Diatreme Breccias at The Kelian Gold Mine

2008 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Economic Geology, v. 103, pp. 689716
Diatreme Breccias at the Kelian Gold Mine, Kalimantan, Indonesia:

Precursors to Epithermal Gold Mineralization
ANDREW G. S. DAVIES,* DAVID R. COOKE, J. BRUCE GEMMELL, AND KIRSTIE A. SIMPSON
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
Abstract
Early Miocene volcanism associated with a maar-diatreme breccia complex preceded main-stage epithermal
gold mineralization at the Kelian gold mine, Kalimantan, Indonesia. Prior to brecciation, andesite intrusions
(19.7 0.06 Ma) were emplaced into a package of felsic volcaniclastic rocks and overlying carbonaceous sandstones and mudstones, and a weakly mineralized geothermal system was established. Intrusion of quartz-phyric
(19.8 0.1 Ma) and quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite (19.5 0.1 Ma) into the active geothermal system triggered
widespread fragmentation and formation of the maar-diatreme complex.
Subsurface phreatomagmatic and phreatic explosions disrupted the preexisting hydrothermal system, producing three composite diatreme breccia bodies (the Tepu, Runcing, and Burung Breccias). The diatremes
consist of polymict breccias and sandstones that contain abundant carbonaceous matrix. A distinctive facies association comprising coherent rhyolite, jigsaw-fit rhyolite breccia, and matrix-rich breccias that contain wispy
to blocky juvenile rhyolite clasts define the root zones of the diatremes.
The surficial products of maar-diatreme volcanic activity at Kelian are preserved as large blocks of well-stratified breccias. They contain accretionary lapilli and were deposited by a combination of wet, pyroclastic basesurge, fallout, and cosurge fallout processes. Evidence for syneruptive resedimentation of the pyroclastic deposits is preserved in poorly stratified breccia beds. Megablocks of phreatomagmatic base-surge deposits were
dropped down several hundred meters from the maar environment into the underlying diatremes.
Volcanism in the Kelian maar-diatreme complex was dominated by a combination of phreatomagmatic and
phreatic processes, with subordinate hydraulic, tectonic, and dry magmatic fragmentation. The carbonaceous
matrix-rich diatreme breccias acted as aquicludes during subsequent hydrothermal activity, focusing fluid flow
into the wall rocks adjacent to the diatremes, where epithermal gold mineralization and hydrothermal brecciation occurred.
Introduction
SOME magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits in volcano-plutonic arcs are associated with large volcanic-hydrothermal
breccia complexes (e.g., Sillitoe and Bonham, 1984; Sillitoe,
1997). Such breccia bodies have commonly been inferred to
be diatremeslarge-scale breccia pipes that underlie maar
volcanoes (e.g., Lorenz, 1986). In the volcanological literature, there are few descriptions of the root zones to this class
of volcano, because they can only be exposed by deep-level
erosion or mining activity (Clement, 1982; Cas and Wright,
1987; Lorenz and Kurszlaukis, 2007). In contrast, ore deposit
geologists have provided numerous examples of what they
infer to be breccia-filled diatremes from porphyry and epithermal settings (e.g., Acupan, Philippines: Cooke and
Bloom, 1990, Cooke et al., 1996; Grasberg, Indonesia: Macdonald and Arnold, 1994; Martabe, Indonesia: Sutopo et al.,
2003, 2007; Wau, Papua New Guinea: Sillitoe et al., 1984; El
Teniente, Chile: Cannell et al., 2005; Yanacocha, Peru:
Turner, 1997; Colquijirca, Peru: Bendez et al., 2003; Agua
Rica, Argentina: Landtwing et al., 2002; Montana Tunnels,
United States: Sillitoe et al., 1985; Cripple Creek, United
States: Thompson et al., 1985, Thompson, 1992; Jensen,
2003; Rosia Montana, Romania: Wallier et al., 2006), although the supporting evidence for this genetic interpretation is not always compelling. This is because only a few descriptive papers (e.g., Wau: Sillitoe et al., 1984; Montana
Corresponding
author: e-mail, d.cooke@utas.edu.au

*Present address: Teck Cominco Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada.
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Tunnels: Sillitoe et al., 1985; Cripple Creek: Thompson et al.,

1985) have adequately described their key textural and morphological characteristics.
Kelian is a large, breccia- and vein-hosted epithermal system of Miocene age (van Leeuwen et al., 1990). Most of the
mineralization at Kelian occurred subsequent to catastrophic
brecciation events that produced a nested complex of carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia pipes, dikes, and beds (Davies,
2002). Open-pit mining and deep drilling have provided excellent exposures of these breccia bodies over a vertical interval in excess of 700 m. This environment has provided an
ideal opportunity for systematic mapping, description, and interpretation of the carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia complex.
This manuscript documents the characteristics and facies
architecture of premineralization matrix-rich breccia bodies
at the Kelian gold mine and assesses their role as a precursor
to the formation of a large-scale auriferous hydrothermal system. In particular, we document individual breccia lithofacies, their facies associations and spatial distributions, and interpret their origins. We comment on the implications of our
results for understanding fluid flow in and around similar
large-scale discordant breccia bodies in other epithermal and
porphyry ore systems and how this could influence mineral
exploration.
Terminology
Breccia nomenclature has been applied inconsistently in
the economic geology literature. Terms that may cause some
confusion are defined below. With regards to grain size and
shape terms (breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone),
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DAVIES ET AL.
we follow conventional sedimentological and volcanological

definitions (e.g., McPhie et al., 1993).
Maars: Maar volcanoes comprise a central crater surrounded
by low rims (tens of meters) of phreatomagmatic base-surge
and fallout deposits and consequently have low aspect ratios
(Fisher and Waters, 1970). The craters excavate country rocks
as a result of phreatomagmatic eruptions (Fisher and Waters,
1970). The surface morphology and the amount of slumping of
blocks derived from the surface back into the crater can be dictated by the nature of the wall rocks (e.g., hard-substrate vs.
soft-substrate maars; Auer et al., 2007).
Diatreme: Diatremes are downward-tapering, subsurface
volcanic conduits, which may lie beneath maars and are
formed at least in part by explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions (Lorenz, 1986; Cas and Wright, 1987; Martin et al.,
2007). Dry magmatic and/or possibly phreatic (steam) explosions may also contribute to diatreme formation but in isolation do not form diatremes. Diatremes are filled by volcaniclastic deposits and collapsed wall-rock blocks (Lorenz,
1973). Their cross-sectional areas are similar to those of
maars (<1001,500 m; Lorenz, 1986) and their vertical extents may be several kilometers, including root zones and
feeder dikes (Lorenz, 1986; Lorenz and Kurszlaukis, 2007).
Juvenile clasts: Juvenile clasts are derived by fragmentation
of a parental magma. Subsurface interaction of magma with
ground water or hydrothermal fluid may produce distinctive
ragged-shaped (wispy) juvenile magmatic clasts. These can
occur in the root zones of a diatreme and are a key feature to
recognize as they can provide evidence of a direct magmatic
contribution to breccia formation and help to infer fragmentation processes. Their irregular shapes are easily modified
during transport and abrasion, and so they have a low preservation potential.
Hydrothermal breccia: A hydrothermal breccia is defined
here as a coarse-grained clastic aggregate generated by the interaction of hydrothermal fluid with magma and/or wall
rocks, irrespective of the source of the hydrothermal fluid.
Fragmentation may be explosive (e.g., phreatic or phreatomagmatic) or it may be driven by hydraulic fracturing or tectonism. Our definition is consistent with that of Sillitoe
(1985).
Matrix: The matrix is the fine-grained clastic components
of a breccia that occurs between larger clasts. For the Kelian
breccias, we have defined clastic components with a grain size
of less than 2 mm as matrix.
Cement: The cement is the crystalline component within a
clastic rock or fracture. There are two main types of cement:
minerals precipitated from an aqueous fluid (water and/or
vapor) and minerals crystallized from magma. Cement precipitated from an aqueous fluid may include ore minerals
(i.e., chalcopyrite-cemented breccia) and gangue minerals
(i.e., quartz-cemented breccia), whereas those from a magma
produce crystalline igneous rock (i.e., rhyolite-cemented
breccia). Cement precipitated from aqueous fluids is a diagnostic component of most hydrothermal breccias.
Geologic Setting and Mineralization
Kelian is a bulk-tonnage epithermal gold-silver deposit.
Base metal sulfide-rich, Au-Ag mineralization occurs in hydrothermal breccias, veins, and disseminations (Davies et al.,
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2008). The mine is located in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, on

the island of Borneo (Fig. 1). Kelian produced more than 240
metric tons (t) of gold prior to mine closure in 2003.
Kelian is hosted mostly in a structural inlier of felsic volcaniclastic rocks (the Kelian Volcanics: Davies, 2002). The inlier is surrounded and overlain by Eocene to Miocene terrestrial and shallow marine carbonaceous sedimentary rocks of
the Kutai basin succession (Moss and Chambers, 1999). U-Pb
zircon dating of the Kelian Volcanics yielded an Upper Cretaceous age (67.8 0.3 Ma: Davies, 2002; Davies et al., 2003).
The Kelian Volcanics have been lifted along a north-trending basement fault (West Prampus fault) at its intersection
with a regional-scale, northwest-trending crustal lineament.
At the surface, this lineament manifests as a series of northwest-striking, strike-slip, and oblique-slip faults. The intersection of these two regional-scale structures was the locus
for magma emplacement in the district during the early
Miocene. Feldspar-hornblende-phyric andesite intrusions
were emplaced in rhombic, extensional domains defined by
northwest- and northeast-striking faults (Davies, 2002; Fig.
2). An age of 19.7 0.06 Ma was determined for one of the
andesite intrusions by Setiabudi et al. (2001). Intrusion of
quartz-phyric rhyolite (QP) bodies occurred at 19.8 0.1 Ma,
and quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite (QFP) at 19.5 0.1 Ma
(Davies, 2002; Davies et al., 2003).
300 km
Plio-Pleistocene volcanics
Oligocene - Upper Miocene flysch
Tertiary sedimentary basins

Cretaceous turbidites and melange
L. to U. Cretaceous granite and tonalite
L. to M. Cretaceous melange zones

L. Cretaceous volcanics and ophiolites
SABAH
Ophiolite, basic / ultrabasic units

Triassic - Jurassic metamorphics and
volcanics; U. Triassic sediments PermoTriassic granites and metamorphics
Major lineament, fault or fold
South China Sea

4
SARAWAK
Celebes Sea
Sa
ng
ku
lir
an
g
Busang
Fa
u
Kutai Basin
0
00
Indo Muro
KELIAN
Schwaner
Mountains
BALIKPAPAN
KALIMANTAN
110
Muyup
Makassar
Straits
Masupa Ria
Barito
Basin
lt
zo
ne
114
M
Mo era
un t u
ta s
in
s
690
Ad
an
Fa
ul
tz
on
e
118
FIG. 1. Simplified geology of Borneo, showing the location of Kelian and

other Miocene epithermal gold deposits (modified after Moss and Chambers, 1999).
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DIATREME BRECCIAS AT THE KELIAN GOLD MINE, KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA
FIG. 2. Premining surface geology of the Kelian gold deposit (modified after Davies, 2002), showing the major breccia
bodies. The Kelian River originally passed through the main ore zone and had to be diverted to the north, providing excellent exposures through the Runcing Breccia. Abbreviations: Quat = Quaternary, U. Cret = Upper Cretaceous.
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DAVIES ET AL.
Brecciation and mineralization occurred synchronous with,

