

singlemoulded
of intelhgence.

to

more

be difl"cult,with

moulds

But

pottery.

and

the

only

was

found

was

and

"

clay, in colouring and

and stamp was
of mould

the

It would

found

Roman

of

be

empire

the Rhine

moulds

to

was

the

over

ware

; it

hand, the result

same.

ware

reconstruct

assorted

But

working

the other

on

everywhere
of the clay
to

Thames,

in what

produced differences
in the
mixing and
;

the

extent

to

varnish

on

directlyimported
provide the potterieswith

small

very

Gaul,

in CiKcia.

and

Danube,

repeated all

found

are

and

Arts

share

of

which

in the

art

treasures

of the

capitalwithin

the

inhabitants
of the province '.
poorer
Of the earher ages, upon which the art of the imperial period,
whose
of portrsdts,
only originalityconsisted in the execution
even

dependent,

wcis

influence

than

the

the

hellenistic
classical

period
(fifthand

exercised
fourth

far

greater

centuries),an

influence

to Alexandrian
than
apparently due far more
Attic-Pergamene art.
Similarly, Alexandrian
poetry

the

standard

music

for

exercised

Roman
a

in its best

decisive

period,and

influence

was

Alexandrian

Roman.

upon

to

But

artistic

art
than
more
was
industry, even
proper,
benefited
of
the
by the
immensely
wealthy tradition
hellenistic epoch, which was
still in a high degree creative ;
its effects extended
to the modest
workshops of the potters,
silversmiths.
room
stonemasons,
painters, goldsmiths and

Between

art

and

the

speciallydistinctive
in

antiquity;

in the

main

on

the

professionof art, for

terms,

there

contrary,

reproduction,and

existed

at

the

time

which
hard

no

when

artist

there

as

and

were

fast line

production
a

rule

no

was

was

only

The
required

make

to

develop or
closelyconnected

were

artisan

Arts
of

use

several

at

317
foreign invention, they
Since

points.

also

the

trained

his eye and hand

sufficient to produce

by first-class models, technical

skill was
good imitations.
Consequently
the professionto a great extent
field
which
the
in
conquered
earlier times
belonged to art proper, and developed on this
soil to an
extent
need
afiected
which
a
only possible when
the
lowest
orders
had to be satisfied.
The
even
discovery of
the

decorations

room

sufficient

was

second-rate

effect

to

artistic

developed
fashion
{A la
according to

in

revolution

it

as

grecque,
Galiani

in the

of ornaments

But

under

the

'

erection

of

buildings and

artistic works

were

merely

The

as

very
sometimes

to contractors,

already highly

taste

and

for the

enormously

best

work

di Ercolano

'

artistic

abilitywas
unusually high

as

respects carried on
manufacturing industry.
of important
execution

the

as

rule,handed

artists themselves,

an

and

little valued.

work

in the

standard

Thus,

was

the

the chief factors

were

price.

assumed

An

case

rare,

over

sometimes

only
(as already

average
of every

of colossal

promised
of

standard
contractor

seldom

being

price and time

determining the

in

able.
indispens-

in many

frequently,if not

lowest

the

at

smiths,
Gold-

1767.

employers of artists. According to Plutarch

invited for the erection
mentioned) competition was
was
statues, and the work
given to the candidate who
the

new

painters,upholsterers,and

Pitture

empire art was

profession,but

not

The

1763

years
door

found

the

called) increased

was

carriageand
jewellers,
makers

in

of Paris.

industry

like Herculaneum

town

required
required for the
selection

of the

artist.

development of artistic handicraft, and

rendered
the use
of art for manufacturing purposes
necessary
traces
of
which
a
many
highly specializeddivision of labour,
did nothing but
who
workmen
have
survived.
There
were
The

high

rich

and

put in the eyes

All

the

(made

important

more

co-operation of
under

individual

Pompeii (afterthe
walls

of

work

of

the
a

of

artistic

considerable
direction.

singlemind

('where
and

undertakings

number

Thus,
of

earthquake

houses

material) of statues.

coloured

some

the
out

assumed

of artists and

the

artisans

during the last days of

63), the decorations of the

ornamentations

of the

same

seemed

the

paint pot ')were

The

3i8
evidently for

the

the work
of one
entirely,
of arabesques,
painters. Painters

part, if

most

society of
flowers, animals, landscapes

and

the

Arts

same

not

and

figuresworked
this

frescoes in succession or side by side ; since

possibleway of carrying out the work as

the

at

same

the

was

only

promptly as was
and
required. The fixedness of generallyrecognized norms
traditions, which
relegated artistic individuahty whoUy or
the co-operation of two
to the background, rendered
partially
in antiquity as
work
artists in the same
as
common
or
more
times.
in modern
In this respect there was
it is rare
ently
apparno
change during the imperial period.
A great part of the workmen
of
employed in the execution
more
slaves, and
comprehensive artistic undertakings were
of the factors
whose
indeed
on
essentiallyone
slavery was
co-operationartistic production on a large scale depended.
whose
artistic professions,
The
productions perhaps satisfied
be learnt by any
the greatestpart of the artistic need, could
of cleverness
and adaptawho
one
possessed a certain amount
bility.
of slaves, who
wanted
Naturally, therefore, owners
out of them
to get as much
as
possible,had them taught to
in demand,
most
what
make
was
amongst such things being
Like
bands
of gladiators,troupes of actors,
works
of art.
companies of singers and musicians, societies of painters and
could be formed
from
other artistic workers
holds,
largeslave housewho
were
employed partly in decorating their masters'
their account.
houses
and partly in executing commissions
on
Verres

had

the

Amongst
in old
bent

age,
with

of chasers

number
comforts

of

Naevolus

in

modest

but

his
faces

work,

and

of metal

assured
for

Juvenal hopes

stooping over

rapidlyto paint several

makers

and

'

subsistence

chaser

in silver

who

is able

another

',i.e.,
slaves, who

vessels.

could

increase

The
by speciallyprofitablework.
painterwould
for the representations of historical
be speciallyin demand
which
trations
events
were
profuselyillustrated by figures,or for illusin books.
Besides, paintersmost frequentlybelonged
his income

to

the

class

imperial

is to be

The

cut

were

if

'

off and

put upon

him

of

valuable

the death

in

common

the

of

slave, expresses

'

painter {pretioso
gets
pictori)

he is killed within
as

course

jurist Julianus (under Hadrian)

compensation for

opinion that

his thumb

slaves, and

household.

discussingthe
the

of

year,

before his mutilation.

the

same

In many

value
cases

The

320
to execute

but
(;^526),
work.

death

the

The

of

does

of the

60,000 sesterces

Octavius,

knight, the

Roman

of the

talent

{"2;}$15s.) Unfortunately,
the high fee paid by Vespasian for

"

mention

not

Venus

of

received

Zenodorus

Nero.

for

for

Felicitas

prevented the completion

of both

bowl

restoration

the

goddess

artist sold

same

plastermodel
Suetonius

of the

statue

Arts

from

Apelles and the

the capitalof

colossus
the

of

Arverni

in fees alone
sesterces
(manupre(mod. Clermont) 400,000
he
of
which
for
his
colossus
spent ten years.
Mercury, on
Hum)
if the intrinsic value
fees appear
These
small, even
by no means
of money
at that time is reckoned
no
higher than at the present
day ; they are as large or larger than those paid to many
of the most
prominent artists of the eighteenth and nineteenth
The
two
centuries.
hunting and fishinggroups, ordered
by
Adam
the elder for the gardens at Choisy
Louis
XV
from
and
subsequently presented by him to Frederic the Great,
Kvres (about 160,000 francs); a figure of
cost (in1756) 52,000
artist for the chateau
of Choisy
Abundantia
by the same
livres.
Bouchardon's
famous
ing
Amor, break(in 1758) 10,000
'

the

up

of 20,000

sum

livres for
Saxe

in

livres

of Hercules

club

undertook

in 1750,
church
of St.

the

(about 300,000
although the

Louis

arrows

Pigalle,who

livres.

amor

an

'

to make

the

Thomas

was

had

the

mous
enor-

received

memorial

24,000
of Marshal

Strasburg for 85,000

ments,
was
paid in four instalcompleted till the reign of
at

francs),which
work

fetched

not

XVI.
fee of

(^825)for the group

of Goethe
and
Schiller at Weimar,
which
he spent three
on
to 4,800 (;^24o).Consequently
his expenses
amounted
years;
when
he did not make
the average
at the height of his fame
on
much
than
more
(;"i95)a year, not half as much
3,900 marks
in a provincial city; even
Zenodorus
as
assuming the same
Rietschel

intrinsic

received

for the first and the nineteenth

of money
turies.
cenmodel
of
the
feet
statue
at
the
of Kant
Koni^eight

berg (thebrass
for the

16,500 marks

value
For

received

for which

6,000 marks,
model

not

cost

much

extent

the field of

which
art

marks)

Rauch

the fee of Arcesilaus

bowl.

of the

to

10,000

than

more

(e) The
The

than

more

art

as

proper, and

Artist's
mechanical

the

humble

pied
profession occu-

positionof

the

The
majority

of those

the

estimation
Both

education.
those

who

these

two,

art

elevation

to

the

as

fine arts
who

man,

young

or

Zeus

or

he

than

more

of Plutarch

by

the other

hand

no

which

as

by

declares

on

that

trained

mind
and

(grammar, music, geometry

the artisan in the artist

'

been

the
'

ever
what-

it does

argued)

while

the

upon
them
of

the

tempt
con-

adore

saw

idols,we

on

On

of art

place amongst

astronomy)

we

creations

young

not

expressions

ordinary artisans, but

with the greatest poets.

looked

the

These

ever

than

refused

and

'.

no

any
Philetas

For

gracefulwork,

(as has

level

their poems.

estimable

better

no

Seneca, who

the

morality
nothing but
despisethose
to

particular,the exclusive and exaggerated

to a hterary and
value attached
rhetorical education
with contempt for the fine arts and their procombined
was
fessors.
he
when
This certainlyis Plutarch's
of
view,
point
Ictinus
and
even
Nesiotes, but
puts not merely Alcamenes
class as all those common
in the same
people and artisans, who
know
spiritLucian, a
nothing of oratory ; and in the same
introduces
of reallyartistic tastes, in his Dream
Sculpture
man
and
uneducated, uncouth, horny-handed
dirty woman,
an
as
fashion

who

while
that

Rhetoric
even

them

superior
recognizing
a

Anacreon,

an

read

show

means

objects of luxury,

studies

Plutarch

become

to

caused

contrary put them

the

or

worthy of their aspirations,

do not mean
to depreactivity,
ciate

When

its author

for artists

more

sentiments, will
inspired by
Phidias or a Polycletusafter he has seen
the Argive Hera, he is careful to add,

will desire

make
necessarily

as

noble

enjoyment

be the

as

such.

the real

skill

merely

as

cause

aim

Archilochus, after he has

an

technical

philosophers who,

only

to

understand

to

of

persons

bound

were

artist

true

of artistic

as

and

is

desire to become

Olympian

art

regard

fail to influence

not

regarded by

was

intelligent
enough

speak with contempt

the

could

circumstances

and
the
less synonymous,
artisan.
Certainly, those

moral

321

practisedboth,

in which

not

were

of the

nature

who

Arts

'.

appears

In

as

Polycletus and

common

brilliant

Phidias

declares

who
personality,

themselves

artisans to the admirers

must

of their works

have

peared
apPhilo-

poets, musicians, astronomers, and the

best rhetoricians amongst the sages ,at least consents to include
sailors and
trymen,
counsculptors,together with
painters and
amongst the semi-sages, provided they follow the

stratus, who

numbers

'

R.L.M.

11.

The

322
these

; for even

Horae

geometry,

to these

that

it is clear

domination,

was

education.

man

add, if he pleases,
painting

may

in the

were

world

Roman

assume

may

highly esteemed

more

at that

period.
or plastic
(pictorial
representation),
the
the plastic,even
during
period of Roman
in
hands
of Greeks
almost entirely the
by birth
declared
Virgil,with genuine Roman
arrogance,
which

nation

the

that

chieflyrecommended

figurativearts

Of the two

or

ing
Accord-

medicine,

the arts themselves,

than

Greek

in the

be

'.

Speaking generally, we

plasticart.

artists,hke

that

to

professionare

jurisprudence;
the

sciences

to wisdom

rhetoric, music,
arithmetic, reckoning, astronomy,
and
grammar

choosing

when

and

approximate

arts

Galen, the arts and

to

Arts

destined

was

to

and

conquer

rule

the

dispute the superiority of others

and
producing Uving features from
in giving life to bronze
Of all the well-known
marble.
sculptorsof the Roman
period
could
be
considered
Romans
few
as
Coponius)
(such
by
very
of
the
last
the
well
At Rome,
birth.
during
days
republic as
Greeks
it
was
the empire,
under
(especially
Athenians)
as
Minor
who
the
Asia
most
from
admired
Greeks
and
produced
in
the
most
engaged
important artistic
masterpieces, were
the largest fees.
The
statue
of
undertakings, and received
in the temple dedicated
Genetrix
Venus
by Julius Caesar in
the Athenian
of Arcesilaus
the work
; it was
Diogenes
46 was
the pantheon of Agrippa with
adorned
who
caryatides and
in pairs,who, according
statues
; the artists, generallyworking
famous
to Pliny, filled the imperialpalaceswith the most
need

world

trouble

not

to

'

The

all Greeks.

', were

statues

of

case

to

adherence
stucco

the

early
reason
why

was

Thus, in 304 B.C.,

carnassus,

one

no

of the

Fabian

Romans

walls

skill in

better

events.