and subsequent to, rhyolite emplacement. Previous workers
documented six types of breccia at Kelian (van Leeuwen et
al., 1990): tuff, fault, intrusion, hydrothermal, fluidized, and
muddy breccia. It is the latter group, the muddy breccias,
which are the subject of the current study. Muddy breccias
were described by van Leeuwen et al. (1990) as dark gray,
massive, polymict and polyphase breccia bodies and dikes.
They are aligned roughly north-south, have intrusive contact
relationships, and were found to contain clasts of sediments,
tuff, andesite (concentrated at contacts with andesite intrusions), and rhyolite (van Leeuwen et al., 1990). Coarse- and
fine-grained varieties were observed by these previous workers, as were late-stage sandy and pebble dikes.
Mineralization at Kelian has been described by van
Leeuwen et al. (1990), Davies (2002), and Davies et al. (2003,
2008). Only key features are summarized below. A hydrothermal system was established prior to the formation of the
muddy breccia complex, based on the presence of truncated
illite-pyrite veins and associated illite alteration in breccia
clasts. Main-stage gold and silver deposition commenced during the waning stages of muddy breccia formation and continued for some time after their final consolidation. Gold and silver are hosted by hydrothermally cemented breccia bodies,
sheeted and conjugate veins, and disseminated sulfides.
Davies (2002) and Davies et al. (2003, 2008) identified five
stages of mineralization that progressed from pyrite- to base
metal-sulfidedominated (sphalerite + galena chalcopyrite)
and finally to sulfosalt-dominated mineralization (proustitepyragyrite, tennantite-tetrahedrite). Deposition of gangue
minerals progressed from illite-quartz to adularia and/or
quartz and/or illite and finally carbonate-dominated assemblages. Stage 1 (pre-muddy breccia) mineralization produced
proximal illite-pyrite-quartzcemented veins and breccias
and distal calcite-quartz epidote veins. Stage 2 mineralization generated pyrite-quartz-illitecemented breccias and
veins with minor base metal sulfides in the northern part of
Kelian and adularia-quartz-pyrite in the south. A transition to
abundant base metal sulfides (galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite) occurred from stage 2 to stage 3A. In addition to
base metal sulfides, stage 3A veins and hydrothermal breccias
contain ubiquitous pyrite, local sulfosalts, and abundant native gold. Stage 3B mineralization was coeval with stage 3A
and was localized at depth and on the flanks of the Kelian system. It produced base metal sulfides, pyrrhotite, marcasite,
and melnikovite. Boiling produced abundant bladed carbonate during stage 3C. Stage 4 sulfosalts and sulfides are intergrown with laminated and bladed rhodochrosite. Stage 5 consists of late kaolinite, covellite, digenite, and siderite, possibly
(at least in part) of supergene origin. Gold formed throughout
stages 1 to 4 but most occurred during stages 3 and 4. Gold
occurs principally as inclusions within and intergrown with
pyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, quartz, bladed carbonate, and sulfosalts.
Hydrothermal alteration is zoned about contacts, faults,
breccias, and veins (Davies, 2002; Davies et al., 2003, 2008).
The alteration assemblages in andesite intrusions grade from
proximal quartz-illite-pyrite through illite-carbonate-pyrite,
and illite-chlorite-carbonate to distal chlorite-calcite-illite. Alteration zonation in the volcaniclastic host rocks grades from
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proximal quartz-illite-pyrite to distal smectite-illite assemblages. Local, intense adularia- quartz-illite and/or carbonate
alteration assemblages are spatially associated with adularia
and carbonate cement, respectively. Alteration patterns at
Kelian were controlled by lithologic units, structure, and
host-rock permeability (Davies, 2002).
Carbonaceous Breccia and Sandstone Lithofacies
From detailed mapping and drill core logging, we have recognized two distinctive groups of matrix-rich breccias at Kelian. Both are characterized by abundant carbonaceous components (clasts and/or matrix) derived from the surrounding
sedimentary units. Collectively, these are the breccias that
were described by van Leeuwen et al. (1990) as muddy breccias and are here referred to as carbonaceous matrix-rich
breccias, in order to emphasize their common, distinguishing
component: carbonaceous matrix.
We have divided the carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias into
two groups: unstratified (A facies) and stratified (B facies).
Each group consists of several facies and subfacies (Tables 1,
2). Breccia facies A include monomict carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone-clast breccias, polymict carbonaceous
matrix-rich breccias, and monomict rhyolite breccias with
carbonaceous matrix. Facies have been defined by variations
in (1) breccia composition (monomict vs. polymict), (2) diagnostic clast types, and (3) grain size. Subfacies are distinguished by subtle variations in the dominant clast type, other
than carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone (i.e., andesite,
volcaniclastic rocks, rhyolite), or modal mineralogy of the
clasts (QP vs. QFP). The breccias vary in appearance due to
clast abundance, size, lithology, and degree of clast rounding
but are generally black, dark gray or, where intensely illite
quartz-pyrite altered, light gray in color. Although there are
clast-supported breccias in this group, most are matrix supported and massive. The polymict facies all have similar matrix components (sand-sized fragments of quartz, polymict
lithic clasts, and abundant carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone clasts) but have variable clast populations (various combinations of andesite, rhyolite, volcaniclastic rocks, earlier
formed breccias, accretionary lapilli, charcoal or coal, and
rare vein fragments).
The B facies consist of both breccias and sandstones and
have similar clast and matrix components to the A facies but
differ in that they are stratified. B facies vary in the styles of
stratification and the principal clast components (rhyolite- or
wall rock-dominated). Subfacies are distinguished by grainsize variations (sandstone to breccia; Tables 1, 2).
Unstratified breccias and sandstones
Facies A1: These are dark gray to black, monomict, matrixrich (locally up to 60%) carbonaceous mudstone-clast breccias that contain abundant clay gouge (Fig. 3AD; Tables 1,
2). Some A1 breccias have formed at the contact between the
Runcing Rhyolite and carbonaceous mudstones (Fig. 3A), but
most are spatially associated with faults (e.g., Fig. 3B). Many
A1 breccias are internally banded (e.g., aligned clasts, gouge,
foliation). Sulfide vein clasts are present locally (Fig. 3C), as
are late hydrothermal cements (Fig. 3D).
Facies A2: These breccias occur in contact with coherent
flow-banded rhyolite dikes (Fig. 4A). Facies A2 are clast-rich,
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TABLE 1. Summary of Breccia Facies A and B at Kelian: Composition, Internal Organization, and Hydrothermal Features
Facies and
facies name
Alteration and
mineralization
Subfacies
Internal organization
Clast shape and type
Matrix
A1: Monomict
carbonaceous
breccia
None
Monomict, jigsaw-fit,
clast rotated or massive
Clast to matrix supported
Some imbricated clasts
Local banding or foliation
Shape: angular to
subrounded
Type: Cms, local
sulfide vein
fragments
Mud- to sandsized fragments

Local clay gouge
Pervasive ill-sme-pyr
alt, local clay gouge
A2: Monomict,
jigsaw-fit rhyolite
breccia with
carbonaceous
matrix
QP: QP clast
bearing
QFP: QFP clast
bearing
Jigsaw-fit, clast to matrix

supported
Shape: angular or
irregular with
cuspate and/or
wispy margins
Type: QFP, QP
Black to dark
gray matrix of
milled A1
facies and/or
clay gouge
Weak to moderate kao

ill alt of rhyolite clasts
and ill-pyr alt of
matrix
A3: Polymict,
carbonaceous,
matrix-supported
breccia with wispy
and/or blocky
rhyolite clasts
QP: QP clast
bearing
QFP: QFP clast
bearing
Polymict, massive and

matrix supported
Shape: irregular to
angular with wispy
or cuspate margins
Type: Cms, And, V, QP,
QFP, charcoal, coal,
vein, breccia
3050% mud- to
sand-sized
fragments
Weak to intense
qtz-ill-pyr alt
And and V clasts locally
contain stage 1A veins
(i.e., some mineralization predated
brecciation)
A4: Polymict,
carbonaceous,
matrix-supported
breccia with
rhyolite clasts
QP: QP clast
bearing
QFP: QFP clast
bearing
QP/QFP: QP and
QFP clast bearing
Polymict, massive and

matrix supported
Shape: angular to
Mostly sand-sized
subangular, some
Up to 90% matrix
subrounded
in fine-grained
Type: Cms And, V, QP,
breccia
QFP, coal, charcoal,
AL, vein and breccia
Tepu Breccia: qtz-illpyrcrb alt , local illqtz -pyr-crb alt

Qtz-ill-pyrcrb alt in
Burung Breccia near
393 Breccia
A5: Polymict,
carbonaceous,
matrix-supported
breccia
V: volcaniclastic
clast dominated
And: andesite
clast dominated
Polymict, jigsaw-fit, clast

rotated and massive
Shape: angular to
subangular
Type: V, And, Cms, rare
C1, C7 breccia clasts
Sand-sized
fragments
Weak to moderate
pervasive ill-qtz-crbpyr alt
Local ill-qtz-pyrcrb alt
A6: Polymict,
carbonaceous,
clast-supported
breccia and
conglomerate
QP: QP clast
bearing
QFP: QFP clast
bearing
V: volcaniclastic
clast bearing
Polymict
Generally clast supported
Minor matrix supported
Shape: abundant
subrounded to minor
subangular clasts
Type: QFP, Cms,
And, V
Up to 20%
sand-sized
fragments
A6-QFP: weak to intense

ill-pyr alt
A6-V: weak sme-ill alt
A7: Discordant,
carbonaceous,
crystal and lithic
sandstone with
rhyolite fragments
AL: accretionary
lapilli bearing
Polymict
Generally massive
Locally stratified
Shape: angular to
subangular
Type: Cms, And, V,
QFP, QP, broken qtz
and fsp, local AL
Up to 100%
mud- and sandsized fragments
Weak to moderate
pervasive ill-pyr alt in
Tepu Breccia
Intense qtz-ill-pyrcrb
alt in Burung Breccia
B1: Well-stratified,
rhyolite-clast-rich,
carbonaceous
breccia and
sandstone
A: medium-grained
volcanic breccia
B: fine-grained
volcanic breccia
C: volcanic
sandstone
Polymict, poorly to
moderately sorted
Matrix to clast supported
Planar, wavy, dune, and
low-angle cross stratified
Normal, reverse, doublegraded beds
Shape: angular to
subangular
Type: V, QP, Cms,
minor Al
Sand-sized
fragments
Weak sme-ill kao and

trace disseminated pyr
B2: Well-stratified
carbonaceous
breccia and
sandstone
A: medium-grained
volcanic breccia
B: fine-grained
volcanic breccia
C: volcanic
sandstone
Polymict, poorly to
moderately sorted
Matrix to clast supported
Planar, wavy, dune, and
low-angle cross stratified
Diffuse normal, reverse
and double-graded beds
Shape: angular to
subrounded
Type: Cms, QP, V,
abundant Al
Mud- to sandsized fragments
Weak sme-ill kao alt

and rare disseminated
pyr
B3: Weakly stratified

carbonaceous
breccia and
sandstone
A: medium-grained
Polymict, poorly to
volcanic breccia
moderately sorted
B: fine-grained
Matrix supported
volcanic breccia
Diffuse tabular and troughC: volcanic sandstone
shaped beds, graded
Shape: angular to
subrounded
Type: V, Cms, QP
40% mud- to
sand-sized
matrix
Weak sme-ill alt
Abbreviations: And = andesite, AL = accretionary lapilli, alt = alteration, Cms = carbonaceous mudstone and/or sandstone, crb = carbonate, fsp = feldspar,
ill = illite, kao = kaolinite, pyr = pyrite, QFP = quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite, QP = quartz-phyric rhyolite, qtz = quartz, sme = smectite, V = volcanic sandstone and/or mudstone
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TABLE 2. Summary of Breccia Facies A and B at Kelian: Contact Relationships, Morphology, and Distribution
Facies
Contacts
Morphology
Distribution
A1
Sharp or gradational into unbrecciated,

laminated and thinly bedded carbonaceous mudstone and/or sandstone
Crosscuts B1, B2, B3 breccias sharply
Irregular to tabular inclined to subvertical

zones m to 10s of m across
Forms a shell up to 200 m across around the
Runcing Breccia and Runcing Rhyolite
Irregular dikes (0.255 m thick) cut B facies
on Gunung Runcing
Common in Runcing Breccia

Also occurs in hanging wall to West
Prampus, Burung, and North Burung
faults, shallow levels of Burung Breccia,
and on margins of Tepu Breccia in south
wall of the East Prampus open pit
A2
Highly irregular at centimetrer scale, with

transition from coherent rhyolite into
jigsaw-fit and then clast-rotated rhyoliteclast breccia over 0.5 to 10 m
Complicated zones of fault gouge mingled
with rhyolite occur at margins of rhyolite
dikes in fault zones
Tabular to irregular sheets along margins of

fault-zonehosted QP rhyolite dikes
Tabular dikes (10 cm to 1 m width) in fault
zones, fingers and irregular pods in A1,
A3 and A4 breccias
Runcing and Tepu Breccias, Burung fault

hanging wall, NW-trending faults, crosscutting the Burung fault
Locally, in A1 and A4 breccias adjacent to
the Runcing Rhyolite
A3
Convoluted, irregular and penetrating

contacts with earlier breccia phases; local
gradation into A2 breccias
Contacts with pipes of same breccia facies are
gradational over 2 to 5 m; crude increase
in matrix abundance toward contact
Tepu Breccia: subvertical A3 pipes are

commonly >30 m, and up to 80 m, across
and crosscut A4, A3, and A2 breccia pipes
Runcing Breccia: irregular pipes and pods
vary from 1 to 20 m across
Common in Tepu Breccia, typically internal

to the breccia body, rarely at margins
Minor occurrences peripheral to Runcing
QFP and QP intrusions in NW-trending
faults, and NW-trending faults in the
Burung fault hanging wall
A4
Sharp or diffuse, and/or erosional

In the Tepu and Burung Breccias, several
of the bounding surfaces are postbrecciation faults
Subvertical irregularly shaped pipes, dikes

Thin breccia dikes range from centimeter to
meter scale and extend tens of meters
vertically
Larger irregular pipes range from 10 to over
100 m across and are vertically continuous
over 10s to 100s of meters
Principally in the Tepu, Burung, and

Runcing Breccias
Smaller bodies along NW-trending faults in
East and West Prampus zones
Narrow dikes (<5 m wide) in the footwall to
the Burung fault
A5
Sharp to gradational over meters into A3,

A4, or A1 facies, polymict hydrothermally
cemented breccias, unbrecciated andesite,
unbrecciated carbonaceous sedimentary
rocks or unbrecciated volcaniclastic rocks
Irregular sheets and tabular, subvertical dikes

1 to 50 m across that extend along strike for
up to several hundred meters
Occur at the margins of the Tepu Breccia, in

particular at its southern end, and in the
Burung Breccia near its margins
NW-trending zones in the west wall of the
northern East Prampus pit, spatially
associated with NW-trending faults
A6
Sub-facies A6-QFP: Sharp, discordant and

erosional contacts against all other
A facies; contacts typically contorted
and penetrative
Subfacies A6-V: Sharp, discordant contacts
with A1 and A4 breccia, carbonaceous
mudstone and volcaniclastic rocks
Subfacies A6-QFP: Isolated subvertical pipes

(up to 30 m across) and narrow dikes (up
to 7 m); vertical extent >75 m
Subfacies A6-V: Small (<10 m) pods and dikes
(<1-m width) with sharp and wavy contacts
Subfacies A6-QFP: Minor phase in Tepu and

Burung Breccias, isolated pods on the
north side of the Kelian River diversion
Subfacies A6-V: Only observed adjacent to
the Runcing Rhyolites SW margin, and
narrow (<10 cm) dikes in the Burung fault
footwall
A7
Typically sharp and less commonly gradational

Sharp and generally subplanar at dike margins
or sharp, contorted, and penetrative around
larger pipes and at tips of narrow bodies
Gradational at margins of A4 breccia bodies
Large irregular subvertical pipes up to

20 m across
Narrow, <20 cm to 3 m wide, irregular dikes
Local narrow (cm to m) zones at the margins
of A4 breccias
Minor, but widespread, late-stage facies in

the Tepu Breccia
Some A7 clasts occur in A3 breccias
Occurs in the Burung Breccia as a marginal
phase to, and at the tips of A4 breccias, and
locally as thin dikes and irregular fingers
B1
Gradational contacts between facies B1

and B2
Contacts between subfacies in individual
beds are also gradational
Contacts between facies are sharp where
they occur as bed boundaries
Contacts are locally erosional with basal scours
and medium-grained breccia in scours
Well-developed centimetre- to meter-scale

bedding
Planar wavy planar, low-angle cross stratified
and low-angle dune bed forms
Diffuse normal and reverse grading;
syndepositional faults, flames, and slumps
Interbedded medium- and fine-grained
breccia and volcanic sandstone
Runcing Breccia
B2
Sharp contacts at bed boundaries

Erosional contacts where B1-A and B1-B
breccias overlie B2 breccias
Local extensive disruption by synsedimentary
faults, ball and pillow and flame structures
Locally gradational into B1 facies
Well-developed beds (<1 cm to 10s of cm)

with normal grading and moderate sorting
10- to 20-cm beds with thin (1 cm)
normally graded tops
Local fine-grained breccia or volcanic
sandstone tops to E1 breccia beds
Runcing Breccia
B3
Diffuse and erosional
Tepu Breccia: 30 10 75 m, crudely

stratified blocks in A2 breccia pipes
Runcing Breccia: erosional channels that cut
well-bedded B1 and B2 facies
Tepu and Runcing breccias
Abbreviations: QP = quartz-phyric rhyolite, QFP = quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite, V = volcanic sandstone and/or mudstone
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FIG. 3. Breccia facies A1. A. North wall of East Prampus pit (March 1999), showing domains of A1 breccia that have cut
and/or surrounded laminated carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone (CMS) in the hanging wall to the Runcing fault and 394
ore zone. The Runcing Rhyolite intrusion is surrounded by A1 breccia and carbonaceous sedimentary rocks. Light gray, bedded B facies are crosscut by dikes of A1 breccia. B. Jigsaw-fit to clast-rotated A1 breccia. Larger clasts are outlined in white,
as are some internal fractures. A zone of matrix- to clast-supported A1 breccia with aligned clasts between the yellow lines
is interpreted to be a fault zone (Runcing Breccia, 1090 mRL). C. Matrix-supported A1 breccia with clasts of carbonaceous
mudstone, stage 2A or 3A pyrite vein fragments (PYR) and clay gouge in the matrix (Runcing Breccia, 1060 mRL). D. Clastsupported A1 breccia with minor matrix and minor carbonate (CRB) cement. There are ball and pillow structures in the bedded carbonaceous sandstone and mudstone clast (Burung Breccia, K317-188.0 m).
monomict, jigsaw-fit rhyolite breccias that have a carbonaceous mudstone matrix (Tables 1, 2; Fig. 4B-C). Rhyolite
clasts (QP or QFP) are angular and blocky with curviplanar
margins (Fig. 4B) or wispy with ragged margins (Fig. 4C).
Some rhyolite clasts have partially wispy and partially blocky
margins. A2 breccias occur in narrow dikes (10 cm to 1 m) in
preexisting faults or as irregular fingers and pods in monomict A1 or polymict A4 breccias. In several locations, a complete gradation from coherent rhyolite (Fig. 4A) to monomict
jigsaw-fit rhyolite breccia with carbonaceous mudstone matrix (Fig. 4B) to polymict carbonaceous matrix-supported
breccia that contains blocky and wispy rhyolite clasts (A3 facies; Fig. 5) occurs over strike lengths of 0.5 to 10 m.
Facies A3: These unsorted, matrix-supported, polymict carbonaceous breccias are characterized by texturally distinctive
wispy and blocky QP or QFP rhyolite clasts (Fig. 5A-F; Tables
1, 2). Wispy rhyolite clasts have delicate, irregular margins
(Fig. 5B-D), whereas blocky rhyolite clasts have curviplanar
margins (Fig. 5E-F). Some rhyolite clasts have partial wispy
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and partial blocky, curviplanar margins. All other clast types

identified in the A3 facies are more rounded than the rhyolite
clasts (Fig. 5). Apart from the common clast types (carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone, volcaniclastic sandstone, andesite, and rhyolite), unusual clast types in A3 breccias include carbonized wood (Fig. 5C), A4 breccia, A7 sandstone,
and finely bedded B2 sandstone. Accretionary lapilli (28 mm
diam) comprise up to 5 percent of some A3 breccias.
Facies A4: These are the most abundant of the carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia facies at Kelian. They are poorly
sorted, carbonaceous matrix-supported polymict breccias
(Fig. 6; Tables 1, 2). Discrete A3 and A4 breccia pipes can
occur adjacent to each other (e.g., Fig. 6A), and the A4 breccias are similar in composition to A3 breccias (e.g., Fig. 6BC). There are, however, no wispy rhyolite clasts in the A4
breccias, and rounded rhyolite clast shapes are more common
(e.g., Fig. 6D-E). Unusual, distinctive and rare clasts that
have been observed in A4 breccias include accretionary
lapilli, hydrothermally cemented breccia, A3 and A1 breccia,
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DAVIES ET AL.
blocks of stratified facies B breccias (Fig. 6C), and unstratified A4 breccia blocks that are up to 50 m in diameter. Andesite and volcaniclastic rock clasts that contain truncated
veins and prebreccia alteration assemblages have also been
observed (Fig. 6B). There is a correlation between increased
matrix abundance and clast roundness and decreased clast
sizes in A4 breccias. Small dikes of A4 breccia have been observed locally (Fig. 6F).
Facies A5: These occur both as discrete bodies (e.g., Fig.
7A) and with other A facies. They contain angular to subrounded clasts of carbonaceous mudstone, sandstone, volcaniclastic rocks, and andesite (Fig. 7B-C; Tables 1, 2) and are distinguished from A4 breccias by a lack of rhyolite clasts. Clasts
of A1, A4, and hydrothermally cemented breccia occur locally.
Facies A6: A6 breccias and conglomerates occur as irregular subvertical pipes and dikes that have crosscut and eroded
A4 and A3 breccias (e.g., Fig. 8A). The A6 facies is distinguished by abundant (6090%), subrounded to rounded QFP
clasts (Fig. 8B), and ranges from clast- to locally matrix-supported, poorly to moderately sorted breccia and conglomerate (Tables 1, 2). A3-QFP dikes have cut A6 breccias locally
(Fig. 8C).
Facies A7: Massive to locally stratified, poorly sorted, discordant, carbonaceous sandstone characterizes facies A7 (Fig.
9; Tables 1, 2). The most abundant components are fragments
of carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone. However, fine
fragments of QP and/or QFP rhyolites are ubiquitous and locally have wispy and/or curviplanar margins. Accretionary
lapilli are present locally. A7 discordant sandstone occurs as
the only facies in breccia pipes that are up to 20 m in diameter, as fine-grained facies that grades into A3 or A4 facies
within larger breccia bodies, and as dikes less than 3 m wide
(e.g., Fig. 9). Some A7 sandstones are laminated subparallel
to the walls of the larger breccia bodies.
FIG. 4. Breccia facies A2. A. Flow-banded rhyolite dike with clots and
elongate black domains of carbonaceous A1 breccia, mudstone, and fault
gouge. Top of sample was located at the margin of the rhyolite intrusion,
where there is a gradation into wispy jigsaw-fit A2-QP breccia and then into
A3-QP breccia (not shown; northwest East Prampus pit, 1090 mRL). B. Jigsaw-fit A2-QP breccia with QP clasts separated by a matrix of carbonaceous
clay gouge and sand-sized lithic fragments. Jigsaw-fit rhyolite breccia can be
traced along strike into a coherent rhyolite dike that intruded a gouge-filled
fault (Runcing Breccia, 1060 mRL). C. Jigsaw-fit to clast-rotated A2-QP
breccia with matrix of fine QP splinters and black carbonaceous mudstone
clasts. There is a complete gradation from this breccia into coherent rhyolite
(not shown). Note cuspate clast margins and similarity between the morphology of these clasts and those in the A3-QP breccias in Figure 5 (Runcing
Breccia, 1060 mRL).
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Stratified breccias and sandstones

Facies B1: These are well-stratified breccias that have angular to subangular clasts of aphanitic to finely (<1 mm) QP
rhyolite, volcaniclastic mudstone and sandstone, and carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone (Fig. 10A-C; Tables 1, 2).
They also contain minor accretionary lapilli (Fig. 10D). B1
breccias occur in medium to thick beds with planar, wavy planar, low-angle cross-stratified (Fig. 10A) and low-angle dune
bed forms (Fig. 10B). Some beds are normally graded. Others have a core of coarser fragments and display both diffuse
normal and reverse grading in a single bed (Fig. 10C).
Facies B2: B2 breccias consist of angular to subangular
clasts, dominated by carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone,
with lesser QP, and volcaniclastic mudstone and sandstone
(Fig. 10; Tables 1, 2). Accretionary lapilli (18 mm diam) are
locally abundant, in some cases occurring closely packed in
thin (15 cm) beds (Fig. 10D). B2 facies are predominantly
planar bedded (Fig. 10D-E), in contrast to B1 breccias. Softsediment deformation textures, such as synsedimentary faults
and flames (Fig. 10E), are common.
Facies B3: Weakly stratified B3 breccias (Fig. 11; Tables 1,
2) are polymict, matrix supported, and unsorted. They occur
in medium to thick beds with diffuse to sharp, planar or channel bed forms (Fig. 11). A diffuse to sharp, undulose, erosional contact separates the underlying well-bedded B1 and
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FIG. 5. Breccia facies A3. A. Coarse-grained marginal A3-QFP facies of Tepu breccia with large blocks of andesite (And)
and wispy quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite clasts (QFP). Contact with coherent andesite is 1 m to right of area shown in frame
(Tepu Breccia, 1000 mRL). B. Medium-grained A3-QP breccia with abundant wispy and ragged quartz-phyric rhyolite clasts
(QP) in a carbonaceous, sand-sized, lithic, and crystal matrix (Tepu Breccia, 1070 mRL). C. Fine-grained A3-QP breccia with
20% wispy and blocky rhyolite clasts and fragments of carbonized wood (Tepu Breccia, 1070 mRL). D. Detail of ragged QP
rhyolite clasts in fine- to medium-grained polymict A3-QP breccia with mudstone clasts (CMS). The two large QP clasts near
the top of the photograph display small-scale jigsaw-fit texture (Tepu Breccia). E. Detail of blocky finely porphyritic rhyolite
clasts in fine- to medium-grained A3-QFP breccia. There is a range of clast shapes in the rhyolite clast populationsome
have delicate curviplanar margins, whereas others are subrounded, as are the sedimentary clasts. The blocky clasts are interpreted to be juvenile clasts that have not been recycled, and the subrounded clasts are interpreted to be juvenile clasts
that have undergone transport and abrasion possibly during multiple brecciation events. The breccia also contains clasts of
carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone (CMS) and volcanic mudstone and sandstone (V; Tepu Breccia). F. Medium- to
coarse-grained A3-QFP breccia with blocky rhyolite clasts (Tepu Breccia, 1070 mRL).
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FIG. 6. Breccia facies A4. A. Fault contact between A4 and A3 breccias of the Tepu Breccia (right) and volcaniclastic rocks
(V) and hydrothermal breccias (left). Bottom and top of photograph are 1060 mRl and 1110 mRL, respectively (50-m vertical exposure). The massive A4 and A3 breccias in this exposure crop out at the northern margin of the Tepu Breccia. Rhyolite intrusions (R) occur in a curved, possibly faulted, contact between the A3 and A4 breccia pipes. Internal contacts between A4 and A3 facies are diffuse, irregular, and gradational in this area. B. Coarse-grained A4 breccia with large blocks of
pervasively illite-pyrite-carbonatealtered andesite that contain stage 1A pyrite-carbonate-sericite veins. The veins are truncated at clast margins and provide evidence for an early hydrothermal system (Tepu Breccia, 1060 mRL; scale bar = 10 cm).
C. Medium-grained A4-QP and/or QFP breccia with rare blocks up to 5 3 4 m of stratified B1 and B2 facies (Runcing
Breccia, 1090 mRL). D. Medium-grained polymict A4-QP and/or QFP breccia cut by irregular stage 3A pyrite-sphalerite
veins. The breccia contains subangular to subround clasts of carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone (CMS), volcanic mudstone and sandstone (V), andesite, and quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite (QFP; Tepu Breccia, drill hole K777-213.7 m). E.
Fine- to medium-grained A4-QP and/or QFP breccia with subround to subangular clasts of quartz-phyric rhyolite (QP).
There is a single clast of A3-QP breccia at top of frame. Light color (cf. Fig. 6D) is due to pervasive, intense quartz-illitepyrite alteration of the Burung Breccia in the vicinity of the 393 ore zone. Irregular stage 2A and/or 3A pyrite veins have
crosscut the breccia (Burung Breccia, drill hole K450-291.2 m). F. A4-QFP dikes in the Runcing Rhyolite (QFP). Clasts and
matrix in the dikes consist of carbonaceous mudstone and QFP fragments. QFP clasts in this example are angular but do not
have wispy or curviplanar margins. The QFP clasts were derived from the local wall rocks and are not a juvenile magmatic
component (Runcing Rhyolite, Kelian River diversion east end, south side, 1100 mRL).
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B2 facies from overlying weakly stratified B3 breccia at one