In

were

in existence

whose

life extends

decorated

until the

to the

mural

the

temple

period of

the

the

temple
of Hali-

was

Pictor
After

times

highest birth.

pictures,highly praised by Dionysius

which

with

to the faithful

ancient

of the

men

gens

to their

preferred painting

The
surname
during the reign of Claudius.
of
this
Fabius.
hereditary in the family

Pacuvius,

Thanks

certain

disgraceto

'

covering the

that it lent itself much

considered

with

the

representationof

vivid

of

attained

ItaUans

painting was
of Salus

tradition

ancient

the

painting'. One
art
to the plastic
and

quite different.

painting was

burnt
became
time

of

Gracchi,

The
paintingcertainlywas

Arts

323
'

not

'

practisedby respectable people

to use
the expression of Pliny. It is probable that the Roman
artists gradually gave
more
were
place to Greek, who
highly
educated
and
invaded
the city in ever
increasing numbers
;
the longer and
more
generally painting was
practised by
and
the
less
honourable
it was
slaves,
freedmen,
foreigners,
considered

for

Romans.

Valerius

Maximus

considered

it

himself
incomprehensible that a Fabius should have devoted
to so low an
of it.
occupation without being ashamed
But
still,painting was
always thought more
highly of than
the plastic
in imperial times it was
never
art, and even
entirely
of the Greeks.
in the hands
For paintingPhny was
able to
Roman
Fabius
Vestalis
and
graphies
biouse
a
monograph by one
of paintersby Cornelius
Nepos ; for the plasticart
his only Roman
authorities
cellaneous
miswere
antiquarian and
works
and
encyclopaedias. During the reign of
Augustus a boy of distinguishedfamily (Quintus Pedius) was
brought up as a painter ; but he was dumb, and all the professions
suitable to his rank
closed
him.
to
were
Certainly,
fine
Verona
Roman
at
some
knight
Phny saw
paintings
by a
named
brilliant
serious
though
Turpilius. Fabullus, a
his
hours
a few
a day, standing on
painter,who only worked
always wearing his toga with a dignifiedair, was
scafEolding,
Pinus
CorneUus
House.
chieflyemployed in Nero's Golden
and Attius Priscus painted the interior of the temple of Honos
and
Virtus
restored
Augustus the
by Vespasian. Under
Roman
a hellenpainter Ludius
(or Sextus Tadius) introduced
istic styleof decoration, which
enjoyed great vogue ; the skilful
manner

in

which

satisfied the

he

demands

of the

luxury of

and
thorough
period, his keen observation, his humour
of representation,
stamp him
acquaintance with the means
artist.
as
a
genuinely Roman
of female
names
To
judge from the frequent occurrence
to have
also appear
ancient
practised
on
paintings, women
tomb
the
of a
extent.
In 1847
the art to a considerable
the

female
Vendue

artist
near

was

discovered

the

remains

delightfulfrescoes

contained

requisites. According
as

sculptors. At

of

villa, in which

Besides

to

rich

as

the

fragments
skeleton

assortment

Justin Martyr,

least he mentions

in La

M6dard-des-Prds

Saint

found.

were

deceased, the tomb

at

women

of

also

of

of the

painter's
practised

proofof the licentious-

The

324
of

ness

slaves

assisted

who
have

only
whose

makers

the

also

to

of

he

had

artists

caused

such

last

antiquity.

of the State

world.

of the

him

workshops,

of

of

days

While

in all other

showed
to

were

any

national

only effectively
mote
pro-

not

and

ofience.

painting,persisted

the Romans
it

female

perhaps they may

sculpture,as

adequately expressed the

empire

the

in the

seen

art in which

aims

seduced

But

only
activity. Corresponding as
the only art which
could
was

also
the

the

till the

the ambitious
but

whom

is the

Architecture

taste, it

they

in their work.

technique

West

creative

them

with

relations

the

idols, that

models

been

Further, the
in

of

Arts

its universal

dominion,

consciousness

of its

right

Greek
upon
of art, in architecture
the

dependent

departments
those absolutely originalworks
which,
of
the
at
in spiteof thousands
present day, produce
years, even
almost
works
with
effect so powerful and
an
stupefjdng
Greek
When
Frontinus
art has
which
nothing to compare.
the inert masses
of the Egyptian p5rraproudly asks whether
the useless splendour of the famous
Greek
mids
or
buildings
be
with
the
Roman
he
is
can
compared
aqueducts,
merely
of
which
view,
although partial
giving expressionto a point
without
is not
justification.
absolute
ture
The
necessityand the high importance of architecin publicas well as private Ufe explain why it was
sidered
conthe most
respectableof aU arts, and placed by Cicero
the professionof medicine.
on
a level with
Probably it was
lucrative
but in all the large
the most
art, not only in Rome
of the empire, and consequently overcrowded.
In the
towns
citizens were
found
ranks
of architects
Roman
by the side of
and
perial
slaves, freedmen
foreigners in republicanas well as iminfluence

have

Romans

created

'

'

"

The

times.

work

first Roman

the

treatise
known

imperial architects
be

afi"rmed
of

dorus
and

in

loi

mentions

tian's

had

us,

subject.
the only one

Of

was

the

of whom

not

famous
it

can

is ApoUocertaintythat he was not a Roman

who
Damascus,
superintended Trajan's buildings,
constructed
the bridge over
the Danube.
Tacitus
as

Nero's

to

architects
'who

attempt what

palacewas

taken

architecture

the

on

to

on

with

imperial freedman),
boldness

of Vitruvius

the

built

Severus

possessed
Nature

and

Celer

(perhapsan

sufficient

appeared to

talent

refuse

'.

and

Domi-

by Rabirius, who, according to Martial,

starry heavens

as

worthy

model

; Hadrian's

The
architect Decrianus
intrusted
who

from

of the
with

some

it

on

of the

discovered

the

on

(Antibes)Sextus

Pont

built

of this
the

temple

art

Gard,

inscription
arch
at AntipoUs
an
mutilated) is named
provinces buildings

according
on

is

eastern

architects.

known

was

considered

was

The

'.
to

an

Rufinus

Pergamus, while
under
Satyrus ; the
in Byzantine times,
at

even

of the wonders

one

of

name

Costunius

Asclepius
studying there

architect

imperialtemple

an

for his divine

Zeus

was

The

ground.

to us
Tagus is known
this
stone, according to which,
shall last,
long as the universe

Roman

of

temple
(after 147)

name

and

by

and

Mustius,

the

near

in the

Even

the

Galen

du

certain

difficulties of the

spot, was Veranius

Juhus (histhird name

constructed

were

as

famous

to

'

in

stand

its constructor.

as

rock

hewn

verses

builder

the

bridge of Alcantara

will
bridge, which
built by Lacer,
was
the

Pliny the Younger

was

surmounted
skilfully

connected

325

certainlya Roman.
building of a temple of Ceres

the

constructor

Arts

world.

of the

(/)Artistic Feeling
A

comparatively small

artists,who

exercised

their

throughout the empire,

all of these

only

from

craft

their

ever

the

mentioned.

artists

own

This

is

who

thous9.nds of

many
the

during
early centuries
to us by name,
and nearly
inscriptionson their works.

known

are

Notwithstanding the frequent

of all kinds

of the

number

allusions
carried

partly to

be

artistic

to

them

out

ings
undertak-

'hardly

are

the

explained by

ordinate
sub-

position held by artists in society,and also by the

far more
fact that artistic production was
frequently the work
of associations
of individuals, who
than
being merely the
held in httle regard. On
instruments
of a corporationwere
not regarded
the other hand, as already shown, the arts were

important and
but only so

as

the attainment

Lastly, the
to

it

to

At

Lysippus
of the

most

as

artistic

of

standard
time

were

formal

so

to

indispensable means
they were
kept in
universallyand persistently

far

of ends

the

selves,
them-

in

civilization

Roman

production of
contemporaries than it

by

its best.

for

valuable

works

when
common,
over

the

the

bnlliant, imposing and

that

age

does

to

creations
of

the

the lack of

intellectual

appeared
us,

of

since

the

view.

less important

they

Greek

sured
mea-

art

at

period from

Phidias

originahty,the

tion
exalta-

element,

even

in the

graceful productions,could

not

The

326
fail to strike all,even

the

Arts

least

who
intelligent,

the

saw

two

side

It is easy to understand
why interest in art
by side.
then
the past. But
even
was
by preference directed towards
identical in the
and
its nature
intensitywere
by no means
of the
Roman
is just one
and
Greek
world ; rather, this
departments in which the diversityof the two civilizations
be best appreciated even
can
by us.
countries
The victorious
in Greek
campaigns of the Romans
the spoilsaccumuafter the conquest of S3?racuse(212),and
lated
centuries
and
for two
by generals,governors
emperors
and

half down

with

an

of art.

incredible
The

of Nero, filled Rome

to the time

of

number

the

impressioncreated

by

perfect Greek

most

this

to excess

even

incomparable

works

collection

of

tile,
the indifferent and hosmasterpieces,which attracted even
was
supplemented by the journeys in Greece undertaken
with
increasing frequency for pleasureor instruction
by the
Romans
after the conquest of Corinth.
Lastly, the Romans
found

their

attention

in many
directed
ways
and
literature, which
more

by Greek
recognized as the
is nothing to show
which
Phny
arts

were

much

basis

of all

that
has

read

by

the

utihzed
the

higher culture.
originalGreek
in his

Romans.

towards
more

fine

the
to

came

be

Certainly,there
works

on

the

ject,
sub-

world,

descriptionof

the

On

hand, the

the

other

of the Greeks
buted
contriepigrammatic and rhetorical Uterature
Greek
to spread a knowledge and
criticism of art.
The
in the theory of oratory, whose
tinually
conspecialists
writings were
used
and
consulted
authorities
as
by the Romans
and guides in this science which
dominated
tional
their entire educafond of comparing the
system, were
development and
various
rowed
styles of oratory with those of the fine arts, and bortechnical artistic expressionsfor the terminology
many
of rhetoric, which
were
adopted and circulated by the Roman
writers
the art of oratory. Then,
on
epigrammatic poetry,
cultivated
specially

Great, showed

in Greece

after the

time

of

Alexander

the

marked

predilectionfor the fine arts, and

and
badinage, the
attempted to reproduce, by witticisms
impressioncreated by important works.
Many of these poets,
during the last days of the repubUc and the early empire,
where
visited Rome,
material
and
they found inexhaustible
ever

we

fresh
can

incitement

to

easily understand

this sort
how

of
the

poetry in
Romans,

miniature
who

had

; and

little

The

328
enced

his

Arts

Alexander

education.

education

whose

Severus,

'

'

excellent
an
was
painter ; Elagabalus
entirely Greek,
an
(Heliogabalus)also practisedthis art, and Valentinian was
of two
amateur
painter and sculptor. Although the case
brought up in S5rriaproves nothing about education
emperors
of royal artists is sufficiently
at Rome,
large
yet the number
was

to

allow

at

no

the

that

capital
by

weis

as

dilettantism, but

his

not

later life,was

objectionablein itself. IfTitedius

even
ridiculed, and
Narbonensis) was
boasting about his skiU in small panel pictures,it

insulted, for
was

of their

in the

young

classes of the
upper
It is equallyclear that this dilettantism

upon
(proconsulof

Labeo

of the

the

among

looked

means

instruction

the

resultingdilettantism

uncommon

means

all times.

no

that

assume

and

fine arts

by

to

us

if

ofience.
However,
gave
dilettantism
of Roman

proofs of
that

their

his ostentatious

in the

dilettantism

the former

by

was

we

these
compare
fine arts with the

in music,
far less

than

common

it,

few

stances
in-

ous
numer-

the

obtain

we

of

parade

pression
im-

the latter.

when
Naturally, the Romans,
traveUing for pleasure or
instruction
(especiallyin Greece and Asia Minor) did not fail
wellthose which a fairly
of art, especially
to inspectthe works
at least by reputation.
read man
might be expected to know
made
the object of specialjourneys. But
even
They were
there is nothing to show that this interest in art was
anything
than
with externaUties,
more
a superficial
curiosityconcerned
the
and
being chiefly aroused
by the celebrityof the work
from historical
These
artist.
journeys were
mainly undertaken
the

interest, and

felt,Hke

Atticus, that

masterpieces of
at

The

mere

make

those

even

uncultured

spoil;

and

citrus

In

enough
silver

wood,

houses

splendour of

less attractive

was

accumulation

had
of

no

the

than

of works

more

Corinth

of works

and

ware,

considered
villas

idea

no

doubt

incomparable
their historical

regard

of art

of

of art

of their value

in

them

Greek

satisfythe greed of

to

of time, marble

course

paintings were
the

who

conqueror
the store

inexhaustible

full.

travellers

of the

by private
is no
Rome
proof of a wide-spread artistic feeling.
suflScient to
knowledge of their expensiveness was

reminiscences.

persons

the

even

Athens
The

majority

columns,

the

as

than

desirable

countries
Romans

the

was

to the

of

carpets, tables

magnificent vessels, statues,

and

indispensablefor the decoration

the rich.
No
specialamateurism

of

The
needed

was

works

to form

of art and

obtainingthem
gallerieswere
house

considered

part

the time

that

common

collections

of

supply of

the

north

for

later times

or

Augustus picture

in Vitruvius's

plan of
this

great

was
purpose
of sculptures

collections
,

most

of the
and

also contained

mentioned

part of
regarded as the

least

the

was

general.
never

for the

enormous

by plunder. By

towards
large
indispensable
; in

If these
are

329

great the facilities for acquiring them

so

so

also became

they

collections,so

hall

Arts

; and

old
most

collection.

works
if

even

picturesand
valuable,

of

did

they

statues,
if not

living artists,

the

not

these

consist
at

were

valuable

only

It is often

collectors, such

as

teurs
expresslystated that amaJulius Caesar and Damasippus,

collectingold statues, were

specially
Picture
to procure
anxious
them.
galleries,
says Pliny, are
with
old pictures. In the case
of silver ware
stuSed
special
almost
the
criterion
to
had
value
of
was
only
regard
antiquity,
who

had

of the
was

works

of

an

almost

worn

for

mania

almost

beyond

vanished

art ; carved

work, which

prized above

recognition,was

all.

of art
^the
antiquarianseven
preferredthe incunabula
'.picturesof an
almost coarse
Aglaophon and a Polygnotus
of later artists, according to Quintilian,
who
to those
with
with
justicecharges them
parading their superiorknowledge
of art.
Augustus had a preferencefor the affectedlyantique
productions of Bupalus and Athenis of Chios (sixthcentury),
and
the pediment of the temple
of both
set up statues
on
and in nearly aU the other temples
of Apollo on the Palatine
Some

"

'

to have
been most
This taste seems
by him in Rome.
Generally speaking,
general during the reign of Hadrian.

erected

however,
its best
the

'

or

'

ancient

of the

even

of the

works

works

of art

periodof

ancients

'

meant

the

',which

those

The

Diadochi.
Statins

of Greek

saw

art

authors

in the

at

of

villa of

by name
;
Vopiscus at Tibur, are not mentioned
the
villa
of
PoUius
in
and
the
old
paintings
pictures
among
works
FeUx
at Sorrentum
were
(early
by Apelles,Phidias
of
collection
ancient
the
in
period),Polycletusand M5rron ;
bronzes
there
Vindex
were
works
by
belonging to Novius
Myron and Polycletus,marble sculpturesby Praxiteles, ivory
Manilius

'

'

carvings by Phidias,
old

'

Apelles

mentioned,

picturesin

which

the

touch

of

'

the

thus casually
recognized. The names,
nearly always those of artists of the first rank.

could

are

and

be

The

330

In

Polycletus.
especially
is burnt

down,
and

phranor
by

the

many
of

',whose

form
is

than

more

perhaps

were

; more

that

Phidias,

Vitruvius

of

Alexander
whom
never

and

included

among

and

the

Artists

tion
representa-

'

the

of

about

old

it almost

the

times

'.

masters

of

TuUus

of the

which

in

of

Greece.

plasticart,

subsequent

to

amongst
days of the republic,
were
prominent, are practically

of Domitius

great activitywith

remained

the

than

at Rome

seen

last

Arcesilaus

bandying

make

in the

of
representatives

the

On

filled a

famous

hand,

one

works

ancient

reputed

which

most

huge park,

names

the

on

period and the

reproduced antique and classical
of the

other, the technical excellence

works,

to be

was

by private persons

that

as

considered

was

ventured

never

the

or

Pasitales

of art, such

latter

masterpieces

both

Great

accumulation

the

whose

painting.

the

the

less
beyond beardof
were
distinguishedfor perfection
conception. Next to him, M3rron

who

works

calls them

Apelles

as

'

'

of their work

to nature

of

house

depth of
figuresof men
frequently mentioned, whose
impressive from their truthfulness
especially

most

animals

and

man's

clubbed

have

artists,the master

first among

youthful beauty,

cheeks

who

brings
Polycletus. In fact,
one,

new

rich

together
something exquisite by Eu-

of his friends

one

when

Juvenal,
'

furnish

to

Arts

it

that

certain

axt of that

collectors

often

were

ceived
de-

by artists and dealers, and purchased copies instead of

who
boasted
of his original
one
originals. Martial says of some
that his friends were
just as
paintingsand real silver-goblets,
have
the
For
early empire we
genuine as his collection.
ous.
were
frequent and notoriexpress testimony that such forgeries
of

Phaedrus

fabuUst

The

Aesop, it

is

only

the
says that, if he borrows
the value
of his wares,
to enhance

name
'

after

of many
artists of our time, who
inscribe the name
of Praxiteles on their new
marbles, or that of Msrron on polished

the

manner

that

silver,or

exalts

always

'.
had

the

of the

counterfeit
Greek

Mention

author

some

one

in the

artists,of which

adds
else's

Hadrian

under

Thus

'

name

in like
on

nothing further

himself
of

period of

cellence
ex-

Phidias

of[ as the

inscription

an

many

their works

is known,

that

states

manner

literature of the

spiteful
envy

contemporary

Agoracritus to pass
Nemesis
by means

Rhamnusian

statue, and

inscribed

picture.
antiquity above
on

his favourite

allowed

author
on

of Pausias

others

have

'.
works

should

by great
be received

The
with

caution.

carved

in

It is

Martial

bee, and

believe

cannot

we

331

certainlypossiblethat

relief,a cicada,

existence, but

Arts

it

flyby

the

on

with

vase

Phidias

fishes
in

were

statement

mere

of

another
of the
(which
or
interpretation)
in precious metals
Emperor Julian. Work
(the toreutic art
and caelatura)was
of the chief fields of artistic fraud ',
one
since the furnishingof sideboards
with
old
silver ware
and of
collections with
the favourite
artistic
originalgoblets was
luxury. But the flourishing
period of the toreutic art was
of famous
artists small.
brief, the number
The only authentic

admits

of

'

'

'

work

with

Cellini of
of cups.

which

'

Mentor, the greatest of them, the Benvenuto

Vas
antiquity,
In

to have

shops

credited

and

by connoisseurs,

collections,

on

the

four

pairs
hand, they

was

other

been

Martial describes
uncommon.
by no means
de luxe, where, besides statues
a shop dealing in costlyohjets
by
were
Polycletus, cups ennobled
by the hand of Mentor
curable
proand
he
old
this
when
of
uses
name
regularly
speaking
;
in silver.
could
originalworks
Although connoisseurs
only
be deceived
of
after
those
Zenodorus
by good copies (such as
there
doubtless
and collectors
amateurs
were
Calamis),
many

seem

'

of the

stamp

fancy for
'

'

of Trimalchio

silver work

the

slaying of her
naturallythat you

and

in

owned

had

Petronius, who
cups

on

which

special
represented

was

by Cassandra, the dead boys lying so

would
think they were
real ; and the shutting
(Medea slaying
up of Niobe in the Trojan horse by Daedalus
her children and the cow
of Pasiphae being reallyintended)
He
concludes
the catalogue of his plate with
the remark
that it was
all very massive.
The
passion for bronze works,
bronze
(themixing of which was a lost
especiallyof Corinthian
almost as great. Nevertheless, there were
was
always
secret),
artists ready to produce work
of this material, who
probably
often
deceived
connoisseurs, although they pretended to be
able to recognize the genuine article by the smell.
is so
often
that
stress
accident
It is certainlyno
mere
laid upon
externalities
(such as antiquity,rarity,expensive
of the artistic collections of the period ;
material)in accounts
sons

'

no

doubt

great part

of

the

collectors

which
qualities

importance to those
appreciate. Historical
consideration
to famous

in various

persons

were

interest
ways.

much

may

they

attached
could

also have

been

supreme

most
taken

easily
into

Objects which had belonged

a
sought after and commanded

332
the

high price:
the

staff of

diamond,

earthen

Peregrinus

The

Arts

lamp

of

Proteus

the

presented to

drachmae,

Epictetus 3,000
talent.

value

The

of the

Jewish princess Berenice

beautiful

enhanced
by her having worn
Agrippa II, was
it on her finger. When
Cahgula put up certain imperialjewels
to auction, the fact that they had belonged to Germanicus
or
Agrippina,Antony or Augustus, was taken into consideration
in fixing the price for those
who
forced to purchase,
were
whether
At the banquets of the
to do so or not.
they wanted
themselves
of the
rich the guests had
not merely to convince
weight of the silver by Ufting it, but' had also to Usten to a
article.
detailed history of every
Juvenal describes a shipwreck,

by

her

brother

in which
which
had

belonged

to

some

weapons
Alexander
the

such

relics as

silver

vessels

been

knew
how
necessary
the ship Argo with respectful

it

was

Dido.

or

In the

Hsten

to

'

Nestor, Achilles

Novius
Alexander

The

Uttle

Vindex

was

Hercules
said

to

the Great, Hannibal

Probably collectors,
being connoisseurs, and
sell his artistic

pretensionwas

commoner

HaUcarnassus,

who

knew

collection

in the

possessionof

in the

price. Yet, as
any
than
real knowledge.

at

more

of

others, laid claim to

any
not
declares that he would

Trimalchio

judgment

the

SuUa.

than

more

'

picturesand tures
sculplisten to their early

to

been

and

to

of

case

by Lysippus
have

table

at

silver cups placed before

have
originallybelonged

also,the spectatorsprobably had

history.

board,
over-

Philip of Macedon.

used

plank from
could
not endure
awe,
being forced
smoke-begrimed genealogies of the
the guests, which
were
supposed to
to

thrown

were

by
had
and drinking vessels, which
Great, the object of his special

when

Martial, who

reverence.

to treat

said to have

were

Caracalla

chased

some

about

art

than

at

all times,

Dionysius

most

of

Romans,

experienced artists with the

only to have credited
and
works
capacity for settlingthe authorship of anonymous
distinguishingcopies from originals; however,
according to
seems

Vindex

Statins, Novius

degree. Damasippus,
himself to testing the

possessed
as

Horace

the

makes

first to

him

say,
Corinthian

remarkable
had

devoted

bronze, to
genuineness of
judging defects in sculptureor roughness in casting,to putting
seur,
priceson statues ; the latter quaUty stamps him as a connoisfor then

as

now

connoisseurs

were

expert knowledge by valuing works

fond
of art.

of

parading their

Of

course,

they

The
always talking

were
'

'

about

'

Arts
mixing

333
of bronze

',

'

contours

',

shading ', proportions and the Uke, of which laymen confessed

themselves
ignorant ; for it was
generallyrecognized
that specialtraining was
in
requisite judging works of art.
and enthusiasts, who
Naturally,the amateurs
are
frequently
mentioned

'

and

set down

as

fools from

the

Stoic

as

well

the

as

Roman
strictly

the connoisseurs.
point of view, far outnumbered
The opponents of Greek
culture had already reproached
Marcellus with having led his countrymen into the evil habit
of wasting time in artistic gossip,the result of the plunder of
Syracuse. Slaves (especially
Greek), who had the opportunity
of examining the
abundant
of art in Rome,
stores
often
their
duties
the
rate,
juristVenuleius, in
neglected
; at any
enumerating the faults of slaves,which a seller is bound to point
mental
for
as
defects, together with the mania
out, mentions
shows
and a propensityto Ij^ng,a mania
for incessantly
gazing
at pictures.

Thus,
nor

neither

the wholesale

prove
accumulation
love

of

the

employment
the spread of

of ancient

works

splendour,which

barbaric

art

enormous

about

with
the

it ;

collections of the

of art for decorations

real
any
of art was
all its
lords

artistic

and

the

ments
monu-

feeling.

only a form
magnificence
of

Romans

world

The

of Roman
had

thing
some-

aimed

at

all the precious

possible,
possessingand enjoying,as far as was
with everythings of the world, and at surrounding themselves
thing
that could
impart magnificence and splendour to life.
the most
famous
works
in all
Hence
they dragged ofi to Rome
branches

their

of art, but

appropriationof

these

treasures

was

of the impressions
just the multitude
so
that dulled their effect,as Pliny rightlyrecognized,the more
as
tion,
quietness and silence, indispensable to artistic contemplastress
movement
restless
and
amidst
the
were
impossible
in works
absorbed
of Rome.
Very few had time to become
content
to acquire a hasty and superof art ; the majority were
ficial
of characterizing
Tacitus, by way
knowledge of them.
who
the prevalent indifEerence to poetry, says that any one
his way,
satisfied and went
famous
had once
seen
a
poet was
or
if he had just seen
a statue
picture.
as
and
old
of
fact, notwithstanding all the new
As a matter

only

material.

artistic
never

It

splendour
exercised

was

of

any

Rome
influence

and
over

the

Empire,
the

the

fine

general progress

arts

of

The

334
Roman

Arts
literature, regarded

civilization ; Roman

provides

irrefutable

unexceptionable and

an

as

whole,

proof

of

this.

of difierent periods,
literarymen
the chief Ughts of their age, may
of whom,
fairlybe
many
there is hardly
regarded by us as its worthy representatives,
who
one
displaysany interest in or knowledge of the fine arts.
This varied literature, extending over
centuries, and coming
all important interests,
in all directions
with
contact
into
is almost
of
the
Christian
era
during the first centuries
the
consideration
of the
to
present.
exclusively directed
of the
Distributing alike praise and blame in its examination

Of the

poets

numerous

intellectual

of the

it shows
age,
the
reallyconstitutes

conditions

appreciationof

what

expressionof

and

emotion

of
of

essence

an

art,

its

by
masterpieces.
Wherever
art is mentioned,
and
spoken
unintelligently
Although
contemptuously, or without sympathy or warmth.
have
individual
Romans
penetrated the nature of
may
many
Greek
it has always remained
unknown
and
art, on the whole
no

genuine

caused

trace

no

it is

alien

to

still remained

produced by
absence

civiUzation.