location (Fig. 11A). B3 facies also occur as large blocks (meters to tens of meters) in polymict carbonaceous matrix-rich
breccia pipes (Fig. 11B). These blocks contain thick (0.755
m), weakly graded beds and are crosscut by A4 breccia pipes.
The B3 blocks have disaggregated transitional contacts with
the surrounding breccias (Fig. 11B).
Breccia Geometries, Facies Distributions,
and Spatial Associations
Three large, discordant bodies of carbonaceous matrix-rich
breccia are exposed in the Kelian mine area: the Tepu, Burung (van Leeuwen et al., 1990), and Runcing Breccias (S.
Hunt, pers. commun., 1997; Fig. 2). Other less voluminous,
unnamed carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia bodies also occur
at and around Kelian. Each of these breccia bodies has a complex internal arrangement of breccia facies.
The composite Runcing, Tepu, and Burung Breccia bodies
consist of multiple breccia pipes and dikes that each contains
one or more of the A facies breccias. The bodies formed by
multiple brecciation episodes and have complex internal contact relationships. Both internal and country-rock contacts are
typically gradational over meters to tens of meters, especially
where earlier breccias have been crosscut and stoped or removed by emplacement of later breccias. Some internal facies
occur as subvertical pipes that are smaller in volume than but
have similar gross geometry to, the enclosing Runcing, Tepu,
and Burung Breccia bodies.
The Tepu and Burung Breccia geometries were constrained partly by andesite intrusions (Fig. 2). Because the
Runcing Breccia was not constrained by competent andesitic
bodies, it developed a more equant geometry partly controlled by and subsequently disrupted by faults.
In the area of both the Tepu and Runcing Breccias, carbonaceous mudstone to fine-grained sandstone is juxtaposed
against Upper Cretaceous volcaniclastic rocks (Davies et al.,
2008) by a series of high-angle normal and wrench faults.
Well-developed fault breccia zones are present in the carbonaceous strata, especially in the hanging wall to the Burung
fault (Fig. 2). Fault breccias crosscut and are crosscut by monomict and polymict carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias, indicating that fault movement continued during formation of the
breccias.
FIG. 7. Breccia facies A5. A. Dark gray-colored A5 breccia body in northwest wall of the East Prampus pit (base of photograph at 1030 mRL, top at
1110 mRL). A prebreccia andesite intrusion (And) crops out to the left of the
breccia and bedded volcaniclastic rocks (V) to the right. Left side of A5 breccia is andesite-clast dominated (A5-And subfacies), right side is volcaniclastic-clast dominated (A5-V subfacies), and center is undifferentiated A5
breccia with subequal andesite and volcaniclastic clasts. B. Coarse-grained,
matrix-supported A5-A facies, with andesite (And), carbonaceous sedimentary
(Cms), and minor volcaniclastic (V) clasts. Andesite clasts are pervasively illite-pyrite-carbonate altered (East Prampus, 1060 mRL). C. Coarse-grained,
clast-supported A5-V breccia. Image shows transition from carbonaceousmudstone-clastdominated polymict breccia (left-hand side) to polymict volcanic-sandstone-clastdominated breccia (right-hand side; Tepu Breccia,
AD97127, 1090 mRL).
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Tepu Breccia
The northeast-trending Tepu Breccia (Table 3) is located
between the Crusher Andesite and Eastern Andesite intrusions (Figs. 2, 12A) and formed in a fault-bounded slice of
carbonaceous mudstone located along the East Prampus fault
(Fig. 12B; Davies, 2002). The breccia body is downward tapering in cross-sectional view. Premining maps (PT Kelian
Equatorial Mining, unpub. data) suggest that the Tepu Breccia flared markedly above the roof of the Crusher Andesite.
An east-trending arm of the Tepu Breccia extends along the
Tepu fault across the Eastern Andesite and into a mineralized
hydrothermal breccia body known as the 255 Breccia (Figs. 2,
12A; Davies, 2002; Davies et al., 2008).
The Tepu Breccia consists of multiple crosscutting pipes
(e.g., Fig. 12C). Each pipe contains either a single breccia or,
less commonly, multiple pipes and dikes of A and minor B
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FIG. 9. Breccia facies A7. Contact between in situ carbonaceous mudstone (CM) and a polymict A4-QP and/or QFP breccia facies of the Tepu
Breccia. Both units are cut by subvertical dikes of A7 facies carbonaceous
sandstone that have undergone moderate illite-quartz-pyrite alteration (Tepu
Breccia, 1070 mRL).
FIG. 8. Breccia facies A6. A. View of Tepu Breccia from 1060 RL. Subvertical pipes of A6-QFP breccia have intruded massive A3-QFP breccia.
The A6-QFP contacts are sharp, discordant, and locally contorted. B. Detail
of clast-supported domain in A6-QFP breccia pipe shown in (A), with subrounded and faceted clasts of quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite (QFP) and
minor volcanic sandstone (V) and carbonaceous sandstone (CMS) clasts set
in a polymict sand-sized matrix (Tepu Breccia, 1070 mRL). C. A6-V conglomerate crosscut by a pod of A3-QFP breccia. The A3-QFP breccia has entrained rounded clasts from the A6-V conglomerate (Runcing Breccia, 1100
mRL).
facies (Table 3; Fig. 13). Pipes are typically tens to less than
100 m across and are vertically extensive (> several hundred
meters; Figs. 6A, 8A). Several megablocks (10 50 m) of
diffusely bedded B3 breccia occur in pipes of polymict A4
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breccia. Bedding in these blocks is truncated at the block

margins (Fig. 11B).
Formation of the Tepu Breccia postdated andesite intrusion, based on the presence of andesite clasts containing
early-formed pyrite-illite veins (Fig. 6B; Table 3; Davies 2002;
Davies et al., 2008). Brecciation was contemporaneous with
rhyolite intrusion and early stage 2 mineralization and alteration. The juvenile magmatic component changed from QP
to QFP with time (Table 3). Mineralized stage 3 carbonate
veins crosscut the Tepu Breccia (Table 3), indicating that
brecciation ceased prior to stage 3 vein formation.
Runcing Breccia
The Runcing Breccia is located north of the Burung-Runcing-Discovery fault system (Fig. 2). At the preserved levels, it
is enclosed by carbonaceous sedimentary host rocks and
unconformably overlain by Pliocene-Pleistocene mafic volcanic
rocks. Of the three carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia bodies at
Kelian, the Runcing Breccia is the largest in map view (750
750 m; Fig. 2; Table 3). Its geometry is poorly constrained
below approximately 200 m due to the lack of deep drilling, but
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FIG. 10. Breccia facies B1 and B2. A. Low-angle cross- and planar-stratified fine- (B1-B) to medium-grained (B1-A) breccia. B. Normally graded B1 breccia interbedded with B2 breccia. Broad dune bed forms and low-angle cross stratification
are present, which is consistent with transport in high velocity currents. C. Interbedded B1 and B2 breccias. Dark B2-C beds
contain abundant accretionary lapilli. D. Detail of accretionary lapilli (AL) in thin B2-C and B1-C beds. Upper B2-C bed
consists of closely packed 1- to 3-mm accretionary lapilli. E. Flames and synsedimentary faults in interbedded B1 and B2
breccia. Dark B2 beds are in general finer grained than B1 beds and commonly contain abundant accretionary lapilli, clasts
of B2-B breccia and B2-C sandstone.
it appears to taper with increasing depth. The Runcing Breccia

is surrounded by a series of arcuate faults which form a crude
circular boundary around the breccia body. These normal
faults are interpreted here as ring faults along which gravitational collapse of the breccia pipe has occurred (Fig. 14).
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The Runcing Breccia consists of a polyphase polymict breccia pipe surrounded by a shell of brecciated and in situ carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone. The breccia pipe also
contains a megablock (300 250 >75 m) of bedded B facies. A late-stage QFP intrusion has been emplaced mostly
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DAVIES ET AL.
A3 breccias occur as irregular pods and dikes surrounded by

A1 breccia at several locations in the Runcing Breccia. One of
the A3 breccias grades into A2 jigsaw-fit breccia and then into
a coherent QFP dike extending outward from the Runcing
Rhyolite. In the footwall to the Burung fault, around the edge
of the Runcing Breccia, QP dikes have intruded northweststriking faults. These dikes transform along strike into A2 and
then A3 breccias with wispy and dense, cuspate fragments.
The dike margins have gradational contacts with carbonaceous
fault gouge, defined by mingled QP and A1 breccia.
Formation of the Runcing Breccia is inferred to have commenced during stage 1 mineralization. Intrusion of the rhyolite plug occurred prior to stage 3 mineralization, based on
crosscutting relationships. Collapse along ring faults occurred
before and probably during stage 3 mineralization but predated stage 4.
FIG. 11. Breccia facies B3. A. Weakly stratified B3-A breccia in erosional
contact with bedded B1 and B2 facies. The components of the B3-A breccia
are the same as those in the B1 and B2 breccias, but there is a higher proportion of sand-sized matrix due to the homogenization of generally finer
grained B2 breccias with coarser grained B1 breccias (Runcing Breccia). B.
Weak stratification in B3-A breccias within the Tepu Breccia. B3-A beds are
truncated by discordant A4 and A5-V breccias facies.
into a monomict A1 breccia domain. The QFP intrusion is

oriented northeast and has been emplaced along the inferred
projection of the prebrecciation Burung fault. A smaller QFP
plug (<50 m) and several QFP dikes and pods occur in the
polymict carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia at depths of 50 to
100 m below surface.
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Burung Breccia
The Burung Breccia is the smallest (275 175 >450 m)
of the three carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia bodies at Kelian (Table 4). This downward-tapering pipe is located at the
intersection of the northwest-striking fault corridor with the
northeast-striking fault and breccia corridor that forms the
core of the Kelian system (Fig. 2).
The Burung Breccia consists of a polymict breccia pipe surrounded at shallow levels on the west by monomict carbonaceous breccias and in situ mudstone. The breccia tapers toward its base into several subvertical fins that are aligned
parallel to northwest-trending faults.
The Burung Breccia is nested within the 393 Breccia, a hydrothermal breccia body that consists of polymict and monomict open space-filling hydrothermal breccias cemented
by sulfide and carbonate minerals (paragenetic stages 2 and 3;
Davies, 2002; Davies et al., 2008). The hydrothermal breccias
consist of wall-rock clasts and only minor carbonaceous mudstone clasts (Fig. 15). Near surface, the 393 Breccia forms a
thin (<20 m), discontinuous rind around the Burung Breccia,
which thickens and expands to the north with increasing
depth. The 393 Breccia continues to taper beneath the base
of the Burung Breccia and extends more than 200 m deeper.
The inner rind of the 393 Breccia has diffuse contacts with
the Burung Breccia and mutual clast-in-clast relationships
have been observed (Fig. 15). These observations suggest that
formation of the Burung Breccia and at least the initial hydrothermal breccia facies of the 393 Breccia body were
linked. Similar relationships have been described from the
Balatoc diatreme at Acupan, Philippines, by Sillitoe (1985).
The inner rind of the 393 Breccia is cemented by stage 2A
pyrite, which helps to constrain the timing of the Burung
Breccia formation prior to this paragenetic stage. The Burung
Breccia is crosscut by stage 3 carbonate-base metal sulfide
veins so its formation predates stage 3.
Intrusion of an apparently rootless QFP rhyolite plug occurred late in the formation of the Burung Breccia. It is unclear if this plug breached the paleosurface. Several other QP
and QFP plugs occur at depth in the Burung Breccia and to
the south and are aligned along northeast-striking faults.
These intrusions appear to have been emplaced during stage
2 mineralization. They predated stage 3 veining, based on
crosscutting relationships.
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TABLE 3. Characteristics and Genesis of the Tepu and Runcing Breccias
Dimensions,
geometry, contacts
Facies
Facies distribution
Timing relationships
Interpretation
Carbonaceous
mudstone and
sandstone
A1
A3-QP
A3-QFP
A4-QP
A4-QFP
A4-QP/QFP
A5-V
A5-And
A6-QFP
A7
A7-AL
B3
Multiple crosscutting pipes, each

containing single or multiple
breccia facies
A1 breccias confined to northern
end, at the transition into the
East Prampus fault
A3 and A4 breccias occur as pipes
up to 100 m diameter with sharp
to diffuse contacts inside the
main breccia body
A3 breccias contain distinctive,
wispy and dense clasts of either
QP or QFP rhyolite
A5: concentrated along the margins of the Tepu Breccia, locally
grades into in-situ brecciated wall
rocks, occurs marginal to, and
grades into A3 and A4 pipes
A6: discrete, single-facies pipes
that crosscut all facies except A7
A7: thin (0.1 to 10 cm) sandstone
dikes and irregular pods that
commonly contain AL
Formation of the Tepu Breccia

postdated andesite intrusion
and was contemporaneous with
rhyolite intrusion and stage 1 to
early stage 2 mineralization
and alteration
Juvenile magmatic component
changed from QP to QFP
rhyolite with time
A1: oldest facies
A3-QFP: crosscuts A3-QP and
A4-QP, and has mutual crosscutting relationships with
A4-QP/QFP
B3: crosscut by A3-QP/QFP
A6-QFP: crosscuts all facies
except A7
A7 and A7-AL dikes and narrow
pipes crosscut all other facies
Local clasts of A7-AL occur in
A3-QP facies
All polymict facies contain clasts
of illite-carbonate-pyritealtered andesite
All facies crosscut by stage 3 veins
Phreatomagmatic breccia body,

with subordinate phreatic and
tectonic breccias
A1: tectonic breccias associated
with the East Prampus fault
zone; precursor to the polymict
phreatomagmatic breccias
QP and QFP clasts: juvenile
magmatic componentwispy
clasts and dense clasts with
cuspate margins are analogous
to magmatic clasts in dispersed peperite
A5: abrasion and collapse of
wall rocks into the pipe,
possibly also implosion of wall
rocks
A6-QFP conglomerate: phreatic
breccias, gas streaming elutriated fines and milled clasts
A7 sandstone dikes: gas streaming, may be phreatic or
phreatomagmatic
B3 stratified breccias: turbulent
flow inside the breccia body,
or collapse of surficial material
into evacuated portions of the
breccia pipes
Carbonaceous
mudstone and
sandstone
A1
A3-QFP
A4-QP/QFP
A6-V
B1
B2
B3
Polyphase polymict breccia pipe

surrounded by a shell of brecciated and in-situ carbonaceous
mudstone and sandstone
The pipe contains a mega-block
(300 250 > 75 m) of
bedded breccia (B facies)
Polyphase A4 breccia occupies
the NE two-thirds of the
Runcing Breccia and contain
numerous clasts (1 cm to 5 m)
of bedded B1 and B2 facies
breccia and sandstone, clasts
of AL-bearing sandstone
(either A7 or B2)
A1 breccia occupies the SE third
of the Runcing Breccia and
has been crosscut by dikes of
polymict A3-QFP, A4-QP/QFP
breccia and A6-V conglomerate
A3-QFP: pods and dikes around
the QFP intrusion, locally surrounded by A1 breccia
Mega-block of B1, B2 and B3
breccia located on the southern
side of the polymict pipe
A6 conglomerate dikes up to
1 m wide
Onset of Runcing Breccia formation is inferred to have been

during stage 1 mineralization
Intrusion of the QFP plug occurred
prior to stage 3 mineralization
Collapse along ring faults occurred
before and probably during
stage 3 mineralization, but
predated stage 4
A4 breccias contain clasts of older
A4 breccia and B1 and B2 breccia
Blocks of B facies breccia have
been down-dropped along ring
faults during A4 breccia formation
A6 conglomerate dikes crosscut
A1 breccias
A1 breccias are crosscut by
A3-QFP breccias
A1 and A4 breccias are baked at
their contacts with the QFP
intrusion
B1, B2 and B3 breccias in the
mega block have been tilted by
intrusion of the QFP plug
A1 dikes crosscut B1 and B2
breccias
Phreatomagmatic, phreatic,
tectonic breccias
A1: tectonic brecciation which
occurred prior to phreatomagmatic brecciation, and
also during collapse of the
Runcing Breccia pipe on ring
faults
A3-QFP: phreatomagmatic
breccias formed by intrusion
of QFP magma into wet A1
breccia
A4-QP/QFP: multiple
phreatomagmatic explosions
B1 and B2: phreatomagmatic
eruptionsthese are wet
pyroclastic base surge
deposits; cycling between low
and high water supply
produced the B1 and B2
facies respectively
B3: collapse and resedimentation of unconsolidated B1 and
B2 breccias
Tepu Breccia
750 250 > 500 m
Downward tapering
Crude elliptical
shape aligned
along a NE oriented long axis
East-trending arm
extends across
the Eastern
Andesite into
the 255 Breccia
The Tepu Breccia
is aligned along
the East Prampus
fault
Confined by Eastern
and Crusher
andesite intrusions
Runcing Breccia
750 750 > 500 m
Roughly circular and
downward tapering
Margins defined by
ring faults
Polymict A facies
breccias are enclosed by a shell
of A1 breccia
Southern margin
defined by Runcing
and Discovery faults
Northern margin
defined by NWstriking faults
QFP plug (550
300 m) intruded
parallel to the
Burung fault
Abbreviations: And: andesite; AL: accretionary lapilli; QFP: quartz feldspar phyric rhyolite; QP: quartz phyric rhyolite; V: volcanic sandstone /
mudstone
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FIG. 12. Tepu Breccia geometry and contact relationships. A. Aerial view looking to the east of the Tepu Breccia (field of
view is ~500 m horizontal; pit wall in center of view is ~ 200 m high). This view illustrates the facies distribution in the Tepu
Breccia and its position between the Crusher and Eastern Andesite intrusions. Note the color difference between the two andesite intrusions. The Eastern Andesite has been intensely quartz-illite-pyrite and illite-carbonate-pyrite altered, but the
Crusher Andesite is only weakly illite-chlorite-carbonate altered. It is interpreted that the relatively impermeable Tepu Breccia
inhibited fluid flow to the east. Also in this view is the arm of the Tepu Breccia that extends along the Tepu fault into the 255
Breccia. Blue lines highlight the margins of several discrete breccia pipes in the Tepu Breccia. White lines are nonstructural
contacts and red lines are faults and fault contacts. Yellow dashed line (X-X) indicates location of graphic section illustrated in
Figure 13). B. Intrusive contact between carbonaceous mudstone and the Crusher Andesite (left) and breccia contact between
mudstone and A4-QP and/or QFP breccia (right). The mudstone has a 1-m-wide baked zone adjacent to the intrusion. The
mudstone is inferred to be the protolith to the Tepu Breccia and is only preserved in this location (1070 mRL). C. A5-V breccia developed on contact between A4-QP and/or QFP breccia and the Upper Cretaceous Kelian Volcanics (KFV). The contact
between the two breccia facies is in part gradational but also shows pods of A4 breccia in the A5 breccia (1070 mRL).
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Log with grainsize (mm)
0.5 2
8 32 64

m
0.5 2
8 32 64

m
0.5 2
8 32 64
Approximately 5% wispy QP clasts

More andesite and volcanic
sandstone and mudstone clasts,
subangular to subrounded
Some andesite and volcanic clasts
contain illite-pyrite veins that are
truncated at clast margins
Crusher Andesite
10
110
20
120
A3-QFP
30
130
A3-QP
10-20%, <1 cm, wispy to angular
QP clasts; 50-60%, subround to
round carbonaceous sedimentary
clasts; 10% volcanic sandstone
and andesite clasts
Carbonaceous mud matrix
Several clasts of coal or carbonised
wood observed at 150 m
Many blocks and clasts of A7-AL
facies, some clasts are finely and
diffusely bedded
Diffuse contact marks increase in
wispy QP clast size and
abundance
30% fine QP wispy clasts
Absence of A7-AL clasts
210
A3-QP
Polymict clast-supported breccia
with strongly elongated to wispy
QP clasts
Wispy QP clasts are deformed
around larger clasts of andesite,
volcanic sandstone and
220
230
A7-AL
Carbonaceous sandstone with
accretionary lapilli
40
140
240
A7-AL
Carbonaceous sandstone with
abundant accretionary lapilli
50
60
A3-QFP
40-50% matrix of lithic sandstone
20% QFP rhyolite clasts
QFP rhyolite clasts are subrounded to wispy, with smaller
clasts more wispy-shaped
Carbonaceous sedimentary clasts
are sub-rounded to rounded
Up to 20% QFP wispy rhyolite
clasts as <1 cm fragments
Bimodal clast distribution (<1.5 cm
and >3 cm)
1 m wide dike contains clasts of

A3-QP, A3-QFP, and A6-QFP
blocks in an A7-AL matrix
150
70
80
Decreasing QFP clasts increasing

carbonaceous mudstone and
sandstone
Increasing abundance of matrix
250
160
A6-QFP
Clast-supported, QFP rhyolite 7090% / carbonaceous mudstone
10-30% / 10% sandstone matrix
Subrounded sedimentary clasts
QFP clasts are subangular to
subrounded
Average clast size is 2 cm
Cross cuts A7 and A6 facies
A7-AL - dike
A6-QFP
A7-AL - dike
A3-QP
170
180
10-20%, 0.5-2 cm wispy QP clasts

10-20% volcanic sandstone and
mudstone clasts
60% matrix and carbonaceous
sedimentary clasts
Increased abundance of
carbonaceous sedimentary
matrix and clasts
More blocks of A7 facies
More clasts of volcaniclastic rocks
More clasts of andesite
Less common wispy QP clasts
(average 5%)
A7-AL dike
90
100
A3-QP
finely quartz-phyric rhyolite clasts:
(10-20% wispy-shaped QP
clasts typically <1 cm; 5-10%
blocky QP clasts, 1-10 cm)
50-60% round to subround
carbonaceous sedimentary
clasts, 0.2-4 cm diameter
10% Volcanic siltstone and
sandstone clasts, <5 cm,
subround to subangular
30-40% matrix
190
Local concentrations of wispy QP

clasts (20-30%)
200
FIG. 13. Graphic section from mapping traverse X-X' through core of the Tepu Breccia at 1070 mRL. Refer to Figure 12
for section location.
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FIG. 14. Schematic illustration of Runcing Breccia formation (plan view). A. Intrusion of QP rhyolite dikes along northwest-striking faults and the Burung fault triggered phreatomagmatic explosions at the fault intersection. Polymict facies A
breccias were emplaced into the carbonaceous mudstone wall rocks. B. After the main brecciation event(s) collapse of the
breccia pipe and inferred overlying maar breccias occurred along ring faults. The megablock of B facies may have collapsed
several hundred meters into the breccia pipe, based on depth estimates from fluid inclusion studies (Davies 2002, Davies et
al., 2008). The ring faults nucleated on preexisting northeast- and northwest-striking faults. This resulted in downdropping
of a segment of the Burung fault along the Runcing and Discovery faults. This was a period of major subhorizontal extension
at Kelian (Davies, 2002) so faults may have been under extension during collapse. C. The Runcing QFP intrusion was emplaced along the projection of the Burung fault. Minor phreatic and phreatomagmatic explosions took place during this period. Doming of the bedded breccias occurred during QFP emplacement.
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TABLE 4. Characteristics and Genesis of the Burung Breccia
Dimensions,
geometry, contacts
Facies
Facies distribution
Timing relationships
Interpretation
Carbonaceous
sandstone and
mudstone
A1
A4-QP
A4-QP/QFP
A5-V
A5-And
A6-QFP
The polymict breccia pipe is surrounded at shallow levels on the

west by monomict carbonaceous
breccias and in situ mudstone
The Burung Breccia is dominated
by an A4-QP/QFP breccia pipe
A5 breccias occur parallel to the
western Burung Breccia margin,
in the footwall to the North
Burung fault
In situ and clast-rotated A1
breccias occur on the west side
of the Burung Breccia between
the A4-QP/QFP polymict breccia
pipe and the North Burung fault
A1 breccias grade laterally into
unbrecciated carbonaceous
mudstone
A6-QFP conglomerate containing
faceted clasts of pyritized QFP
occurs in a narrow pipe
(<10 m) at deeper levels
Formation of the Burung Breccia

commenced during stage 1 and
continued into early stage 2
A1: partly crosscut by A4 or grade
laterally into A4 breccias
Rare A3-QP breccia clasts occur
in the A3-QP-QFP breccia
A6-QFP crosscuts all other facies
QFP and QP rhyolite plugs and
dikes have intruded the Burung
Breccia
Minor clasts of hydrothermal
breccias, which have been
cemented by stage 2 cements,
occur in the Burung Breccia,
indicating partial overlap with
hydrothermal breccia formation
Contacts with the enclosing
hydrothermal breccias of the
393 Breccia are diffuse and
have been overprinted by
stage 2A quartz-pyrite
Polymict facies of the Burung
Breccia are intensely quartzillite-pyrite altered and moderately carbonate altered
Stage 2A, 3A, B, C, and 4 veins
crosscut the Burung Breccia
A1 breccias formed by tectonic