Roman

If there

of

any
hterature

Roman

whether

doubt,
as

impression
the
definitely
proves

whole

the

of artistic

feelingamongst the Romans, such doubt is

removed
by a comparison of contemporary Greek literature.
The
lacking in the one are unquessympathy and intelligence
tionably
to, be

in the

found

other

; it is obvious

Greek
department the contrast between
is uncompromisingly maintained.
national
that

feelingof

their

would

attitude

be far

While

the Greeks

beUeves

Tacitus

cursory
of works

contemplation
majority regarded an
of art more
important
'

'

majority
closelyexamine

believe

of

our

own

than

', as

mind

life,which
show

Romans.

best

can

indicate

Arcesilaus

laments

that

said,
statues

and

eyes,

the

offers many

by

no

'

and

the
the

objects

own

that

we

review

lives.
must

all

while

heeded
leaving un-

means

tive
unattrac-

All the remarks

independent criticism

of

their

upon

pictures and
with

it with

contemplation

reflection

subjectsfor contemplation '.

of HaUcarnassus

of their

art, Plutarch

absorbed

poems,

their details in the

he

lively
to expect
great past

us

of the

that

zation
civili-

ever

knowledge by comparing

'

The

that

The

creations

sympathetic than

more

and
superficial

these

in this

Roman

and

of itself lead

would

towards

that

of

of

Dionjrsius

paintingand

The

336
their

of
descriptions
Greek

in

art

difEerence there
and

enthusiasm

irresistible
of Prusa

in Dio

astound

would

miserable

applicableto

are

Apuleius as

to

those

the

of his

and

and

burdens

upon
into

it !
the

is between

this

painfullyelaborated
the language, full of warmth
and feeUng,which
of Olympian Zeus inspired
eSect of the statue
! The
sight of this masterpiece, he declares,
irrational

even

the

creatures, and
with

overwhelmed

help forgettingin

of

and

nature

remarks

same

models.

What

the

The

literaryskill.

Arts

however

man,

might be, could

image all the terrors
he

sorrow

of this

presence

no

of Ufe ; such
light and grace has art bestowed
The
criticism of this ideal of Zeus, which
he puts

mouth

'

of Phidias,

the

wise

and

marvellous

author

this

magnificent work ', the friend and companion of

of
Pericles, expresses a loftyidea of the importance and power
with
admirable
an
representation of the fine arts, combined
and
in many
respects strikingappreciation of the difEerence
art and
between
poetry. Lucian, finally,of all the writers
of antiquity shows
the most
comprehensive knowledge and
the most
thorough understanding of art ; his judgment is
always independent, his taste follows the best models, his
talent for characterizingworks
of art by a few
features, or
is no
reproducing their eSect in an enthusiastic
description,
in particular in his description
ordinary one, as is shown
the

of

of

Aphrodite

Lucian's

interest

also

Cnidus

Praxiteles.

by

almost

was

For

the

exclusivelydirected

rest,

towards

flourishingperiod of Greek art ; the keener his eye

did the productions
became, the less worthy of his attention
of later ages appear.
In the same
spiritGalen declares that
the

most

of his time

the inferior education

highly prized than

more

there

were

no

masters

and

virtue,

such

as

the

fact that

wealth

explained how

Phidias

among

it

was

was

that

sculptors,Apelles

painters,
Hippocrates among
physicians. Thus
among
also Aristides
calls those the
greatest masters, who reached
or

the

made
highest by going beyond earlier art and
children in comparison with them.
predecessorsseem

If, then, contemporary

in the

Greek

the

causes

of

the two

cases.

Roman,

oppositein
by

the true

artistic

art

literature
this

feeUng

is treated

with

no

more

their

ation
consider-

of the

imperialperiod than in
are
phenomenon
diametrically

Measured
of the

by

the

high

standard

set

Greeks, its value might easily

The
be underrated

Arts

337

generalhad no
idea of the real and independent value of art, regarded it only
as
one
means
amongst others of refiningthe enjoyments of
life and of perpetuating the memory
of persons and things.
If we
only possessed the two hteratures, we should have no
idea of what

then

even

and

all classes of

forth

productionsof

the

sculptureand

in

art

to

scattered
carelessly

with

times

but

simple melodies
the

on

to the

their

In the

face

immensity

vanced,
adsufficiently

silence, in the

to

doubtless

temples and

artistic sounds

more

of this art, introduced

from

the

from

song
and

instruments

modest

stage, by the richer and

music.

modern

MUSIC

reduced

were

the

people whose organization is

every
had their own
and
the Romans
music

earUest

rich

least of its possessionsand

the

astonishment

II.
Like

activity

how

Yet

those treasures, whose

broadcast

pervaded
of

dispose of

to

inconceivable

amongst

fills us

and

of artistic

need

painting.

accustomed

was

extent

an

world,which reckoned
humiliates

the

representationhad
enormous
development

this civilization,which

was

which

monumental

society,nor

it called

capableof producing,

were

to

in

who

Romans,

astonishing extent

ornamentation

which

the

the fine arts

of the

nor

; whereas

of Greek

without

in

to hold
unable
high stage of development, the native art was
its ground. In vain the old Roman
party, hostile to everything

that
a

to

measure

the ItaUan

Roman

few

holes.

Roman

music

the

took

Romans

from

over

the

element
those

which

from

defines
with

the

R.L.M."

the

poet

as

harmonies
II.

as

an

ferred
trans-

Greeks

modern
different from
music, and being
essentially
to poetry, with
and completely subordinate
than
far more
our
was
own,
intimately connected
recitative was
possessed its importance. Musical

even

except

music,

existed, only Greek

never

passing

soil.

which

art

use

flute with

highestsense,

to

in 115 B.C., in
of all musical instruments,

abroad, succeeded

prohibitthe

short

art in the

The

from

came

of artistic form

for most

according to modern
domain
one

who

of

musical

combines

ideas

kinds
are

was

pendent
less inde-

which
it
an

it

never

pensable
indis-

of

poetry,
cluded
entirelyex-

composition. Juvenal
the

eloquence

of words

of music.
z

The

338
that

It is well known
our

The

opera
Roman

musical
and

far

in

drama,

interludes

tragedy and comedy resembled

than
our
more
ordinary pla3rs.

ancient

vaudeville

and

Arts

addition

(Cantica)sung
well

recitative, as

choral

as

spoken

to
to

flute, melodramatic

the

properly so

scenes

included

scenes,

called

; it

All

lyricpoetry was
and
to be set to music
intended
accompanied by stringed
written
for
it
in
instruments
fact, regarded as
was,
songs
;
the lyre ', especiallychoral, for whenever
possiblethey were
executed
This apphes not only to the odes of
by choruses.
the Greek
lyricpoets, such as Anacreon, Sappho and Alcaeus,
in imperial
to all appearance
which
were
frequently chanted
was

usually preceded by

overture.

an

'

times,
'

words

also

but

associated

which

Horace,

with

himself

he

calls

'

strings of the lyre ; and

be no doubt
that they were
intended
to be sung
since there can
with instrumental
accompaniment, in spite of the absence of
that they were.
Aristides
aissume
positivetestimony we may
directed
himseU
to devote
to
was
by Aesculapius in a dream
and
poetry, to learn music and to keep boys for the
songs
; also at the bidding of the god (and of Minerva) he
purpose
composed paeans and hymns on different gods, which were
Now, if the hendecasyUables of the Younger
sung by his boys
of the lyre and cithara,
Phny were
sung to the accompaniment
of the hendecasyUables of Catullus.
beUeve
the same
we
may
There
is express testimony of the musical
recital of elegiac
poetry to the accompaniment of flutes in earUer times ; this
with the paraeneticelegiesof Theognis, who
the case
states
was
would
that young
of Cyrnus to the notes
men
sing the name
of the short flute ; the elegiesof Mimnermus,
PhocyUdes and
Ovid
the hope
similarly treated.
Tyrtaeus were
expresses
be sung in the future by a skilled vocalthat his Heroides
ist.
may
GelUus
describes
a
banquet given in the country near
and
Rome
friend, a native of
by a young
wealthy musical
He
Asia Minor.
kept excellent choirs of girlsand boys, who
in a pleasing manner
to the accompaniafter dinner
ment
sang
to

be

of

those

to

the

'

of the
and

gracefullove

of the
Aidin

poet
with

Anacreontic
that

cithara

and

several

elegiesof
notes

style'.

time, the recitation

poems
more

of Anacreon
modem

and

Sappho

and
'

poets.

Seikilus, chiseUed

Composer

musical
in

'

on

rhythmical marks
If elegiacdistichs were
at the same
banquet of

The

tomb

his
over

verses

them,

also

sung

distichs

at
are

at

of the

The
old

Roman

Valerius

poets,
Quintus Catulus by
real song

; but
more

and

the

the

as

Arts

339

Aedituus,

rhetor

Porcius

JuUanus

Licinus
also

must

and

have

been

old song,

a recitative,
essentially
imated
approxwords
canere
(sing)
used alternately
and indifferently.

less to declamation, the

or

dicere

(speak)could be
The positivestatement
that Virgil's
recited on the
idyllswere
understood
Such recitations
stage by singersis to be literally
often
were
accompanied by rhjrthmic gestures, so that the
.

execution

exile
'

partly operatic,partly dumb

cheered
that
his
by the news

show.

was

was

danced

'

the

on

stage amidst

poems

Ovid

often

were

applause. Although

in

know

we

of representation,
the analogy
nothing definite about this mode
of pantomimes
renders
it probable that the text
of the
(e.g.,
Heroides)was sung by a sort of chorus, while a dancer expressed
the action
in dumb
show.
when
And
read of the epics of
we
Virgiland Homer
being sung ', the word is probably to be
taken
Kterally,song in this case
approximating more
closely
to recitation than
in other classes of poetry.
'

In the
music

middle
for

was

jongleursof
In

violin.
"

the

singing

"

twelfth

and

"

thirteenth

in

as

of

of poems
instrumental
music

poetry and

France,

The

centuries

the

speaking," between

recitation

between

intimate.

most

accompaniment

Germany,
and

time

long

to the

romances

also, the connexion

ages

French
their

sang

three-stringedArabic

'

distinction

musical

between

execution

and

only gradually established.

Song and
were
usually combined, and the court poet
had to invent not merely the words
but also the melody, which
he accompanied on the harp, the fiddle,or the Rotte (astringed
instrument
partaking of the nature of both) '. As late as the
end of the sixteenth century the epicsof Ariosto and Tasso were
is
everywhere sung to the lute. The song of the Servians
rather
sound
of
singing ; the monotonous
speaking than
the gusla,which
has only one
string,is only heard at the end
'

of

the
The

was

'

'

'

verse.

extension

execution

of musical

poetry in antiquity supposes

music
quite differentfrom that

IS^icalcompositions the
music, whereas

to

melody, like rhythm

; its value

text

between

of modern

times.

is in all

metre,

consisted

in

nearly

relation

great extent
and

to

was

the

cases

in ancient

all forms
words

and

In modern

subordinate
vocal

of

to the

music

the

only of secondary importance

with
which
it was
fidelity

The

340
adapted to
discovered
The

musical

lacked

and

regarded

was

This

its

system

the

by
particular

far less

was

highest and

the

as

in

is shown

newly

'.'

Delphic hymns

Greek

ours,

'

the text.

Arts

comprehensive than
Two

deepest notes.

maximum

for

range

octaves

voice, which,

the

preferredthe single octave in which it was

successful
most
('the Delphic hymns, hellenistic in their
technique, range within an octave and a half ').
Besides
the solo, antiquity was
only acquainted with choral
former
in
the
singing, which, however, only difiered from
that the expression of the melody was
strengthened by an
in unison, part-singing
increased
number
of voices ; it was
stillthe case
amongst the Greeks and most
being unknown
(as|is
In the ancient
Orientals)and a creation of the middle ages.
and
there was
chorus
men
only a diflEerence in octaves, when
director of the
and women
boys or men
sang together. The
time
chorus
(coryphaeus)stood in the centre, and at the same
acted as precentor ; it was
of course
his duty to keep the singers
But
while there was
in time and unison.
undoubtedly a lack
call harmony, the instrumental
of what
we
accompaniment
in
been
classical
have
must
even
times, and
heterophonous
But
consequently could deviate from the melody of the song.
in a higher key than the singthis accompaniment (which was
ing)
be
considered
must
not
an
tion
apposipart-song. It was
of singletones, which
certainlygave the melody a kind
however,

importance
in the
to

as

centre

of

individual

eSect

artist

"

rather

or

scantiness

makes

bound

to

it

practicallyhmited
flute ; aU

other

See

vrtume).

music

was

in the

solo, that is

of the

In the

same

at the

means

to

disposalof

instruments,

two

such

used
(chiefly

at

as

the

delphischenHymnen,'

in

and

the horn

cithara

was

It

singing.

the

festivals

tation,
instrumen-

it was,

to

kettledrums

simplicity

the

manner,

entirely subordinate

instruments,

O. Crusius,' Die

situated

not

single instrument, the skill of the

of music
sufficient proof that this kind
of

(for military music), cymbals,

instruments

contrapuntal

why
perfectlyintelligible

remain,

independent

of

sense.

instruments, but

only poorlydeveloped.

was

in the

kind

no

gravity in instrumental

of several

in the

claimed

voice

second

concert

say,

but

foundation,

of harmonic

The

rule

as

and

was

the

trumpet

and

the

and

other

of Bacchus)

noisy
being

liii.(1894,supplementary
Philologus,

The
outside

the

invention

pale of

de luxe,

art

seems

Arts

proper.
to have

the

341

The

hydraulicorgan, a later
been
given a place amongst
of art during the empire ; it

acknowledged instruments
to compete
was
accordingly allowed
(though certainly only
in Rome)
for prizes in musical
competitions. Quintilian
bears
witness
that its power
of expression was
considerable,
its notes the power
of alternatelyexcitingand
since he allows
calming the audience.
the specialinstrument
flutes, the simple flute was
Among
is
of artists and
It was,
virtuosi, especiallyAlexandrian.
as
to
not
well known,
cross
flute, but a long one, and seems
a
not
the
have
most
nearly resembled
hautboy. Its tune was
ness,
soft and
mild, adapted to express
melancholy and tenderwild and
but rather
passionate ; but, although it is so
is imphed
not be forgotten that a contrast
describedj-'itmust
with
the
colourless
sound
of ancient
stringed instruments.
quently
These
latter, the l5nreand the cithara
(closelyakin and freinstruments
identified forms
of the same
class)were
a
fret-board, with stringsof gut
resembling a harp, without
whose
to the ancients),
sinew
or
(metal stringsbeing unknown
of
number
number
to eighteen. A
was
gradually increased
oriental
appear

harps
have

to

Assjrriansand
importance of

also

made

more

or

Hebrews.

all

into Greece, which

way
the psalteryof
less resembled
their

of

None

them

the
the

attained

ever

lyre,which, in all sizes, played the part in

times.
It was
Greek
music
of the vioUn
family in modern
with
little wand
or
a
[plectrum),
played either with the hands
in
the latter being apparentlyonly used
accompanying singing,
not in simple instrumental
performances,since runs and quick
use
with the fingers. The
could
be better executed
passages
of the bow
in

(aninvention

antiquity.
lyre and

The

appears
in Greek

the

to

us

of the

cithara, whose

power

music,

'

since

permitted singing '. For the same

higher repute than the flute,since
virtuosi
limited
use

of

devoted

their

chief

and

of tone

indisputablytook

extremely hmited,

instrumental

completelyunknown

Arabs) was

the

at

the

reason

it

was

attention

same

harder
to

expression
first rank
time

cithara
to

in

was

play.

The

spite of
acquireskill in
it ;

in

difScult to
it was
artistic powers,
consequently created
it, and
perfect execution

greater admiration.

they

its
the
the

Distinguished cithara players{citharoedi)

The

342
famed

were

and

Cithara

and

or

the

"is

the

song
music

It

'.

hymns

not

was

also
class

same

also

with

were

in

played

eloquent finger

human

voice.

concert,

accompaniment

'

choruses
it
l3rric
especially
;
accompaniment of the Delphic

song,
in the

generallyrecognized that

was

suited

for cithara

the

practisedthe combination
on
specialoccasions ; thus,

of

Older

of

Greek

instruments

of the

wedding music
small, which
by plajdng
the harmony
of marriage
there

was

single flutes, a large and a

to express
intended
together were
and
the precedence of the husband.
We
need
hardly point out the great difierence
of

ancient

kind

same

flute alike.

and

for two

concerto

dently,
indepen-

or

of song.
But
amongst the
flute,played alone, rather accompanied dramatic,
the

instrument

proper

stringswith

it

as

were

non-dramatic

cithara

is the

flute

the

over

resound

them

making

Romans

running

for

Arts

flute

and

instrumental

cithara

and

and

music

between

between

orchestra,

our

symphony.

modern

the

In

the

struck
place, we are at once
by a peculiarityof ancient
its strictlyidealistic tendency, whereby it
art, resultingfrom
is especiallydistinguishedfrom
the modern
the uncommon
first

"

moderation
to

in the

also

are

of the

its eSects.

produce

music

use

But

and

means

were

call
also

(and
forth

expression, especiallyin
divides

instruments
the

flute to

to

it endeavours

and

modern

instrumental

certain

later

aims.

succeeded) to

and

emotions

considerable
Aristides

times.

former

The

extent

moods

produce

to

; its

varietyof
Quintihanus
,

into male

trumpet

which

in their

certain

adequate

with

ancient

radicallydifierent

certainly endeavoured
express

means

and

female.

(fuba)belongs

the

to

Among

wind

ments,
instru-

former, the Phrygian

the

latter ; between
both
stands
the (lower)PjrtMan
male) and the (higher)chorus flute (more female). Of

(more
is male, the sambuca
the l5rre
stringed instruments
(with short
strings and high treble tones) female ; the -polyphthongon

approximates to the latter,the

these representative
types of
there

were
was

sphere

of

instruments
was

yet

others.

In

considered

peaceful

emotional

considered

to

an

and

chief kinds

untroubled

have

in
said

the
that

of

effect of

elevation

exaltation.

unrivalled

century, is reputed

the

to the former.

general the

to be

rest

cithara

of

second

instruments,

ments
stringed instruthe

calm,

Canus,

Between

mind
that

into
of

wind

who
flute-player
half

if his audience

of

the

knew

first

how

The

344

Arts

heard

violent

more

in

storms

his

when

saucepans

had

he

him, declaring that

certainlythe flute-playermocked

they

boiled.
If

we

music

speak generallyof

may

development
of

the

Romans,

it

in the

artistic

sense.

which

were

amongst
other

all the

soil,in

Roman

arts
a

further

by

can

have

means

no

It consisted,

rather

wider

but

been

in the

as

case

Greek

transplantedfrom

strengthening or

of Greek

development

to

less refined

of
of a mixture
and the introduction
apphcation of the means
heterogeneous elements, in order to attain stronger but coarser
As
taste of the Romans.
effects,corresponding to the coarser
early as the time of Augustus the flute,with a lengthened pipe,
an

increased

become

number

of

which

instrument

an

holes, and
could

plated

compete

with

with

brass, had

the

trumpet

as
a
certainly differed from the old Italian flute as much
modern
fathers.
grand piano from the little spinets of our great-grandof the flute
This strengthening of the sonorousness
of
soon
brought about similar changes in the construction
MarcelUnus
is the
other
instruments,
although Ammianus
first writer who
speaks of citharae, as large as carriages'.

it

'

Further,
kind

same

the

combination

and

the

different instruments

en

of instruments

masse

gathering together

produced great

of

effects.

of the

large number
The

former

of
at

tie Diadochi, especially

at the
of Alexandria, where
court
Ptolemy Philadelphusintroduced
into an
and magnificent processiona chorus of 600
enormous
men,
amongst whom
300 citharoedi, carrying gilded citharae
and
of gold, played in unison.
The concert of instruments
crowns
in
of different kinds
also was
probably not uncommon
from
Alexandria, since it had been pecuHar to Egyptian music
the earUest
times.
On
the monuments
of the ancient
dom
kingof the Pharaohs
be seen
stringed,wind and pulsatile
may
instruments
kind
of the same
instruments, sometimes
(two
of
harps,eightflutes)being played together. The monuments
the new
kingdom exhibit Egyptian music under a far more
briUiant
of this
and
orchestras
The
magnificent aspect.
the sounds
of the harp are mingled
period are more
numerous,
with
those of the lyre, flute, double
fife, guitar and handtymbal ',although only females appear as playersand singers.
The pomp-loving court
of Alexandria
not likelyto neglect
was
least

was

known

in the

time

of

'

to

enhance

the

splendour

of

its

marvellous

festivals

and

The

Arts

pageants by emplojdng the native

suited

for

Foreign

music

its way
into
Minor
women,

played

the

carousals
from

the

music, which

was

ably
admir-

so

purpose.

other

than

Rome.

Greek

From

in whose

the

hands

also at

later, female
'

Syrian abbubo,

early date

an

time

of the

Eastern

music

Chaldaeo-Babylonian

345

in Asia

campaigns
had

made

always been,

banquets and
from
Syria {ambubaiae,
be heard
on
publicplaces

sambuca

musicians

fife

at

to
')were
with
native
instruments
drums)
(fifes,
stringed instruments, kettlein increasingnumbers.
The
Babylonian bagpipe is
first mentioned
in imperial times ; Nero
at Rome
to
wanted
it
is quite possiblethat it may
have been long
try it,although
In any
from
known.
the beginning of the empire, it is
case,
the influence
of the neo-Egyptian or Alexandrian
music
which
to have
to the
seems
chiefly contributed
reorganization of

Roman

music,

Alexandria

emperors
and

continued

musical
prolific

in the
who

world

could

on

the

to

be

cithara
a

read

singers after

the

where

Rome,

; male

the

roused

under
of

time

of

the

manifold

to

with

those
once

singers or players
frenzy ; music appeared

Alexandrian

Augustus

at

other

female

and

masses

met

they

able to detect

were

all evils.

for

panacea

write

nor

the cithara

on

the seat

be

to

Even

activity. Its population yieldedto no

love and knowledge of music
; even

in its

neither

false note

at

especiallyinstrumental.

held

were

the

musicians
in

greatest

high

and
esteem
An

success.

trigonon (perhaps the large 6 ft.

about
high Egyptian harp), who performed pubUcly at Rome
the end
of the second
the beginning of the third century,
or
knew
aroused
such
soon
by
general enthusiasm, that many
heart
the melodies
he had
played. Thirty years after the
familiar with
were
as
conquest of Egypt, the ladies of Rome
Alexandrian

virtuoso

the

Alexandrian

end

of the

humming

the

on

melodies

first

century Roman
airs

these

as

as

well

"is

with

theatrical

dandies
those

were

of the

airs, and
in the

at

habit

Gaditanian

the
of

ballets.

'

'

republic,certainly, symphonies
executed
them
who
and the choruses
{symphoniaci) are often
banquets and orgies
mentioned,
especiallyat the luxurious
In

the

last

days

of

the

at that time
may
wealthy. But these choruses
flute.
and
the
cithara
of
on
consisted
entirely players
perhaps the invention of the pantomime (pantomimus) in

have

of the

which

led to the

introduction

of orchestral

music

It

was

22

B.C.

properlyso

The

346
called

into the

Arts
The

theatre.

Roman

representedby the
the very large uncovered

texts

by choruses which, in
theatres, required a very powerfulaccompaniment, in
the chief
of a spectacle,
with
the character
entire harmony
Pylades, the founder
objectof which was to afiect the senses.
dancers

were

of this

sung

kind

theatrical

of

music, and

also

orchestra, when

is said
the

sound

the

new

asked

of flutes
orchestra

rephed in the words of

and pipes,and the turmoil
have

been

the

citharae

and

produce

the

although panpipes,cymbals,

Egyptian orchestras, combined

the
tutti. In
accompanying
which

be

it consisted

marked

was

could

by

attached
boards

of two

have

been

to

foot.

and

by this

In

'.

In

other

scabellum,

players;
clattered
which

orchestra

An

ment,
leading instrulyres,as in the
noisy effects of

together, which

of the

'

men

feet of the

the

fastened

powerful one,

of

called

instrument

an

sisted,
con-

Homer

pantomimes

the

underneath

noisilywith each movement

not completely swamped
was
must

his innovation

in what

the flute must

Roman

new

have

to

dancers, time

of the

perhaps

of

manner

this music

beating

time

in

generalcan
noisy representation

and

hardly have been anything else but a

to tie noise of beatof the rhythm.
For the rest, insensibility
ing
time has persisted
in modern
Italy to a degree that appears
astonishing to a northerner.
To

all appearance,
of necessityunderwent
the

claims

oriental

ideas.

be

at Rome,

unheard

in

or

in

alteration
to render

part

it

music

Greek

capable of

ing
answer-

with

of different instruments,

singingaccompaniments,

Roman

of in Greek, the

which

at least in accordance

the concerto

Anyhow,

common

as

in

it,was

instrumental

purely
to

upon

then, the

music

as

combination

it

was

of the

continued

rare

or

cithara

and

even

flute

excepted. In the time of Horace, songs accompanied by the

the pipe, and
the Berecyntian flute were
heard
in the
Ijrre,
sion
temples of Venus ; and according to Athenaeus, on the occaof the

celebrated

PariUa, which

since

the

time

of Hadrian

had

been

festival of the

goddess Roma
(April21),songs
the
were
city to the sound of flutes,cymbals,
sung throughout
and drums.
of Tyre compares
Maximus
the poetry of Homer,
in the variety of its manifold
qualitiesand effects, to a panharmonic

as

instrument,

or

rather

to

an

orchestra, in which

lyre,trumpet, panpipe and several other instruments

form

the

accompaniment

of

chorus

song.

flute,

unite

to

The
In

imperial Rome

place with
the

the

number

also

aid

of

singers in

wind

flutes and

organs
Roman

we

dimensions

but

of aU

that
the

music

Seneca

took

of the

that

singers and

that

says

exceeded

places not

musical

the

on

held

musicians

not

occupied by

the

Enghsh

at least not

celebration

of flutes ;

and

The

to have

Marcellinus, who

his time

extremely

as

taste

ordered

games

by
performers on

of

in

diminished

executed

pieces were
hundreds

spectators,

far exceeded

of the Roman

Ammianus

aristocracyof

of

concerts.

monstre

of

remember

we

thousands

performances

effects seems

At

If

stage.

many

that these

Carinus
by the emperor
trumpeters, others by

Roman

theatre

kinds

the

in later times.

kinds

aU

theatres

even

for massive

vocal

appliances.

the

times

easily beUeve

can

of

accompaniment consisted of a number

in the body of the house, and
instruments

of metal

the

347

performances

of colossal

spectators in earUer
only fiUed the stage
spectators ; that the

that

Arts

hundred

difierent

the

describes

of music, but

fond

absolutely devoid of all other intellectual interests, says that

hydrauhc organs and flutes of every kind, as well as the citharae
made
for the
as
large as carriages already mentioned, were
palaces of the great.
'

'

The

explains,the gradual
which

used

was

tickle the

of Naevius
'

by Cicero
musical

The

as

old

of

rhythm

decay,

of the

the

of Alexander
known

composers

the

reason,

the
how

would

In

Great.
to

Yet

of the

It

led to

fuU

its

with

of noise

first centuries

of the

doubt

with

repeated,no

said that

the

dignityof

to do

lations,
modu-

art soon

and

was

nothing

Wagner.

pation
this emanci-

pantomime,

during the

regrets already heard

preserve

have

the

or

varietyof

wanton

friends of art

earnest

more

greater

of

domination

contributed.

trills,mainly

Empire,

simpUcity

undignifiedmusic,

and

imperialperiod

replaced by greater
and

of melodies.