brecciation along the North
Burung fault and by implosion
around the margins of the
phreatomagmatic breccia pipe
A4 QP and A4 QP-QFP breccias
are phreatomagmatic, formed
by intrusion of QP and QFP
magmas into wet, A1 facies
carbonaceous breccia and wet
faults in mudstone
QP and QFP clasts are the
juvenile magmatic component
in A4 breccias, but cuspate
and wispy clast margins have
been milled
A5 breccias formed by tectonic
brecciation on the North
Burung fault, progressive
brecciation of wall rocks adjacent to A4 facies breccias, including implosion and collapse,
and during phreatic brecciation
associated with either the Burung or 393 Breccia complexes
A6-QFP phreatic breccias
formed during the late stages
of QFP intrusion into the
Burung Breccia
Phreatic brecciation and implosion of enclosing wall rocks
produced the hydrothermal
breccias that were cemented
during stage 2Athese are
the earliest facies of the 393
Breccia
Burung Breccia
275 175 >450 m
N- to NE-trending
long axis, with a
crude rectangular
shape in plan view
Tapers downward
Becomes elongate
with depth along
NE axis
Western margin
defined by North
Burung fault
Southeast margin
confined by the
Eastern Andesite
below ~1000 mRL
Above 1000 mRL,
the Burung Breccia
flares to the north
The Burung Breccia
is enclosed by a
conical shell of
hydrothermally
cemented breccias
that comprise the
393 Breccia
A late-stage, 90
40 m QFP plug has
intruded into the
Burung Breccia
Abbreviations: And = andesite, QFP = quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite, QP = quartz-phyric rhyolite, V = volcanic sandstone and/or mudstone
Facies Interpretations
Several origins for the carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias
at Kelian have been proposed by previous workers. They
have been interpreted as lahars, volcanic breccias, and intrusive breccias (Ferguson, 1986), and as hydrothermal breccias
produced by late-stage intrusion of magma into the hydrothermal system (Lawless, 1988). Van Leeuwen et al.
(1990) proposed that the muddy breccia was emplaced during the main hydrothermal event by fluidization and diapiric
emplacement of the mud component of the mudstone and/or
sandstone sequence. They considered fluidization to have
been the result of either tectonic forces, increased heat from
the hydrothermal system, or depressurization resulting from
hydrothermal eruptions. R.H. Sillitoe (1993, unpub. report
for PT Kelian Equatorial Mining) reinterpreted the muddy
breccias and associated felsic intrusions to be components of
a maar-diatreme complex. Large blocks of bedded carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias with low-angle cross stratification
and accretionary lapilli in the Gunung Runcing area were
interpreted to be pyroclastic surge deposits and to indicate
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a prior connection to the paleosurface. He also suggested

that clasts of aphanitic felsic rock in the Runcing diatreme
were fragments of the igneous intrusion that generated the
diatreme.
The carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia bodies at Kelian
share many features with breccia pipes that have been interpreted as diatremes (e.g., Montana Tunnels: Sillitoe et al.,
1985; Cripple Creek: Thompson et al., 1985; Thompson,
1992; Wau: Sillitoe et al., 1984; Balatoc: Cooke and Bloom,
1990). Diatremes are inferred to form by phreatomagmatic
plus magmatic and/or phreatic brecciation processes (Lorenz,
1973, 1986; Lorenz and Kurszlaukis, 2007); identification of
the juvenile magmatic component in the phreatomagmatic
deposits is essential for this interpretation.
The Kelian carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia bodies have
large vertical extents, taper downward, contain abundant
matrix clasts derived from the adjacent wall rocks, distinctive juvenile magmatic clast components (QP, QFP), and
large blocks of surface-derived stratified breccia that contain low-angle dune forms and accretionary lapilli. In isolation, many of the breccia facies at Kelian are not diagnostic
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DAVIES ET AL.
FIG. 15. Diamond drill hole K422 graphic log illustrating relationships between the Burung Breccia and enclosing
hydrothermal breccias of the 393 Breccia. The 393 Breccia consists of multiple hydrothermal breccia phases. Its earliest
phase, which is cemented by stage 2A quartz and pyrite, formed during the late stages of phreatomagmatic brecciation in the
Burung Breccia.
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of any single brecciation process. However, in combination

with facies distribution, facies associations, breccia body
geometry, and wall-rock relationships, the origins of the A
and B facies can be determined. Table 5 summarizes key
textures and spatial associations used to interpret the origins
of individual carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia facies at Kelian, based on the classification scheme of Sillitoe (1985).
709
A1 breccias
A1 breccias are interpreted to have formed by a combination of tectonic and phreatic and/or hydraulic processes
(Table 5). The tectonic interpretation is based on their discordant nature, spatial association with faults, local occurrence of
clast imbrication, and presence of shear fabrics and gouge, and
tectonic fragmentation was most likely triggered by seismic
TABLE 5. Summary of Breccia Facies Interpretations

Facies
Interpretation(s)
Key features
A1
Tectonic breccia
Discordant; spatial association with faults; planar A1 breccia zones surrounded by in-situ
carbonaceous mudstone; shear fabrics and fault gouge in the A1 breccias
Dikes of A1 breccia have crosscut other breccias; broad areas of fragmentation not aligned along
fault trends or tabular in shape; spatial association with margins of QFP intrusion in Runcing
Breccia; occur at the margins of A4 breccia pipes against in-situ brecciated wall rockshydraulic
implosion suspected; occur at contacts between hydrothermal breccias and mudstone units
Phreatic and/or hydraulic breccia
A2
Phreatomagmatic breccia and/or

peperite
Discordant; jigsaw-fit textures and sedimentary matrix; facies association of QP or QFP rhyolite
dikes, A2-QP, or -QFP breccia and A3-QP or -QFP breccia
A3
Phreatomagmatic breccia and/or

peperite
Discordant; distinctive QP and QFP clast morphology (wispy or dense and cuspate) is inconsistent
with rounding of other clasts in A3 breccia; abundance of QP and QFP clasts not consistent with
QP and QFP abundance in wall rocks; consistent phenocryst abundances in felsic clasts and clast
textures across individual A3 breccia pipes suggests common and contemporaneous origin for the
distinct clasts; interpretation of wispy and cuspate clasts as juvenile magmatic component; high
degree of fragmentation and abundance of wall-rock fragments consistent with phreatomagmatic
breccias; facies associations
A4
Phreatomagmatic breccia
phreatic reworking
Presence of andesite and exotic rhyolite clasts similar to the intrusions at Kelian; alteration
assemblages and veins in the andesite clasts eliminated these as juvenile components; facies
association with A3 breccias and rhyolite dike-A2-A3 facies association lead to interpretation of
QP and QFP clasts as juvenile component; high degree of fragmentation and abundance of
wall-rock fragments consistent with phreatomagmatic breccias
A5
Phreatic breccias, indirectly

phreatomagmatic, and/or
hydraulic (implosion) breccias
Discordant; location at margins of phreatomagmatic breccia pipes and parallel to wall-rock contacts
Gradational contacts with both the phreatomagmatic breccias and wall rocksbrecciation may have
been by collapse or implosion
Facies association with A3 and A4 brecciaphreatomagmatic, phreatic, and hydraulic implosion
Facies association with hydrothermal breccias adjacent to the Burung Brecciaphreatic and
hydraulic implosion
As above, but with addition of fault gouge or sheared fabrics
Location along projection of faults at margins of breccia bodies
Tectonic breccia
A6
Phreatic or intrusion-related
phreatic
Abundance of one clast typeQFP or QP rhyolite; spatial association with late-stage QP and QFP
intrusions; faceted clast shapes and lack of matrix; discordant (pipe and dike) geometries
A7
Phreatomagmatic or phreatic
breccia and sandstone
High degree of fragmentation; accretionary lapilli indicate wet gas-rich transport; plane and ripple
laminations parallel to dike walls; same composition as A4 breccias, but finer grain size; discordant
geometry
Not possible to distinguish definitively between phreatic and phreatomagmatic processes
B1
Phreatomagmatic base surge

deposit (low water/magma ratio)
Low-angle dune bed forms, diffuse grading

Cuspate clast margins, relict perlite, and interpretation of QP juvenile clast component
Abundance of juvenile clasts and relatively coarse grain size consistent with low water/magma ratio
Facies association with B2 facies, A4 breccia pipes, and QFP intrusions
B2
Phreatomagmatic base surge and

cosurge fallout deposits (high
water/magma ratio)
Low-angle dune bed formsconsistent with base surge

Graded accretionary lapilli beds with constant bed thicknessconsistent with cosurge fallout
Abundance of wall-rock clasts, accretionary lapilli, soft-sediment deformation structures, and
relatively fine grain sizeconsistent with low water/magma ratio
Cuspate clast margins, relict perlite, and interpretation of QP juvenile clast component
Facies association with B1 facies, A4 breccia pipes, and QFP intrusions
B3
Phreatomagmatic
Diffuse bed forms, compositional and textural similarities to A4 breccias

Internal position of blocks within Tepu Breccia; facies associations with deep A4 and A3 breccias
Massive to diffuse bedding; channel bed forms that crosscut B1 and B2 breccias; lack of high-velocity
bed forms
Facies association with B1 and B2 facies; equivalent components to B1 and B2 breccias but more
rounding
Resedimented base surge

deposits (phreatomagmatic)
Abbreviations: QFP = quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite, QP = quartz-phyric rhyolite

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ruptures. In the case of the Runcing Breccia, A1 breccias are

spatially associated with the margin of a QFP intrusion, where
phreatic brecciation is inferred to have occurred due to boiling of pore waters (Davies, 2002). Adjacent to the QFP intrusion, anastamosing A1 dikes have crosscut the bedded B facies
megablock and can be traced back to the brecciated mudstone
surrounding the intrusion. The irregular and penetrative contacts of the A1 breccia dikes suggest that the components of
the A1 breccias were forcefully injected into the polymict carbonaceous matrix-rich breccia. The observed textures are attributed to fluidization of sediment due to the intrusion of felsic magma and boiling of pore water, in a manner akin to that
described by Hanson and Wilson (1993).
A2, A3, and A4 breccias
Breccia facies A2, A3, and A4 are interpreted to have
formed primarily by subsurface explosive phreatomagmatic
brecciation (Table 5). This process of direct magma-water interaction incorporates a juvenile magmatic component into
the resulting deposits (Sheridan and Wohletz, 1981). Rhyolite
clasts (QP or QFP) in the carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias
at Kelian (e.g., Figs. 4B-C; 5B, D) were first interpreted to be
juvenile magmatic clasts by R.H. Sillitoe (1993, unpub. report
for PT Kelian Equatorial Mining). Our observations support
his findings.
The QP and QFP rhyolite clasts are texturally and compositionally (based on modal mineralogy) equivalent to the QP
and QFP rhyolite intrusions. The spatial association and, in
some locations, gradational transitions from in situ rhyolite to
A2 and then A3 breccias indicate that there is a direct link between magma intrusion and generation of QP and QFP rhyolite clasts. This type of evidence is seldom preserved in breccia pipes interpreted to have phreatomagmatic origins (e.g.,
Montana Tunnels, Montana: Sillitoe et al., 1985; stage 3 fragmental porphyry, Black Cloud mine, Colorado: Hazlitt and
Thompson, 1990). More commonly, an igneous-clast component is inferred to be juvenile (i.e., fragments of the parental
magma, such as dacite porphyry clasts at Wau: Sillitoe et al.,
1984).
There is a problem with the occurrence of subsurface
phreatomagmatic explosions (e.g., Wohletz, 1986): how does
magma mix with water efficiently enough to drive explosive
fuel-coolant interactions? At Kelian, the A2 breccias occur
where rhyolite dikes have intruded (1) preexisting fault zones
consisting of monomict and polymict fault breccia and fault
gouge, (2) A1 breccia, and (3) A4 breccias. In all of these sites,
the host rock is interpreted to have been unconsolidated or
poorly consolidated, because sharp intrusive contacts are
rare, whereas irregular interfingering and contorted contacts
are common. We propose that rhyolitic magmas were emplaced into poorly consolidated or unconsolidated, earlyformed breccias that had undergone preintrusion disaggregation either by tectonic, phreatic, or earlier phreatomagmatic
brecciation events, which facilitated efficient mixing of the
fuel and coolant (Sheridan and Wohletz, 1981) to result in
subsurface phreatomagmatic fragmentation.
Interaction between the intruding rhyolite and wet, unconsolidated, or poorly consolidated sediment could have resulted in purely explosive phreatomagmatic fragmentation,
nonexplosive quench fragmentation, or a combination of both
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explosive and nonexplosive fragmentation. Although gradations between A3 breccia, A2 breccia, and coherent rhyolite
have been observed locally, typically the A3 breccias have no
identifiable magmatic roots. It is interpreted that rhyolite disaggregation into wispy and blocky clasts generally resulted in
fragmentation of the upper parts of the intruding magma batch
into the unconsolidated, wet, subsurface breccia. Explosive
magma-wet sediment interaction was sufficiently energetic to
disperse the clasts away from the coherent rhyolite feeder into
the overlying breccia. The A2 jigsaw-fit breccias (e.g., Fig. 4B)
are interpreted to be the preserved roots of the A3 breccias and
their rare occurrence most likely relates to destruction of the
magmatic root zone by explosive fragmentation at the current
level of exposure. The predominance of subrounded clasts in
the A3 breccias (Fig. 5D-E) suggests that they resulted from
greater clast transport and abrasion than the juvenile rhyolite
clasts (cf. Roache et al., 2000), perhaps due to clast recycling
during multiple brecciation events (e.g., Houghton and
Smith, 1993) with introduction of new juvenile clasts in each
event. Preservation of the wispy and blocky juvenile magmatic clasts in A3 breccias (Fig. 5B, D, F) is interpreted to indicate only minor clast transport for these clasts.
In the A4 breccias, compositionally and texturally equivalent juvenile magmatic components occur; however, they lack
the wispy or cuspate morphology of those in the A3 facies. A4
breccias are interpreted to be the product of progressive
transport and abrasion of the A3 breccia components, either
in single brecciation events or during repeated brecciation cycles (either phreatic or phreatomagmatic; Houghton and
Smith, 1993). Lithification is not likely to have occurred between these cycles, as clasts of A3 or A4 breccia are rarely observed in A3 or A4 breccia. Instead, the unconsolidated breccia deposits are inferred to have been disaggregated and
reworked during subsequent events.
Some A2 and A3 breccias are interpreted here to be varieties of peperite (e.g., Busby-Spera and White, 1987; Hanson
and Wilson, 1993), produced by intrusion of rhyolite magma
into (1) wet, unconsolidated fault breccia and gouge, (2) wet
A1 breccia, (3) wet carbonaceous mudstone, or (4) wet A4
breccia. Blocky and angular clast domains in A2 breccia (Fig.
4B) are similar to textures described by Hanson and Wilson
(1993) as closely packed peperite and by Busby-Spera and
White (1987) and Hanson and Hargrove (1999) as blocky
peperite. The A3 breccias are matrix supported and lack the
jigsaw-fit textures of the A2 breccias, indicating that disaggregation of the rhyolite magma was more advanced in the A3
breccias. Some A3 breccias have similar internal organization
to the dispersed peperite of Hanson and Wilson (1993). A2
and A3 breccias containing wispy rhyolite clasts (e.g., Figs.
4C, 5B, D) are interpreted to be varieties of fluidal peperite
(cf. Busby-Spera and White, 1987; Hanson and Hargrove,
1999). Roache et al. (2000) described similar wispy and
blocky rhyolite clasts set in a matrix of polymict breccia and
inferred that the wispy clast morphology was produced by
squashing of plastic rhyolite clasts by the relatively coarse
grains of the host breccia.
A5 breccias
Where A5 breccias occur as marginal phases to A3 and A4
rhyolite-bearing breccias, they are interpreted to have formed
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during the phreatomagmatic explosions that generated the A3