movement

which

to

poverty were
method, change

varietyof

and

by Meyerbeer

one

old-fashioned

the

effeminate

had

and

is characterized

related to the music

and

to

Andronicus
wealth

and

eSects

theatrical music

severity.'
to

music,
and

old Roman

The

In

constraint

from

even

w"is

at least

or

Roman

dignity by
by gross

senses

Livius

pre-Mozartian opera

wealth

and

and

of amiable

effect it

freedom

its

loss of moral

vulgar.

led to,

employed

means

flatter the

to

of the

ears

in the time

as

the

strengtheningof

the ancients
art

; that

time
alone

modem

with their serious tenden-

The

348
cies, and
for
'

substituted

had

that

one

reigns the

the

and
to the

annihilation

viriUty. A Greek
nium, ii.2) declares
ate

largely

stage had

stLU

that

opinion

the

surviving remnants
Car-

Esu

(pseudo-PlutarchDe

writer

entirely

is almost

of the

of the

Plutarch,

', says

that

'

of which

notes

There

distempered ear should be regarded

had corrupted music,
the soft and efieminlascivious
touches
and
provoke immodest

which

disease

music

efteminate

of

as

divine.

music
dancing, to which
and
QuintiUan expresses

'

contributed

chattering music

and
'

of

art

indecent

enervated

an

virile and

was

subordinated

Arts

tickling'.'
lamentations

In short, the
music
the

Art
'

that

declared

period

uttered

serious

in

in

his

by

W.

in music

be

concealed

and immoral
impure, morbid
that, if presentedby the pen
comes
sake, fail to be rejected,

or

; and

be

On

all

thus

of

by
More

Purity

Gladstone,

H.

pencil,could
to

music.

treatise

in

may
elements

times

modem

ago,
(Englishtranslation
there

decay

the

over

tendency

Thibaut,

seventy years

in Musical
"

those

greatly resembled
champions of a more

than

of that

1877)
of

manner

rubbish

the

not, for credit's

wholesale

swallowed

by

'

if they knew
what
Many of our innocent girls,
selves,
to play or sing themthey are often obliged to hear, or even
would
die of shame
and disgust '. The
author
inveighs
cious
against the
enervating, uncouth, preposterous, or meretri', in music ; against the
spasmodic, distorted, exaggerated,
and
which
stirs
noise,
rampant
deafening
up everything
he
asks
whether
half
music,
ignoble in man
compounded
;
of unnatural
and
is
not
elements,
more
unhealthy
injurious

the

'.

unwary

'

'

'

than

beneficial to

adding that
reproach of having
us

the
escape
taste of the age.
to naturalness
to

of music

nerves

what

is at

music, and
elevated
in the

W.

and
the

the

ennobled

vulgar
the

'
"

restore

the

led into

and

ancient

that

time

translation in Plutarch's

the

to

pure

unnatural
seat
was

unstrung
to

for

revive

music

as

'.

to be

It is besides

of this efieminate
so

ing
return-

purifiedand
irrevocablyengulfed

asks
and

and

love

vitiated

by

the

to

they need,

taste, which
to be

not

prevalence at
Baxter's

of death

it is least able

him, it is necessary,

to

elasticitythat

point

that

contributed

simplicityto

the

of the

mire

to understand
whose

According

by music,

of aU the arts

deplored,was

Morals itaas. by various hands

easy

music,
Alexan-

(London, 1870).

The
dria, and that the relation
ancient

Greek

music
But

to become

the

music

ol

that

city and

exactly

other

the

satisfaction

them

the credit

of

employed by them,

possibleat

or

of sensual

ment,
enjoy-

having

known

of it for this purpose.

most

arts, was

is usual

than

extent

make

to

like all the

for the

at least allow

must

how

was

instrument

an

we

the

to

Music,
far

greater

present day, to enhance

pleasuresof life and

the

of

ence
beautify existence.
Only the existinstitution
such as slavery;only the fact that the
to regard as a costly product
accustomed
we
are

an

arts, which

rarely united
then

were

the
of

between

349

modern
analogous to that between
extent
(and to some
French) music and the German
of the eighteenth century.
if the Romans
degraded the art of music by allowingit

Italian

of

music

Arts

learnt

bidding

could

many
of ancient

chapels

of

the

hundreds

the

Russian
fresh

owner

one

in Russia,

or

fiftyperformers
wealthy freedman,

thousands

another

the

with

"the noise

of

Rome,

there

on

tries,
coun-

the

ditions
con-

opportunities for

more

times.

musicians

of slaves
could

of

have

must

and, under

modern

besides

of art

of

be

Thus

it was

of every kind
great house (as

completed by

the

continuallypassing
by sale, giftor inheritance
(thus,

bought

from

were

Count

for 40,000
roubles).
musicians
had
so
many

neighbourhood

that

the

luxury.
of highly civilized

singersand

artists,who

Potemkin

of

in

serfs),which
to

by slaves at
superintendence
In the armies

far

were

than
of

scale

the employment
possible

art, there
'

intellectual Ufe,

our

large

under

least natives

at

instruction
'

to form

purchase of
from

render

of

belonged to the great men

intelligentand giftedmen

learning and

from

and

masters

of them

some

who

easy
from

flower

gigantic scale in the service

slaves,
been

the

as

practisedon

and

of their

overseers,

such

factors,

of his house

of their songs

and

Rasumovski

band

Chrysogonus, Sulla's

his slaves,
among
resounded
day and night

flutes.

When

their

masters

accompanied by bands of
singers and musicians ; the villas and watering-placesvisited
by the ilite of societyre-echoed from morning till evening with
lulled to sleepby
Maecenas
was
of music and
the sound
song.
distance
of symphonies from
a
the gentle strains
; Caligula,
of
deck
a magnificent galley,
bythe murmuring
reclining on the
noise
of
and
the
of the gulf of Naples
song and music.
waves
all the senses
had to be gratified
where
At table, especially,
took

short

excursions,

they

were

The

350
there

at once,

the

to

last

guests.
banquet.

of

days

'

practicewhich persisted
antiquity,frequently to the torture of the
lack

no

was

of music

That

which

at

there

in their

large choruses
castagnette dances

learned

men

the

simple meal,

is

what

the

is the

the

At

of

rious
luxu-

fair Andalusians

the

repasts of a societyof
singers sang songs of

music

of

the

cithara

he
singleguest, whom
between
a
reading, a

choice

kind

best

'.
flute-player

no

gay
female

and
to

leaves

PUny

Younger

'

; at the

male

Anacreon

and

Sappho

accompanied

feasts

Greek

Martial,

ask ', says

You

Arts

has

the

invited

to

from

scene

comedy, and a performance on the lute ; and Martial, who

had
a
lodging on the third floor, promises a friend at least a
an
extremely frugal
performance on the short flute,to season
meal.

The

extent

the

which

to

banquets

musical

of uneducated

entertainments

polized
mono-

is shown

upstarts

by

the

description,which can hardly be a caricature, of Trimalchio's

banquet in Petronius, which certainlybelongs to a period in
for music
which
real or
aflEected fondness
was
a
extremely
the
food
is
and
handed
In
this
on
round,
brought
prevalent.
brushed

the tables
carried

out
'

to

You

From

attached

In

the

though

there

since
which

profane
was

divine

music

');

service

throughout

of

was

religiousmusic

The

artistic conditions.

of Church
the

music

Council

vaudeville

was

of

melodies

as

cheerful

chorus
in

nearly
Catholic

undertaken

Trent,
; hence

was

in

the
and

of

is

be

solemn
wise,
other-

reUgious service,
festive

St.

character.

Paul
the

(Seid

uns

impression

possibleunder

service

tween
be-

antiquity

not

reproducing
as

all

there

distinction

it could
of

part

in

h5mins {hymnologt)
divinities (e.g.
of Isis music
played

stylefor certain

indeed

spectaclesformed

item

an

unknown

was

specialsacral

in the
Perhaps Mendelssohn
gnddig, hohe Gotter)succeeded

of old

Oriental

and

and

in

ing
sing-

imperialtimes

of

specialsingers
temples of Greek and

sacred

cUmaxes

and

theatre, not

been

been

Mother

Great

('even

of

in

Attis); in the cult

speciallyimportant part. Nevertheless,

the
a

had

music

religiousceremonies.

have
to

details of service

of music

accompaniment
thought you were

immemorial

spectacles and
to

have

the

'.

time

appear

wiped, in fact, all

continual

would

house

private

and

modern

also,until the reform

Palestrina

by direction
accompanied by singing like
by

also the lauds

before the

images

of

The

352
mural

painting

Arts

Herculaneum

at

scene
represents a concert
;
i
n
in the centre
is seated
a
flute-player, a long embroidered
flute and
robe, playing on the double
beating time with the
scahellum
the right stands
a female
player on the cithara,
; on
grasping the stringswith her left hand and holding the plectrum
in her right ; on the left is seated a female
singer,a copy
in her hand, waiting for the cue
of the words
to join in.
tainly,
Certo represent a public concert, but
the paintingseems

it affords

with

to time

as

place. Choruses,

or

soloists,frequently sang

without

or

indications

certain

no

different

to

ments.
instru-

quite possible,although there is no positiveproof

of it, that pieces of the nature
of symphonies were
performed
without
kind
of
at
introduction
a
as
concerts,
singing
public
It is

instrumental

to

who

Nero,

solos.
desired

to

shine

not

merely

as

poet, but

also

Greek
singer and citharoedus, first introduced
agones
afterwards
(artistic
competitions)into Rome, where they were
held.
At the periodical sacred
festival,instituted
regularly
the chief
by him in the year 60, musical competitionsformed
attraction.
offence as
Although they did not give such
athletic contests, they were
in
conservative
disapproved
circles.
'Justice', says Tacitus (Annals,7a.-v. 20), 'had nothing
to gain from
them
not fulfil their
; the knights would
duties
after hearing, as
as
more
jur5rmen any
efS.ciently,
experts, effeminate songs and languishing airs '.
The
in 86,
Capitohne competition, instituted by Domitian
held
in far greater and
was
more
lasting repute than the
as

'

Neronian.
a

For

covered

famous

architect

capable

of

the

fourth

every
for the

fourth

decision.
and

This

an

winner

this

spectators, and
of the

one

festival,which

poets, singers and

of oak-leaves, which
victors

after

the

the

judges

most
was

musicians

festival

and

the

of the

prize was

world

considered

sis

beautiful

celebrated

competed

occurrence

brilUancy of the

unparalleledimportance
in the musical

late

as

hirnself preemperor
sented
had
tiieir
pronounced

distinction,the comparatively rare

singersand virtuosi
the

At

solemnity of the
lent

11,000

considered

was

summer,

the

or

10,000

Rome.

wreath
to

ordered
performances Domitian
to be built in the Campus
Martins
by the
Apollodorus ; it was called the Odeum, was

holding
century

buildings in

musical

the

theatre

'

to

of the
the

these

ence,
audi-

contests

period.

of

In fact,

first in his art not

The
merely

in

Rome,

distant

most

but

Arts

in the

353

world.

countries, from

Artists

Asia and

from

came

Egypt,

to take

the

part in

the

still extant, with

competition, and several monuments
are
celebrated
inscriptionsstating that this or that
musician
had gained the crown
at the CapitoUne agon.
Specialmention
is made
of competitions in singing,playing on the cithara, the
solo on the Pythian flute and dramatic
recitations ; competitions
in simple cithara-]p\a,ying
without
singing and on the
choral cithara,introduced by Domitian, were
discontinued.
soon
The executants
naturallypreferredthe compositions of the
'

best

known

Teians

Thus

masters.

to the

'

Menecles, the ambassador

cities of Crete,

frequentlyplayed

of the

the

on

cithara

and
his
near
compositions by Timotheus
contemporary
Polyidus, admirably and in the styleof one who understood
the technique '. For the rest, such executants
not only
were
far more
than
commonly (ifnot as a general rule)composers
at the present time, seeing that the handUng of the far simpler
and consequently more
permanent musical forms could have
to skilled musicians, but they were
oSered httle diflEiculty
also
between
frequently poets, the result of the closer connexion
'

poetry and
such

music

the

as

at

or

were

set to music

of Mesomedes
Nemesis

and

In other
of the

famous

and

The

time.

singer TigeUius

citharoedi Menecrates

Hadrian,

that

of the

Mesomedes

most
court

famous
of

virtuosi,

Augustus,

of the courts

of Nero

the
and

for the

performance of piecescomposed
Some
fragments of the poems
by themselves.
are
preserved,and the music to the hymns to
HeHos.

respects,the styleaffected by the musical

imperialperiodwas

much

the
of

same

as

virtuosi

that of the

attached

to

present

day.
training
greatest
in
hence
an
tions
inscripby
experiencedsinging-master{(fxavaa-Kos)
;
their
instructor
of
is
sometimes
the
name
on
singers
Marcus
Aurehus
Musaeus
A
certain
expressly mentioned.
had
to whom
statues
the first and
was
only singing master
as
a teacher.
been erected at EHs
and
Delphi for his success
preparatory exercises by which
Among the long and wearisome
attained, the solfeggiofrom the lowest to the
perfectionwas
prominent. In addition, vocaUsts
highest notes was especially
sidered
conwere
obliged to lead a strictlyregulated life,which was
for the strengtheningand development of the
necessary
voice.
They spared their throat as much as possible,rested
The

value

course

'

'

R.i"M.

was

"

II

The

354
it for

time

after every effort,and

when
mouths,
they had to
a

their

embrocations,

and
their

large

and

dry

partly

and

vocal

yet

walked

breast,

wind, fog

and

at

and

handkerchief

back

certain
so

before

themselves

sheets

times, avoided

of lead
the

sun

In fact, for

singing in
stronger and more
lasting
at the present day.
And
they appeared in public,
violentlythat they broke a

far

spaces

with

forth.

required than
tragoedi,when

strained

sometimes

their

on

air,and

open

were

powers
cithafoedi

lay

held

speak loudly. They were

eating and drinking,used purgatives

in their

extremely temperate,
on

Arts

so

blood-vessel.
From

the

when

time

the

virtuosi

since
took

there

the

permanent

regular

no

were

development

artistic

was

plete,
com-

nearly always travelling; they

were

possibly obtain

not

their

in

engagement

theatres

and

one

could

place,

performances only

of

occasion

particularfestivals. The more

famous
Greek
virtuosi regularly toured
through Asia Minor,
and Italy,and were
Greece
with statues,
frequently honoured
other
civic rights and
where
distinctions,in the towns
they
received.
The
fees
had
been
and
income
of
enthusiastically
artists of repute, including prizesat festal performances, were
high. Vespasian, in other respects so parsimonious,
very
several musicians
of experience to appear
ordered
at the games
of the theatre
of Marcellus,
given by him at the dedication
which
he had restored
sesterces,
; a tragoedusreceived
400,000
the citharoedi Terpnus and
Diodorus
some
200,000,
roo,ooo,
than
less
of a large
none
40,000, not counting the distribution
of gold crowns.
Music
number
teaching in great houses at
Rome
also very lucrative, and the fees of famous
was
singers
the envy and disgustof Uterary and scientific
and citharoedi were

place on

Martial, tired of his wearisome

men.

cUent, removed

(Imola)
return
a

for

whence

to

he

Rome

time

spiritof bitterness, he

learned
Cicero
he

education,
or

writes

which

he

Virgil;

even

; if his

verses
can

he

earn

fruitless duties
Forum

capitalto
that

he

as

would

never

allow

him

advises

him

son! wants

living,let him

touch

to

to

to

works

disinherit

learn

become

the

a
a

Comelii

qualifiedcitharoedus.
Again,
advises
father not to give his son
a
as

to

nor

the

to his friends

wrote

except

from

and

in
a

of

him, if

professionby
citharoedus

or

choraules.