and A4 breccias by a combination of (1) wall-rock collapse
into open space at the margins of A3 and A4 breccia pipes, (2)
fragmentation of wall rocks by mechanical abrasion, and/or
(3) hydraulic implosion or phreatic brecciation in response to
pressure gradients between the wall rocks and evacuated
pipes (Table 5). In the Burung Breccia, the A5 breccias are
not spatially associated with rhyolite intrusions and are, therefore, interpreted to have formed by explosive phreatic fragmentation and tectonic fragmentation on late-stage normal
faults. The occurrence of clasts of hydrothermally cemented
breccias in the A5 breccias, and vice versa, indicates that formation of some A5 breccias occurred during the postphreatomagmatic phase of breccia development.
A6 conglomerates and breccias
The A6 facies is distinct from all other A facies as it is dominated by subrounded to rounded clasts and has only minor
matrix. The high degree of clast rounding is inconsistent with
in situ fragmentation and indicates significant clast abrasion.
The paucity of matrix suggests that the sand- to mud-sized
component was removed (winnowed?) during breccia formation. Localization of A6 breccias above a QFP intrusion in the
Burung Breccia and the dominance of rhyolite clasts imply
that the rhyolite intrusions triggered localized phreatic explosions, focused in and above the intrusions (Table 5). Gas
streaming resulted in milling of the clasts and removal of the
fine matrix component. These breccias may be equivalent to
the intrusion-related phreatic breccias described by Sillitoe
(1985), which have been described elsewhere as pebble dikes
(e.g., Gustafson and Hunt, 1975).
A7 sandstones
Based on their contact relationships and geometry (Table
2), the A7 facies discordant sandstone and accretionary lapillibearing sandstone formed in the subsurface. Since the components and textures of the A7 facies are identical to those of
the A3 and A4 breccias, their origin is inferred to be equivalent (Table 5). A7 sandstone is considered to have formed
during high-water/magma ratio explosions and/or as a result
of highly efficient fuel-coolant mixing. This resulted in the
anomalously intense fragmentation of wall rock and magma.
Water supply and magma-sediment mixing may have become
greater with time due to the increased abundance of the
sand- to mud-sized component in the pipes after successive
explosion events. The occurrence of abundant accretionary
lapilli is consistent with deposition from wet, gas-rich particle
systems (Walker, 1984). Accretionary lapilli are sometimes
used to indicate formation in a subaerial environment; however, they have been identified in subvolcanic breccias at
Mount Leyshon (Wormald, 1991), in gas segregation pipes in
the Oruanui Ignimbrite in New Zealand (Self, 1983), and in
dikes cutting breccias at the Rain mine (Williams et al., 2000),
Cripple Creek (T. Thompson, pers. commun., 2003), and
Lihir (Carman, 1994, 2003). It is possible that the accretionary lapilli at Kelian formed in a surficial setting and were
then reworked into the subsurface environment, but we prefer the interpretation of a subsurface environment of formation, based on the lack of broken accretionary lapilli in the A7
dikes and pipes.
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B facies
B1 and B2 facies contain the same juvenile magmatic component as the A3-QP subfacies (QP rhyolite). Planar, dune,
and minor low-angle cross beds are consistent with deposition
from turbulent, gas-rich flows at the transition from low- to
high-flow regimes (Walker, 1984; Valentine and Fisher, 2000;
Table 5). Accretionary lapilli (Fig. 10D) and soft-sediment or
plastic deformation structures (Fig. 10E) are consistent with
wet surge deposits. B1 and B2 are interpreted to have been
deposited at the surface by a combination of wet, pyroclastic
base-surge fallout and cosurge fallout, generated by explosive
phreatomagmatic eruptions (Fisher and Waters, 1970;
Walker, 1984). Cosurge fallout is an important process for depositing fine (sand- to silt and/or clay-sized) grains and abundant accretionary lapilli in uniformly thick beds up to a few
centimeters thick (Walker, 1984). Accretionary lapilli-rich B1
and B2 beds probably formed as fallout of fine ash after passage of the turbulent wet surge. Deposition is inferred to have
occurred in a wet, terrestrial environment based on the presence of interbedded carbonaceous mudstone (with wood
fragments) in the sandstones and breccias. B facies blocks
then slumped into the diatremes, including the megablock in
the Runcing Breccia.
B3 breccias are interpreted to have formed by syneruptive
resedimentation of the B1 and B2 facies or collapse of the inferred maar deposits into the maar crater (Table 5). Blocks
containing B3 beds in the Tepu Breccia are interpreted to
have been deposited in the breccia pipe by slumping of material back down the evacuated conduit.
Genetic Model for Diatreme Formation at Kelian
The facies of the Tepu, Burung, and Runcing Breccias and
the surrounding sedimentary rocks and cogenetic intrusive
rocks record a complex sequence of tectonic brecciation and
phreatic and phreatomagmatic brecciation and eruption.
Collectively, these breccias are interpreted to be the products of maar-diatreme volcanism and related tectonism and
hydrothermal activity. The following section outlines a sequence of events that could have produced these breccias
and highlights the key evidence for each phase of volcanism
and brecciation.
Ground preparation: Eocene to Oligocene carbonaceous
sedimentary strata were juxtaposed against Upper Cretaceous
volcaniclastic rocks by normal and strike-slip faults prior to or
during the Miocene (Fig. 16A).
Andesite intrusions: Intrusion of late Miocene andesitic
stocks was controlled by the same faults that were active during ground preparation (Fig. 16B). Early phreatic breccias
probably formed at the andesite margins at this time, and
some A1 breccias formed in the carbonaceous sedimentary
rocks by phreatic, tectonic, or hydraulic processes. Evidence
for a prediatreme hydrothermal system is preserved in later
formed carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias as altered andesitic
and volcaniclastic rock clasts that contain truncated stage 1
veins (e.g. Fig. 6B).
Rhyolite intrusions and commencement of volcanism: Finegrained QP intrusions were emplaced along faults into the
fault-bounded carbonaceous sedimentary blocks and domains
of A1 breccia at 19.8 0.1 Ma (Davies, 2002; Fig. 16C). The
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DAVIES ET AL.
main phreatomagmatic phase was triggered by intrusion of

QP into the already-active hydrothermal system. It is not
known if the initial explosions were phreatic, in advance of
the ascending magma, or phreatomagmatic. The subsurface
products of phreatomagmatic explosions at Kelian were the
discordant, monomict to polymict facies A breccias and sandstones. The A4 breccias probably underwent greater degrees
of transport and abrasion or recycling (e.g., Houghton and

Smith, 1993) than the A3 breccias because the latter have
preserved the delicate-textured juvenile magmatic clasts. At
the surface, eruptions contemporaneous with the subsurface
explosions produced base- and cosurge fallout deposits. B1
and B2 facies in the Runcing Breccia are interpreted to be
wet base- and cosurge fallout deposits on the basis of their
FIG. 16. Schematic model for the formation of the Kelian diatremes, showing their relationships to enclosing units, the
structural framework, and present-day erosion level. A. Ground preparation: downfaulting juxtaposed Eocene-Oligocene
carbonaceous sedimentary rocks against Upper Cretaceous volcaniclastic rocks (Kelian Volcanics). Preserved remnants of
fault-bounded blocks have been sheared and tectonically brecciated. B. Intrusion of Miocene andesitic stocks. Andesitic intrusions were localized by same fault system as in (A). The early hydrothermal system at Kelian is interpreted to have commenced during or after emplacement of these intrusions and before formation of the carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias.
Ingress of ground water deep into the carbonaceous sedimentary rocks may have occurred due to andesite-related brecciation, along the bounding faults for the sedimentary units. Arrow and bubbles indicate possible locations of phreatic explosions at this time. C. Quartz-phyric rhyolite dikes intruded along the same fault system as previous events, encountering
ground water in the fault zone and brecciated sedimentary rocks. Phreatomagmatic explosions produced massive, unstratified polymict carbonaceous matrix-rich facies A breccias in the subsurface (thick arrows) and wet pyroclastic base-surges and
fallout eruptions (facies B1 and B2) at the surface (thin arrows). Synvolcanic resedimentation of volcaniclastic deposits into
maar (dashed arrows) also occurred (facies B3). D. Continued phreatomagmatic explosions and eruptions excavated the conduit, widening the diatreme, increasing its depth, and producing multiple crosscutting breccias. Excavation of the diatreme
accompanied by collapse of the maar and upper conduit along ring faults and preexisting structures. Blocks of wall rocks, earlier diatreme phases and bedded pyroclastic deposits slumped several hundred meters into the conduit, based on fluid inclusion estimates of the depth of hydrothermal activity (van Leeuwen et al., 1990; Davies, 2002; Davies et al., 2003). These
megablocks of facies B breccias have been preserved locally (e.g., Runcing bedded facies) but most were probably disaggregated and incorporated into later diatreme breccias. E) Late-stage intrusion of QFP plugs into the Burung and Runcing
Breccias accompanied by minor phreatomagmatic and widespread phreatic eruptions. Maar sediments were fluidized and
pumped through older breccia phases along contemporaneous faults. Collapse of the maar and diatreme along ring faults
and other structures continued. F. Miocene mineralization (hydrothermal brecciation and veining) occurred in the wall rocks
around the Kelian diatreme breccias. The ore deposit was then uplifted and exhumed. Mafic lava and volcaniclastic deposits
overlie a Plio-Pleistocene paleosurface.
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FIG. 16. (Cont.)
bed forms and occurrence of cuspate QP fragments and the

presence of accretionary lapilli.
Diatreme excavation: Ground-water infiltration to greater
depths would have been facilitated by excavation of the conduit and relatively permeable breccia deposit infilling (Fig.
16D). Phreatomagmatic eruptions thus initiated at progressively deeper levels under hydrostatic conditions. Gravitational collapse of the walls is an integral process in the progressive widening of maars and diatremes (Self et al., 1980;
Sillitoe et al., 1984; Lorenz, 1986). At Kelian, collapse occurred by spalling of wall rocks into the evacuated pipe and
by subsidence of the crater walls or crater-fill deposits via normal movements on ring faults (cf. Sillitoe et al., 1984; Lorenz,
1986) during and after eruptions. Syn- and posteruptive collapse of the eruptive breccia facies and collapse and resedimentation of volcaniclastic deposits into the maar probably
filled the diatreme between eruptive events and contributed
to recycling of clasts in subsequent eruptions. Blocks of B facies slumped back into the pipes at this time, including a
megablock of bedded breccia in the Runcing Breccia.
Subsidence and phreatic explosions: Continued subsidence
occurred during intrusion of late-stage QFP domes into the
Runcing and Burung Breccias at 19.5 0.1 Ma (Davies, 2002;
Fig. 16E). Ragged QFP clasts surrounded by brecciated
black, carbonaceous mudstone have been observed within
100 m of the QFP contacts and indicate that minor
phreatomagmatic eruptions may have occurred during intrusion. Phreatic eruptions during this phase of magmatism resulted in formation of the A6 conglomerate pipes and fluidization of brecciated carbonaceous sediments. These
fluidized monomict breccias (A1 facies) crosscut all polymict
facies in the Runcing Breccia, including the bedded polymict
facies.
Postdiatreme evolution: Main-stage gold mineralization was
associated with widespread hydrothermal brecciation and
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veining. Mineralization at Kelian mostly postdated diatreme