Qi course,

these virtuosihad

crowds

of enthusiastic admirers

The
of both

The

sexes.

virtuosi furnished
with

which

and

sometimes,

virtuosi

had

with

Sardinia,

Tigelliusof

intimate

the most

smitten

the

of
collectorship

strings,

the

the

high pricefor
several
Mark

Antony

taxes

famous

courts

of four

citharoedus

by his birthplaceMagnesia
priesthood and pubhc memorials.
who
was
on
singer and flute-player,

with

terms

the

offered sacrifice

paid

even

upon
honoured

poon.
lam-

tion,
approaching competi-

an

escort

been

Maeander

the

the

miUtary

who

Anaxenor,

in

asserted,

was

musical

the httle wands

precious mementoes,
favourites

bestowed
a

cherished

at
highest circles and even
and highly paid guests.

honoured

were

and

cities

on

In the

triumvir

the

it

singersand

for scandal, satire and

had
cithara--pla,yeis

of their

their favours.

for

women

material

these

on

success

355

ladies of distinction

famous

pressed kisses
for the

passion of

ample

Wealthy

Arts

Caesar,

equallywelcome

was

at

singer
Cleopatra and Augustus. The dramatic
{tragoedus)
Apelles of Ascalon, a powerful favourite of Caligula,
the Emperor's
he hesitated to answer
fell into disgracebecause
question, which of the two seemed to him greater, Jupiter or
him
to be flogged,and
ordered
The emperor
gratulated
conCaUgula ?

the

of

courts

'

'

him

pleasant even
the
estate.

his voice, which

on

he

when
citharoedus

mentioned,

freedman

declared
with

howhng

was

with

Menecrates

of Crete, the

Mesomedes

he

and

poet

and

pain.
composer

Hadrian,

very

Nero

palace and

of

favourite

sounded

on

sented
pre-

large
already
a

whose

a
panegyric, received
successors
thought it rightto reduce.
salarywhich Hadrian's
in
This lively and
flatteringsympathy and favour, shown
gance.
arroto foster caprice,vanity and
various
bound
was
ways,

favourite

Antinous

The

he

composed

relates

fabulist Phaedrus

with

great satisfaction,

recently made himself

flutevanity. The
by his absurd
universally ridiculous
usually accompanied the
player Princeps ('prince '), who
famous pantomime-dancer Bathyllus (freedman of Maecenas
and inventor
of the comic
pantomime), broke his leg while the
carelessness or the
scene
was
being changed (owing to his own
confined to bed for several
fall of some
scenery). He was
his performance.
months
and the artistic pubUc greatly missed
able to walk
he was
When
again, a distinguished personage,
piece
who
was
arranging a spectacle(apparentlyan allegorical
how

at

one

of these

pufied up

popularfestival)asked

virtuosi had

him

to

appear in it.

The

curtain

The

356

rolled, the

fell,' the thunder

after

which

the

Rome

up

and

'

to the

front

of the

'

manner

words

the

song,

sound

Princeps, thinking

kisses

in the

were

is safe

Prince

him, threw

toPrinceps, beginning with

thy

applauded

gods spoke in the usual

struck

chorus

unknown

were

Arts
;

of which

Rejoice aloud,

public rose

The

and

the

meant
for
applause was
spectators ; the knights (whose seats
his foUy and conceit
house) observed

The
an
encore.
was
laughing loudly demanded
song
to the
ground on the stage, the
repeated, Princeps bowed
The
general pubUc at
knights again applauded in mockery.
that
he was
But
when
first believed
asking for the crown.
his real meaning became
known, the impudent fellow, who
had
the homage
to claim
dared
paid to the divine (imperial)
out amidst
thrown
house, was
general indignation, with his
beautiful
white
leg-bandages, white tunics, and white shoes'.
According to Horace, capriciousnesswas a neverfaihng peculiarity
and

'

of all virtuosi.
when

singers, he says,

their friends, they could

amongst

but, when

fault of

The

asked, there

not

no

stopping

them.

sing;

to

TigeUius

deeply offended Cicero in 45 by his

as
a
pretentious irritabiUtyis represented by him
type of
and capriciousness. Even
the imperious Augustus
instability
in vain to sing and
to have
often asked him
seems
put up with
of an artist who
had already been spoiltby Caesar.
the rudeness
If, however,
sing
TigeUius thought fit to oblige, he would
Sardinia,

of

'

Bacche

lo

key.

He

was

would

run

as

hundred

if

present

for
a

of

aroused
to

strove
1

It

by

was

and

than

more

to

in

keep
a

out

every

one

moment

he

he

he

he would
had
talk

would

three-leggedtable,
the

cold.

two

If he

big,
cellar,
salt-

received

week

retinue

singers
.

and
envy
the musical

conciliate

one

He

quacks, beggars, jesters,and

sat up all night and sleptall day.

of

jealousyof

the

competitions.
another, while

at the beginning of the

of the modem
stage.

lowered

to the custom

At

Sometimes

Now

ten.

in

dessert

his purse
would
be empty.
his easily-gottenwealth
broadcast, and his lavish

dancers
mutual

toga

the

heels,at another

at his

procession.

nothing

miUion,

to

course

inconsistency.
were

pursuer
if in a

generosity attracted
The

of

mass

coarse

scattered

female

first

the

slaves, sometimes
and

He

from

as

he asked

now

'

had

slowly

walk

who

was

be induced

never

that,

was

performance,

artists w;ere especially

and
Rivals
watched

secretlyabusing, and
and

raised at

the

end, contrary

The
sometimes

Arts

357

publicly insulting each other.

Dangerous
competitors were
got out of the way by bribery or otherwise
rendered
harmless.
In the presence
of the
judges and the
even

publica great

show

observed
the

wiped
or

the

citharoedi,
the

of

respect

made.

was

Nero, who

regulations for the

down

sat

never

from
perspiration

when

pubhc

tired,

his forehead

people:

spat, never

never

except with

dress, always prefaced his performance by

'

scrupulously
of
appearance

an

his hand

appeal to

Gentlemen,

the

favourable
At
a
give me
hearing !
the end, the
verdict,
performer again sought a favourable
knee
and saluting the pubhc with
doing obeisance on bended
his hand, and awaited
with real or pretended nervousness
the
decision

'

of his hearers.

Even

the

famous

most

virtuosi

rarely appeared without

having paid lor applausein advance.
Leaving the competition
out of consideration, this was
perhaps excusable in the case of
artists who
lowest
of

had

to

class, who

by

were

disapproval;

theatre

appear

before
no

citharoedi

of

thousands

of hearers

chary of
were
frequently
explained their
means

of the

their

expressions

hissed

off in the

nervousness
on
Pompey, which
of
considerable
number
a
entering. Evidently, there was
people at Rome, who had nothing else to do but
applaud a
Canus
considered
tive
the claque was
or
a Glaphyrus ',and
a lucraprofession.
This hvely and generalsusceptibility
to music
of the Romans
in execution.
led to dilettantism
necessarily
Certainly,Roman
considered
not
prejudice,which
merely professionalabihty
in music
their practice for amusement,
and singing,but even
of rank),
men
as
utterlyimproper for the freeborp (especially
ing
of the increashad long resisted the fashion.
But
as
a result
'

influence

severity had
tolerance

of Greek

long

even

manners

since

in this

made

and

for

way

respect.

As

the

customs,
an

old-fashioned

increasinglyhberal

early as

the

time

of the

singing and dancing schools at Rome,

noble,
which
attended
were
by boys and girlsof good, even
.the
like
Younger
family, no doubt to the great disgust of men
soon
Scipio. But practiceand skill in singing at least were
looked
indulgently. In the De Oratore of Cicero {91
on
more
at the time
of Rome
(the
of the chief personages
B.C.)one
Licinius
Crassus, consul 95, censor
92) mentions
orator
Lucius
without
sign of disapprovalthat his friend, the knight
any
Gracchi,

there

were

The

358

Arts

occEisionally
practisedas an
he had
tainly,
Certhe art of
learnt as a boy.
amateur
of Sulla's position not merely admitted
when
man
a
to be thought a good
actors
to his societybut did not disdain
Cornelius
singerhimself, this was bound to give great offence.
and Roman
Greek
Nepos, in speaking of the differences between
Numerius

family man,
singingwhich

Furius,

and

manners

a-

emphaticallythat

ideas, states

the

Romans

sidered
con-

of prominent position. The

unseemly for a man
belonged to Catiline's
foppish and dissipated youths, who
party, are described by Cicero as skilled in affairs of the heart,
tantism
Diletsinging,dancing and playing on stringed instruments.
in music
no
doubt, at that time disapproved by
was,
in any circumstances, but the theoretical
study of the art
many
included
have
been by no means
since Varro
must
uncommon,
music

it

the

amongst

sciences

formed

which

the

basis

of

general

the

theory of
beginning of the empire
of the
music
not
doubt
no
one
was
only generallyreckoned
higher subjects,but it was
thing for boys to
quite a common
be taught to sing and play on stringed instruments
as
a finish
to their education.
The section on music
(treatingof rhythm
of Augustine on the seven
and metre) in the encyclopaedicwork
education.

liberal

arts, based

mentions
schools.
with

the

From

musical

Titus, who

his

that

on

of
weUas

as

rhetorical

and

mella
Colu-

mathematical

of Claudius
up at the court
instructed
in the same
sciences

brought

was

Britannicus, and

son

is still extant.

Varro,

'

of
rapid progress in all branches
the rhetoric
not only well acquainted with
He was
and
poetry of the two languages (Greek and Latin), but 'he
also a good musician, and
was
played skilfullyand agreeably
the cithara '. Britannicus
on
(born February 13, 41), whose
superior voice excited Nero's jealousy, had also received a

by the same
learning.

musical
chosen
young
forward

teachers

', made

education.
'

King

'

At

by

prince,who
and

ridiculous.

sing
But

lot
was

the

Saturnalia

in December,

his

amongst
companions,
not yet fourteen
years of age,

song, hoping that

Britannicus
a
sang
a

self-possession,
containing obvious

he

and

final

promisinglad

cause

in the

of

the

allusions

horrible

followingyear.

would

poem

unlawfully deprived of the throne.

aroused
by the song aggravated Nero's
direct

54, Nero,
ordered
the

The

make

with

the

come

himself
utmost

to his

having been
general emotion

hatred, and
assassination

Suetonius

to

was

of

the
this

expresslystates

The

360

of Catiline, that she sang with greater skill than

honourable
woman.
Later, to all appearance,

confidante
an

voice

of

Arts

proficiencyin

silent, and

became

censure

music

seemed
bethe
was

generallyrecognized as one of the essentials of female education.

made
Statius's stepdaughter a good
An accomplishment which
and singing his poems
match
her skill in playing the l3?re
was
music
to her own
Phny's third wife was equally
; the Younger
accomphshed. Lucian praisesin exaggerated terms the singing
of Smyrna, the favourite
and playing of the beautiful Panthea
of Lucius

Verus.