formation because the auriferous pyrite-base metal carbonate veins crosscut diatreme breccias, and no clasts of base
metal carbonate mineralization have been identified in the
diatreme breccias (van Leeuwen et al., 1990; Davies, 2002).
Uplift and erosion produced a Pliocene-Pleistocene surface
recorded by a paleosol over the Runcing Breccia. This erosional surface is overlain by mafic lavas and associated resedimented volcaniclastic and mafic pyroclastic rocks. Erosion by
the Kelian River and its tributaries exposed the upper levels
of the diatreme complex in the Runcing area and deeper levels in the Tepu and Burung areas (Fig. 16F).
Implications for models of diatreme volcanism
In the traditional models for diatreme formation (e.g.,
Lorenz, 1973, 1986, Lorenz and Kurszlaukis, 2007), phreatomagmatic and dry magmatic eruptions are triggered when
magma ascends to shallow depths (constrained by the available heat energy and hydrostatic head) and explosively interacts with shallow ground waters (e.g., Fig. 17A). Interaction
between magma and superheated liquid water is the most
productive mechanism for generating phreatomagmatic explosions due to the large volume changes that occur on vaporization (White and Houghton, 2000). As the explosions
continue, a conduit is excavated progressively and the water
table is depressed around the evacuated cone. Drying out of
the aquifer can cause cycling between phreatomagmatic and
dry magmatic explosions and can result in surge deposits intercalated with ballistic fallout layers (Cas and Wright, 1987).
At Kelian, felsic magmas are inferred to have intruded an
active hydrothermal system, rather than a cold ground-water
aquifer. The Kelian geothermal system was probably at or
near its boiling point, or may even have been overpressured,
during initial rhyolite intrusion. We infer that the addition of
magmatic heat into the geothermal system triggered hybrid
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DAVIES ET AL.
wet pyroclastic eruptions
0m
Water
table
depressed
Increasing
eruption
initiation
depth with
time
> 2500 m
No direct link to mineralization
B
Magma intrusion triggers
hybrid phreatomagmatic and
phreatic explosions
250C
300C
Abundant hot fluids in active

hydrothermal system, at or near
critical point
250C
300C
Mineralization in
wall rocks
Breccia pipe inhibits fluid flow
- hydrothermal system
enhanced in wall rocks
Hydrothermal
system
advance
2500 m
Large scale hydrothermal

explosions and brecciation
Phreatomagmatic explosions
through active system trigger
syn- and post-diatreme hybrid
phreatic explosions
Fluid mixing
Catastrophic disruption of
chemical and physical conditions
in hydrothermal system
Structurally controlled
mineralization at
margins of diatreme
Catastrophic volatile
loss/pressure
reduction
Hydrothermal
system collapse
(i) Magma intrusion into early

hydrothermal system at lowwater rock ratios, possibility of
fluid contributions from hydrous
magma and magmatichydrothermal brecciation
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(ii) Late magma intrusion into active high-T

(300-350C) hydrothermal system causes
sub-surface phreatomagmatic explosions,
generates huge volumes of steam and
results in maar - diatreme volcanism
phreatomagmatic and phreatic explosions at depth (Fig. 17BD). Magma intrusion catastrophically disrupted the hydrology, P-T conditions, and thermal and chemical gradients of
the geothermal system. We believe that the initial sites of
phreatomagmatic explosions were deep in the hydrothermal
system, rather than shallow as suggested for diatremes related
to cold ground-water aquifers (e.g., Lorenz, 1973). This interpretation is based on the observations of root zone feeder
dikes, truncated veins within altered clasts in the breccias
(e.g., Fig. 6B), and paleodepth estimates from our fluid inclusion studies (Davies et al., 2008). Drying out of the hydrothermal system may have been difficult to achieve at these
depths (estimated to be several hundred meters on fluid inclusion evidence: Davies et al., 2008), resulting in a predominance of wet eruptive products derived from phreatomagmatic and phreatic, rather than magmatic explosions. We
infer that the onset of widespread phreatic brecciation at Kelian was contemporaneous with the waning phases of
phreatomagmatic brecciation, as shown by observed paragenetic relationships between veins, facies A, and early hydrothermal breccias (e.g., Tables 3, 4). This situation is comparable to the effects documented when a basaltic dike
intruded the active Rotomahana-Waimangu geothermal system in New Zealand during the early 1900s. An initial
phreatomagmatic eruption was followed by several years of
phreatic explosive activity and then a return to boiling hot
spring conditions (Nairn, 1979; Simmons et al., 1993). Kelian
may contain the subsurface products of this type of transition
from phreatomagmatic to phreatic conditions.
Implications for fluid flow and mineralization
Although the diatreme breccias formed prior to the main
stages of hydrothermal mineralization and alteration at Kelian, they are only weakly mineralized and altered. Instead,
strongly mineralized hydrothermal breccias and veins formed
peripheral to the diatreme breccias in the surrounding wall
rocks (Davies, 2002; Davies et al., 2008). It appears that the
carbonaceous matrix-rich breccias at Kelian acted as
aquicludes during main-stage hydrothermal activity, causing
fluids to be focused into the wall rocks outside of the main diatreme breccia pipes. The relative impermeability of the diatreme breccias with respect to the adjacent Cretaceous volcaniclastic rocks and Miocene andesite intrusions appears to
have been caused by the widespread distribution of muddy
carbonaceous matrix through the breccia bodies. This situation contrasts markedly with other diatreme-related hydrothermal systems, such as the Cripple Creek deposit in
Colorado, where mineralization and alteration was restricted
almost exclusively to the diatreme breccia pipes, rather than
the adjacent Precambrian granites that form the wall rocks to
that deposit (Thompson et al., 1985; Thompson, 1992;
Jensen, 2003). There are also cases where mineralization and
alteration occur both in diatreme breccias and adjacent wall
FIG. 17. Evolution of phreatomagmatic breccia pipes and hydrothermal

systems as a result of magma intrusion into: (A) cold meteoric water, (B) and
(C) shallow (<12 km) geothermal waters, and (D) deep (>2 km) magmatichydrothermal fluids.
714
rocks (e.g., Acupan: Cooke et al., 1996; Yanacocha: Turner,

1997; Colquijirca: Bendez et al., 2003; Martabe: Sutopo et
al., 2003, 2007). It is clear that hydrothermal activity in and
around diatremes is strongly controlled by the local facies architecture, fracture network, and composition of the individual breccia bodies, and exploration for mineral resources near
these large volcanic structures needs to take into account
such variability.
Conclusions
As inferred by previous workers (Lawless, 1988; R.H. Sillitoe, 1993, unpub. report for PT Kelian Equatorial Mining;
Sillitoe, 1994; van Leeuwen, 1994), the carbonaceous matrixrich breccias at Kelian are in part phreatomagmatic and
formed in a maar-diatreme complex. However, the origins of
the breccias are more varied than originally thought. The formation of the Burung, Runcing, and Tepu Breccias involved
phreatomagmatic, phreatic, hydraulic, magmatic, and tectonic brecciation. These processes overlapped, and it is likely
that many of the breccias preserved at Kelian are the product
of hybrid phenomena.
Phreatomagmatic brecciation was caused by the intrusion
of rhyolitic magma into an active hydrothermal system. The
presence of juvenile magmatic clasts (QP or QFP rhyolite)
with delicate wispy and cuspate margins, in situ QP and QFP
breccias, association with QP and QFP dikes, and base-surge
deposits are the key evidence for a phreatomagmatic origin.
The in situ, jigsaw-fit A2 breccias and rhyolite dikes are interpreted to be the root zones to the phreatomagmatic breccias and to be frozen examples of the magma-sediment mixing event. The transition from in situ rhyolite dikes through
A2 breccias and into the juvenile clast-bearing A3 breccias
has not been documented previously in the subsurface parts
of such breccia complexes, perhaps due to the generally poor
preservation potential for these facies.
Structure played a key role in the localization of the diatreme breccias. Volcanic and sedimentary rock units were juxtaposed by faults and brecciated tectonically. Felsic magmas
were emplaced along northeast- and northwest-striking
faults, and ring-fault development was controlled by preexisting faults and structural weaknesses in the Runcing area. Partial collapse of the Runcing Breccia dropped megablocks of
phreatomagmatic base-surge deposits several hundred meters down from the surface into the diatreme.
Diatreme formation continued into the early stages of
phreatic brecciation and main-stage mineralization at Kelian
(described in detail in Davies, 2002, and Davies et al., 2008).
The hydrothermal system was catastrophically and irreversibly altered as a result of diatreme formation, and this
event established the setting for the subsequent formation of
a large epithermal gold deposit hosted primarily by hydrothermal breccias and veins.
Acknowledgments
We thank PT Kelian Equatorial Mining (KEM) and PT
Rio Tinto Indonesia for their research and travel funds, provision of site access, and logistical support in Indonesia.
Theo van Leeuwen, Steve Hunt, Kerry OSullivan, Roger
Norris, Pat Cesare, Greg Hartshorn, John Miller, John
Sanderson, Seno Aki, Yudhi Nurchahayna, Ewa Rappe, and
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Stuart Masters are thanked for the help that they provided
at various stages of the project. We thank Jim Mortensen for
dating the Kelian Volcanics. We thank Rodney Allen and
Ray Cas for their detailed reviews, which have helped to improve this manuscript significantly, and Pete Hollings for
useful advice on formatting issues. The senior author was
the recipient of an Overseas Postgraduate Research Scholarship (OPRS) from the University of Tasmania, which is
gratefully acknowledged. This research was also supported
by CODES, the Australian Research Councils Centre of
Excellence in Ore Deposits.
March 15, 2007; June 11, 2008
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2008 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 103, pp. 689716

Diatreme Breccias at the Kelian Gold Mine, Kalimantan, Indonesia:

author: e-mail, d.cooke@utas.edu.au

Tunnels: Sillitoe et al., 1985; Cripple Creek: Thompson et al.,

we follow conventional sedimentological and volcanological

2008). The mine is located in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, on

Tertiary sedimentary basins

L. to M. Cretaceous melange zones

Ophiolite, basic / ultrabasic units

South China Sea

FIG. 1. Simplified geology of Borneo, showing the location of Kelian and

DIATREME BRECCIAS AT THE KELIAN GOLD MINE, KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

Brecciation and mineralization occurred synchronous with,

DIATREME BRECCIAS AT THE KELIAN GOLD MINE, KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

Clast shape and type

Mud- to sandsized fragments

Jigsaw-fit, clast to matrix

Weak to moderate kao

Polymict, massive and

Polymict, massive and

Tepu Breccia: qtz-illpyrcrb alt , local illqtz -pyr-crb alt

Polymict, jigsaw-fit, clast

A6-QFP: weak to intense

Weak sme-ill kao and

Mud- to sandsized fragments

Weak sme-ill kao alt

B3: Weakly stratified

Weak sme-ill alt

Sharp or gradational into unbrecciated,

Irregular to tabular inclined to subvertical

Common in Runcing Breccia

Highly irregular at centimetrer scale, with

Tabular to irregular sheets along margins of

Runcing and Tepu Breccias, Burung fault

Convoluted, irregular and penetrating

Tepu Breccia: subvertical A3 pipes are

Common in Tepu Breccia, typically internal

Sharp or diffuse, and/or erosional

Subvertical irregularly shaped pipes, dikes

Principally in the Tepu, Burung, and

Sharp to gradational over meters into A3,

Irregular sheets and tabular, subvertical dikes

Occur at the margins of the Tepu Breccia, in

Sub-facies A6-QFP: Sharp, discordant and

Subfacies A6-QFP: Isolated subvertical pipes

Subfacies A6-QFP: Minor phase in Tepu and

Typically sharp and less commonly gradational

Large irregular subvertical pipes up to

Minor, but widespread, late-stage facies in

Gradational contacts between facies B1

Well-developed centimetre- to meter-scale

Sharp contacts at bed boundaries

Well-developed beds (<1 cm to 10s of cm)

Diffuse and erosional

Tepu Breccia: 30 10 75 m, crudely

Tepu and Runcing breccias

DIATREME BRECCIAS AT THE KELIAN GOLD MINE, KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

and partial blocky, curviplanar margins. All other clast types

Stratified breccias and sandstones

DIATREME BRECCIAS AT THE KELIAN GOLD MINE, KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

DIATREME BRECCIAS AT THE KELIAN GOLD MINE, KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

B2 facies from overlying weakly stratified B3 breccia at one