He

compares

her

to

the

Muses

and

Sirens

nightingaleis mute
; her singing
is worthy of her beautiful
hps. She accompanies the cithara
of the melody (dp/*ovta),
to perfection
; her careful observance
to the words, are
and
strict adherence
severely correct ; her
at the

voice

sound

of her

rises and

throat

rapid
But
aroused

even

movements
even

the

the

falls in measured

perfectagreement
the

voice

cadence

the

cithara

is in

plectrum keeps time with

Orpheus and Amphion could not attain the
of her fingersor her euphonious modulation.
with

musical

the voice, the

dilettantism

of

men

to have
appears
of Augustus.
As

only trifling
opposition in the time
of fact, the only writer who
a matter
expresses his disapproval
in imperial times is the Elder
admirer
of
Seneca, a consistent
old
the
Roman
He
simpUcity and austerity of manners.
that noble
laments
studies
minds
are
neglected, that men's
taken
than idleness,
are
are
even
worse
up with pursuitswhich
that the indecent
occupations of singing and dancing claim
all the attention
of an
The
of the
effeminate youth.
censure
Seneca, writing under
Claudius, is only directed
Younger
against an
exaggerated dilettantism.
According to him,
lovers
of
music
the
whole
passionate
day in hearing,
spent
singing and composing airs ; tortured their voice by artificial
modulations
to produce an
unnatural
tinually
conexpression; were
beating time with their fingersto some
piecewhich they
had in their head
on
serious, nay, melancholy occasions,
; even
tune.
a
they could not help humming
Similarly,ManiMus
describes
lover of music, who
at a drinking bout
enhances
a
the enjo3anentof the wine by sweet
song, singson the sly even
at work
and business, and when
he is alone does nothing else.
The extent to which
musical
dilettantism had spread in Rome
since the beginning of the empire is amply confirmed.
By
of a beautiful voice a man
to
means
the
might hope
please

Arts

The
ladies

look

accomplished singer might

an

361
for

entry into

an

the best circles.

talent

Generallyspeaking,it would seem that musical

especiallyappreciated as a passport to society.

was

Trimalchio

in Petronius

reputation
good

of
;

that

asks

airs of
Nero's

had

guests, who

the

thing
somegood singer,to give the company
the guest regrets his inabilityto oblige; he declares

being

in his

he

youth
consumptive.

became

of his

one

Menecrates,
time.

The

had

famous

universal

'

'

himself

Trimalchio

that

much

so

sung

nearly
'

murders

some

and

citharoedus

of

composer
in Martial, who

dilettante

'

nothing well, sings

everything nicely ', but

plays the l3n:e nicely'.

he

nicely

does
'

and

'

This

dilettantism

have

to

seems

been

very

common

even

Calpurnius Piso, the leader of

the conspiracy against Nero
in 65, according to the Laus
Pisonis,^ played the lyre so admirably that he might have
been a pupilof ApoUo ; and indeed, in time of peace why should
himself
he have
been
ashamed
of it ?
Achilles
swept the
hand
which
hurled
the terrible lance
strings with the same
said to have
who
of emperors
are
againstthe foe. The number
in the

been

his

Gains

vocalists

amateur

instrumentalists

or

remarkable.

is

in playing
singing and proficiency
to enjoy
Aurehus
cithara.
Fronto, when
advising Marcus
sors,
holiday at Alsium, appeals to the example of his predeces-

Hadrian
the

circles.

highest

proud of

was

of state

good

found

who

with other
his mind
occupy
meal, of composing, and of the
to

Caracalla
the

Hadrian,

them

amongst

his

also

played the cithara

performer Mesomedes,

famous

time

from

the

cares

things,being fond of a
society of flute players.
erected

and
who

had

memorial

gained

to

great

Antoninus

Pius.
and
reputation at the courts of Hadrian
Elagabalus (HeKogabalus) sang to the accompaniment of the
flute (i.e.,
dramatic
scenes),blew the tiumpet, played the
Alexander
pandura (a stringed instrument) and the organ.
also fond of music, played the lyre,the flute
Severus, who was
well as the trumpet, although he gave
and the organ,
as
up
'

this instrument

that

the

vow

against him,
1

emperor

cithara, although undoubtedly

of the
made

became

he

after

dilettante,

that, if
he

panegyricon

he

would
Piso

now

was

by

means

no

in

succeeded

perform

on

'.

the
the

It thus

favourite

only

one.

appears
ment
instruNero

putting down the revolt

the
the hydraulic organ,

generallyattributed

to Titus

CalpurniusSiculus.

The

362
bagpipe

and

intended

choral

the

to celebrate

Arts

flute, at the

his

victory ;

at

with
which
he
games
the gravest
time when

tion,
danger threatened, his counsellors, after a hurried consultahad to spend the rest of the day in inspectingsome
newly
invented
hydrauhc organs and hstening to his explanations
of their
a

Flaccus
respectivedifficulties. Lucius Norbanus
zealous
trumpet-playerand practisedassiduously,even

the

of the

which

he

entered

was
on

his consulate

morning
day on
upon
before
assembled
his
(January i, 19 a.d.); the crowd
that a consul
palace to compUment him took it as a bad omen
should
be heard
ciated
playing on an instrument
inseparablyassowith
the
Of course,
war.
example of the emperors
contributed
to the spread of this dilettantism, especially
in the
highest circles.
The
it clear
his

in which

manner

that

what

passion for

the

fact that

shocked

music

he

all these

was

Nero's
his

nor

not

professional',performed before
performances to its judgment.
artist dominated

his

contemporaries
'

simple

recorded

are

performances as

'

born

instances

neither

was

but

amateur,

an

', but

amateur

makes

posed

the

public,and

submitted

The

conviction

that

he

as

his
was

his life ; and with

artist is lost in
an

mind

throughout
the oft-repeated
words
his Ups, What
upon
!
he died.
It is easy to imagine how
he was
me
strengthened
in his conviction
of enthusiastic
by the exaggerated expressions
'

'

admirers.

Even

calls him

powers

the

'.

his tutor

equal

Another

of

Seneca, in

Apollo

'

in the

art

him

poet compares

his accession,

on

poem
of
as

singing and
a

vocal

citharoedus

not

Apollo celebratinghis victoryover the P5rthon,but

with the divinity who
stretched
the heptachord of the zones
of the world
if there are gods, then surely they speak with
:
Uke his '. On the outbreak
of the revolt againsthim,
a voice
as
a proclamation
nothing is said to have excited Nero so much
merely

with

'

of

Vindex

falsehood

in

which

of this

he

was

called

reproach,which

denied

The

citharoedus.

poor
him

knowledge of an
art in which
he was
a thorough proficient,
was
regarded by him
the best proof of the falsehood
of the other charges brought
as
against him ; he kept asking his courtiers whether they knew
better
a
player. To the astrologerswho early foretold his
in Rome) :
deposition he gave the answer
(wellknown
My
beloved
art will help me
to endure
it '. Immediately after his
'

accession,he summoned

Terpnus, the

most

famous

citharoedus

The
of his time, made

dinner

and

dull and

strictest
in the

363

him

sing and play to him every day after

the night, and
endeavoured
to train his
by incessant practice and study and the

far into

feeble

Arts

voice

attention

diet.

to

He

made

his

first appearance

59 (the fifth of his reign and the twenty-second of

his age) in his garden and palace on the rightbank
of the Tiber ;
in

year

in

64

'

the

Greek

'

city of Naples ; but

that he appeared pubUcly as a citharoedus
Pompey at the competition instituted by
the

end

of

Greece, from
Next

he

66

set

which

out

his

on

probably

he

it

till

not

was

in the
himself.

the

at

of

Towards

professionaltour
returned

65

theatre

through

end

of

67.

to

playing on the cithara, he Uked best to appear in semidramatic

performances of solo-scenes from tragediesin costume
and
mask.
other citharoedi, he was
also
Probably, like most
A
of weU-trained
and
a
regular army
organized
composer.
with
claqueurs always greeted his entrance
applause. As
often happened
the ridiculous
at this period, the cruel and
combined.
were
Spies were
everywhere on the watch, and
betide
the man
who
did not applaud loudly enough, or
woe
sUpped out of the house before the end of the imperial turn,
went

or

in the
and

city,it

sacrifice

Our

of the

third

of

choral

musicians

Ammianus
famous

for devotion
of

stringed instruments.
singer, in place of the
to be

everywhere
At

But

;
seen,

anything
if any

one

the

'

musical

of

the hbraries

while

to

the
ask

'

Rome,

thus

with

all kinds

shut

are

like tombs'.

addresses

of you could recite

to
Scriptures,if invited

airs, for

of

teacher

Which

for devilish

once

filled with

the

of
are

people ',

song
philosopherthe

eloquence

instruments

pagan

stage melodies.

resounded

and

place of the

In

teacher

pulpit:

else from
were

of

inventors

Constantinople John Chrysostom

from

or

and

languid indolence,

and

is summoned

by

in honour

at least

Matemus,
the

the palaces of
that
says
now
to serious
studies, were

Marcellinus

amusements

music

held

first

fourth

of the

Firmicus

astronomer,

',composers

end

the

days of antiquity we
widespread in both

was

society. The
pubhc musicians

'

forgot to offer vows

(i.e.,
imperial)voice.

the

about

In the last
of music

'

throats

sore

of culture, for

state

to

century

Christian

speaks

the

the

to

as

meagre.
the love

that

and

'

'

extremely

know

epidemic of

an

was

who
any one
of the
heavenly

behalf

on

there

ill with

went

information

decades
is

when

sleep;

to

amorous

his
a

gregation
con-

psalm

do

so

and

The

364
indecent

home
the

songs, he would
in such
things and
the

find many

you thoroughly at
obUge him '. FurUier,

among

dehghted

of ancient

general decay

warrants

Arts

to

civiUzation

supposition that

this

during

those

times

of

music

condemnation

merely justifiedfrom the Christian

point of view ;
sensual
of the art was
to provide frivolous
that the only aim
while pantoenjoyment ; and that theatrical music especially,
mime
the stage, thought of nothing
absolutely dominated
higher than pleasingthe ear.
As
music
became
less and
less serious
and
dignified in
have
character, the more
dangerous must
appeared its use
in Christian
from, the
church
singing was
worship, of which
beginning an essential element ; at least there were
good
fear
its
those
to
influence.
reasons
secularizing
Jerome warns
it
whose
with the
is to sing in church
not to praise God
duty
not

was

voice

but

with

sweet

For

heart

medicaments

the

of

same

not

church.

of Pelusium,

being

find

in

rendered

of which

it ofiers

the

in

in church.
the

singing
majority, says
at

of the

opportunity

an

voice

tragic actors,

ofience

case

and

be heard

might

took

many
In

of

manner

melodies

throat

the

for sin ; instead

contrite

incitement

an

soften

to

after the

reason,

women

Isidore

One

the

airs and
that^theatrical

order

of

with

to

they

think

who

desires

to

sing in

church

by the diviner psalms, they only

of the melody
passion in the sweetness

no

than

more

acceptably to God,

act

the

in

of songs

forbid

must

women

they abuse
the divine gift. Cyril,bishop of Jerusalem (died386) absolutely
forbade
to sing,since the apostle Paul
women
imposed silence
in the congregation.
them
ness
The
ascetics regarded fondupon
for music
unlawful
and
as
an
fleshlydesire.
Augustine,
who
and often shed tears when
was
very susceptibleto music
he heard
the hymns
of Ambrose,
considered
it dangerous for
to

or

to

even

this very reason

to abandon
that the only reason
why
was

their sound

singingin
recited
The
was

that

church

in the

Ambrose,

the

supporter

Basil had

Christians

ought

theatrical

colorature

not

'

to

been
find

to

hymns
ear,

be aboUshed
introduced

manner

as

himself

pleased the

could

ardent

most

stay in the town,

theatre.

such

since

emotions.

found

Athanasius

delight
which
(chrotnata),

the

in

that

psalms

in Alexandria.

singing in

in the East.

him

wished

he sometimes

of church

with

favour

altogether,and
by

ing
Fear-

the

West

said he.
Certainly,

deadly
incUne

songs

the

with

heart

to

The
sensual

love

which

he

with

their

'

but

he

had

Arts

all the

365
'

regarded

for

esteem

more

plain-song

ful
beautitruly edifying.
than
It is the praise of God
a psalm ?
and
a harmonious
confession
of faith.
The
apostle certainlyorders that women
should
be silent in church, but they sing the psalms
very well.
and
is suited for psalm-singing. While
sex
Every age
singing,
the old no
longer feel the hardships of old age ; the younger
men
sing without incurringthe reproach of effeminacy,youths
of impressionable age without
temptation to sensuahty, girls
of tender
without
injury to their female
modesty ;
years
and
without
loss
of
women
maidens,
decency, in dignified
young
the praisesof God
make
earnestness
resound
melodiously

obtain

rich-toned

sweet,
in

silence

the

the moment

What

as

the service is simply read

heard, there

is

psalm

all recollection

more

difficult it is to

How

voices.

when

church,

is

is silence

at

; but

'.

once

of the heathen

originand character
of music
graduallydisappeared,in proportion as the old forms
received
since they were
found
to be
fresh substance
; and
adapted to receive this substance, the forms of music
perfectly
created
by the old Greek artistic feehng have been preserved
However,

in

respects less altered than

some

system of the
unbroken

six

or

tradition

'

Greek

seven

of any other
modes
handed

those

remained

Christian

in

even

The

art.

'

in

on

times

an

the

composition ,'justastherecitative style of

in the old
the late-antiquesacral music, dependent on the tone
stUl hves
Christian
and
on
melos, hved
(as already shown
by
Helmholtz) in the hturgicalrecitations of the Catholic church,
have
been
fixed rhythmical forms
and
although the narrow
of the eighteenth century ensured
broken
masters
up '. The
foundation

the

of musical

of

success

connexion

(inthe

therewith

modern

based

system

sense) at

out

down
has come
spirit,
from antiquity in one
the old

rules of the

rich

once

Westphal,
says
in the history of the
struck

'

two

the first place for

won

'Thus',
art, whch

on

to

us

have

'we

path

and

arts.
most

On

value
for us the
still possess
at a relativelylate
discovered

the

tradition

OF

of

and

VOL.

one

hand, the very

II.

the

ancient

development directly
;

on

the other

hand,

architecture, which

authority,

period '.

in

system of harmony

divergent from

plasticart, poetry

', and

simple.
most
peculiar phenomenon

in its historical

continued

END

modes

have

had

to

be